Zbornik: Hrvatskog Društva Za Autorsko Pravo

ZBORNIK
HRVATSKOG DRUTVA ZA AUTORSKO PRAVO

U AST 90. ROENDANA DR. IVANA HENNEBERGA
ZAGREB 2011., vol. 11-12
ZBORNIK
HRVATSKOG DRUTVA ZA AUTORSKO PRAVO
ZAGREB 2011., vol. 11-12
ZBORNIK HRVATSKOG DRUTVA ZA AUTORSKO PRAVO 2011, vol. 11 - 12 Nakladnik HRVATSKO DRUTVO ZA AUTORSKO PRAVO Trg marala Tita 3, HR-10000 Zagreb Urednitvo prof.dr.sc. Igor Gliha, prof.dr.sc. Marko Bareti, prof.dr.sc. Adolf Dietz (Mnchen), dr.sc. Silke von Lewinski (Mnchen), dr.sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi, doc.dr.sc. Saa Niki, prof.dr.sc. Marko Petrak Glavni urednik prof.dr.sc. Igor Gliha Izvrni urednici prof.dr.sc. Marko Bareti dr.sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi Graka urednica Gordana Vinter Graka priprema i tisak Sveuilita tiskara d.o.o., Zagreb Tiskano u 300 primjeraka Izlazi jedanput godinje ISSN 1333-4328 ZB.HRV.DRU.AUTOR.PRAVO 11-12, 2011, 1-190 2011. Sva su prava pridrana. Za koritenje Zbornika u cijelosti ili njegovih pojedinih dijelova, posebice umnoavanjem u bilo kojem obliku, omoguavanjem pristupa javnosti ili koritenjem u kojem drugom obliku, potrebno je zatraiti doputenje nositelja prava. Doputenje je potrebno zatraiti u pisanom obliku putem Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo.
SADRAJ
Predgovor Romana Matanovac Vukovi PRAVNI STATUS AUTORSKIH DJELA STVORENIH U RADNOM ODNOSU NA SVEUILITU Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE Romana Matanovac Vukovi NEKE REFLEKSIJE O DIREKTIVI 2006/123/EZ O USLUGAMA NA UNUTARNJEM TRITU I KOLEKTIVNOM OSTVARIVANJU AUTORSKOG I SRODNIH PRAVA Saa Niki PRAVNA PROBLEMATIKA LINKA NA ZATIENI SADRAJ Mladen Vukmir OBILJE IZVORA - PRAVA ZNAENJA TERMINA KOPIJA I ORIGINAL; PROMJENE ZNAENJA UMJETNIKE I AUTORSKOPRAVNE TERMINOLOGIJE U DIGITALNOM OKRUENJU Lucija Franji MOGUNOST AUTORSKE ZATITE BIKRAM JOGE Zoran Vujasin KAZNENOPRAVNI ASPEKTI ZLORABE INTERNETA eljka Modruan-Ranogajec IN MEMORIAM BRANKO MARSI V 1
CONTENTS
Editorial Romana Matanovac Vukovi LEGAL STATUS OF COPYRIGHT WORKS CREATED IN THE EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP AT UNIVERSITY Aleksandra Horvat DIGITIZATION AND LIBRARIES Romana Matanovac Vukovi SOME REFLECTIONS ON DIRECTIVE 2006/123/EC ON SERVICES IN THE INTERNAL MARKET AND COLLECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS Saa Niki LEGAL ASPECTS OF LINKING TO PROTECTED CONTENT Mladen Vukmir ABUNDANCE OF SOURCES THE TRUE MEANING OF THE TERMS COPY AND ORIGINAL; SEMANTIC CHANGES IN ART AND COPYRIGHT TERMINOLOGY IN DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT AND CHANGE OF THE ROLE OF LAW IN DIGITAL SOCIETIES Lucija Franji POSSIBILITY FOR COPYRIGHT PROTECTION OF BIKRAM YOGA Zoran Vujasin CRIMINAL LAW ASPECTS OF ABUSE OF INTERNET eljka Modruan-Ranogajec IN MEMORIAM BRANKO MARSI
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PREDGOVOR
Ovaj dvobroj Zbornika Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo donosi izbor radova s prologodinjeg i ovogodinjeg savjetovanja Drutva, uz dva rada koje smo smatrali zanimljivima za pripadnike autorskopravne zajednice. Vjerujemo da e struno itateljstvo u njima pronai mogue odgovore na brojna aktualna pitanja u podruju autorskog i srodnih mu prava te da e predstavljati poticaj za daljnja struna i znanstvena istraivanja i rasprave. Vjerujemo takoer da e radovi objavljeni u ovome dvobroju Zbornika biti od koristi i praktiarima koji se u svojem svakodnevnom radu susreu s izazovima suvremenih digitalnih tehnologija koje otvaraju brojne dvojbe o zatiti autorskog prava a ponekad dovode u pitanje i funkcioniranje autorskopravnog sustava na globalnoj razini. Takoer, ovdje se nude odgovori i na neka pitanja o kolektivnom ostvarivanju autorskog prava na unutarnjem tritu Europske unije te o pravnom statusu autorskih djela stvorenih na sveuilitu. Od izdavanja prolog broja Zbornika na alost su nas napustila dva osnivaa Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo i ugledna lana Drutva. U 2010. godini napustio nas je prvi predsjednik Drutva dr. Ivan Henneberg, u ast ijeg 90. roendana je objavljen Zbornik vol. 10. U ovoj godini napustio nas je Branko Marsi u ast kojeg ovdje objavljujemo tekst In memoriam. elimo sve itatelje podsjetiti na njihov vrijedan doprinos, ne samo radu naega Drutva, ve ukupnoj autorskopravnoj zajednici u Hrvatskoj. Zadovoljstvo nam je zahvaliti svim autorima koji svojim vrijednim doprinosima sudjeluju u ovome dvobroju Zbornika, kao i Pravnom fakultetu Sveuilita u Zagrebu te Dravnom zavodu za intelektualno vlasnitvo koji su ve tradicionalno suorganizatori godinjih savjetovanja naega Drutva.
Urednitvo
Romana Matanovac Vukovi PRAVNI STATUS AUTORSKIH DJELA STVORENIH U RADNOM ODNOSU NA SVEUILITU
Dr. sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi
PRAVNI STATUS AUTORSKIH DJELA STVORENIH U RADNOM ODNOSU NA SVEUILITU
U radu se obrauje pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu u hrvatskom, njemakom, francuskom i engleskom pravu. Usporeuju se naela ureenja pripadanja autorskog prava na autorskim djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu. To je potrebno za obradu teme budui da u tim dravama nema posebnih propisa o autorskim djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu na sveuilitu. Stoga se opa pravila primjenjuju i na te odnose. Kljune rijei: autorsko pravo, radni odnos, autorska djela stvorena u radnom odnosu, autorska djela stvorena na sveuilitu, raspolaganje autorskim pravom
1. Uvod
Pravni status javnih sveuilita u Hrvatskoj ureen je Zakonom o znanstvenoj djelatnosti i visokom obrazovanju,1 statutima sveuilita2 i drugim aktima sveuilita te njegovih pojedinih sastavnica. Prema tome zakonu sveuilite kao samostalna pravna osoba moe kao sastavnice imati fakultete, umjetnike akademije, odjele i institute te druge sastavnice, kao to su zaklade, fondacije, knjinice, tehnologijske centre itd. Sastavnice mogu biti osnovane kao podrunice, ustanove i druge pravne osobe. Takvo ureenje prema kojemu su sastavnice sveuilita samostalne pravne osobe utjee i na pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih na sveuilitu. Naime, znanstveno-nastavno osoblje na sveuilitu uglavnom je zaposleno na njegovim sastavnicama a bitno rjee na samom sveuilitu. Ugovori o radu u pravilu se sklapaju sa sastavnicama. Iako je u tijeku proces integracije hrvatskih sveuilita, ipak prema sadanjim propisima sastavnice imaju potpunu pravnu sposobnost te su i u velikoj mjeri nancijski neovisne od sveuilita. U tome smislu sastavnice su poslodavci znanstveno - nastavnom osoblju koje radi na sveuilitu.
Dr. sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi, via asistentica na Katedri za graansko pravo Pravnog fakulteta Sveuilita u Zagrebu 1 Zakon o znanstvenoj djelatnosti i visokom obrazovanju, Narodne novine br. 123/03., 105/04., 174/04., 2/07. Odluka Ustavnog suda Republike Hrvatske, 46/07., 45/09. i 63/11- ispr. (dalje Zakon o znanstvenoj djelatnosti) 2 Vidi npr. Statut Pravnog fakulteta Sveuilita u Zagrebu na www.pravo.hr.
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Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12
U Hrvatskoj nema zakona kojim bi se na cjelovit i dosljedan nain uredio pravni status intelektualnih tvorevina, a meu njima posebice autorskih djela, nastalih na hrvatskim javnim sveuilitima. Stoga se u tim pitanjima primjenjuju opi propisi. Vezano uz njihovu primjenu mogu se pojaviti odreene dvojbe. Moe se postaviti pitanje nije li potrebno propisati posebna pravila o pravnom statusu autorskih djela i drugih intelektualnih tvorevina stvorenih na sveuilitu, razliita od opih pravila o autorski djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu. Naime, istraivanja, znanstveni i struni rad na sveuilitu u pravilu se u cijelosti ili u preteitom dijelu nanciraju javnim sredstvima. Pri tome nanciranje moe biti neposredno - u novcu, ili posredno - u opremi, materijalu, prostoru i sl. S druge strane, esti su i sluajevi kada osobe koje su inae zaposlene na sastavnicama sveuilita autorska djela stvore u svoje slobodno vrijeme, ali se pritom koriste prostorom, tehnologijom, znanjima, opremom, materijalima, instrumentima i drugim resursima sastavnice ili sveuilita. Zato se postavlja pitanje trebaju li autorska djela i druge intelektualne tvorevine stvorene u tim okolnostima, pripasti dravi koja je nancirala njihovo stvaranje, sveuilitu odnosno njegovim sastavnicama koje se javljaju u ulozi poslodavca ili samom stvaratelju - autoru koji je u ulozi zaposlenika. Dakako, tu postoje znaajne razlike izmeu pojedinih vrsta intelektualnih tvorevina, poglavito razlike izmeu izuma i autorskih djela. Takoer, postoje znaajne razlike izmeu sastavnica koje su osnovane zbog obavljanja znanstvene ili znanstveno - nastavne djelatnosti u podruju drutvenih i u podruju prirodnih znanosti te umjetnikih akademija kao sveuilinih sastavnica. Te razlike mogu dovesti i do razliitih odgovora na postavljeno pitanje, u odnosu na razliite vrste intelektualnih tvorevina. Za razliku od izuma, gdje su za praenje trendova u razvoju tehnologije i unaprjeenja postojeeg stanja tehnike u pravilu potrebna znaajna nancijska i druga materijalna ulaganja koja rijetko moe podnijeti zika osoba ako je rije o ozbiljnijem projektu koji stremi postizanju komercijalnog uspjeha, kod autorskog prava stvaranje samo nekih vrsta autorskih djela pretpostavlja ulaganja koja se po nancijskim i tehnolokim znaajkama mogu mjeriti s ulaganjima u stvaranje izuma. To moe (ali i ne mora) biti sluaj kod stvaranja npr. raunalnih programa, audiovizualnih djela i baza podataka. S druge strane, u stvaranju znanstvenog ili strunog teksta, crtea, kompozicije ili fotograje, u pravilu u veoj mjeri sudjeluje autorova kreativnost no to je potrebno novca i drugih materijalnih ulaganja, iako i tu postoje iznimke. To takoer valja uzeti u obzir kod promiljanja odgovora na ranije postavljeno pitanje. Sveuiline sastavnice kao znanstveno - nastavno osoblje u pravilu zapoljavaju kreativce koji kao zaposlenici, izmeu ostalog, imaju radnu zadau stvarati autorska djela. U ugovorima o radu sa sveuilinim sastavnicama se zaposlenik ne obvezuje na stvaranje autorskih djela kao takvih, ve se obvezuje na izvravanje raznovrsnih znanstvenih, strunih, nastavnih, umjetnikih i slinih kreativnih zadataka posljedica kojih je uestalo i stvaranje autorskih djela. Stoga je esto teko razluiti kada je autorsko djelo nastalo u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu a kada je rije o aktivnosti koje znanstvenik - nastavnik radi u svoje slobodno vrijeme, izvan rada. I to valja uzeti u obzir kod promiljanja odgovora na ranije postavljeno pitanje.
Sloenost opisane problematike odraava se i u injenici da do danas nije na meunarodnome planu, kao ni u dravama lanicama Europske unije jednoobrazno ureen pravni status autorskih djela i drugih intelektualnih tvorevina nastalih na sveuilitu. tovie, nema takvih specijalnih propisa, ve se u veini drava na te sluajeve primjenjuju opa pravila o pravnom statusu autorskih djela i drugih intelektualnih tvorevina nastalih u radnom odnosu. Iako ta pravila nisu na europskoj, a ni na meunarodnoj, razini usuglaena, pogreno bi bilo zakljuiti da takvo stanje nije negativno utjecalo na ispravno funkcioniranje unutarnjeg europskog trita. Naime, jo se prije dva desetljea ukazivalo na potrebu za harmonizacijom pravila o pravnom statusu autorskih djela i drugih intelektualnih tvorevina u Europskoj uniji, no do toga nije dolo.3 Budui da se o pravnom statusu autorskih djela nastalih na sveuilitu moe zakljuivati tek iz opih pravila o pravnom statusu autorskih djela nastalih u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu, u nastavku e se izloiti kako je ta materija ureena u Hrvatskoj te e se ta rjeenja usporediti s rjeenjima u drugim odabranim europskim dravama.4 Naposljetku e se izloiti kako opa pravila primijeniti na sluaj kada je poslodavac sveuilina sastavnica a autor njen zaposlenik.
2. Opa pravila o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom

