Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes

Contents of this Chapter:

7.1 Looking Back and Looking Forward

7.2 Conduction in Homogeneous Materials

7.3 Junctions and Contacts

7.4 The Semiconductor Diode

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.1 Looking Back and Looking Forward
In the last six chapters, we have introduced basic concepts in network theory,
device modeling, and signal processing. We have discussed five specific kinds
of components: resistors, op-amps, capacitors, inductors, and transformers,
their circuit symbols and terminal characteristics.
In the following chapter, We will begin with a descriptive discussion of the
conduction processes that take place in electronic devices. Then, as we
introduce successively more complex device structures in the chapters to
follow, our descriptive view of device operation will help us to understand
not only the normal network properties of the device, but also the limitations
of device usage in each potential application.
The Main contents of this chapter:
1. The principle of conduction in conductive, semi-conductive materials.
2. The structure and characteristic of P-N junction.
3. The semiconductor diode and its characteristic.
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.2 Conduction in Homogeneous Materials

7.2.1 Metals
1. In a metal current is carried by a single type of mobile charge, the free ele
ctron (current carrier 载流子 ).
2. In metals there is a relatively large density of mobile charge carriers (app
roximately 1023). Therefore, metals are good electrical conductors.
3. For a given metal, the charge-carrier density is fixed (does not vary with t
emperature).
4. Over distances large compared to the inter-atomic spacing a metal is ever
ywhere electrically neutral.

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Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.2.2 Pure Semiconductors
1. Silicon and germanium are two basic pure semiconductors.
2. In semiconductor the current is carried by two distinct type of mobile char
ge, the mobile free electron ( 自由电子 ) and mobile hole ( 空穴 ).
3. The density of mobile charge carriers in semiconductor is much smaller th
an that in metal (1010~1013).
4. As the temperature is increased, the density of mobile charge carriers is in
creased.
5. The conduction ability of pure semiconductor is temperature sensitive.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.2.3 Doped Semiconductors
1. Doping minute quantities of foreign elements, called impurities ( 杂质 ), to t
he pure semiconductors produces doped semiconductors ( 掺杂半导体 ).
2. The relative concentration of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor m
ay be adjusted by addition of minute quantities of appropriate impurity elem
ents. Materials in which holes are the majority carrier are called p-type semi
conductors, while those in which free electrons are the majority carrier are c
alled n-type semiconductors.
3. The difference in charge density between free electrons and holes in a doped
semiconductor is exactly balanced by the charged immobile impurity ions. T
hus, over distances large compared to the inter-atomic spacing, a semiconduc
tor is electrically neutral.
4. The density of majority carrier in doped semiconductor is mainly dependent
to the doping density.
5. The conduction ability of doped semiconductor is also temperature sensitive.
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.2.4 The v-i Characteristic of the Homogeneous Bar

The volt-ampere characteristic of a homogeneous semiconductor bar is linear

and obeys the Ohm's law, i=G v
Where G is the conductance of the bar, and it can be calculated by
G= (A /L)

A is the cross-sectional area of the bar, L is the length of the bar, σ is the c
onductivity ( 电导率 )of the material, unit (-m)-1.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
For the p-type semiconductor, since the majority charge carrier is holes,
the conductivity can be expressed as
  q(e  n   h  p)  q   h  p ( p  n)
For the n-type semiconductor, since the majority charge carrier is
electrons, the conductivity can be expressed as
  q(e  n   h  p)  q  e  n ( p  n)
Where, q is the electronic charge (1.6× 10-19 coulombs), constants e and h are c
alled the mobility ( 迁移速率 ) of free electrons and holes in the semiconductor
material (units cm2/Vs), n and p are the concentrations of free electrons and ho
les in the semiconductor material.
Therefore the volt-ampere characteristic of homogeneous semiconductor bar is

 L v
For p-type semiconductor i  q   h  p  A

For n-type semiconductor i  q    n   A  v

e L
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.3 Junctions and Contacts
7.3.1 The p-n Junction
When p-type and n-type bar are metallurgically joined, a p-n junction is formed.

