Division of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering

Chapter 8 Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms Issues to address in this chapter: Why are the number of dislocations present greatest in metals? How are strength and dislocation motion related? Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

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Dislocations & Materials Classes

Metals (Cu, Al): Dislocation motion easiest
- non-directional bonding - close-packed directions for slip
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

electron cloud

ion cores

Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult - directional (angular) bonding

Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

Motion difficult - need to avoid nearest neighbors of like sign (- and +)
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+ +

+ -

+ +

+ -

+ +

+ -

+ +
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Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic deformation Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip an edge dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

If dislocations can't move, plastic deformation doesn't occur!

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Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Page 3

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Dislocation Motion
A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip direction perpendicular to the dislocation line The slip direction is the same as the Burgers vector direction

Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. 8.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Screw dislocation
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Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings) Slip directions - directions of movement Highest linear densities
Adapted from Fig. 8.6, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110> directions (close-packed) => total of 12 slip systems in FCC For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems.
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Stress and Dislocation Motion

Resolved shear stress, tR results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile stress: = F/A Resolved shear stress: R = F s /A s
slip plane normal, ns FS
n slip ectio dir n slip ectio tR dir

Relation between and R

tR AS

R= FS /AS
Fcos A /cos

F
n lip ctio s e dir

FS

nS AS A

R = cos cos
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Critical Resolved Shear Stress

Condition for dislocation motion: Ease of dislocation motion depends on crystallographic orientation

R > CRSS
Typically 10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa

R = cos cos

tR = 0 =90

tR =/2 =45 =45

tR = 0 =90

maximum at = = 45
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Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Adapted from Fig. 8.9, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Ex: Deformation of single crystal

a) Will the single crystal yield? b) If not, what stress is needed? crss = 20.7 MPa
= cos cos
Adapted from Fig. 8.7, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

= 60

= 35

= 20.7 MPa

= (45 MPa) (cos 35 o ) (cos 60 o )

= (45 MPa) ( 0.41) = 18 .5 MPa < crss = 20 .7 MPa

= 6500 psi
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So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the crystal to yield.
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Ex: Deformation of single crystal

What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the yield stress, y)?
crss = 3000 psi = y cos cos = y ( 0 . 41 )

crss 3000 psi y = = = 7325 psi cos cos 0 . 41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must be greater than or equal to the yield stress

y = 7325 psi
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Slip Motion in Polycrystals

Stronger - grain boundaries pin deformations Slip planes & directions (l, f) change from one crystal to another. tR will vary from one crystal to another. The crystal with the largest tR yields first. Other (less favorably oriented) crystals yield later.
300 m
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Adapted from Fig. 8.10, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.10 is courtesy of C. Brady, National Bureau of Standards [now the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD].) Page 11

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Anisotropy in y
Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.)

rolling direction

235 mm

- isotropic
since grains are approx. spherical & randomly oriented.
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- anisotropic
since rolling affects grain orientation and shape.
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Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of tantalum machined from a rolled plate: 2. Fire cylinder at a target. 3. Deformed cylinder side view
Photos courtesy of G.T. Gray III, Los Alamos National Labs. Used with permission.

rolling direction

The noncircular end view shows anisotropic deformation of rolled material.

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end view

plate thickness direction

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4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals:

1: Reduce Grain Size

Grain boundaries are barriers to slip. Barrier "strength" increases with Increasing angle of misorientation. Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip. Hall-Petch Equation:
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Adapted from Fig. 8.14, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.14 is from A Textbook of Materials Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

yield = o + k y d 1 / 2
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4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals:

2: Solid Solutions

Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress. Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional impurity
A B
Impurity generates local stress at A and B that opposes dislocation motion to the right.
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Larger substitutional impurity

C D
Impurity generates local stress at C and D that opposes dislocation motion to the right.
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Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 8.4, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Strengthening by Alloying
small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations reduce mobility of dislocation increase strength

Adapted from Fig. 8.17, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Strengthening by Alloying
large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low density side

Adapted from Fig. 8.18, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa)

400 300 200 0 10 20 30 40 50

wt.% Ni, (Concentration C)

120 60

Adapted from Fig. 8.16 (a) and (b), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation:

y ~ C1/ 2

Alloying increases y and TS.