U razliitim dravama primjenjuju se razliita opa naela u imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim djelom, obzirom na to je li u konkretnom zakonodavstvu i pravnoj teoriji prihvaena monistika ili dualistika pravna narav autorskoga prava. U Njemakoj je prihvaeno monistiko naelo ureenja sadraja autorskoga prava.5 Prema ovom naelu, autorsko pravo je jedno jedinstveno subjektivno pravo kojim se tite osobni i imovinski interesi autora,6 to znai da autorsko pravo kao jedinstveno pravo ima svoju osobnu (moralnu) i imovinsku komponentu. Monistiko
Europska komisija ve je 1979. godine imenovala radnu skupinu za izradu pravila kojima bi se ujednailo ureenje pravnog statusa izumitelja zaposlenika. Ona je bez uspjeha okonala svoje djelovanje. vidjeti STRAUS, Josef, Arbeitnehmer Ernderrecht: Grundlagen und Mglichkeiten der Rechtsangleichung, GRUR Int, br. 5, 1990., str. 353.-366., posebno str. 355. 4 U tom smislu odabrano je njemako pravo koje predstavlja primjer ureenja germanske podskupine kontinentalnoeuropskog pravnog kruga, potom francusko pravo kao primjer romanske podskupine istog te pravo Ujedinjene Kraljevine kao primjer drave pripadnice anglosaksonskog pravnog kruga. Takoer se analiziraju i zakonodavnih rjeenja u Hrvatskoj, koja pripada srednjoeuropskoj podskupini drava kontinentalnoeuropskog pravnog kruga. Vidjeti vie GAVELLA, Nikola et al., Teorijske osnove graanskog prava, Graansko pravo i pripadnost hrvatskog pravnog poretka kontinentalnoeuropskom pravnom krugu, Pravni fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu, Zagreb, 2005. 5 Meu prvima je monistiko naelo u autorskome pravu armirao njemaki pravnik Phillip Allfeld poetkom 20. stoljea. Tako VOGEL, Martin, u: LWENHEIM, Ulrich (ur.), Handbuch des Urheberrechts, C. H. Beck, Mnchen, 2003., str. 10. Drugi autori meu glavne zagovornike monistikog naela u poecima njegove armacije navode jo i Hubmanna te Rintelena. Vidjeti ULMER, Eugen, Urheber- und Verlagsrecht, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, 1980., str. 113. 6 Vidjeti npr. DIETZ, Adolf, u: LWENHEIM, Ulrich (ur.), Handbuch des Urheberrechts, C.H. Beck, Mnchen, 2003., str. 193.
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naelo autorskoga prava na poseban nain odraava se na imovinskopravna raspolaganja autorskim pravom zaivotnim pravnim poslovima. Kada je rije o ugovorima o raspolaganju autorskim pravom shvaenima u okvirima monistikog naela valja razlikovati tri temeljna pojma iz njemakog Zakona o autorskom i srodnim pravima (Gesetz ber Urheberrecht und verwandte Schutzrechte (Urheberrechtsgesetz), dalje: UrhG):7 Verwertungsrechte, Nuztungsrechte i Nutzungsart. Pojam Verwertungsrechte prevodi se na hrvatski jezik kao imovinska autorska prava te sadrajno obuhvaa niz iskljuivih prava koja pripadaju autoru i koja ga ovlauju da drugima dopusti ili zabrani koritenje njegova djela u materijalnom obliku, kao i u nematerijalnom obliku javnom izvedbom te preradom. Imovinska autorska prava nisu prenosiva zaivotnim pravnim poslovima.8 S druge strane, pojam Nutzungsrechte prevodi se na hrvatski jezik kao prava iskoritavanja. U njemakoj pravnoj teoriji prava iskoritavanja opisuju se kao samostalne pravne pozicije9 koje se konstitutivnim derivativnim stjecanjem izvode iz imovinskih autorskih prava i ovlauju tree osobe na iskoritavanje autorskoga djela u opsegu kojeg je dopustio autor izvodei pravo iskoritavanja iz svoga imovinskog autorskog prava. Pravo iskoritavanja osnovano za drugu osobu zatieno je u sukcesiji, to znai da djeluje prema treima.10 Takoer, jednom osnovano pravo iskoritavanja moe se drugome prenositi zaivotnim pravnim poslovima. Pojam Nutzungsart na hrvatski jezik moe se prevesti kao nain iskoritavanja, to obuhvaa konkretan nain na koji se djelo moe u gospodarskom smislu iskoritavati na temelju steenog prava iskoritavanja, a poglavito sadrajne, prostorne i vremenske granice iskoritavanja, kao i pitanje je li pravo iskoritavanja steeno kao iskljuivo ili neiskljuivo. Dakle, iskljuiva imovinska autorska prava (njem. Verwertungsrechte) su neprenosiva inter vivos translativnom derivativnom sukcesijom. Iz njih konstitutivnim derivativnim stjecanjem nastaju prava iskoritavanja (njem. Nutzungsrechte) iji sadraj i opseg tj. nain koritenja (njem. Nutzungsart) je odreen ugovorom te koja jesu inter vivos prenosiva translativnim derivativnim stjecanjem.11 Za razliku od osnivanja prava iskoritavanja koja su samostojea prava, kako je to prethodno opisano, mogui su i drugi naini raspolaganja imovinskim autorskim pravima, kao to su davanje doputenja za koritenje koje ima tek obveznopravnu narav.12 Takva obina obveznopravna ovlatenja u praksi i pravnoj znanosti nazivaju se i licencijama.13 U pravnodogmatskom smislu, pravo iskoritavanja (njem. Nutzungsrecht) i doputenje za
Zakon potjee od 9. rujna 1965. godine, BGBl. I S. 1273, a zadnji puta je mijenjan i dopunjavan 17. prosinca 2008. godine, BGBl. I S. 2586. 8 Mogu se prenositi samo za sluaj smrti i kod razvrgnua nasljednike zajednice. Vidjeti l. 39. UrhG. 9 Naglaava se da to nisu obina prava s relativnim, tj. obveznopravnim djelovanjem, ve da imaju samostalnost (njem. gegenstndliche, nichtbloschuldrechtliche Rechtspositionen). Ipak, ne istie se njihova apsolutna narav. Vidjeti LWENHEIM, Ulrich/NORDEMANN, Jan Bernd, u: LWENHEIM, Ulrich (ur.), Handbuch des Urheberrechts, C. H. Beck, Mnchen, 2003., str. 335. 10 l. 33. UrhG. Vidjeti i LWENHEIM/NORDEMANN, u: LWENHEIM, op. cit., str. 356. 11 Slino o njemakim pojmovima Verwertungsrechte, Nutrungsrechhtei Nutzungsart vidjeti ibid, str. 335. - 337. 12 l. 29. UrhG. 13 Tako LWENHEIM/NORDEMANN, u: LWENHEIM, op. cit., str. 335.
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koritenje (njem. schuldrechtliche Einwilligung zu Verwertungsrechten) ne nastaju na temelju istovrsnih imovinskopravnih raspolaganja jer prvo podrazumijeva stjecanje na temelju pravnog posla raspolaganja (njem. Verfgungsgeschft) i zatieno je u sukcesiji, dok drugo nastaje na temelju obinog obveznopravnog odnosa. Samo autorsko pravo (njem. Urheberrecht) u okviru njemakog monistikog naela neprenosivo je pravnim poslovima inter vivos zbog svoje osobne komponente tj. zbog moralnih autorskih prava. Ipak, prema l. 29. UrhG nekim moralnim autorskim pravima moe se na ogranien nain raspolagati. Autor moe pravnim poslom inter vivos ovlastiti nositelja prava iskoritavanja da izmijeni djelo, njegov naslov ili oznaku autorstva. Za razliku od Njemake, u Francuskoj je autorsko pravo ureeno po dualistikom naelu.14 Prema ovom naelu autorska imovinska i autorska moralna prava razliite su i samostalne, iako meusobno povezane, komponente jednog subjektivnog prava.15 Samostalnost imovinske i osobne komponente autorskoga prava osobito dolazi do izraaja u imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom inter vivos.16 Moralna autorska prava nisu prenosiva zaivotnim pravnim poslovima,17 dok imovinska autorska prava jesu.18 Valja uoiti da Zakonikom o intelektualnom vlasnitvu (Code de la proprit intellectuelle, dalje: CPI),19 koristi izraz ustupanje ili cesija (franc. cession) u svrhu oznaivanja imovinskopravnih raspolaganja imovinskom komponentom autorskoga prava.20 U pravnoj knjievnosti i praksi, ali ne i u CPI, koristi se i rije licencija (franc. licence)21 s ciljem da se sadrajno oznai ogranieno ili djelomina cesija (franc. cession partielle). No, tu valja naglasiti da
Dualistiko naelo u autorskom pravu utemeljio je njemaki pravnik Josef Kohler krajem 19. stoljea. Tako VOGEL, u: LWENHEIM, op. cit., str. 10.; ULMER, op. cit., str. 112. 15 Tako i npr. LUCAS, Andr/PLAISANT, Robert, France, u: NIMMER, Melwille B./GELLER, Paul Edward (ur.), International Copyright Law and Practice, Matthew Bender & Co., Inc, Rel.12-10/00 pub. 339, str. 13.; von LEWINSKI, Silke, Urhebervertragsrecht im Frankreich, u: BEIER, Friedrich-Karl et al. (ur.), Urhebervertragsrecht: Festgabe fr Gerhard Schricker zum 60. Geburtstag, C. H. Beck, Mnchen, 1995., str. 688, te ADENEY, Elisabeth, The Moral Rights of Authors and Performers, Oxford, 2006, str. 28. 16 Samostalnost imovinske i osobne komponente autorskog prava u francuskom se pravu osobito vidi i u ureenju trajanja imovinskih odnosno moralnih autorskih prava. Dok su prva vremenski ograniena u trajanju (70 godina post mortem auctoris), druga su vjena (franc. perptuel) to znai da nema vremenskog ogranienja moralnih prava (l. L121-1. st. 3. i l. L123-1. st. 2. CPI). 17 l. L121-1. st. 3. CPI. 18 l. L122-7. st. 1. CPI. 19 Zakonik potjee od 1. srpnja 1992. godine (Zakon br. 92-597), posljednja promjena je od 1. sijenja 2011. godine, a proieni tekst dostupan je na http://legifrance.gouv.fr/. 20 U tom smislu imovinska autorska prava su nenaplatno prenosiva (franc. cessibles titre gratuit) ili naplatno prenosiva (franc. cessibles titre onreux). U hrvatskom pravu, cesija oznauje institut kojim se prenose, odnosno ustupaju i druga subjektivna imovinska prava, a ne samo trabine kako bi se to na prvi pogled moglo zakljuiti iz odredbe l. 80. hrvatskog Zakona o obveznim odnosima (NN 35/05 i 41/08). Vidjeti vie MARKOVINOVI, Hrvoje, Ugovor o cesiji (dis. Pravni fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu), Zagreb, 2005., str. 11.-13.; MATANOVAC VUKOVI, Romana, Prijenos i licencija iga u svjetlu pristupanja Republike Hrvatske Europskoj uniji (dis. Pravni fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu), Zagreb, 2010., str. 445. 21 Vidjeti LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 56.
14
je rije o kvantitativno, a ne kvalitativno ogranienom ustupanju,22 tj. da se ustupa kvalitativno isti sadraj pojedinih imovinskih autorskih prava kao to se ustupa i kod potpune cesije (franc. cession totale), ali se to ustupanje ograniuje u pogledu naina iskoritavanja, vremena, podruja i sl.23 CPI ne spominje ustupanje imovinskih autorskih prava kao takvih, ve u pravilu govori o ustupanju pojedinih imovinskih autorskih prava koja pripadaju imovinskopravnoj komponenti autorskog prava.24 Prilikom ustupanja pojedinih imovinskih autorskih prava primjenjuje se naelo specikacije ili odreenosti koje je propisano u l. L131-3. st. 4. CPI. Sukladno ovom naelu, u ugovoru o cesiji (ustupanju) mora se navesti svako od pojedinanih imovinskih autorskih prava te odrediti opseg i svrha takvog ustupanja, kao i njegovi teritorijalni i vremenski uinci.25 No, prema l. L122-7. st. 4. CPI ipak je mogue i ustupanje svih imovinskih prava koja postoje u odnosu prema jednom autorskom djelu jednim pravnim poslom, to se naziva potpuna cesija (franc. cession totale). Istodobno je, meutim, s ciljem zatite autora kao slabije ugovorne strane, u istoj odredbi propisano da potpuna cesija proizvodi uinke samo uz potivanje naela specikacije ili odreenosti. Slijedom toga, ono to nije izrijekom u ugovoru o cesiji navedeno, smatra se da nije ni ustupljeno. U hrvatskoj pravnoj knjievnosti neki su autori za prijanji Zakon o autorskom pravu (dalje: ZAP) iz 1978. godine,26 tvrdili da se ne dri dosljedno nijednog od autorskopravnih naela zastupljenih u kontinentalnoeuropskim sustavima, kako ne dualistikog, tako ni monistikog, zakljuivi da translativni prijenos imovinskih autorskih prava prema tomu propisu nije bio mogu.27 Drugi su pak drali da taj propis nedvojbeno poiva na dualistikom naelu autorskog prava te su, po uzoru na francuski CPI i francusku pravnu knjievnost, objanjavali da je translativni prijenos autorskoga prava bio mogu.28 U suvremenoj pravnoj teoriji zastupa se jedinstveno stajalite da Zakon o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima iz 2003. godine (dalje: ZAPSP),29 poiva na monistikom naelu pa se odredbe o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom u ZAPSP u velikoj mjeri poklapaju s odgovarajuim odredbama njemakog UrhG koji je, uostalom, posluio kao neposredan uzor za
Von LEWINSKI, op. cit., str. 688. Vidjeti SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 67. Ovi autori tvrde da se u francuskom pravu ne razlikuju cesija i licencija autorskoga prava te da se u l. od L131-1. do L131-8. CPI govori upravo o cesiji. Upuuju na to da francuski pravni pisci govore o razlikama u stupnju cesije, pri emu cesija moe biti potpuna ili ograniena (djelomina). 24 Prema l. L122-1. CPI, imovinska autorska prava dijele se u dvije velike skupine: prava javne izvedbe (franc. droit de reprsentation) i prava umnoavanja (franc. droit de reproduction), koja se dalje razrauju i odreuju do l. L122-12. 25 U sudskoj praksi, klauzula tous droits compris smatra se nitetnom jer je preiroka i time suprotna naelu specikacije ili odreenosti. SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 67. 26 NN 53/91, 58/93 i 9/99-pro. 27 GLIHA, Igor, Autorsko pravo zbirka propisa s uvodnim tekstom i stvarnim kazalom, Zagreb, 2000., str. 11.-13. 28 HENNEBERG, Ivan, Utjecaj teorija o pravnoj naravi autorskog prava na zakonodavstva o autorskom pravu s posebnim osvrtom na hrvatsko zakonodavstvo, Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, vol. 5, 2004., str. 1.-11, posebno str. 2. 29 NN 167/03, 79/07 i 80/11.
22 23
ureenje ovoga dijela hrvatskog zakona. Prema sadanjim pravilima autor svoje autorsko pravo ne moe drugome prenijeti osim kod nasljeivanja i prenoenja u korist nasljednika kod razvrgnua nasljednike zajednice, ne moe ga na drugi nain otuiti zaivotnim pravnim poslom niti ga se moe odrei. Translativni prijenos autorskoga prava kao cjeline, kao ni translativni prijenos njegove imovinske ili moralne komponente nisu mogui. Mogue je konstitutivno derivativno stjecanje prava iskoritavanja autorskog djela. Autor moe ugovorom za drugoga osnovati pravo iskoritavanja autorskog djela na nain i pod uvjetima koji su ugovorom odreeni.30 Pravo iskoritavanja stjecatelj moe dalje prenositi ako je na to ovlaten ugovorom. Tu je rije o translativnom stjecanju. Autor takoer moe drugome prepustiti ostvarivanje njegova autorskog prava a da pri tome za tu osobu ne osnuje nikakvo pravo iskoritavanja.31 Opa pravila o raspolaganju autorskim pravom sadrana su u l. 41. do 50. ZAPSP a primjenjuju se u svim sluajevima kada zakonom nije drukije odreeno. 32 Za razliku od opisanih pravnih sustava kontinentalnoeuropskog pravnog kruga, u anglosaksonskim sustavima kao to je Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo, autorsko pravo (copyright) je imovinsko pravo (property right), koje je thing in action33 i kojemu sadraj ini skup razliitih imovinskih prava. U tome smislu autorsko pravo (copyright) je prenosivo, pri emu prijenos (assignment) moe biti djelomian i potpun.34 Svojstveno je engleskoj pravnoj tradiciji da razlikuje prijenose u pravu (assignments in law) i equity prijenose (equitable assigments) koji podrazumijevaju translativno stjecanje, s jedne strane, te licencije (licences) kao doputenja za iskoritavanje, s druge strane. U engleskoj pravnoj knjievnosti istie se da je bitna razlika izmeu prijenosa i licencije ta to prijenos podrazumijeva stjecanje prava koje djeluje kao vlasnitvo (proprietary right), dakle apsolutno, dok su prava steena na temelju licencije tek ugovorna, tj. djeluju izmeu stranaka u ugovoru iako su posebno propisani uinci iskljuivih licencija prema treima.35 Engleska pravna knjievnost ne bavi se pitanjem predstavlja li licencija konstitutivno ili translativno stjecanje. Ipak, u svjetlu reenog valjalo bi zakljuiti da se kod licencije ne dogaa translacija. tj. prijenos prava s jedne osobe na drugu prilikom kojeg prva pravo gubi dok ga istodobno druga stjee. Licencija predstavlja konstitutivno stjecanje u kojemu nositelj prava ne gubi svoje autorsko pravo (copyright) ve ugovorom za drugog osniva pravo iskoritavanja koje je obveznopravne, relativne naravi jer djeluje izmeu ugovornih strana, iako je propisan i odreen uinak prema treima koji nastupa na temelju odredaba samog zakona.
Pravo iskoritavanja moe se osnovati kao iskljuivo ili neiskljuivo te kao sadrajno, prostorno i vremenski ogranieno ili neogranieno. Vidi l. 44. ZAPSP. 31 To e osobito biti sluaj kod preputanja udruzi za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava da ostvaruje autorova prava u svoje ime a za autorov raun. Vidi l. 49. ZAPSP. 32 Sustavno o raspolaganju autorskim pravom vidjeti GLIHA, Igor, Raspolaganje autorskim pravom (i srodnim pravima), Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, vol. 5, 2004., str. 97.-110. 33 Ovaj pojam oznaava pravo koje se moe ostvariti tubom. Vidi Oxford Dictionary of Law, MARTIN, Elizabeth A. (ed.), Oxford Dictionary of Law, Oxford / New York, 5. Ed., 2003, str. 80. 34 GARNETT, Kevin, DAVIES, Gillian, HARBOTTLE, Gwilym, Copinger and Skone James on Copyright, vol. 1, London, 2005, str.250 35 Vie vidi ibid, str. 299 - 300.
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Moralna autorska prava, kao osobna neprenosiva prava, unesena su u autorskopravni sustav Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva po uzoru na Bernsku konvenciju36 tek 1988. godine Zakonom o autorskom pravu, dizajnima i patentima (Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, dalje: CDPA).37 Ovakvo ureenje nakon 1988. godine ilo bi u prilog tvrdnji da je u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu autorsko pravo ureeno prema dualistikom naelu no u kontekstu injenice da se tu tradicionalno nije njegovala pravna zatita autorovih moralnih prava ini se da nema pretjerano puno smisla govoriti o naelu dualizma kakvo je na snazi u Francuskoj.
3. Pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu

Njemaki UrhG vrsto lei na naelu pripadanja autorskog prava zikoj osobi koja je djelo stvorila, tj. autoru (njem. Schpferprinzip).38 To naelo primjenjuje se i u pogledu autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu (njem. Arbeitsverhltniss) ili na temelju ugovora o javnoj slubi (njem. Dienstverhltniss). Dakle, autor djela koje je zaposlenik stvorio u izvravanju svojih obveza iz ugovora o radu (ili ugovora o slubi) pripada zaposleniku, osim ako drukije proizlazi iz odnosnog ugovora ili naravi radnog odnosa (ili odnosa ureenog ugovorom o slubi).39 Slijedom navedenog, sve to je do sada reeno o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom u Njemakoj primjenjuje se na jednak nain i na ugovore o radu te ugovore o slubi. Poslodavac moe stei prava iskoritavanja (njem. Nutzungsrechte) od zaposlenika koji, i bez obzira na to to je djelo stvorio izvravajui svoje obveze iz ugovora o radu (slubi), ostaje izvorni ovlatenik iskljuivih imovinskih prava (njem. Verwertungsrechte) na svojem autorskom djelu. Takoer, zaposlenik moe u korist svojega poslodavca raspolagati i svojim moralnim autorskim pravima, ali samo u ogranienoj mjeri, kao to je to prethodno opisano.40 Pravni poloaj autora u ugovorima o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom ureuje se u l. 31. do 44. UrhG. Tu su propisana pravila o pisanom obliku ugovora, o raspolaganju buduim djelima te autorskoj naknadi, kao i druga pravila kojima je cilj zatita autora kao slabije ugovorne strane. Budui da nema posebnih odredaba za zaposlenike- autore, sve to je propisano u navedenim lancima i prethodno u tekstu izloeno o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom primjenjuje se na odgovarajui nain i na njih, s time da se slijedom radnog odnosa zaposlenik moe nai u nepovoljnijem poloaju od autora koji to nije.41 Tako, npr. u sudskoj praksi prevladava stajalite da je mogue i preutno osnivanje
Moralna autorska prava unesena su u Bernsku konvenciju Rimskim aktom iz 1928. godine. Zakon potjee iz 1988. godine, viekratno je mijenjan i dopunjavan, a neslubeni proieni tekst na dan 20. sijenja 2011. godine dostupan je na: http://www.ipo.gov.uk/cdpact1988.pdf (posljednji posjet 8. veljae 2011. godine). Vie o moralnim pravima u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu vidi ADENEY, op. cit., str. 365 - 440. 38 l. 7. UrhG. 39 l. 43. UrhG. 40 Vidjeti vie ROJAHN, Sabine, u: SCHRICKER, Gerhard (ur.), Urheberrecht Kommentar, 3. izd., Mnchen, 2006., str. 910.-920. 41 Isto NORDEMANN, u: LWENHEIM, op. cit., str. 1072.
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prava iskoritavanja u korist poslodavca u sluajevima kada ugovor o radu nema odredaba kojima se ureuju meusobni odnosi poslodavca i zaposlenika u pogledu autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu.42 Djela koja zaposlenik stvori u svoje slobodno vrijeme pripadaju mu bez ogranienja. No, ako bi takvo djelo pripadalo u podruje djelovanja poslodavca te ako bi iskoritavanje takvog autorskog djela predstavljalo nepoteno natjecanje s poslodavcem, tada je autor prema UrhG duan prava iskoritavanja ponuditi poslodavcu. Jednako tako, poslodavac moe zahtijevati da zaposlenik u njegovu korist osnuje prava iskoritavanja ako je djelo stvorio koristei se poslodavevim sredstvima, prostorom i slinim resursima.43 U Francuskoj je, kao i u Njemakoj, jedno od temeljnih naela naelo pripadanja autorskoga prava naravnoj osobi koja je djelo stvorila, tj. autoru. Pravne osobe mogu autorsko pravo izrijekom ili preutno stei samo od autora.44 Slijedom toga, odredbu iz l. L113-1. CPI, u kojoj se ureuje oboriva predmnijeva da se autorom smatra osoba pod ijim imenom je djelo objavljeno, valja tumaiti iskljuivo u korist naravnih, a ne pravnih osoba, to je u nizu presuda potvrdio i Kasacijski sud (Cour de cassation).45 Kada je rije o autorskim djelima stvorenima u radnom odnosu CPI utjelovljuje naelo da autorsko pravo na djelima stvorenima u radnom odnosu pripada zaposleniku-autoru, tj. osobi koja je djelo stvorila, a ne poslodavcu. Stoga, sve to je prethodno reeno o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom u pravnim poslovima inter vivos prema francuskim propisima valja primijeniti i na odnos zaposlenika i poslodavca. To je potvrdio i Kasacijski sud u nizu svojih presuda.46 Dakle, da bi poslodavac stekao ikakva imovinska autorska prava na autorskim djelima koja su njegovi zaposlenici stvorili u radnom odnosu, mora to utanaiti ugovorom o radu ili drugim ugovorom, potujui sva do sada navedena naela, a osobito naelo specikacije ili odreenosti. U praksi su, slijedom toga, esti ugovori u kojima zaposlenik-autor unaprijed ustupa na poslodavca imovinska autorska prava na svojim buduim djelima koja e stvoriti u radnom odnosu (franc. cession anticipe). Tu, meutim, valja voditi rauna o odredbi l. L131-1. CPI prema kojoj su ugovorne odredbe kojima se drugome ustupaju imovinska autorska prava na svim buduim djelima zaposlenika nitetne,47 jer je ova odredba jednako primjenjiva i na ugovore izmeu zaposlenika i poslodavca glede autorskih djela nastalih u okviru radnog odnosa. Za razliku od sluajeva kada ugovori o radu izrijekom predviaju ustupanje zaposlenikovih autorskih imovinskih prava poslodavcu, posebni problem nastaje kod ugovora o radu u kojima se pitanje autorskih prava ne spominje. To stoga to
Vidjeti vie ROJAHN, u: SCHRICKER, op. cit., str. 895. NORDEMANN, u: LWENHEIM, op. cit., str. 1072., 1077. i 1078. Sudsku praksu vidjeti ROJAHN, u: SCHRICKER, op. cit., str. 920.-922. 44 Tako LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 42.; SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 49. 45 Presude navode LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 43, bilj. 3.; SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 61. 46 Presude navode LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 53, bilj. 63. i 64. 47 Ipak, navedenu odredbu u primijeni je ublaila sudska praksa. Presude navodi ibid., str. 63.
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postoje tumaenja prema kojima, ak i ako u ugovoru o radu nije izrijekom ugovoreno ustupanje zaposlenikovih imovinskih autorskih prava poslodavcu, smatra se da je takvo ustupanje preutno ugovoreno za ona imovinska autorska prava na svim djelima koja zaposlenik stvori u radnom odnosu, a koja su potrebna za voenje poslodaveva poslovanja te u opsegu koji je potreban za ostvarenje te svrhe.48 Takvim tumaenjima se, meutim, suprotstavlja temeljno naelo iz l. L111-1. st. 3. CPI u kojem je propisano da nikakav ugovor, a posebice ne ugovor o narudbi autorskoga djela ili ugovor o radu, ni na koji nain ne mogu ograniiti iskljuiva autorova prava koja je on stekao stvaranjem autorskoga djela.49 Povrh toga bilo bi to protivno i prethodno spomenutom naelu specikacije ili odreenosti. Stoga se moe zakljuiti da preutne cesije kao posljedica postojanja ugovora o radu nisu mogue prema francuskom pravu. Ujedinjena Kraljevina, tipina predstavnica anglosaksonskog poimanja autorskog prava kao copyrighta, bitno razliito pristupa pravnom ureenju imovinskopravnih raspolaganja autorskim pravom od ovdje obraenih primjera Njemake i Francuske, kao i autorskim djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu. U pravu Ujedinjene Kraljevine razlikuje se pojam autorstvo (engl. authorship) od pojma nositelja autorskog prava (engl. ownership). Tako je, prema l. 9. st. 1. CDPA, autor osoba koja je djelo stvorila, ali se istodobno u st. 2. istog lanka autorom zvune snimka imenuje njezin proizvoa, autorom lma lmski producent i glavni redatelj, autorom emitiranja osoba koja obavlja to emitiranje, a autorom tipograkog razmjetaja objavljenog izdanja (engl. typographical arrangement of a published edition) nakladnik. Slijedom navedenog, u autorskom pravu Ujedinjene Kraljevine sasvim je uobiajeno da se autorom smatra pravna osoba. To je jasan odmak od kontinentalnoeuropskog autorskopravnog sustava u kojemu autor moe biti samo zika osoba koja je djelo stvorila, osim u izuzetnim sluajevima kao to je sluaj kod kolektivnih djela prema francuskom CPI. Istodobno, u l. 11. CDPA propisano je da je izvorni nositelj autorskog prava (engl. rst owner of a copyright) autor, a ako je knjievno, dramsko, glazbeno ili umjetniko djelo ili lm stvorio zaposlenik u okviru svog radnog odnosa (engl. in course of his employment), autorsko pravo izvorno pripada poslodavcu, izuzev ako je ugovorom drukije odreeno.50 Dakle, autorsko pravo
Francuski sudovi niih stupnjeva priklanjali su se stajalitu o preutnom ustupanju autorskih prava u ugovorima o radu, da bi Kasacijski sud takvu sudsku praksu dokinuo tvrdei da ugovor o cesiji mora biti u pisanom obliku te da se mora, u skladu s naelom specikacije ili odreenosti, prilikom cesije odrediti i opseg, trajanje i svrha cesije. Vidjeti SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 65. 49 LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 54. 50 Ovo naelo primjenjuje se u pravu Ujedinjene Kraljevine jo od autorskopravnih propisa iz 1911. godine do danas. O njemu se posebno raspravljalo i prije stupanja na snagu CDPA 1988. godine, budui da se u strunim krugovima pojavilo pitanje treba li ga mijenjati u korist zaposlenika. No, Whitfordova komisija za autorsko pravo i pravo dizajna (Whitford Committee on Copyright and Design Law) koja je djelovala izmeu 1974. i 1977. godine u svojem je Izvjeu od 1977. godine zakljuila da ako je osoba zaposlena da bi stvarala autorska djela i ako ona za to prima plau u skladu sa svojim radnim zadatcima, tada svaki rezultat njezinog rada treba pripasti poslodavcu, ako nije drukije ugovoreno. Takoer, ova Komisija zakljuila je da takvom zaposleniku u naelu ne treba pripasti nikakva dodatna naknada. Vidjeti GARNETT, Kevin/DAVIES, Gillian/HARBOTTLE, Gwilym, Copinger and Skone James on Copyright, 15. izd., Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2005., str. 217, bilj. 14.
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Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva poslodavca ini izvornim zakonskim stjecateljem, tj. nositeljem (engl. owner) autorskih prava na djelima koja je ostvario njegov zaposlenik pod pretpostavkom da su nastala u okviru radnog odnosa, iako je zaposlenik autor (engl. author) takvih djela. Sam radni odnos se u l. 178. CDPA opisuje se kao odnos koji je ureen ugovorom o slubi ili vjebenitvu (engl. contract of service or apprenticeship), pri emu valja voditi rauna o tome da pojam ugovora o slubi u pravu Ujedinjene Kraljevine ne obuhvaa samo dravnu, javnu i slinu slubu, ve sve radnopravne odnose i time zapravo predstavlja pojam ije je znaenje usporedivo s pojmom ugovora o radu u hrvatskom pravu. S obzirom na oekivano je da se u pravu Ujedinjene Kraljevine razvila bogata sudska praksa povodom pitanja je li neki odnos prema injenicama konkretnog sluaja ureen ugovor o slubi (engl. contract of service) te pripadaju li, slijedom toga, prava na autorskim djelima stvorenima u takvom odnosu poslodavcu. Naelno, to je sluaj kada zaposlenik postupa izvravajui zadatke iz ugovora o slubi po uputama i pod kontrolom poslodavca te za to prima plau.51 Hrvatsko ureenje pravnog statusa autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu prije stupanja na snagu hrvatskog ZAPSP, u pogledu pripadanja autorskog djela stvorenog u radnom odnosu, tj. u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu, bio je blii shvaanjima karakteristinima za angloameriki sustav copyrighta, no kontinentalnoeuropskim shvaanjima sustava autorskog prava. Poslodavac je, prema l. 20. prijanjeg ZAP, imao zakonom ustanovljeno iskljuivo pravo tijekom pet godina iskoritavati u okviru svoje redovite djelatnosti autorska djela to su ih u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa stvorili njegovi zaposlenici. Istodobno je, meutim, zaposlenik-autor imao pravo na posebnu naknadu u skladu s kolektivnim ugovorom ili ugovorom o radu, razmjerno doprinosu to ga je koritenje njegova djela imalo na poveanje gospodarskih koristi koje ostvaruje poslodavac ili obavljanje djelatnosti i izvravanje zadataka poslodavca. Navedenim je zakonom poslodavac istodobno bio odreen izvornim zakonskim nositeljem autorskog imovinskog prava na raunalnom programu stvorenom u radnom odnosu. U l. 19.-22. ZAP bila su ureena i druga pitanja pravnog poloaja autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu. Izmeu ostalog, poslodavac je bio duan potovati moralno pravo paterninteta svoga zaposlenika-autora, a zaposlenik nije u odnosu na struna izvjea, referate, slubene akte ili sline radove koje je stvorio u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu stjecao nikakva, pa ni moralna autorska prava.52
Detaljno o tome kada se smatra da je neki odnos ureen ugovor o slubi (engl. contract of service) i u emu je razlika prema ugovoru djelu (engl. contract for service), te pripadajuu sudsku praksu vidjeti vie ibid, str. 218.-221.; CORNISH/LLEWELYN, op. cit., str. 471. 52 To je potvreno i u sudskoj praksi, npr. u presudi Visokog trgovakog suda RH, posl. br. P4127/94 od 7. veljae 1995. godine, Zbornik odluka Visokog trgovakog suda Republike Hrvatske, 1994.-2004., broj 9. Meutim, nije jasno odreeno, pa je slijedom toga i dalje sporno, je li poslodavac na takvim djelima stjecao ikakva autorska prava. Tako i von LEVINSKI, Silke, Works created under an employment contract, Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, vol. 5, 2004., str. 113.-125., posebno str. 115.
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Neki su autori za prijanji ZAP tvrdili da se ne dri dosljedno nijednog od autorskopravnih naela zastupljenih u kontinentalnoeuropskim sustavima, kako ne dualistikog, tako ni monistikog, zakljuivi da translativni prijenos imovinskih autorskih prava prema tomu propisu nije bio mogu.53 Drugi su pak drali da taj propis nedvojbeno poiva na dualistikom naelu autorskog prava te su, po uzoru na francuski CPI i francusku pravnu knjievnost, objanjavali da je translativni prijenos autorskoga prava bio mogu.54 Spominjane odredbe kojima se ureuje pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu govore u prilog drugog stajalita. Dok je za raunalne programe stvorene u radnom odnosu bilo jasno odreeno da imovinska autorska prava izvorno pripadaju poslodavcu,55 a za struna izvjea, referate, slubene akte i slina djela da zaposlenik nema nikakvih autorskih prava, u odnosu na druga autorska djela bila je propisana zakonska cesija (cessio legis) imovinskih prava u korist poslodavca u trajanju od pet godina. Prema sudskoj praksi, nakon isteka petogodinjeg razdoblja autorska imovinska prava vraala su se radnicimaautorima, i to bez obzira je li radni odnos jo trajao ili ne.56 Suvremeni ZAPSP donio je znaajan zaokret u ureenju pravnog statusa autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu. U suvremenoj pravnoj teoriji zastupa se jedinstveno stajalite da ovaj propis poiva na monistikom naelu pa se odredbe o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom u ZAPSP57 u velikoj mjeri
GLIHA, Igor, Autorsko pravo zbirka propisa s uvodnim tekstom i stvarnim kazalom, Zagreb, 2000., str. 11.-13. 54 HENNEBERG, Ivan, Utjecaj teorija o pravnoj naravi autorskog prava na zakonodavstva o autorskom pravu s posebnim osvrtom na hrvatsko zakonodavstvo, Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, vol. 5, 2004., str. 1.-11, posebno str. 2. 55 Odredbe iz l. 20. st. 5. ZAP glasila je: Uz iznimku odredaba iz ovoga lanka, na raunalnom programu stvorenom u pravnoj osobi, odnosno kod poslodavca, nositelj autorskog imovinskog prava jest pravna osoba odnosno poslodavac. Suprotno tomu, von Lewinski smatra da je tu rije o cessio legis. Von LEVINSKI, op. cit., str. 115. 56 [B]udui da je djelo stvoreno u radnom odnosu, tj. radi se o autorskom djelu to ga je nainio tuitelj u izvravanju svoje radne obveze kao djelatnik HTR-a. U smislu odredbe l. 20. st. 1. Zakona o autorskom pravu, HRT kao pravna osoba ima iskljuivo pravo za vrijeme od pet godina iskoritavati autorsko djelo tuitelja stvoreno u radnom odnosu, a isto proizlazi i iz pravilnika o autorskim i izvoakim pravima HRT-a. kako nije protekao zakonom predvieni rok od pet godina, jer je lm proizveden 1995., a tuba podnijeta 16. Prosinca 1997., tuitelj nije legitimiran za podnoenje tube u odnosu na navedeni lm. Presuda Visokog trgovakog suda RH, posl. br. P-3268/00 od 9. sijenja 1999. godine, Ing registar sudske prakse 2001., br. 2, sk., 3, str. 3. Pravna osoba organizacija za radiodifuziju ima, i bez odobrenja autora, iskljuivo petogodinje pravo iskoritavanja autorskog djela koje je stvorio njezin zaposlenik-autor u obavljanju svojih radnih dunosti. Po proteku roka od pet godina autorima lma, i to, piscu scenarija, redatelju i glavnom snimatelju pripadaju autorska prava meu kojima i naknada za koritenje autorskog djela, to je organizacija za radiodifuziju duna potovati. Presuda Visokog trgovakog suda RH, posl. br. P2321/99 od 15. lipnja 1999. godine, Zbornik odluka Visokog trgovakog suda Republike Hrvatske 1994.2004., br. 9., odluka br. 132, str. 104, 105. Autor koji u izvravanju svojih radnih obveza za vrijeme radnog odnosa izradi fotograje, stjee autorsko pravo na njima i uiva pravnu zatitu pet godina nakon stvaranja pojedine fotograje. Visina naknade utvruje se u omjeru s naknadom to bi je autor dobio da je onaj koji je iskoritavao djela zatraio dozvolu autora i platio ugovorenu naknadu za iskoritavanje autorskog djela. Presuda Visokog trgovakog suda RH, posl. br. P-4123/94 od 13. veljae 1996. godine, Zbornik odluka Visokog trgovakog suda Republike Hrvatske 1994.-2004., br. 9., odluka br. 134, str. 105, 106. 57 Sustavno o tome vidjeti GLIHA, Igor, Raspolaganje autorskim pravom (i srodnim pravima), Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, vol. 5, 2004., str. 97.-110.
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poklapaju s odgovarajuim odredbama njemakog UrhG koji je, uostalom, posluio kao neposredan uzor za ureenje ovoga dijela hrvatskog zakona. Nastavno na navedeno, pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu ureen je uz potivanje temeljnog naela da autorsko pravo uvijek pripada zikoj osobi koja ga je stvorila autoru. Isto je predvieno i u l. 75. ZAPSP za autorska djela stvorena u radnom odnosu. Prema toj odredbi autorsko djelo stvoreno u radnom odnosu jest takvo djelo koje za vrijeme trajanja radnog odnosa kod odreenog poslodavca stvori zaposlenik-autor izvravajui svoje obveze ili po uputama toga poslodavca. Odnosi u pogledu takvih autorskih djela ureuju se u ZAPSP, ugovorom o radu ili drugim aktom kojim se ureuje radni odnos poput pravilnika.58 Slijedom navedenog, valja zakljuiti da poslodavac koji eli stei ikakva prava iskoritavanja na autorskim djelima koje u izvravanju svojih obveza iz ugovora o radu stvori njegov zaposlenik, mora to izrijekom ugovoriti sa svojim zaposlenikom.59 U tome sluaju zaposlenik ugovorom o radu ili drugim ugovorom za poslodavca osniva pravo iskoritavanja njegovog autorskog djela. Rije je o derivativnom konstitutivnom stjecanju. Ako poslodavac propusti ugovorom urediti ovo pitanje na opisani nain, zaposlenik zadrava svoje autorsko pravo, bez ogranienja.60, 61 Budui da o tome nema nikakvih posebnih odredbi, u svemu ostalome vezano uz raspolaganje autorskim pravom na djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu, primjenjuju se opa pravila o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom osnivanjem prava iskoritavanja. Takoer, u nedostatku posebnih propisa, sve navedeno jednako je primjenjivo i na sluajeve kada je rije o zaposlenicima akademskih institucija. U pravnoj knjievnosti istie se da ovaj zaokret u ureenju pravnog statusa autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu valja tumaiti u korist zaposlenika-autora, zato to on time stjee snaniju pravnu poziciju za pregovore s poslodavcima o svojim autorskim pravima.62 Ipak, nakon nekoliko godina primjene ZAPSP, primjeuje se da se dobra namjera zakonodavca pretvorila u svoju suprotnost. Praksa pokazuje da zaposlenici, nemajui u stvarnosti dobru pregovaraku poziciju, u pravilu potpisuju ugovore o radu (ili u takvim ugovorima pristupaju pravilBudui da se reim pravnog ureenja autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu izmijenio, u l. 202. st. 6. ZAPSP propisana je prijelazna odredba da se stari ZAP u pogledu tih pitanja primjenjuje jo tri godine nakon stupanja na snagu ZAPSP. 59 U sluaju kada poslodavac stekne prava iskoritavanja na djelu stvorenom u radnom odnosu on je aktivno legitimiran i za voenje sudskih postupaka s ciljem zatite tih djela od zlouporabe. Poslodavac je nositelj prava iskoritavanja autorskog djela koje su stvorili njegovi zaposlenici u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa (l. 76. ZAPSP-a) pa uiva pravnu zatitu toga prava. Zato je legitimiran i za podnoenje prijedloga za odreivanje privremene mjere protiv svakoga tko povrjeuje njegovo pravo ili neposredno prijeti da e mu ga povrijediti (l. 185. ZAPSP-a). Presuda Visokog trgovakog suda RH, posl. br. nije naveden, od 19. svibnja 2005. godine, Izbor odluka Visokog trgovakog suda RH, 2005., br. 10, odluka 22. 60 Vidjeti l. 76. ZAPSP. 61 Detaljno vidi i GLIHA, Igor, Prava na autorskim djelima nastalim u radnom odnosu i po narudbi, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, vol. 56, posebni br., 2006., str. 791.-836. 62 Pozitivne strane toga ureenja za zaposlenike-autore osobito istiu von LEWINSKI, op. cit., str. 116. i 117.; GLIHA, Igor, O koritenju autorskih djela i izvedbi s osvrtom na one nastale u radnom odnosu, Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, vol. 6, 2005., str. 79.-90., posebno str. 86. i 87.
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nicima o radu) u kojima za poslodavce osnivaju vremenski, prostorno i sadrajno neograniena prava iskoritavanja za sva svoja autorska djela koja stvore za vrijeme trajanja radnog odnosa,63 i to nerijetko bez ikakve dodatne naknade osim redovite plae. Kao posljedica takvih ugovora radnici-autori u cijelosti ostaju bez ikakvih imovinskih koristi od svojih autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu. Ako bi se eljelo ostvariti stvarnu volju zakonodavca u pogledu cilja odredaba iz l. 75. i 76. ZAPSP, valjalo bi de lege ferenda razmisliti o dopuni navedenih odredaba kojima bi se za zaposlenike-autore propisale odreene zatitne odredbe prisilne naravi, kao to se to ini u propisima drugih drava koji su ovdje obraeni. Meutim, valja naglasiti da to nikako nije sluaj na hrvatskim sveuilitima. Upravo suprotno, prema provedenom istraivanju pokazalo se da su do sada sveuilite i njegove sastavnice zanemarile mogunost stjecanja ikakvih autorskih prava od svojih zaposlenika. Ugovori o radu na sveuilinim sastavnicama, kao ni drugi akti kojima se ureuju prava i obveze zaposlenika u radnom odnosu u pravilu ne ureuju pravni status autorskog prava (pa ni drugih intelektualnih tvorevina) razliito od onog kako je propisano u ZAPSP. Stoga se prethodno istaknuta opa kritika ne moe primijeniti na sveuilite i njegove sastavnice.
3.1. Posebno o raunalnim programima