In the p-type region holes concentration is higher than that in n-type region
and in the n-type region free electrons concentration is higher than that in p-
type region. Therefore, in the neighborhood of the junction there must be
carrier concentration gradients, which give rise the movement of charge
carriers from higher concentration region to lower concentration region,
holes move from p-type region to n-type region and free electrons go from n-
type region to p-type region.
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.3.2 Diffusion Current 扩散电流
An electric current is defined as the net transport of charge through a cros
s-sectional plane.
In an electric field, exerting a force on the individual charge carriers, then a
net charge transport and a corresponding electric current, drift current 漂
移电流 , is produced.
In a p-n structure, since the presence of the charge carriers concentration g
radients in the interface, the carriers will move from higher concentration r
egion to lower concentration region, holes move from p-type region to n-typ
e region and electrons from n-type region to p-type region. A net charge tra
nsport is formed in the interface, the corresponding current is called diffusi
on current.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.3.3 Charge Transport at the p-n Junction in Equilibrium
The concentration gradients in the interface between p- and n-type semicond
uctors produce the charge carriers' diffusion. When holes diffuse from the p-
region, they leave behind an equal number of immobile, negatively charged a
cceptor ions. Similarly, electrons diffusing from the n-region leave behind po
sitively charged, immobile donor ions. Thus in the vicinity of the junction the
diffusion of holes and electrons results in a region with excess, immobile nega
tive charge in the p-type material. and a region with excess. immobile positiv
e charge in the n-type material. These regions of excess, immobile charge adj
acent to the junction comprise what is called a space-charge layer (SCL) 空
间电荷层 .

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
The space-charge regions (SCR 空间电荷区 ) to each side of the Junctions ar
e charged with polarity opposite to that of the mobile carriers that have diffu
sed out of the respective regions. As the diffusion process continues and the c
harged regions increase in size, they exert an increasing attractive force on th
e majority carriers. This force opposes the diffusive flow.

When the p-n junction is in equilibrium, in the neighborhood of the junction t

here are two types of charge transports:
1. Drift 漂移 2. Diffusion 扩散

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
1. Drift 漂移
The mobile holes and free electrons are forced by the build-up electric fi
eld ( 内建电场 ). Once the current carriers enter the SCR, the holes drift
to p-type region, and the electrons drift towards to n-type region.
2. Diffusion 扩散
The mobile holes and free electrons are forced by concentration gradien
t. The holes diffuse from p-type region to n-type region, and the electron
s diffuse from n-type region to p-type region.

Notice: the drift and the diffusion are localized in the neighborhood of the ju
nction. Far from the junction the p-type and n-type regions are neutral and
homogeneous, unaffected by the presence of the junction.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.3.4 The v-i Characteristic of the p-n junction
1. Forward bias

The current increases

rapidly with applied
forward bias voltage.
The applied electric field by the voltage source is opposite to the build-up ele
ctric field of the p-n junction, then the width of the space-charge region beco
mes narrower as the figure.
A forward-bias voltage reduces the field in the space-charge layer, allowing
diffusion of majority carriers across the junction to the side where they are i
n the minority. Thus, under forward-bias conditions, the concentrations of
minority carriers near the junction increase substantially. This increase in m
inority carrier concentration near a forward-biased junction, by diffusion ac
ross the junction, is called injection of minority carriers.
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
2. Reverse bias

The applied electric field by the voltage source increases the electric field in the
SCL, then the width of the space-charge region becomes wider as the figure.
As the field increases, it opposes the diffusion of majority carriers so strongly tha
t the diffusive components of charge transport are virtually stopped. That is, the
field is directed so as to hold majority carriers in their respective neutral regions
and to prevent their diffusion across the SCL. Also, the field direction is such tha
t it attracts minority carriers from their respective neutral regions and moves th
em by drift across the SCL, a much smaller negative value of i, or reverse curren
t, flows through the p-n junction.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
Although increasing the reverse voltage produces an accompanying increase i
n the electric field in the SCL, the reverse current is limited by the supply of
minority carriers in the neutral regions. Thus, once the field has reached the
point that it extracts all the minority carriers that the neutral regions can sup
ply, the current becomes independent of further increases in the field strength.
This constant reverse current is called the reverse saturation current of the p-
n junction, since the value of current reaches a maximum or saturation value
as the reverse voltage is increased.
In summary, the p-n junction supports significant current flow in the forward
direction (from p- to n-type material), but permits only a very small current i
n the reverse direction. Typical forward currents are in the range of mA to w
ell over 1A, depending on the size of the structure and its power dissipation ca
pability. On the other hand, reverse currents are about six orders of magnitu
de less, lying in the nA to A range.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.3.5 Ohmic Contacts and Schottky Barriers

In fabricating a semiconductor device for use in a circuit, it is necessary to atta

ch metal contacts to the semiconductor. When metal contacts to the semicondu
ctor, another mode of junction is created. It is possible to classify metal-semico
nductor contacts into two rough categories: Ohmic contacts and Schottky barr
iers.