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4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals:

3: Precipitation Strengthening

Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.

Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Side View Large shear stress needed to move dislocation toward precipitate and shear it. Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation advances but precipitates act as pinning sites with spacing S .

Top View

S
Slipped part of slip plane

Result:

1 y ~ S
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Division of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering

Application: Precipitation Strengthening

Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying.

Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
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4 Strategies for Strengthening Metals:

4: Cold Work (%CW)

Room temperature deformation. Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:
-Forging
die A o blank force Ad force die Ao die Ad tensile force

-Rolling
Ao
Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

roll roll

Ad

-Drawing

-Extrusion
Ao
container

force

die holder
extrusion

ram

billet

Ad

container

die

%CW =
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Ao Ad x 100 Ao
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Dislocations During Cold Work

Ti alloy after cold working: Dislocations entangle with one another during cold work. Dislocation motion becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig. 5.11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 5.11 is courtesy of M.R. Plichta, Michigan Technological University.)

0.9 mm
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Result of Cold Work

Dislocation density =
total dislocation length unit volume

Carefully grown single crystal ca. 103 mm-2 Deforming sample increases density 109-1010 mm-2 Heat treatment reduces density 105-106 mm-2

Yield stress increases

as rd increases:

y1 y0

large hardening small hardening

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Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 8.5, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Impact of Cold Work

As cold work is increased
Yield strength (y) increases. Tensile strength (TS) increases and Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 8.20, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Cold Work Analysis

What is the tensile strength & ductility after cold working? 2 2 ro rd % CW = x 100 = 35 . 6 % 2 ro
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa)

Copper Cold Work

D o =15.2mm

D d =12.2mm

700 500 300 100 0

300MPa

800 600

60 40 20
7%

ductility (%EL)

Cu
40 60

400 340MPa 200 0 20 40

Cu
20 40 60

Cu
60

% Cold Work y = 300MPa

20

% Cold Work TS = 340MPa

00

% Cold Work %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)

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- Behavior vs. Temperature

Stress (MPa)

Results for polycrystalline iron:

Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

800 600 400 200 0 0

-200C -100C 25C

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature. %EL increases with increasing test temperature. Why? Vacancies help dislocations move past obstacles.
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Strain

3 . disl. glides past obstacle 2. vacancies replace atoms on the disl. half plane

obstacle

1. disl. trapped by obstacle

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Effect of Heating After %CW

1 hour treatment at Tanneal: decreases TS and increases %EL. Effects of cold work are reversed!
100 200 600

annealing temperature (C)

300 400 500

600

tensile strength (MPa)

tensile strength

700 60

500 40 400 30

ductility (%EL)

50

3 Annealing stages to discuss...

Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

ductility
300

20

Re

cov

e ry

Re

c ry

s ta lliza

Gr a tion

in G

ro w

th
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Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density. Scenario 1
Results from diffusion
extra half-plane of atoms atoms diffuse to regions of tension extra half-plane of atoms Dislocations annihilate and form a perfect atomic plane.

Scenario 2

3 . Climbed disl. can now move on new slip plane 2 . grey atoms leave by vacancy diffusion allowing disl. to climb 1. dislocation blocked; cant move to the right
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tR
4. opposite dislocations meet and annihilate Obstacle dislocation

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Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density -- are small -- consume cold-worked grains. 0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (a),(b), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.21 (a),(b) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

33% cold worked brass

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New crystals nucleate after 3 sec. at 580C.

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Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked grains are consumed.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (c),(d), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.21 (c),(d) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

After 4 seconds
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After 8 seconds
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Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones. Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy) is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (d),(e), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.21 (d),(e) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

After 8 s, 580C

After 15 min, 580C

Empirical Relation:
exponent typ. ~ 2 grain diam. at time t.
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n d n d o = Kt

coefficient dependent on material and T. elapsed time Ostwald Ripening

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Effect of Heating

TR = recrystallization temperature
TR

Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of highest rate of property change
1. 2. 3. 4. Tm => TR 0.3-0.6 Tm (K) Due to diffusion annealing time TR = f(time) shorter annealing time => higher TR Higher %CW => lower TR strain hardening Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation movements

Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

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Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are desired. Further more, the final diameter must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be accomplished.