Izuzetak od izloenog naela da autorsko pravo na djelu stvorenom u radnom odnosu pripada autoru u njemakom pravu predstavlja odredba iz l. 69.b UrhG u kojoj je propisano da u odnosu prema raunalnom programu stvorenom u radnom odnosu iskljuivo poslodavac ima pravo izvravati imovinskopravna ovlatenja koja proizlaze iz autorskog prava na takvom raunalnom programu, ako nije drukije ugovoreno. Rije je o usklaivanju njemakog zakona s l. 2. st. 3. Direktive EZ o pravnoj zatiti raunalnih programa.64 Radi usklaivanja s pravnom steevinom Europske unije te istodobnog odravanja monistikog naela i s tim u svezi sistematike pravila o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom prema UrhG, zakonom se za poslodavca u ovome sluaju osnovalo iskljuivo pravo iskoritavanja u odnosu na sva imovinska autorska prava na raunalnom programu stvorenom u radnom odnosu.65 Takvo zakonsko rjeenje u njemakoj pravnoj knjievnosti naziva se cessio legis.66
Ne bi se moglo rei da je to u suprotnosti s odredbom iz l. 52. st. 3. ZAPSP prema kojoj je odredba ugovora o osnivanju prava iskoritavanja na svim autorovim buduim djelima nitetna, budui da ovdje nije rije o svim buduim djelima, ve samo o onim koja su stvorena za vrijeme trajanja ugovora o radu. 64 Direktiva Vijea 91/250/EEZ od 14. svibnja 1991. o pravnoj zatiti raunalnih programa, OJ L 122 17.5.1991., str. 42, izmijenjena i dopunjena Direktivom 93/98/EEZ, OJ L 290 24.11.1993., str. 9. Zamijenjena je sadrajno istovjetnom Direktivom 2009/24/EZ Europskog Parlamenta i Vijea od 23. travnja 2009. o pravnoj zatiti raunalnih programa (proieni tekst) OJ L 111 5.5.2009., str. 16. 65 NORDEMANN, Axel, u: LWENHEIM, Ulrich (ur.), Handbuch des Urheberrechts, C. H. Beck, Mnchen, 2003., str. 1071. Sudsku praksu vidjeti LOEWENHEIM, Ulrich u: SCHRICKER, Gerhard (ur.), Urheberrecht Kommentar, 3. izd. Mnchen, 2006., str. 1348.-1351. 66 DREIER, Thomas/SCHULTZE, Gernot, Urheberrechtsgesetz, 2. izd., C. H. Beck, Mnchen, 2006., str. 1067.
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Oekivano, izuzetak od naela da autorsko pravo na autorskim djelima stvorenima u radnom odnosu pripada zaposleniku, a ne poslodavcu predvien je i u l. L113-9. CPI, kao posljedica preuzimanja odredbe l. 2. st. 3. Direktive EZ o pravnoj zatiti raunalnih programa. Prema tim odredbama, imovinska autorska prava na softwareu67 stvorenom u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu ili prema uputama poslodavca pripadaju poslodavcu ako drukije nije odreeno ugovorom izmeu poslodavca i zaposlenika. Meutim, ovdje poslodavac nije izvorni nositelj imovinskih autorskih prava, ve je ta prava stekao na temelju zakonske cesije (franc. cession lgale).68 U francuskoj sudskoj praksi se oboriva predmnijeva zakonske cesije tumai vrlo iroko u korist poslodavca, pa tako autorska imovinska prava na softwareu stvorenom u radnom odnosu bivaju ex lege ustupljena poslodavcu i onda kada je zaposlenik, kao menader u poduzeu primao jedinstvenu plau za sav svoj rad za to poduzee, ukljuujui i onaj koji je obavljao kod kue.69 Posebne odredbe o pravnom statusu raunalnih programa stvorenih u radnom odnosu u ZAPSP su, u okviru procesa usklaivanja hrvatskog prava s pravom Europske unije, takoer propisane uzimajui u obzir l. 3. st. 2. Direktive EZ o pravnoj zatiti raunalnih programa, ali i monistiko naelo autorskog prava. Na temelju 108. ZAPSP, poslodavac je iskljuivo ovlaten izvravati sva imovinska prava na programu kojeg je zaposlenik stvorio u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu ili slijedei upute poslodavca, osim ako je ugovorom drukije odreeno. Rije je takoer o cessio legis, to znai da su zakonom u korist poslodavca osnovana iskljuiva prava iskoritavanja, prostorno, vremenski i sadrajno neograniena, to se prema uincima moe poistovjetiti s prijenosom ili ustupanjem imovinske komponente autorskog prava.
3.2. Posebno o audiovizualnim djelima

U njemakom pravu se u odnosu na autorska audiovizualna djela, tonije, u ugovorima o audiovizualnoj produkciji, primjenjuje predmnijeva da se takvim ugovorom za lmskog producenta osnivaju prava iskoritavanja koja obuhvaaju pravo stvaranja audiovizualnog djela, njegovih prerada te iskoritavanja na sve poznate naine.70 Iako je bilo prijedloga da se u UrhG za lmskog producenta u ovome sluaju osnuju iskljuiva prava iskoritavanja u odnosu na sva imovinska autorska prava na audiovizualnom djelu, kao to je to sluaj kod raunalnih programa, od toga se odustalo. Dakle, u sluaju audiovizualnih djela nije rije o cessio legis, ve je rije o rjeenju
O pojmovima raunalni program i software te njihovim znaenjima u CPI i drugim propisima vidjeti KUNDA, Ivana/MATANOVAC VUKOVI, Romana, Raspolaganje autorskim pravom na raunalnom programu materijalnopravni i kolizijskopravni aspekti, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta Sveuilita u Rijeci, vol. 31, br. 1, Suppl., 2010., str. 85.-131. 68 Isto i LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 55. Neki autori, suprotno tome, ukazuju da je pravno ureenje pripadanja autorskih prava na softwareu stvorenom u radnom odnosu ureeno po uzoru na izume stvorene u radnom odnosu, to bi impliciralo da smatraju da je u tom sluaju poslodavac izvorni nositelj imovinskih autorskih prava. SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 49. 69 LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 55. 70 l. 88. UrhG.
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u kojem lmski producent u sumnji ima sva iskljuiva prava iskoritavanja na sve poznate naine, u trenutku kada sklopi ugovor o audiovizualnoj produkciji. Rije je o presumpciji o sadraju ugovora o audiovizualnoj produkciji. Navedeno ope pravilo jednako vrijedi i za audiovizualna djela stvorena u radnom odnosu, kada izmeu lmskog producenta i autora lma postoji ugovor o radu.71 I u francuskom CPI valja uoiti odredbe o audiovizualnim djelima te posebne odredbe o ugovorima o audiovizualnoj produkciji jer se i takva vrsta odnosa moe pojaviti izmeu poslodavca i zaposlenika.72 Producent audiovizualnog djela ne moe se smatrati njegovim autorom ili koautorom, osim ako je rije o naravnoj osobi koja je, osim u ulozi producenta koji je preuzeo inicijativu i odgovornost za stvaranje audiovizualnog djela, sudjelovala u stvaranju audiovizualnog djela i kao redatelj ili drugi autor iz l. L113-7. CPI.73 No, predmnijeva se da producent na temelju ugovora o audiovizualnoj produkciji stjee autorska imovinska prava na audiovizualnom djelu ako tim ugovorom nije drukije ureeno.74 Opisane odredbe na jednak nain primjenjuju se i onda kada je rije o stvaranju audiovizualnog djela u radnom odnosu gdje je jedan od autora tj. koautora zaposlenik, a producent je poslodavac. I naposljetku, valja ukazati i na odredbe l. 118. ZAPSP u kojima se ureuje ugovor o audiovizualnoj produkciji. Primjenjujui ih na sluaj kada je poslodavac ujedno i lmski producent, valja zakljuiti da e on na temelju ugovora o audiovizualnoj produkciji stei sva imovinska prava zaposlenika-autora doprinosa u audiovizualnom djelu i to u opsegu koji je potreban radi ispunjenja svrhe ugovora. Suprotno se mora izrijekom ugovoriti. Rije je o stjecanju prava iskoritavanja na strani poslodavca lmskog producenta na temelju zakona, u sluaju kada postoji ugovor o audiovizualnoj produkciji. Navedeno se, meutim, ne odnosi na koautore audiovizualnog djela poput glavnog redatelja, scenarista, autora dijaloga, glavnog snimatelja te skladatelja glazbe posebno skladane za koritenje u tom audiovizualnom djelu te glavnog animatora, odnosno crtaa kada je animacija, odnosno crte bitni element audiovizualnog djela. U pogledu njihovog zajednikog autorskog prava na audiovizualnom djelu potrebno je u ugovoru o audiovizualnoj produkciji izrijekom ugovoriti osnivanje prava iskoritavanja u korist poslodavca lmskog producenta, pri emu stranke imaju slobodu urediti taj odnos s obzirom na potrebe pojedinanog sluaja.75
3.3. Posebno o kolektivnim djelima

U francuskom autorskom pravu, za razliku od drugih ovdje obraenih autorskopravnih sustava postoje posebne odredbe o pripadanju autorskog prava na kolektiSCHWARZ, Mathias /REBER, Ulrich, u: LWENHEIM, Ulrich (ur.), Handbuch des Urheberrechts, Mnchen, 2003, str. 1431. - 1432. 72 Na to upozoravaju i SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 66.
71 73 74 75
l. L132-24. CPI. Vidi i GLIHA, op. cit., str. 107, 108.
Odreenje lmskog producenta vidjeti l. L132-32. CPI.
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vnim djelima. Izuzetak od naela da autorsko djelo pripada zikoj osobi koja ga je stvorila autoru propisan je u l. L113-5. CPI za kolektivna djela, koja su kao posebna vrsta autorskih djela ureena u navedenom zakonu.76 Ona mogu izvorno pripadati i pravnoj osobi i to onoj na iju je inicijativu i po ijim je uputama djelo stvoreno, uinjeno dostupnim javnosti te pod ijim se imenom objavilo javnosti. Ova se situacija razlikuje od prethodno opisane situacije sa softwareom utoliko to je ovdje pravna osoba izvorni nositelj autorskog prava, a ne ovlatenik imovinskih prava koja je stekao na temelju zakonske cesije (franc. cession lgale).77 I moralna prava na kolektivnim djelima pripadaju pravnoj osobi koja se smatra njegovim autorom,78 dok moralna prava na softwareu uvijek pripadaju naravnoj osobi autoru softwarea.79 U ovim odredbama svakako se moe uoiti pravna nia u francuskom pravu prema kojoj poslodavac moe postati izvorni nositelj autorskih prava svojih zaposlenika koji po njegovoj inicijativi, njegovim uputama te pod njegovim nadzorom stvaraju kolektivna autorska djela, uz daljnji uvjet da se tako stvoreno kolektivno djelo pod imenom poslodavca objavi javnosti na bilo koji nain. U tom sluaju takoer se primjenjuje predmnijeva da je pravna osoba pod ijim je imenom djelo objavljeno ujedno i autor takvog djela. Kao est primjer kolektivnih djela u francuskoj praksi istiu se djela stvorena u tiskanim medijima dnevnim novinama te tjednim, mjesenim i slinim periodinim publikacijama.80 Zaposlenici koji stvaraju kolektivna djela nemaju pravo ni na kakav udio u koristi koja se ostvari od prodaje primjeraka takvih djela, na to bi inae bili ovlateni da je rije o drugim vrstama djela. Nemaju pravo ni na udio u koristima koje se ostvare od naknadnih izdanja ili drugih vrsta iskoritavanja kolektivnih djela. Oni naknadu za svoj rad primaju
Da bi se neko djelo moglo smatrati kolektivnim djelom treba postojati inicijativa za njegovo stvaranje koja potjee od jedne naravne ili pravne osobe te ta osoba mora davati upute za njegovo stvaranje i trajno nadzirati to stvaranje. Djelo mora biti objavljeno javnosti pod imenom te osobe koja je ovlatena na njegovo iskoritavanje, a doprinosi osoba koje su sudjelovale u stvaranju kolektivnog djela moraju u cijelosti potjecati iz izvornog koncepta osobe koja je dala inicijativu i upute za njegovo stvaranje te biti tako meusobno isprepleteni da je nemogue razdvojiti ih. Ibid., str. 49.-50.; SCHMIDTSZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 65. 77 Neki autori smatraju da nema razlike u pravnom poloaju poslodavca u odnosu na software i kolektivna djela, te da je u oba sluaja poslodavac izvorni nositelj autorskog prava. Vidjeti SCHMIDTSZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 61. 78 U francuskoj teoriji postoje zagovornici stajalita da pravne osobe ne mogu imati moralna autorska prava, pa ni na kolektivnim djelima (Desbois), kao i zagovornici stajalita da je iz odredbe l. L112-2. CPI jasno da zakonodavac nije smatrao potrebnim razdvojiti pitanje autorskih imovinskih i autorskih moralnih prava kada je uredio da autorska prava na kolektivnim djelima mogu izvorno pripadati i pravnim osobama (Lucas). No, bez obzira na prijepore o tome postoje li na kolektivnim djelima autorska moralna prava pravne osobe zajedno s autorskim moralnim pravima naravnih osoba koje su sudjelovale u stvaranju tog djela, smatra se da sva autorska moralna prava koja postoje na kolektivnim djelima moe izvravati pravna osoba ako je pod njenim imenom to djelo objavljeno javnosti. Vidjeti vie LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 51. 79 U l. L121-7. CPI propisana su ogranienja moralnih prava autora softwarea koja se primjenjuju i na software stvoren u radnom odnosu. Vidjeti vie SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 50. 80 Tako LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 52. Kao primjeri kolektivnih djela prema sudskoj praksi navode se i enciklopedije, rjenici, elementi karoserije automobila, raunalni programi, plakati, vodii za ispunjavanje formalnosti u upravnom postupku. Presude francuskih sudova navode SCHMIDT-SZALEWSKI/BOUCHE, op. cit., str. 65.
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u obliku paualne naknade, to je potvreno u francuskoj sudskoj praksi.81 Kolektivnim djelom i svim autorskim pravima u odnosu prema takvom djelu upravlja iskljuivo poslodavac koji je i njihov izvorni nositelj. Sve navedeno valja primijeniti na isti nain i u sluajevima kada je poslodavac sveuilite.
4. Autorska djela stvorena u radu na sveuilitu

U svim do sada citiranim propisima nema posebnih odredaba o tome koji je pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih na sveuilitima u obraenim dravama. Stoga u tim pitanjima valja primijeniti ope odredbe o pravnom statusu autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu. U Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu, sukladno opem ureenju autorska djela stvorena u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa na sveuilitu pripadaju poslodavcu - sveuilitu.82 Slijedom toga postoji niz odluka nadlenih sudova te uobiajena praksa o tome to se smatra autorskim djelom stvorenim u izvravanju ugovora o radu. Tu se do sada esto javljalo pitanje jesu nastavni materijal te znanstvene i strune knjige, lanci i sl. stvoreni u izvravanju ugovora o radu ili je rije o tvorevinama koje su stvorene bez obzira na radni odnos. Uglavnom se zastupalo stajalite da takve tvorevine pripadaju samom autoru i da sveuilite na njih ne polae prava na temelju samoga zakona, no u novije vrijeme postoje i drukija razmiljanja.83 U Njemakoj i Francuskoj takoer se primjenjuju opa pravila o pripadanju autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu, ali prema tim pravilima, za razliku od situacije u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu, autorsko pravo prema zakonu pripada autoru zaposleniku, osim ako je s poslodavcem - sveuilitem drukije ugovoreno. U hrvatskoj se prema sadanjim propisima takoer primjenjuje u kontinentalnoeuropskom pravnom krugu prihvaeno ope naelo da autorsko pravo na djelima stvorenim u izvravanju ugovora o radu pripada svojem stvaratelju - autoru, osim ako je drukije ugovoreno. Sastavnica odnosno sveuilite mogu prava iskoritavanja na autorskim djelima zaposlenika na sastavnicama stei tek ugovorom s autorom. U nastavku e se detaljnije biti rijei o autorskim djelima stvorenim u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu na hrvatskim sveuilitima odnosno njihovim sastavnicama.
LUCAS/PLAISANT, op. cit., str. 51. Vie MONOTTI, Ann Louise / RICKETSON, Sam, Universities and Intellectual Property Ownership and Exploitation, Oxford, 2003, str. 193. -196. Vidjeti npr. Intellectual Property Policy na Oxford University, http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/790-121.shtml#_Toc28143157, posljednji posjet 05.10.2011. Rije je o aktu Sveuilita Oxford kojim se potvruje stajalite da intelektualne tvorevine koje stvore zaposlenici toga Sveuilita pripadaju Sveuilitu. Ovim aktom ureuju se i pitanja pripadanja intelektualnih tvorevina koje stvore drugi suradnici te studenti na sveuilitu. 83 Vidi npr. KUTEROVAC, Ljiljana, Intelektualno vlasnitvo i znanstvenoistraivake institucije, u: MATANOVAC, Romana (ur.) Hrvatsko pravo intelektualnog vlasnitva u svjetlu pristupanja Europskoj uniji, Zagreb, 2006, str. 308 - 311.
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4.1. Vrste autorskih djela koja se stvaraju na sveuilitu