1. Ohmic Contact 欧姆结

Ohmic contact is a junction with a v-i characteristic that is perfectly linear, b
eing the electrical equivalent of a homogeneous bar (an ideal resistor).
2. Schottky Barrier 肖特基栅
Schottky barrier is a junction with a space-charge layer in the semiconductor
in the vicinity of the metal-semiconductor junction. Its v-i characteristic is ve
ry similar to that of p-n junction.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.4 The Semiconductor Diode 半导体二极管
7.4.1 Structure and Circuit Symbol

The structure of a semiconductor diode is exactly a p-n junction with two ter
minals. The terminal contacted to the p region is called “Anode”( 阳极 ), and t
he terminal to the n region is called “Cathode”( 阴极 ).

The circuit symbol of

The structure of a semiconductor diode a semiconductor diode

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.4.2 The Exponential Diode
A theoretical analysis of the p-n junction structure yields a single equation, the
characteristic of a p-n junction or a diode, as follows
q v
v
i  I S (e kT
 1)i  IS e
26 mV
(Forward) i   I S (Reverse)
Where, IS is the reverse saturation current, q is the electronic charge (1.6×1
0-19coulombs), k is Boltzmann‘s constant (1.38×10-23 joules/K 波 尔 茨 曼 常
数 ), and T is the absolute temperature (degrees Kelvin). The quantity kT/q
has the dimension of a voltage, at 300°K it is 26mV. When v>>26mV, the ch
aracteristic becomes exponentialForward bias. When v<-26mV, the chara
cteristic becomes constant  Reverse bias.
The threshold voltage of the diode is the voltage at
which the current appears to depart significantly
from zero. For the germanium diode the
threshold voltage is 0.2~0.3V, and for the silicon
diode the threshold voltage is 0.6~0.7V.
Generally, the saturation current of the germanium diode is much larger than
that of the silicon diode.
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.4.3 Maximum Power Dissipation
The archenemy of electrical component is excessive hearing. In resistive elements,
the power dissipated in the element is converted to heat, which raises the
temperature of the element above its surroundings. The maximum temperature
that a device can withstand coupled with its ability to transfer the generated heat
to the ambient sets a limit on the maximum power dissipation for the device.
The maximum allowable power dissipation PD, max limits the maximum product
of voltage and current in the device:

v  i  PD ,max

The right figure shows the safe

operating region of a diode.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.4.4 Diode Voltage Limitations
The increases in the reverse voltage of a diode is accompanied by
a small reverse saturation current and an increasing electric field
in the space-charge layer (SCL).
1. Avalanche breakdown ( 雪崩击穿 )
As the electric field in the SCL increases, so does the velocity of
the reverse-current mobile carriers crossing the SCL. At some point
these carriers attain sufficient speed so that through collisions they
knock additional electrons from the covalent bonds in the SCL,
producing both a free electron and a hole. These new carriers add to
the reverse current and may themselves produce still more mobile
electrons and holes through additional collisions. This process,
called avalanche multiplication, produces a very rapid increase in
the reverse current. This phenomenon is called avalanche
breakdown.
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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
2. Zener breakdown ( 齐纳击穿 )
The electric field inbreakdown
The reverse the SCL becomes
does notso mean
strong the
that it can
dislodge electrons of
destruction directly from their
the diodes. covalent
Diodes maybonds.
be And
produces the same result as avalanche multiplication.
operated in and out of the break-down region
Generally, Zener breakdown is dominant in diodes that breakdown
belowwith no avalanche
6V, and irreversible changes,
breakdown providedinthat
is dominant diodes that
break the
downmaximum
above 6V. power dissipation limits are
not exceeded
The reverse-bias voltage that the
diode will withstand before reverse
breakdown occurs is called the
maximum reverse blocking voltage
of the diode, denoted VR.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
7.4.5 Zener Diodes 稳压二极管
In the reverse breakdown region a diode has the property that the
voltage is nearly independent of the current. Thus if a constant
voltage at some point in the circuit is required, one can employ a
diode operating in the reverse breakdown region. Diodes intended
for this mode of operation are called voltage reference diodes or
Zener diodes. And the voltage at which breakdown occurs is called
the Zener voltage, denoted VZ.
The symbol of the Zener diode is

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes
The v-i characteristic of Zener diode:

Manufacturers often specify a minimum reverse current, IZmin, at w

hich the voltage reference diode is to be operated to insure that the
breakdown mechanism is well established. The maximum current l
imit, IZmax, is set by the maximum permissible power dissipation.

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 Chapter Seven Electrical Conduction Processes

Exercises of chapter 7
E7.3

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