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Coldwork Calculations Solution

If we directly draw to the final diameter what happens?
Brass Cold Work

Do = 0.40 in

Df = 0.30 in

A A A o f %CW = x 100 = 1 f x 100 Ao Ao D 2 4 2 0.30 = 1 f2 x 100 = 1 x 100 = 43.8% 0.40 Do 4

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Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420

540

For %CW = 43.8%

y = 420 MPa TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa %EL = 6 < 15 This doesnt satisfy criteria what can we do?

Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380
12

15
27 Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

For TS > 380 MPa For %EL > 15

> 12 %CW < 27 %CW

our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

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Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization

Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again For objective we need a cold work of %CW 12-27
Well use %CW = 20

Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?

must be calculated as follows:
2 Df 2 2 %CW Df 2 x 100 1 %CW = 1 = 2 D 2 100 D02 02

Df 2 %CW = 1 100 D02

0. 5

D 02 =

Df 2 %CW 1 100
0 .5
0 .5

Intermediate diameter =
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D f 1 = D 02

20 = 0 . 30 1 100

= 0 . 335 m
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Coldwork Calculations Solution

Summary: 1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in Df1 = 0.335 m

0.335 2 x 100 = 30 %CW1 = 1 0.4

2. Anneal above D02 = Df1 3. Cold work D02= 0.335 in

0.3 %CW2 = 1 0.335
2

Df 2 =0.30 m
Fig 7.19

x 100 = 20

y = 340 MPa TS = 400 MPa %EL = 24

Therefore, meets all requirements

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Rate of Recrystallization
logR = logt = logR0 B T note : R = 1 / t logt = C + E kT
1 TR
50%

start

finish

Hot work Cold work

above TR below TR

log t

Smaller grains
stronger at low temperature weaker at high temperature
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Mechanical Properties of Polymers

- Stress-Strain Behavior brittle polymer

plastic elastic moduli less than for metals elastomer

Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals Deformation strains for polymers > 1000%
for most metals, deformation strains < 10%
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Mechanisms of Deformation
(MPa)
x brittle failure

- Brittle Crosslinked and Network Polymers

Initial

Near Failure

Initial

Near Failure

x plastic failure

aligned, crosslinked polymer

Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

network polymer

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Mechanisms of Deformation
- Semicrystalline (Plastic) Polymers

(MPa) x
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Inset figures along plastic response curve adapted from Figs. 8.27 & 8.28, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Figs. 8.27 & 8.28 are from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp. 500501.)

brittle failure
onset of necking

fibrillar structure
near failure

plastic failure

x
unload/reload

undeformed structure crystalline block segments separate amorphous regions elongate crystalline regions align
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Predeformation by Drawing
Drawing(ex: monofilament fishline)
-- stretches the polymer prior to use -- aligns chains in the stretching direction Results of drawing: -- increases the elastic modulus (E) in the stretching direction -- increases the tensile strength (TS) in the stretching direction -- decreases ductility (%EL) Annealing after drawing... -- decreases chain alignment -- reverses effects of drawing (reduces E and TS, enhances %EL)

Adapted from Fig. 8.28, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.28 is from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp. 500-501.)

Contrast to effects of cold working in metals!

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Mechanisms of DeformationElastomers
(MPa)
x brittle failure

plastic failure

elastomer

x
final: chains are straighter, still cross-linked

initial: amorphous chains are kinked, cross-linked. deformation is reversible (elastic)!

Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Inset figures along elastomer curve (green) adapted from Fig. 8.30, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 8.30 is from Z.D. Jastrzebski, The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1987.)

Compare elastic behavior of elastomers with the:

-- brittle behavior (of aligned, crosslinked & network polymers), and -- plastic behavior (of semicrystalline polymers) (as shown on previous slides)
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Summary
Dislocations are observed primarily in metals and alloys. Strength is increased by making dislocation motion difficult. Particular ways to increase strength are to: -- decrease grain size -- solid solution strengthening -- precipitate strengthening -- cold work Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.

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