Na sveuilitima stvaraju se razliiti oblici autorskih djela. Karakteristino je za ovu vrstu intelektualnih tvorevina da nastaju u svim oblicima rada na sveuilitu a poglavito u nastavi. U naelu, predavanje, usmeno, pisano, priopeno u dvorani, kabinetu ili putem interneta, skripta, ppt prezentacija te drugi nastavni i didaktiki materijal jest autorsko djelo. Rijetko se dogodi da nastavni materijal nije originalna intelektualna tvorevina iz knjievnoga, znanstvenog ili umjetnikog podruja te da nema individualni karakter pa slijedom toga da nije autorsko djelo.84 Struni ili znanstveni lanak, knjiga ili druga vrsta pisanoga teksta koja nastaje u znanstvenom radu i istraivanju takoer je autorsko djelo. Takoer, u okviru znanstvenog i istraivakog rada nastaju razliite karte, grakoni, tablice, planovi, skice, crtei, te drugi prikazi znanstvene ili tehnike prirode koji se takoer tite kao autorska djela ako su originalne intelektualne tvorevine svojih autora. Na pojedinim fakultetima i drugim sastavnicama nastaju i posebne vrste autorskih djela, kao to su primjerice raunalni programi, dizajn, arhitektonska djela odnosno nacrti za arhitektonska djela, baze podataka i sl. Umjetnike akademije posebno su zanimljive jer osim autorskih djela iz podruja umjetnosti kao to su skladbe, audiovizualna djela te umjetnike slike i skulpture, u okviru tih institutcija esto nastaju i predmeti zatieni srodnim pravima kao to su umjetnike izvedbe, fonogrami te videogrami. Opisana autorska djela i predmete srodnih prava mogu stvoriti zaposlenici - nastavnici i suradnici ali i vanjski suradnici koji sudjeluju u izvoenju nastave. Stvaraju ih i polaznici studijskih programa, posebice kada je rije o umjetnikim akademijama. Takoer, seminarski, diplomski, drugi zavrni radovi a posebice magistarski radovi i doktorske disertacije u pravilu se tite autorskim pravom kao autorska djela.
4.2. Ugovorna raspolaganja autorskim pravom na autorskim djelima stvorenim u radu na sveuilitu
Iz svega to je openito do sada reeno moe se zakljuiti kakav je pravni status autorskih djela koje stvore zaposlenici fakulteta ili drugih sastavnica. Ako zaposlenik fakulteta ili druge sastavnice stvori autorsko djelo izvravajui svoje obveze iz ugovora o radu ili po uputama svojega poslodavca, to i dalje samo po sebi ne mijenja injenicu da prema ZAPSP autorsko pravo bez ogranienja i u cjelini pripada autoru - zaposleniku.85 Takav pravni status autorskog djela stvorenog u radnom odnosu nee promijeniti ni to to je eventualno zaposlenik svoje autorsko djelo u cijelosti
to moe biti autorsko djelo ureeno je u l. 5. ZAPSP: autorsko djelo je originalna intelektualna tvorevina iz knjievnoga, znanstveno i umjetnikog podruja koja ima individualni karakter, bez obzira na nain i obliku izraavanja, vrstu, vrijednost ili namjenu. U odnosu na ovu deniciju nema nikakvih posebnosti u odnosu na autorska djela stvorena na sveuilitu. U Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu, meutim, denicija autorskih djela kao i njihove vrste ne poklapaju se u cijelosti s hrvatskim i ostalim kontinentalnoeuropskim shvaanjima. Vidi npr. MONOTTI/RICKETSON, op.cit. 177. - 178 te GARNETT/ DAVIES/HARBOTTLE, op. cit., 50. -184. 85 Vidi l.76. ZAPSP.
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izradio koristei se sredstvima poslodavca (prostorom, materijalom, ureajima, literaturom i sl.) kao ni injenica da je izrada autorskog djela u cijelosti ili u dijelu nancirana od poslodavca ili izravno ili neizravno iz dravnog prorauna ili drugih javnih izvora. Izuzetak od ovog pravila predstavljaju raunalni programi stvoreni u radnom odnosu koji po zakonu pripadaju sastavnici na kojoj je autor zaposlen. U odnosu na sva druga djela koja nisu raunalni programi, poslodavac - sastavnica mogu tek ugovorom sa zaposlenikom stei autorska prava na djelima koja stvore njegovi zaposlenici To se moe urediti u ugovoru o radu ili u nekom drugom ugovoru.86 Mogue je i da se pravni status autorskih djela uredi i pravilnikom o radu ili kolektivnim ugovorom ili nekim drugim aktom kojim se ureuje radni odnos. No, takav akt ima uinak prema zaposleniku samo ako ga je zaposlenik u pisanom obliku izriito prihvatio. Autor - zaposlenik moe unaprijed za poslodavca - sastavnicu osnovati iskljuiva prava iskoritavanja, sadrajno, prostorno i vremenski neogranieno, na svim svojim djelima koja je stvorio ili e stvoriti u radnom odnosu. Ali ne moe takva prava osnovati za sva svoja budua djela.87 Takoer, sastavnica kao poslodavac i autor - zaposlenik mogu istodobno ugovoriti da e sva prava koja pripadnu sastavnici ona moi dalje prenijeti sveuilitu ili za sveuilite osnovati novo pravo iskoritavanja na temelju svojeg steenog prava. Moe, se, dakako, ugovoriti da sastavnica odnosno sveuilite mogu sa steenim pravima dalje raspolagati sa ili bez ogranienja Ugovorne odredbe o osnivanju prava iskoritavanja na autorskim djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu ne odnose se na ona autorska djela koja zaposlenik stvori u svoje slobodno vrijeme. Ako poslodavac eli stei pravo prvenstva u pogledu iskoritavanja i takvih djela, on to mora posebno ugovoriti s autorom. Interes za iskoritavanjem takvih djela poslodavac moe imati kada, primjerice, ona pripadaju u njegovo podruje djelovanja te bi mu njihovo iskoritavanje od strane drugih osoba moglo predstavljati nelojalnu konkurenciju. Dakle, samo ako o tome postoji pisani ugovor, autor - zaposlenik bit e duan prava iskoritavanja na djelima stvorenim u svoje slobodno vrijeme prvo ponuditi poslodavcu. Jednako tako, ako poslodavac eli da zaposlenik u njegovu korist osnuje prava iskoritavanja na djelima koja je u svoje slobodno vrijeme stvorio koristei se poslodavevim sredstvima, prostorom i slinim resursima, mora i to izrijekom ugovoriti s autorom. U protivnom, sva autorska prava na djelima stvorenim u slobodno vrijeme pripadaju autoru. Budui da je esto vrlo teko razluiti to je radno a to slobodno vrijeme znanstvenika ili nastavnika, bilo bi vrlo korisno u ugovoru o radu (ili u pravilniku) detaljno urediti to se smatra djelima stvorenim u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa a to djelima stvorenim u slobodno vrijeme. Bilo bi takoer korisno istodobno urediti i kakav je pravni status autorskih djela koja su stvorena u slobodno vrijeme ali koja pripadaju u djelatnost sastavnice ili sveuilita. Takoer, korisno bi bilo urediti i to je s djelima koja su stvorena u slobodno vrijeme ali se u njihovu stvaranju zaposlenik koristio materijalima, prostorom ili drugim resursima sastavnice ili sveuilita.
86 87
Vidi l. 75. ZAPSP. Vidi l. 52/3. ZAPSP.
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Iako su u pravilu poslodavci znanstvenog i nastavnog osoblja sastavnice a ne sveuilite, uloga sveuilita u ureenju njihovih meusobnih odnosa je nezaobilazna. Naime, bilo bi preporuljivo da sveuilite sa svojim sastavnicama utvrdi zajedniku politiku ureenja pravnog statusa autorskih djela nastalih u izvravanju obveza iz ugovora o radu te eventualno i autorskih djela nastalih u slobodno vrijeme zaposlenika ali koja pripadaju u podruje djelatnosti sastavnice i/ili sveuilita ili koja su nastala uz koritenje sredstava ili nancijskih potpora sastavnice i/ili sveuilita i/ili iz drugih javnih izvora. Ta djela mogu se razvrstati u tri kategorije. U prvu kategoriju pripadaju predavanja, nastavni materijali i druga autorska djela vezana uz sve oblike nastave, ukljuujui i materijale za e-uenje. U drugu kategoriju pripadaju lanci, knjige i slina autorska djela koja se stvaraju u znanstvenom i istraivakom radu, pri emu sastavnica ili sveuilite mogu, ali i ne moraju, davati upute i naloge za takav stvaralaki rad, te pri emu se mogu, ali i ne moraju, koristiti sredstvima (prostorom, ureajima, alatima, literaturom i sl.) sastavnice odnosno sveuilita. U treu kategoriju pripadaju sve ostale vrste autorskih djela koje se stvaraju kao karakteristine za pojedinu znanstvenu granu, djelatnost sastavnice ili sveuilita, itd. Za neke e biti karakteristino stvaranje arhitektonskih djela, za druge raunalnih programa, za tree dizajna, za etvrte djela s podruja likovne umjetnosti, za pete audiovizualnih djela, za este glazbenih djela, za sedme kartografskih djela, itd. I kod stvaranja svih ovih vrsta djela zaposlenici se mogu ali i ne moraju koristiti materijalnim i nancijskim sredstvima sastavnice ili sveuilita. Takoer, za njihovo stvaranje mogu koristiti nancijske potpore iz drugih javnih izvora. Za pretpostaviti je da e poslodavci - sastavnice te sveuilite biti zainteresirani za stjecanje autorskih prava u prvoj kategoriji djela, i to za iskoritavanje u svrhe nastave. U tome sluaju se ugovorima o radu ili drugim ugovorima moe odrediti da pravo iskoritavanja nastavnih materijala i predavanja pripada poslodavcu (a moda i sveuilitu). Pravo iskoritavanja osnovano u korist poslodavca ne bi trebalo biti iskljuivo, ve bi se trebalo i nastavniku omoguiti da iskoritava svoje materijale i predavanja, bez obzira na to je li radni odnos s fakultetom odnosno drugom sastavnicom jo uvijek traje ili je prestao iz bilo kojeg razloga. Stjecanje autorskih prava na nastavnim materijalima na strani poslodavca moe se urediti i pravilnikom o radu ili drugim pravilnikom. No, tada je nuno da zaposlenik izrijekom pristane da se takav pravilnik primjenjuje na njega. On takav pristanak moe dati u ugovoru o radu ili drugom pisanom ugovoru ili u pisanoj izjavi. U svakome od opisanih sluajeva bilo bi korisno takoer urediti i pitanje kada se smatra da je zaposlenik nastavni materijal stvorio u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa a kada se smatra da ga je stvorio u slobodno vrijeme. Korisno bi bilo urediti i pitanje to je s autorskim pravima ako je zaposlenik za stvaranje nastavnog materijala koristio materijalne resurse poslodavca ili sveuilita a stvarao je u slobodno vrijeme. Potrebno je urediti i pitanje eventualne dodatne autorske naknade za svaki od tih sluajeva. Nadalje je za pretpostaviti da bi poslodavci - sastavnice te sveuilite biti zainteresirani za stjecanje autorskih prava za drugu kategoriju autorskih djela koja stvaraju njihovi zaposlenici, tj. za njihove lanke, knjige i slina autorska djela koja se stvaraju u znanstvenom i istraivakom radu. U nekim sluajevima interes za stje-
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canje autorskih prava na takvim djelima moe pokazati i samo sveuilite. Ovdje e, meutim, interes poslodavca biti u izravnoj koliziji s interesima zaposlenika koji e u veini sluajeva smatrati da ova vrsta autorskih djela treba pripadati njima te da oni mogu slobodno odluivati kada, gdje i kako e objavljivati svoje strune i znanstvene lanke, knjige i sl. To osobito zato to se objava ove vrste djela uzima kao kriterij za napredovanje u via znanstvena i suradnika zvanja. Stoga se preporua da poslodavci u svoju korist ili u korist sveuilita u ugovorima o radu ili drugim ugovorima sa svojim zaposlenicima urede tek ogranienu ili uvjetnu mogunost iskoritavanja takve vrste djela. Takoer, isto bi se moglo urediti i pravilnikom o radu ili drugim pravilnikom ali pod uvjetom da zaposlenik, kao i u prethodno opisanom sluaju, pristane da se takav akt primijeni na njega. Ovdje bi takoer bilo bi korisno urediti pitanje kada se smatra da je zaposlenik lanak, knjigu i sl. napisao u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa a kada se smatra da ih je napisao u slobodno vrijeme. Korisno bi bilo urediti i pitanje to je s autorskim pravima ako je zaposlenik za stvaranje lanka, knjige i sl. koristio materijalne resurse poslodavca ili sveuilita (tu se ne rauna koritenje knjininog fonda) a stvarao je u slobodno vrijeme. Potrebno je urediti i pitanje eventualne dodatne autorske naknade za svaki od tih sluajeva. U pogledu tree kategorije autorskih djela takoer moe postojati interes poslodavca za stjecanje autorskih prava, kao to se moe pojaviti i interes sveuilita. Tu se valja prisjetiti iznimke da autorsko pravo na raunalnom programu stvorenom u radnom odnosu prema zakonu pripada poslodavcu. U svim drugim sluajevima ugovorom o radu ili drugim ugovorom moe se urediti u kojoj mjeri i pod kojim uvjetima poslodavac stjee autorska prava na arhitektonskim, likovnim, audiovizualnim i glazbenim djelima, dizajnu i drugim umjetnikim djelima, kartama, studijama, anketama i drugim znanstvenim djelima svojih zaposlenika. Osobito je vano razraditi kada se smatra da je zaposlenik navedena djela stvorio u izvravanju obveza iz radnog odnosa a kada se smatra da ih je stvorio u slobodno vrijeme. Korisno bi bilo urediti i pitanje to je s autorskim pravima ako je zaposlenik za stvaranje tih djela koristio materijalne (osobito nancijske) resurse sastavnice ili sveuilita a stvarao je u slobodno vrijeme. Potrebno je urediti i pitanje eventualne dodatne autorske naknade za svaki od tih sluajeva. Sva navedena pitanja mogu se urediti i pravilnikom o radu ili drugim pravilnikom ali, kao i prije, i ovdje je potrebno da zaposlenik pristupi takvom pravilniku u ugovoru o radu, drugom ugovoru ili pisanom izjavom. Za sve opisane kategorije djela ne bi bilo uputno da sastavnica stjee iskljuiva prava iskoritavanja, na nain da ona moe svakog drugog, pa i samog zaposlenika iskljuiti od koritenja njegovih djela. Tu bi uvijek valjalo uzeti u obzir interes daljnjeg strunog, znanstvenog i nastavnog rada zaposlenika. Preporuljivo je da autorska prava iskoritavanja koja stjee poslodavac budu neiskljuiva te da budu sadrajno, vremenski i prostorno ograniena. Takoer, valjalo bi predvidjeti i da autorska prava iskoritavanja prestaju ako poslodavac u odreenom razdoblju ne iskoritava autorska djela. Naime, prava iskoritavanja koja stjee poslodavac ili posredstvom njega sveuilite trebaju sluiti za unaprjeenje nastavne, znanstvene i druge uloge sveuilita i njegovih sastavnica, te za dobrobit daljnjeg znanstvenog, istraivakog i nastavnog rada na sveuilitu, ali esto i za prezentiranje postignutih znanstvenih rezultata to je mjerilo uspjenosti sveuilita i njegovih sastavnica.
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Jedini izuzetak od gore opisanih pravila predstavljaju raunalni programi, kao to je ve napominjano. Sva imovinska autorska prava na raunalnim programima stvorenim u radnom odnosu pripadaju poslodavcu, pa tako i u sluaju kada je poslodavac sastavnica odnosno sveuilite. Posebna pravila propisana su i za audiovizualna djela. Ako je sastavnica ujedno i lmski producent, ona e na temelju ugovora o audiovizualnoj produkciji stei imovinska prava autora doprinosa u audiovizualnom djelu (npr. montaera, autora maski, kostimografa, scenografa i sl.), i to u opsegu koji je potreban za ispunjenje svrhe ugovora. Mogue je drukije urediti i tim ugovorom. Meutim, to se ne odnosi na glavnog redatelja, scenaristu, autora dijaloga, glavnog snimatelja te skladatelja glazbe posebno skladane za koritenje u tom audiovizualnom djelu. S njima je potrebno u ugovoru o audiovizualnoj produkciji izrijekom ugovoriti osnivanje prava iskoritavanja u korist sastavnice - lmskog producenta. Naposljetku valja istaknuti da za prava iskoritavanja koja ugovorom osniva za poslodavca autor - zaposlenik uvijek ima pravo na primjerenu naknadu. Ona se takoer ugovara u ugovoru o radu. Ako je naknada odreena pravilnikom o radu, kolektivnim ugovorom ili slinim aktom kojim se ureuju odnosi izmeu poslodavca i zaposlenika, ona e vrijediti prema autoru - zaposleniku samo ako je pravila kojima se ta naknada odreuje izriito u pisanom obliku prihvatio. Ako ta naknada nije ugovorena ili je ugovorena naknada neprimjerena, autor moe zahtijevati od suda da odredi primjerenu naknadu.88 No, autor se moe u predmetnom ugovoru odrei svojeg prava na primjerenu naknadu i zadovoljiti se plaom. Ugovori o raspolaganju autorskim pravom u sumnji se uvijek tumae u korist autora.89 Stoga je vano sve o pravnom statusu autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu na sveuilitu (ili drugdje) urediti detaljno i precizno.
5. Zakljuak
Usporedbom obraenih pravnih sustava lako se moe uoiti temeljna razlika u pristupu rjeavanju problema odreivanja ovlatenika autorskih prava na djelima stvorenima u radnom odnosu u kontinentalnoeuropskim autorskopravnim sustavima, s jedne strane, te u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu, s druge strane. Dok se prvi spomenuti sustavi, koji se jo nazivaju i sustavi droit dauteur, priklanjaju naelu intelektualnog vlasnitva prema kojem autorsko pravo, pa i na onim djelima koja su stvorena u radnom odnosu, pripada zikoj osobi koja je djelo stvorila autoru, anglosaksonski copyright pristup priklanja se radnopravnom naelu da autorska prava na takvim djelima pripadaju poslodavcu. U hrvatskom autorskopravnom zakonodavstvu se do njegovih temeljitih izmjena 2003. godine, te suprotno sadanjem stanju, primjenjivalo naelo karakteristino za anglosaksonski pristup. Poslodavac je tijekom razdoblja od 5 godina na temelju zakona imao pravo iskoritavanja autorskoga djela stvorenog u radnom odnosu. S druge strane, u Njemakoj, Francuskoj te (danas) u Hrvatskoj po88 89
Vidi l. 53. ZAPSP. Vidi l. 44/5. ZAPSP.
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slodavac si mora ugovorom o radu ili drugim ugovorom sklopljenim s zaposlenikom priskrbiti pravo iskoritavanja autorskog djela nastalog u radnom odnosu jer na temelju zakona, osim u iznimnim sluajevima (raunalni programi i audiovizualna djela), ne stjee nikakvu mogunost iskoritavanja takvih autorskih djela. U nedostatku posebnih pravila o autorskim djelima stvorenim na sveuilitu, primjenjuju se opa pravila o pripadanju autorskog prava na takvim djelima. Tako i ovdje sveuilita, odnosno u Hrvatskoj sastavnice, kao poslodavci mogu tek na temelju ugovora s autorom - zaposlenikom stei prava iskoritavanja autorskog djela stvorenog u radnom odnosu. Budui da u njemakom, francuskom i hrvatskom zakonodavstvu nema posebnih odredaba o tome na koji nain u ugovorima o radu valja urediti pitanje raspolaganja autorskim pravom u korist poslodavca, pa i poslodavca - sveuilita, odnosno sastavnice, primjenjuju se ope odredbe o raspolaganju autorskim pravom. Na pravnodogmatska shvaanja o naravi takvih raspolaganja u pojedinim pravnim sustavima presudan utjecaj imaju uenja, odnosno teorije o monistikom i dualistikom ureenju sadraja autorskoga prava. Ako je rije o monistikoj teoriji, koja je utjelovljena u UrhG i ZAPSP, poslodavac moe ugovorom od zaposlenika stei tek prava iskoritavanja koja se konstitutivnom derivativnom sukcesijom osnivaju na imovinskoj komponenti autorskoga prava. Ako je rije o dualistikoj teoriji, na kojoj se temelji CPI, tada poslodavac moe potpunom ili ogranienom cesijom stei imovinska autorska prava. U potonjem sluaju rije je o translativnoj derivativnoj sukcesiji. Meutim, u samim ekonomskim uincima opisana pravna raspolaganja u bitnome se ne razlikuju. UrhG, CPI te ZAPSP sadre ope odredbe o autorskom ugovornom pravu koje su usmjerene na stvaranje povoljnijeg pravnog poloaja za autora, to se moe primijeniti i na autora-zaposlenika te posebice na autora - zaposlenika na sveuilitu odnosno sastavnici. To su npr. odredbe o zabrani raspolaganja imovinskom komponentom autorskoga prava na svim buduim autorovim djelima ili obvezatan pisani oblik autorskih ugovora. No, tu valja uoiti da je ponekad sudska praksa sklona i takve odredbe tumaiti u korist poslodavca, kada je rije o autorskim djelima stvorenima u radnom odnosu. To je npr. sluaj u Njemakoj gdje se (za razliku od Francuske) priznaju i preutna raspolaganja imovinskom komponentom autorskoga prava na autorskim djelima stvorenim u radnom odnosu. Hrvatska se sudska praksa o tom pitanju, prema dostupnim izvorima, do danas nije imala priliku odrediti. Ovdje valja uoiti i naelo specikacije propisano u CPI po kojem je francusko pravo povoljnije za autora-zaposlenika od hrvatskog i njemakog prava u kojima se ovo naelo ne primjenjuje. I bez obzira na to to se iz izloenog moe uoiti da u Hrvatskoj sastavnice mogu samostalno urediti pravni status autorskih djela nastalih na sveuilitu, uloga sveuilita je nezaobilazna. Sveuilite putem svojih tijela djeluje kao funkcionalno - integrirajui imbenik te u tome smislu nastoji osigurati jedinstveno i usklaeno djelovanje svojih sastavnica u skladu sa stratekim i razvojnim odlukama o akademskim pitanjima i o proliranju znanstvenih istraivanja te jedinstveno i usklaeno djelovanje u nancijskom poslovanju i pravnom prometu, investicijama, razvojnim planovima te u nastupu prema vanjskim partnerima u znanstvenim djelatnostima i visokom obrazovanju. Takva je uloga sveuilita propisana Zakonom o znanstvenoj djelatnosti i visokom obrazovanju, pa ju valja slijediti i u znanosti i istraivanju te umjetnosti na sveuilitu.
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SUMMARY LEGAL STATUS OF COPYRIGHT WORKS CREATED IN THE EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP AT UNIVERSITY Romana Matanovac Vukovi
The Continental European authors' rights (droit d'auteur) systems rely in their approach to solving problems of identifying the persons entitled to copyright in the works created in the employment relationship on the intellectual property principle, according to which copyright, even in such works created in the employment relationship, shall belong to the natural person having created it the author. The Anglo Saxon (copyright) approach relies on the labor law principle, according to which copyright in such works shall belong to the employer. In the Croatian copyright legislation, up to its fundamental amendments made in 2003, and contrary to its current state, the principle as characteristic for the Anglo Saxon approach has been applied. Under the law, the employer had the right of exploitation of a copyright work created in the employment relationship during a period of 5 years. On the other hand, in Germany, France and (today) in Croatia, the employer has to obtain the right of exploitation of the copyright work created in the employment relationship by means of an employment contract or another contract concluded with the employee, due to the fact that under the law, except for in exceptional cases (computer programs and audio-visual works), he/she has no possibility of exploitation of such copyright works. In the absence of special rules on copyright works created at university, general rules on the entitlement to copyright in such works shall apply. Thus, also here, universities (in Croatia, the constituent units), as employers, may acquire the rights of exploitation of a copyright work created in the employment relationship only by virtue of a contract concluded with the author the employee. In the absence of special provisions in the German, French and Croatian legislations regulating the matter of disposition of copyright for the benet of the employer, even of the employer the university (in Croatia, a constituent unit), general provisions on the disposition of copyright shall apply. In particular legal systems, a decisive inuence on the legally dogmatic understanding of the nature of such dispositions is made by doctrines, or theories of the monistic and dualistic regulation of the content of copyright. If the monistic theory is concerned, which is embodied in the Croatian and German Copyright Act, the employer may, by a contract, obtain from the employee only the rights of exploitation, which are granted on the economic component of copyright by a constitutive derivative succession. If the dualistic theory is concerned, on which the French Law is based, then the employer may acquire authors economic rights by means of a complete or a limited cession. In the latter case, the translative derivative succession is concerned. However, the described legal dispositions do not substantially differ in their economic effects. The German, French and Croatian Acts, regulating copyright, contain general provisions on the copyright contractual law, directed to the creation of a more benecial legal status of authors, that can also be applied to the author-employee, and in particular to the author-employee at the university or the constituent unit, respectively. Such are, for example, the provisions prohibiting disposition with the economic component of copyright in all the future authors works, or a mandatory written form of copyright contracts. But, it has to be noted that sometimes the court practice is inclined to interpret such provisions for the benet of the employer, where copyright works created in the employment relationship are concerned. This is, for instance, the case in Germany, where (unlike in France) even a tacit disposition with the economic component of copyright in copyright works created in the employment
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relationship is recognized. According to the available sources, the Croatian court practice has had no opportunity to decide in such matters thus far. Herewith, also the principle of specication has to be noted, as provided for by the French Act, owing to which the French law is more benecial for the author-employee than the Croatian and German laws, in which this principle has not been applied. Even though it can be noted that in Croatia the constituent units may regulate the legal status of copyright works created at the university, the role of the university is unavoidable. The university acts through its bodies as a functionally integrating factor and it endeavors to ensure to that effect a unique and harmonized functioning of its constituent units in conformity with the strategic and developmental decisions on academic issues and on determination of scientic research, as well as a uniform and coordinated functioning in nancial operations and legal transactions, investments, development plans and in contacts with external partners in science and higher education. Such a university role has been provided for in the Croatian Science and Higher Education Act, and has to be followed in the science and research, as well as the art at the university.
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Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE
Prof. dr. sc. Aleksandra Horvat
DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE
Cilj je rada upozoriti na potekoe s kojima se susreu knjinice kad ele prii opsenoj digitalizaciji grae koju posjeduju. Za digitalizaciju, kao akt reprodukcije i akt stavljanja na raspolaganje javnosti, potrebno je prethodno doputenje nositelja prava. No knjinice nemaju pomagala pomou kojih bi mogle brzo i uinkovito identicirati i pronai autore brojnih djela koje posjeduju. Nije posve sigurno da e Direktiva o djelima siroadi, zamiljena kao pomo knjinicama i drugim javnim batinskim ustanovama, doista stvoriti uvjete za opsenu digitalizaciju pa se u EU razmilja i o drugim moguim rjeenjima. Kljune rijei: digitalizacija, Europeana, djela siroad, Direktiva o djelima siroadi, proirena kolektivna licencija, dravna licencija, iznimka ili ogranienje za knjinice
Uvod
U oujku 2010. Europska je komisija usvojila dokument naslovljen Europe 2020.1 U njemu se izlae strategija razvitka Europske unije u iduem desetljeu pa se moe smatrati nastavkom poznate Lisabonske strategije koja je 2000. najavila promjene koje su trebale znaajno ojaati ekonomiju Unije. Iako je Lisabonska strategija doprinijela otvaranju 18 milijuna novih radnih mjesta, njezini su se ciljevi u nekim zemljama lanicama ostvarivali presporo ili nezadovoljavajue. Nova strategija ima za cilj poveati broj radnih mjesta i ojaati trite, a pritom se najvie oslanja na cjeloivotno uenje, razvitak znanosti i inovacija te razvitak digitalne ekonomije. Uz Europe 2020 objavljeno je i nekoliko popratnih dokumenata u kojima se utvruje kako se zacrtane promjene imaju provesti pa se tako o razvoju digitalne ekonomije govori u dokumentu Digitalni plan za Europu (A Digital Agenda for Europe) objavljenom u ljeto 2010.2 Iz dokumenta je jasno da se eli omoguiti da se veina dosadanjih poslovnih transakcija i radnih postupaka moe obaviti koristei
Aleksandra Horvat, Filozofski fakultet u Zagrebu Europe 2020: a European strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. Dostupno na: http://ec.europa.eu/eu2010/. 2 A Digital Agenda for Europe. Dostupno na: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/digital-agenda/documents/digital-agenda-communication-en.pdf
* 1
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internet. Dakako, internet se namjerava i dalje razvijati kao komunikacijski, rekreacijski i drutveni medij. Drugim rijeima radi se o stvaranju sredine u kojoj e sve dosadanje slube i usluge u javnom i poslovnom sektoru biti digitalizirane. Digitalni plan za Europu najavljuje i stvaranje europske digitalne knjinice, koja bi osigurala dostupnost europskoj kulturnoj batini pohranjenoj u knjinicama. Tako bi graani Unije, ali i ostali diljem svijeta, dobili pristup do oko dvije i po milijarde svezaka knjiga i asopisa koji se uvaju u knjinicama zemalja lanica. Prvi korak u stvaranju te budue knjinice jest uspostava portala Europeana, koji je istina pokrenut jo 2008. godine, ali se otad sueljavao s nizom problema tehnike, organizacijske i pravne naravi pa se sad eli ubrzati rjeavanje tih problema. Mogua se rjeenja mogu oitati iz kljunih akcija koje nabraja Digitalni plan za Europu. Ozbiljna prepreka digitalizaciji europske batine jest injenica da se u skladu s Direktivom o nekim aspektima autorskog prava i srodnih prava u informacijskom drutvu iz 2001, prije pristupanja digitalizaciji i prije stavljanja djela na raspolaganje javnosti, treba pribaviti doputenje nositelja prava.3 Treba, dakako, imati na umu da se digitalizacija zapravo sastoji od dva postupka: postupka reprodukcije i postupka stavljanja djela na raspolaganje javnosti. U skladu s l. 5(3)(n) Direktive o nekim aspektima autorskog prava i srodnih prava u Informacijskom drutvu iz 2001., knjinice smiju digitalizirati grau iz svojega fonda, ali toj grai mogu osigurati pristup samo na posebnim raunalima u svojemu prostoru u svrhu znanstvenog rada ili za privatno koritenje. To znai da se zatiena i digitalizirana graa ne smije bez doputenja nositelja prava uiniti dostupnom javnosti na internetu. Posljedica je vidljiva kad se pogleda sadraj dosad digitalizirane grae Europeane, ali i drugih velikih europskih knjinica: najveim je dijelom digitalizirana slobodna graa, nastala prije XX. stoljea. Graa XX. stoljea, koja je veim dijelom jo zatiena, mogla bi, doista, ostati crnom rupom europskog kulturnog nasljea, kako o tome govori Europska komisija u jednom dokumentu.4
Opsena (masovna) digitalizacija

Prvi projekti digitalizacije knjinine grae u Europi, ali i u Hrvatskoj, raeni su kao obrtniki proizvod: graa koja e se digitalizirati paljivo je birana s obzirom na format i sadraj, pazilo se da se biraju slobodna djela, za projekt je osigurana odgovarajua nancijska podrka, cijeli je proces nadgledan, provjeravana je kvaliteta, digitalni je sadraj opisan paljivo biranim metapodacima. Da se na taj nain nastavi raditi trebali bi deseci godina pa i vie za digitalizaciju cijelih zbirki. Zato se najprije nastojalo stvoriti tehnike uvjete koji e omoguiti bru i opseniju digitalizaciju. U engleskom se jeziku za tu vrstu digitalizacije najee koriste izrazi mass digitization ili large-scale digitization, to bi se moglo prevesti kao opsena
Directive 2001/29/EC of 22 May 2001 on the harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society. OJ L 167, 22.6.2001, str. 10-19. 4 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: Europeana - next steps. SEC(2009)1124. COM(2009) 440 nal. Para 3.2.
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digitalizacija, iako se kod nas esto uje i izraz masovna digitalizacija. Danas ve postoji oprema koja omoguuje digitaliziranje 40-50 milijuna stranica godinje, a sam je postupak digitalizacije djelomino ili u potpunosti automatiziran. Automatizirani se postupak, dakako, ne moe uvijek primijeniti, osobito onda kad je graa stara, oteena, kad se knjiga ne smije otvoriti na 180 i sl. Europska unija potie opsenu digitalizaciju, jer je to jedini nain da se u dogledno vrijeme bogata kulturna batina Europe uini dostupnom u digitalnom obliku. Opsena digitalizacija je, dakle, tehniki izvediva, ali joj glavna prepreka dobivanje doputenja nositelja prava, koje onemoguuje primjenu automatiziranog postupka digitalizacije, jer zahtijeva da se svaka jedinica graa pregleda, da se utvrdi tko je autor i da se taj autor pronae. Problem postaje jo tei ako se radi o djelima nastalima u koautorstvu ili pak zbirkama poput itanki, antologija, hrestomatija i slinih djela, jer se doputenje mora dobiti od svakog zastupljenog autora.
Efemerna graa i umetnuta djela

Dodatan problem knjinicama stvara i injenica da velik dio njihovih zbirki ini tzv. efemerna graa ili u hrvatskoj strunoj terminologiji sitni tisak (fotograje, plakati, pozivnice, razglednice, programi itd.). Poznato je da je upravo ta graa esto bila birana za prve projekte digitalizacije velikih knjinica poput Kongresne ili Britanske knjinice, jer se radi o zanimljivom slikovnom materijalu vrlo privlanom iroj javnosti. Ta je graa esta i u tzv. zaviajnim zbirkama narodnih knjinica gdje svjedoi o lokalnoj povijesti grada ili mjesta. Poznato je da su autori fotograja, razglednica, plakata i sline grae obino nepoznati, njihova se imena na grai nalaze iznimno rijetko, esto se radi o djelima amatera. Ako podatka o autoru nema na grai, vrlo je vjerojatno da ga nee biti ni u katalogu. Ponekad se, dodue, taj podatak moe nai istraivanjem u inventarnoj knjizi koja otkriva nain ulaska jedinice grae u knjinicu, ime darodavca i sl., ali to je istraivanje dugotrajno, a esto i ne daje rezultate. Iako se na prvi pogled moe initi da knjige ne bi trebale predstavljati problem pri utvrivanju autorstva, jer se ime autora gotovo redovito na njima navodi, prvi pokuaji digitalizacije pokazali su da velik dio grae u knjinicama sadri tzv. umetnuta djela (karte, ilustracije, fotograje i sl.).5 Autori tih umetnutih djela ponekad su i navedeni, ali najee ne na naslovnoj stranici, ve na nekom drugom mjestu u knjizi. Podaci o njima esto nisu ni navedeni u katalozima. Zato je prije digitalizacije potrebno otvoriti knjigu i pregledati je, to opet onemoguuje automatiziranje postupka. Dakako, ako se graa eli digitalizirati, potrebno je dobiti doputenje svakog autora pa i autora umetka. Kad se ime autora ilustracija, fotograja i slinih dodataka uz tekst i nae, jo uvijek nije jasno kako bi se te autore moglo pronai da ih se moe traiti doputenje za digitalizaciju. Knjinini katalozi, naime, po
Istraivanje raeno u Britanskoj knjinici na katalonim zapisima pokazalo je da 46, 7% zapisa od 3 milijuna katalonih zapisa za obvezni primjerak dostavljen poslije 1950. iskazuje podatak o ilustracijama. Prema: Lder, Tilman. The orphan works challenge. Gewerblicher Rechtsschutz und Urheberrecht Internationaler Teil, H. 8/9(2010), str. 677.
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tradiciji ne sadre osobne podatke o autoru, poput adrese, koji bi pomogli da se autor locira.
Djela siroad (orphan works)

Najvei problem za opsenu digitalizaciju danas predstavljaju djela kojima se ne moe utvrditi ili pronai autor pa je za ta djela skovan izraz djela siroad (orphan works). Zanimljive su procjene nainjene u Britanskoj knjinici 2009. prema kojima u svim knjinicama u javnom sektoru u Velikoj Britaniji ima oko 25 milijuna djela siroadi. Sama knjinica navodi da 40% njezine zbirke ine ta djela. Procjenjuje se da je udio djela siroadi u svakoj pojedinoj knjininoj zbirci u Velikoj Britaniji izmeu 5% i 10%.6 Zanimljive su i procjene preuzete iz nekih amerikih izvora o vrstama djela kojima se ne moe utvrditi autor: najee su to fotograje, posebno neobjavljene; samo 1% fotograja pohranjenih u knjinicama, arhivima itd. ima utvrenog nositelja prava. Na protiv, lmovi su vrlo rijetko djela siroad, a glazbena djela gotovo nikad.7 U zemljama lanicama EU-a danas se dri da su upravo djela siroad najvea prepreka stvaranju digitalnih knjinica.
Direktiva o djelima siroadi

Digitalni plan za Europu predvia donoenje Direktive o djelima siroadi koja bi pomogla digitalizaciji i diseminaciji kulturnih djela u Europi.8 Dri se da e Direktiva biti usvojena za vrijeme poljskog predsjedanja EU-om, vjerojatno u prosincu ove godine. Trebala bi pomoi javnim ustanovama koje uvaju batinsku grau (knjinice, arhivi, muzeji, obrazovne ustanove, organizacije za radiodifuziju i kinoteke odnosno lmski arhivi), da digitaliziraju i ona djela za koja ne mogu dobiti prethodno doputenje nositelja prava, jer je taj nositelj nepoznat ili se ne moe pronai. Prijedlogu Direktive uputili su knjiniari znatan broj prigovora. Najprije, prijedlogom nisu bile obuhvaene sve vrste djela koje se nalaze u knjinicama, na primjer fonograme se vezalo iskljuivo uz arhive organizacija za radiodifuziju i uz glazbu, a lmove uz lmske arhive. Kako knjinice uvaju i velik broj fonograma na kojima su zabiljeeni povijesno vani javni govori, kao i zvune knjige, takva uska denicija djela siroadi, nije za njih bila prihvatljiva. Kompromisni prijedlog predsjednitva Europskog parlamenta iz listopada 2011. doputa i knjinicama da
In from the cold: an assesment of the scope of orphan works and its impact on the delivery of services to the public, 2009. Dostupno na: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/contentalliance/. 7 Lder, Tilman. The orphan works challenge. Gewerblicher Rechtsschutz und Urheberrecht Internationaler Teil, H. 8/9(2010), str. 677. 8 Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Certain Permitted Uses of Orphan Works, Brussels, 17 November 2010, COM (2010) yyyy nal. Prijedlog je do listopada 2011. vie puta mijenjan, a za ovaj rad koriten je dokument Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Certain Permitted Uses of Orphan Works, Brussels, 24. 5. 2011, COM(2011) 289 nal 2011/0136 (COD).{SEC(2011) 616 nal}
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digitaliziraju audiovizualna djela siroad.9 Meutim, ni u zadnjoj dostupnoj verziji prijedloga ne spominju se, na primjer, fotograje, a upravo je postotak djela siroadi kod te vrste grae vrlo visok. Direktiva se ne odnosi na neobjavljena djela, emu knjiniari prigovaraju, jer se neobjavljena djela redovito mogu koristiti u prostoru knjinice pa nije jasno zato bi ih sad trebalo iskljuiti iz digitalizacije. Knjiniari su miljenja da bi Direktiva trebala ukljuivati sve vrste djela koja se mogu nai u knjinicama.
Marljiva potraga
Da bi se utvrdilo da je neko djelo doista djelo siroe, mora se provesti tzv. marljiva potraga (diligent search). Denicija marljive potrage, koju knjinice i drugi korisnici imaju provesti, izazvala je dosta prijepora. Marljiva se potraga u prijedlogu Direktive denira kao razumno i u dobroj vjeri poduzeto traganje za nositeljem prava u zemlji u kojoj je objavljeno prvo izdanje djela. Potraga ukljuuje i traganje za nositeljima prava na sva djela umetnuta u neko drugo djelo (npr. potragu za ilustratorom, fotografom, a ne samo za autorom teksta djela). Prema jednom izvjetaju britanskog JISC-a (Joint Information Systems Committee) marljiva potraga trai pola radnog dana po djelu.10 To je vrijeme za knjinice neprihvatljivo i preskupo. Marljiva potraga mogla bi, dakle, zaustaviti opsenu digitalizaciju. Na razini Europske unije posve su svjesni problema koji je postavljen pred knjinice: marljiva potraga ukljuuje pretraivanje svih kataloga i ostalih popisa u knjinici, kao i popisa odnosno baza podataka koje posjeduju udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava. Poznato je da knjinini katalozi ne ukljuuju podatke o lokaciji ili adresi autora, a kamoli podatke o autorovim nasljednicima. Zato bi udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava, koje uvaju tu vrstu podataka, trebale biti daleko bolji izvor za pronalaenje nositelja prava. Nezgoda je, meutim, u tome to u veini zemalja ne postoji jedna udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava, koja bi mogla rijeiti pitanje razliitih vrsta autorskih djela i omoguila knjinicama da na jednom mjestu dobiju doputenje za koritenje razliitih vrsta autorskih djela. S iznimkom udruga koje se brinu za prava autora glazbe i onih koje se brinu za lmska djela, udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava uglavnom nemaju cjelovite i potpune registre autora. Usto, najee imaju podatke o suvremenim (ivim) autorima. Samo je malen broj autora bio registriran u udrugama za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava prije 70-ih godina. Zato je Europska komisija pokrenula izradu baze Arrow (Accessible Registries of Rights information and Orphan Works) koja bi trebala sadravati podatke o europ-
Council of the European Union, Brussels, 6 October 2011. Presidency compromise proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain permitted uses of orphan works: (text with EEA relevance). 15190/11. PI125; Audio 45; CULT 75; CODEC 1624. 10 Citirano prema: Lder, Tilman. The orphan works challenge. Gewerblicher Rechtsschutz und Urheberrecht Internationaler Teil, H. 8/9(2010), str. 677.
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skim nositeljima prava, to ukljuuje i podatke o pravnom statusu djela (zatiena, rasprodana, djela siroad).11 Nastala bi objedinjavanjem postojeih podataka iz razliitih baza, preteno onih udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava u pojedinim europskim zemljama. No ta je baza tek u zaetku, a veliku prepreku njezinoj brzoj izradi, ali i buduem koritenju, predstavlja injenica da ne postoji standardizirani prikaz podataka o autorima. Automatsko dobivanje doputenja nemogue je bez standardiziranog prikaza. Podaci nastali u knjinicama uvelike se razlikuju od onih koje uvaju udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava, to ne udi, jer su podaci prikupljani za razliite svrhe. Ovdje treba dodati i da je posve nejasno koje e podatke o nositeljima prava Hrvatska poslati u bazu Arrow, jer je poznato da samo HDSZAMP ima organizirani registar nositelja prava, no samo za nositelje prava na glazbena djela. Ostale udruge oekuju da im knjinice pomognu u prikupljanju podataka o nositeljima prava, to u ovom asu sigurno nije realno. Prijedlog Direktive odnosi se samo na djela siroad do odreenog datuma (cut-off date). To znai da se oekuje da u budunosti vie nee biti djela siroadi, jer e budui nositelji prava biti registrirani u nekoj javnoj bazi podataka. Ta odluka pretpostavlja osuvremenjivanje sadanjih sustava podataka o nositeljima prava. No osuvremeniti podatke mogu samo sami nositelji prava, jer jedino oni znaju kad e promijeniti adresu i sl. Praenje pomou jedinstvenog osobnog broja nije mogue u svim zemljama, jer se uvoenju tog broja mnoge zemlje opiru. Zatim mnogi nositelji prava ni ne znaju da imaju prava pa nee ni biti registrirani. Mogue je i da knjinice adresu nositelja prava pokuaju identicirati i nai u nacionalnom registru stanovnika, ali sve zemlje lanice EU-a nemaju takav registar, a i one koje ga imaju mogu uskratiti pristup podacima zbog odredbi o zatiti osobnih podataka.
Mogua rjeenja
Postoje razliiti prijedlozi kako bi se navedeni problemi mogli rijeiti, a iz tih se rjeenja moe lako oitati da se kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog prava smatra primjerenijim rjeenjem u digitalnoj sredini od indvidualnog ostvarivanja. Rjeenja se najee nude kao razliite vrste licencija koje se sklapaju izmeu korisnika, npr. knjinica i udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava, kao zastupnika nositelja prava. Ovog asa, meutim, samo je malen broj udruga u Europi ovlaten davati doputenje za digitalna prava, a usto udruge mogu djelovati samo na teritoriju jedne drave pa ne mogu davati doputenja za koritenje izvan teritorija za koji su ovlatene. Zato ne udi da Digitalni plan za Europu predvia i donoenje Direktive o kolektivnom ostvarivanju prava koja e omoguiti pan-europsko licenciranje digitalnih sadraja. Naime, jedna od prepreka identiciranih pri postavljanju Europeane, koja bi trebala pruiti pristup zatienim djelima iz svih zemalja lanica, jest i prekogranini prijenos zatienih sadraja.
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Arrow. Dostupno na: http://www.arrow-net.eu
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Mogue je rjeenje kojim bi se izbjegao problem djela siroadi uvoenje tzv. proirene kolektivne licencije (extended collective licence), koju primjenjuju skandinavske zemlje jo od 60-ih godina prologa stoljea. To je rjeenje posebno prikladno kad je individualno ostvarivanje autorskih prava nepraktino ili nemogue ili kad mnogi nositelji prava nisu lanovi udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava. Proirena kolektivna licencija omoguuje udrugama za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava da zastupaju i one nositelje prava koji nisu njihovi lanovi. To bi rjeenje podrazumijevalo da knjinica kao korisnik slobodno pregovara o dobivanju licencije za digitalizaciju s nekom udrugom za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava, koja bi, pak, bila ovlatena za zastupanje svih autora odreene vrste djela. Danska je taj model primijenila pri digitalizaciji radijskih arhiva, a Norveka u stvaranju digitalne knjinice s oko 50.000 jo zatienih djela.12 Tu je digitalnu knjinicu omoguilo sklapanje proirene kolektivne licencije izmeu Nacionalne knjinice i Kopinora, norveke udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava koja zastupa nositelje prava na razliite vrste djela. Udruga je obetetila nositelje prava, koji primaju godinje 0,06 po digitaliziranoj stranici. Dakako, taj dogovor omoguuje koritenje digitaliziranih djela samo na teritoriju Norveke odnosno digitalizirani je sadraj dostupan samo korisnicima s norvekom internetskom (IP) adresom. Norveko Ministarstvo kulture zainteresirano je za sklapanje viestranog ugovora meu skandinavskim zemljama koji bi omoguio meusobno priznavanje licencija u tim zemljama.13 Treba svakako rei i to da Direktiva o nekim aspektima autorskog i srodnih prava u informacijskom drutvu doputa proirene kolektivne licencije (Recital 18), ali samo u zemljama gdje one ve postoje (Recital 20). Mogue je i da drava izda licenciju ustanovama koje ele digitalizirati batinsku grau. Tako je postupila Maarska, iako Direktiva o nekim aspektima autorskog i srodnih prava u informacijskom drutvu ne predvia takvo rjeenje. Mogue je rjeenje i uvoenje posebnog ogranienja ili iznimke od zatite za knjinice. Tom se prijedlogu priklonila IFLA (Meunarodni savez knjiniarskih drutava i ustanova). IFLA-in je Odbor za autorsko pravo i druga pravna pitanja (IFLA/CLM) izradio i 2010. godine predloio Svjetskoj organizaciji za intelektualno vlasnitvo (WIPO) nacrt Ugovora za knjinice (Treaty for Libraries).14 Izradu prijedloga Ugovora potaknuo je sam WIPO koji je amerikom profesoru prava Kennethu Crewsu 2008. godine povjerio izradu izvjetaja o ogranienjima i iznimkama za knjinice i arhive.15 Taj je izvjetaj jasno pokazao da veina zemalja lanica u svojemu zakonu o autorskom pravu ili uope nema iznimku ili ogranienje za knjinice, ili ima samo vrlo ope iznimke koje knjinicama ne doputaju obavljanje svih redovitih zadaa. O nacrtu Ugovora za knjinice trebao bi WIPO-ov Stalni odbor za
NB Digital Bokhylla. Dostupno na: http://www.nb.no/bokhylla Strowel, Alain. Bokhylla.no, the Norwegian bookshelf: a model? Posted 3/10/2010 at IPdigIT. Dostupno na: http://www.ipdigit.eu/about/alain-strowel 14 Treaty for Libraries : draft working document : version 3.0, 5 April 2011. Dostupno na: http:// www.ia.org/en/publications/draft-treaty-on-copyright-exceptions-and-limitations-for-libraries-and archives 15 Crews, Kenneth. Study on copyright limitations and exceptions for libraries and archives. Dostupno na: http://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=109192
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autorsko pravo i srodna prava (WIPO/SCCR) raspravljati u studenome ove godine. IFLA potie nacionalna knjiniarska drutva da zastupaju knjinice u dravnim tijelima zaduenim za ureivanje autorskopravnih pitanja i da lobiraju da njihovi predstavnici u WIPO-u podre prijedlog Ugovora.
Digitalizacija u hrvatskim knjinicama

U Hrvatskoj jo nema opsene digitalizacije, a za sporadine projekte bira se uglavnom graa koja nije zatiena autorskim pravom. Udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava nemaju cjelovite baze podataka o autorima koje bi omoguile knjinicama da identiciraju i pronau autore. to znai marljivo traganje za nositeljem prava mogu posvjedoiti knjiniarke iz Gradske knjinice u Zagrebu, koje su radile na projektu Digitalizirana zagrebaka batina.16 Autorice projekta odluile su odmah na poetku digitalizirati samo slobodna djela i u projektu nisu bila predviena sredstva za plaanje naknade za koritenje autorskih prava. Poseban dio te male digitalizirane zbirke ine knjige za djecu i mlade. Autoricama projekta bilo je posebno stalo da digitaliziraju 1. izdanje udnovatih zgoda egrta Hlapia Ivane BrliMaurani iz 1913., jer se radi o jednoj od najpoznatijih knjiga za djecu na kojoj je odraslo vie generacija i jer su znale da je djelo slobodno. Ali otkrile su vrlo brzo da je prvo izdanje opremljeno ilustracijama slikarice Naste Rojc i da su te ilustracije jo zatiene. Uslijedila je potraga za slikariinim nasljednikom i sva je srea da se netko prisjetio da je sredinom devedesetih godina u Umjetnikom paviljonu odrana retrospektivna izloba slikariinih djela. U Umjetnikom paviljonu imali su podatak o slikariinoj neakinji, jer je za izlobu posudila nekoliko djela i, to je najvanije, i njezinu adresu. Daljnja je srea bila da neakinja, nasljednica autorskih prava, nije traila novanu naknadu, ve samo digitalni primjerak djela. Cijela je potraga, ukljuivi i sklapanje ugovora s nositeljicom prava trajala dva mjeseca, a time i nepredvidivo produljila i poskupila izvedbu projekta. Prikljuivanje Europskoj uniji Hrvatska bi trebala doekati spremnijom no to je sada. Knjiniarska zajednica, Ministarstvo kulture i pravna struka trebali bi odluiti kako omoguiti knjinicama, arhivima i drugim javnim batinskim ustanovama da digitaliziraju vrijedna, a jo zatiena autorska djela, osobito kad se knjinice odlue za opsenu digitalizaciju.
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Digitalizirana zagrebaka batina. Dostupno na: http://kgzdzb.arhivpro.hr
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SUMMARY DIGITIZATION AND LIBRARIES Aleksandra Horvat

A Digital Agenda for Europe, one of seven agship initiatives of a new EU development strategy for the next decade, envisages wider deployment and more effective use of digital technologies, which will hopefully provide European citizens with easier access to public services and cultural content. Digitization and dissemination of cultural works held in European libraries, archives, museums and similar public heritage institutions is felt to be important and a further development of Europeana, as a rst step toward the creation of the European digital library is encouraged. Since 2008, when it was established, Europeana has been confronted with technical, organizational and legal barriers. Rights clearance appears to be a cumbersome and lengthy process which libraries try to evade and at present the works originated in the 20th c., are rare in the European digital libraries. Mass digitization which is now technically feasible is confronted with the copyright regime perfectly applicable in the printed surroundings, but difcult to apply in the digital environment. A new EU Directive on Orphan Works, i.e. the works whose authors cannot be identied or located, should allow libraries to digitize a great part of the materials they hold, but diligent search for rightholders required by the Directive appears to be unacceptable to libraries. Other possible solutions discussed in Europe are extended collective licence, government licence and statutory exception or limitation for libraries. WIPO/SCCR will discuss the latter solution at its next meeting in November 2011.
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Romana Matanovac Vukovi NEKE REFLEKSIJE O DIREKTIVI 2006/123/EZ O USLUGAMA NA UNUTARNJEM TRITU I KOLEKTIVNOM OSTVARIVANJU
Dr. sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi*
NEKE REFLEKSIJE O DIREKTIVI 2006/123/EZ O USLUGAMA NA UNUTARNJEM TRITU I KOLEKTIVNOM OSTVARIVANJU AUTORSKOG I SRODNIH PRAVA
U radu se analiziraju neke odredbe Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima u kojima se ureuje kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskih i srodnih prava, u odnosu prema Direktivi 2006/123/EZ Parlamenta i Vijea od 12. prosinca 2006. o uslugama na unutarnjem tritu. Posebna se panja posveuje analizi izuzetaka od primjene Direktive o uslugama, sustava prethodnog odobrenja i naknadne kontrole zakonitosti rada udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje, monopolnog poloaja udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje te njihova statusnog oblika. Kljune rijei: Direktiva 2006/123/EZ o uslugama na unutarnjem tritu, kolektivno ostvarivanje, autorsko i srodna prava
1. Uvod
Kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava u dravama lanicama Europske unije nalazi se na ozbiljnoj prekretnici. Razlozi za to su viestruki, no moglo bi se rei da postoje dvije silnice koje najintenzivnije utjeu na promjene u djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja. Prva meu njima jest integrativni element unutarnjeg trita Europske unije a drugi je internet. I jednoj i drugoj opire se naelo teritorijalnosti autorskog i srodnih prava kao takvih, s jedne strane te tradicija teritorijalnog ustroja udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje, s druge strane. Budui da je djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja najrazvijenija i najzastupljenija u podruju glazbe te da je tu rije o najveim trokovima1 na strani kori-
Dr. sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi, via asistentica na Katedri za graansko pravo Pravnog fakulteta Sveuilita u Zagrebu 1 Misli se na autorsku naknadu i naknadu za iskoritavanje predmeta srodnih prava koju korisnici moraju platiti za iskoritavanje autorskih djela i predmeta srodnih prava u pravilu javnom izvedbom te reproduciranjem autorskih djela i predmeta srodnih prava a koja ulazi u troak njihova poslovanja.
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snika ali i najveim zaradama2 na strani nositelja prava, logino je da se poslovni model i zakonska regulativa kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskih i srodih prava u podruju glazbe najintenzivnije kritizira i preispituje. Razliite interesne grupacije, kako sa strane korisnika autorskih djela i predmeta srodnih prava ali i sa strane samih nositelja prava, u pravilu tzv. glazbenih publishera, izraavaju nezadovoljstvo dosadanjim stanjem i predlau nove oblike izvravanja autorskog i srodnih prava kao alternative dosadanjem nainu kolektivnog ostvarivanja. To se u prvome redu odnosi na iskoritavanje glazbe na internetu ali nije za zanemariti mogunost da se mogui novi poslovni modeli koji bi se razvili u on-line svijetu na odgovarajui nain pretoe i na druge oblike iskoritavanja glazbe te time cjelovito i trajno utjeu na promjene u kolektivnom ostvarivanju. Europska komisija poduzela je odreene korake u smjeru ureivanja kolektivnog ostvarivanja na unutarnjem tritu Europske unije no njezini napori do sada nisu urodili osobitim uspjehom. Pokuaj da kroz svoju Preporuku od 18. svibnja 2005. o prekograninom kolektivnom ostvarivanju autorskog i srodnih prava u online glazbenim uslugama (2005/737/EK)3 Komisija dade usmjerenja za ureenje izvravanja autorskih i srodnih prava u on-line glazbenim servisima na nain da se probije naelo teritorijalno ureenih monopola udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje, naiao je na otre kritike udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje, poglavito onih koje izvorno zastupaju tzv. manje repertoare ali i Europskog prarlamenta. On je u Rezoluciji Europskog parlamenta od 13.oujka 2007. o Preporuci Komisije od 18.svibnja 2005. o prekograninom kolektivnom ostvarivanju autorskog i srodnih prava u on-line glazbenim uslugama (2005/737/EK) (2006/2008(INI))4 ukazao da je preporuka neprikladan pravni akt za ureenje tako vanog i sloenog pitanja kao to je kolektivno ostvarivanje. Utvrdio je da Komisija u ovim pitanjima i nema kompetencije te ju pozvao da na propisani nain i u propisanoj proceduri predloi okvir za novu direktivu o ostvarivanju autorskog i srodnih prava u Europskoj uniji.5 Komisija je potom pozvala zainteresirane udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje te glazbene publishere kao osobe koje raspolau najveim portfeljem glazbenih prava da dadu prijedloge za novu direktivu o kolektivnom ostvarivanju. Za sada nikakav tekst nacrta takve direktive nije slubeno predoen strunoj javnosti i zainteresiranim stranama, ali se govori o est moguih opcija za ureenje kolektivnog ostvarivanja glazbenih prava u digitalnom okruju. U opisanoj situaciji ne trebaju iznenaditi razliiti scenariji, pa i taj da se u meuvremenu, tj. do donoenja direktive o kolektivnom ostvarivanju emu bi trebao prethoditi kakav-takav konsenzus zainteresiranih strana, drugim pravnim instrumentima donesenim unutar Europske unije pokuava utjecati na kolektivno ostvaMisli se na autorske naknade i naknade za iskoritavanje predmeta srodih prava koju ostvaruju autori, drugi nositelji autorskog prava te nositelji srodnih prava. 3 2005 OJ / L 276 / 21.10.2005. / str. 5457 4 Rezolucija je dostupna na http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP// TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2007-0064+0+DOC+XML+V0//FI. 5 Detaljno v. MAREC, Nenad, Poslovni aspekti kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava u svjetlu pristupanja Republike Hrvatske Europskoj uniji, u: Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Zagreb, vol. 8, 2007, str. 11 - 23.
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rivanje. Tako se u svezi sa stupanjem na snagu Direktive 2006/123/EZ Parlamenta i Vijea od 12. prosinca 2006. uslugama na unutarnjem tritu6 razvila diskusija o tome primjenjuje li se ova Direktiva i na kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava. Meu slubenicima Europske komisije prevladava shvaanje da bi se Direktiva o uslugama trebala primijeniti i na kolektivno ostvarivanje no izgleda da takva tumaenja i ne moraju nuno biti ispravna. Ovdje e se izloiti neka razmiljanja o mogunosti primjene Direktive o uslugama na kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskih i srodnih prava te e se izloiti argumenti u prilog tezi da je kolektivno ostvarivanje izuzeto iz opsega uinaka Direktive o uslugama.
2. Djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja je pruanje usluge na unutarnjem tritu te je podvrgnuto pravilima zatite trinog natjecanja
Ne bi trebalo biti sporno da udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje obavljaju poslove pruanja usluga. One pruaju usluge nositeljima autorskog i srodnih prava, korisnicima autorskih djela i predmeta srodnih prava te jedne drugima meusobno, izvravajui u kolektivnom sustavu autorska i srodna prava u pravilu u svoje ime te za raun nositelja prava. Obavljajui te poslove udruge prikupljaju autorske naknade i naknade nositeljima srodnih prava te ih prema izvjeima o iskoritavanju raspodjeljuju pojedinim nositeljima prava.7 Udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje tradicionalno su ustrojene po teritorijalnom naelu te su do sada imale ili pravni ili faktini monopol.8 Odnosi izmeu udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje te njihove meusobne ovlasti u zastupanju repertoara tradicionalno se ureuju na temelju ugovora o uzajamnom zastupanju kojima je sadraj standardiziran pod okriljem Confdration Internationale des Socits des Auteurs et Compositeurs - CISAC. Ti su ugovori bili predmetom ispitivanja od strane Europskog suda pravde i Europske komisije te su u njima do danas uklonjene klauzule koje su ocijenjene kao suprotne pravilima o trinom natjecanju na unutarnjem europskom tritu kao i klauzule koje su se smatrale potencijalnim izvorom mogunosti zlouporabe monopola.
Directive 2006/123/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on services in the internal market, O.J. L 376, 27.12.2006, str. 36 - 68. Dalje u tekstu Direktiva o uslugama. 7 Temeljne znaajke kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskih i srodnih prava vidi RADOAJ, Tomislav, Pregovarati ili tarirati, u: Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Zagreb, vol. 7, 2006, str. 179 - 184, str. 179 - 180. Poslovi ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava propisani su primjerino i u l. 154. Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima NN 167/03 i 79/07. 8 O tradicionalnim znaajkama udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje vidi MATANOVAC, Romana, Perspektiva razvoja pravnog okvira za kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava u svjetlu pristupanja Republike Hrvatske Europskoj uniji kao otvoreno pitanje, u: Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Zagreb, vol. 8, 2007, str. 1 - 9, str. 3 - 5.
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Naime udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje kao takve podvrgnute su u potpunosti trinom natjecanju i pravilima unutarnjeg trita koja su utvrena Ugovorom o funkcioniranju Europske unije.9 Navedenu tvrdnju potkrjepljuje, meu ostalim, i odluka Europskog suda u predmetu BRT II o tumaenju l. 106. (ex l. 86.) i l.110/2. (ex l. 90/2) UFEU u odnosu prema djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja.10 U toj je odluci Sud izrazio stajalite da klauzule u ugovoru o zastupanju izmeu drutva za kolektivno ostvarivanje i nositelja prava mogu znaiti zlouporabu monopolnog poloaja, poglavito ako se primjenjuju i nakon prestanka ugovora o zastupanju. Na pitanje o tome da interpretira izraz udertaking entrusted with the operation of services of general economic interest iz l. 110. (ex l. 90/2) UFEU te da odgovori primjenjuju li se prava koja iz tog koncepta proizlaze i na privatne subjekte Sud je odgovorio da l. l.110 (ex l. 90/2) UFEU u nekim sluajevima doputa izuzetke od pravila UFEU no da poduzetnici na koje se ti sluajevi odnose moraju biti jasno denirani. Privatni poduzetnici mogu biti benecijari tih izuzetaka ako im je javna vlast dodijelila ovlast za izvravanje usluge od opeg gospodarskog interesa. U odnosu prema udrugama za kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskih prava Sud je zakljuio da navedene pretpostavke nisu ispunjene, tj. da one ne izvravaju usluge od opeg gospodarskog interesa. Nadalje, Europska komisija je u predmetu IV/29.839-GVL, u paragrafu 43 izrazila stajalite da je Gesellschaft zur Verwertung von Lesistungsschutzrechten mbH - GVL kao organizacija za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava umjetnika izvoaa11 poduzetnik u smislu l.106 (ex l. 86.) UFEU. Time to nudi u zamjenu za nancijsku korist izvedbe umjetnika izvoaa ksirane na nosaima zvuka organizacijama za radiodifuziju, restoranima, hotelima, diskotekama i drugim korisnicima glazbe te time to ostvaruje izvoaka prava i zahtjeve koji pripadaju izvoaima i proizvoaima, ona obavlja poduzetniku aktivnost koja se sastoji u davanju usluga, kako onima kojima pripadaju izvoaka prava tako i korisnicima nosaa zvuka koji su obveznici plaanja izvoakih naknada. GVL stoga sudjeluje u komercijalnoj razmjeni usluga i time potpada pod primjenu l.106 (ex l. 86.) UFEU.
Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, O.J. C 83, 30.3.2010, str. 47 - 201. Dalje u tekstu UFEU. 10 Odluka u predmetu BRT II, C-127/73 donesena je povodom sljedeih pitanja belgijskog suda o tumaenju l.106 (ex l. 86.) i l.110/2 (ex 90/2) UFEU: Predstavlja li zlouporabu monopolnog poloaja prema autoru zahtjev udruge koje ima de facto monopolni poloaj da autor u ugovoru o zastupanju udruzi prenese sva svoja autorska prava, bez specikacije pojedinih ovlatenja koja proizlaze iz tog prava? Predstavlja li zlouporabu monopolnog poloaja zahtjev udruge prema autoru da prenese sva svoja sadanja i buduih prava uz klauzulu da udruga nastavlja ostvarivati ta prava jo pet godina nakon prestanka ugovora o zastupanju? Kako Sud interpretira izraz udertaking entrusted with the operation of services of general economic interest iz l.110/2 (ex 90/2) UFEU? Primjenjuju li se prava koja proizlaze iz koncepta udertaking entrusted with the operation of services of general economic interest i na privatne subjekte kao to je udruga? 11 Rije je o njemakoj udruzi za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava umjetnika izvoaa. Vidi www. gvl.de.
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I naposljetku, u paragrafu 84. svoje odluke u predmetu COMP/C2/38.698-CISAC Europska komisija tvrdi da je CISAC asocijacija drutava za kolektivno ostvarivanje koja okuplja vei broj lanica sa sjeditem u Zajednici i dvije lanice sa sjeditem u EFTA-i, ije su drave pripadnice ujedno i drave ugovornice Ugovora o europskom ekonomskom prostoru, naime TONO u Norvekoj i STEF u Islandu. Slijedom izloene argumentacije valja zakljuiti da udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje obavljaju poslove pruanja usluga nositeljima prava, korisnicima te jedne drugima meusobno te da su udruge kao takve podvrgnute u potpunosti trinom natjecanju i pravilima unutarnjeg trita koja su utvrena UFEU. No, to samo po sebi ne moe biti argument u korist tvrdnje da se na djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja primjenjuje Direktiva o uslugama.
3. Izuzeci od primjene Direktive o uslugama

Djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava ne bi se mogla svrstati meu izuzetke od primjene Direktive o uslugama koji su propisani u njenu l. 2/2.12. Iako bi se naizgled moglo govoriti da udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje obavljaju nekomercijalne usluge od opeg znaenja iz toke (a) l. 2/2. Direktive, ne bi bilo dobro na taj nain tumaiti navedenu odredbu, poglavito uzimajui u obzir prethodno citiranu odluku Europskog suda pravde u predmetu BRT II. Tamo je Sud jasno izrazio da one ne izvravaju usluge od opeg gospodarskog interesa.
l. 2/2 Direktive o uslugama glasi: This Directive shall not apply to the following activities: (a) non-economic services of general interest; (b) nancial services, such as banking, credit, insurance and re-insurance, occupational or personal pensions, securities, investment funds, payment and investment advice, including the services listed in Annex I to Directive 2006/48/EC; (c) electronic communications services and networks, and associated facilities and services, with respect to matters covered by Directives 2002/19/EC, 2002/20/EC, 2002/21/EC, 2002/22/EC and 2002/58/EC; (d) services in the eld of transport, including port services, falling within the scope of Title V of the Treaty; (e) services of temporary work agencies; (f) healthcare services whether or not they are provided via healthcare facilities, and regardless of the ways in which they are organised and nanced at national level or whether they are public or private; (g) audiovisual services, including cinematographic services, whatever their mode of production, distribution and transmission, and radio broadcasting; (h) gambling activities which involve wagering a stake with pecuniary value in games of chance, including lotteries, gambling in casinos and betting transactions; (i) activities which are connected with the exercise of ofcial authority as set out in Article 45 of the Treaty; (j) social services relating to social housing, childcare and support of families and persons permanently or temporarily in need which are provided by the State, by providers mandated by the State or by charities recognised as such by the State; (k) private security services; (l) services provided by notaries and bailiffs, who are appointed by an ofcial act of government.
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Izuzeci od primjene slobode pruanja usluga koja je propisana u l.16/1. Direktive o uslugama propisani su i u njenu l. 17. Meu tim odredbama propisano je da se sloboda pruanja usluga ne odnosi na autorsko i srodna prava (l. 17/11 Direktive).13 No, ne moe se tumaiti da se to ogranienje propisano u l. 17/11. Direktive primjenjuje i na djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava. To nije cilj navedene odredbe. Ona od primjene slobode pruanja usluga izuzima tek autorsko i srodna prava kao takva, a ne djelatnost njihova ostvarivanja u kolektivnom sustavu. Zastupnici stajalita da se Direktiva o uslugama primjenjuje na djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja istiu u svoju korist kao argument i injenicu da je u postupku donoenja Direktive bilo amandmana kojima se predlagalo da se izrijekom propie da se djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava izuzima od primjene Direktive ali da ti amandmani nisu prihvaeni. Naime, ti amandmani bili su razmatrani u Vijeu i Europskom parlamentu ali nisu bili prihvaeni u Vijeu te su u glasovanju u Europskom parlamentu odbijeni.14 No, ipak, injenica da su neki amandmani na Direktivu o uslugama bili u zakonodavnom procesu odbijeni sama po sebi ne moe upuivati na potpuno jasnu volju zakonodavca u smislu da Direktiva o uslugama sigurno i bez izuzetka obuhvaa i djelatnost udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava. Razloga za odbijanje amandmana opisanog sadraja moe biti puno, od onih formalne pa do onih sadrajne naravi. Stoga je pretenciozno tvrditi da zato to se u zakonodavnom postupku dovoljna veina nije izjasnila za prihvaanje nekog amandmana samo po sebi znai da je organska volja zakonodavca bila da se Direktiva o uslugama primjenjuje na udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava. Tumaiti odredbe UFEU te odredbe Direktiva koje su na temelju tog Ugovora donesene u skladu s pravom Europske unije moe samo Europski sud pravde, a ne Europska komisija ili pojedinci.15 No, u procjeni treba li smatrati da se Direktivom o uslugama obuhvaa i djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava valja biti paljiv i uzeti u obzir bitna obiljeja udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje. Ta obiljeja govore u prilog tezi da se Direktivu o uslugama ne bi moglo primijeniti na djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskih i srodnih prava. Kao prvo valja istaknuti da kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava nije predmet harmonizacije na razini Europske unije u smislu direktive kojom bi se ureivalo to podruje i koja bi bila obvezatna za drave lanice. Ve je ovdje isticano da Preporuka Komisije od 18. svibnja 2005. o prekograninom kolektivnom
l. 17/11 Direktive glasi: copyright, neighbouring rights and rights covered by Council Directive 87/54/EEC of 16 December 1986 on the legal protection of topographies of semiconductor products and by Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases, as well as industrial property rights; 14 Vidi amandmane predloene u Vijeu za unutarnje trite i zatitu potroaa http://www.europarl.europa.eu/comparl/imco/services_directive/050629_am_services2_en.pdf, str. 76. 15 Vidi npr. APETA, Tamara, Sudovi Europske unije Nacionalni sudovi kao Europski sudovi, Zagreb, 2002, str. 183. te APETA, Tamara, RODIN, Sinia, Osnove prava Europske unije, Zagreb, 2010, str. 44, 45.
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ostvarivanju autorskog i srodnih prava u on-line glazbenim uslugama (2005/737/EK) nije pravno obvezujui akt za drave lanice a, izmeu ostalog, doivjela je i otre kritike u Rezoluciji Europskog parlamenta od 13. oujka 2007. (2006/2008(INI)).16 Parlament je pozvao Komisiju da predloi tekst direktive o kolektivnom ostvarivanju u kojoj bi se detaljno uredila sva pitanja o kolektivnom ostvarivanju te sve posebnosti koje ovaj nain ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava izaziva. Sam je Parlament, dakle, utvrdio da su te posebnosti tolike da izazivaju potrebu za posebnim ureenjem. Obzirom na te posebnosti kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava ne moe se svrstati u zajedniki pravni okvir koji se Direktivom o uslugama stvara za unutarnje trite. Kao drugo, razlog za iskljuivanje djelatnosti udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje iz opsega primjene Direktive o uslugama jest i taj da ogranienja koja se uobiajeno propisuju u zakonima drava lanica Europske unije u odnosu prema kolektivnom ostvarivanju autorskog i srodnih prava nisu diskriminatorna ali su ujedno nuna i razmjerna. Ona ne stavljaju u nepovoljniji poloaj strance u odnosu prema domaim dravljanima, ona su nuna za ostvarenje cilja zbog kojeg postoji kolektivan nain ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava te su razmjerna cilju koji se takvim ostvarivanjem eli postii. Udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prema dosadanjim propisima i praksi u dravama lanicama Europske unije i ire, te u Hrvatskoj, u cijelosti i na jednak nain tite strance kao i domae dravljane. Osim to imaju ulogu prikupljanja i raspodjele autorskih naknada kao i naknada za iskoritavanje predmeta srodnih prava, one imaju nezaobilaznu ulogu u ostvarivanju i promicanju umjetnosti, kulture i kulturne te jezine raznolikosti.17 One omoguuju da pored ostalih i mali te ekonomski slabiji nositelji s uspjehom ostvare svoja autorska i srodna prava kao i da male kulture te nekomercijalna umjetnika djela i predmeti srodnih prava ostvare primjerenu nagradu za iskoritavanje u javnosti. Kulturni ciljevi koje ostvaruju udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje kao i jamstvo da svi autori i nositelji srodnih prava, bez obzira na dravljanstvo i ekonomsku snagu s uspjehom ostvaruju nagradu za iskoritavanje svojih autorskih djela i predmeta srodnih prava, jesu ciljevi od opeg interesa o kojima Europska unija vodi rauna. Takoer, iako se u izrijekom propisanim izuzecima iz l. 2/2. i l. 17 Direktive o uslugama ne nalazi djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja, u drugim njenim odredbama nalaze se osnove za tumaenje da se ona na djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava ne bi trebala primjenjivati, o emu vie u nastavku.
Vidi i DREXL, Josef, Auf dem Weg zu einer neuen europischen Marktordnung der kollektiven Wahrnehmnung von Online-Rechten der Musik? Kritische Wrdigung der Kommissionsempfehlung vom 18. Oktober 2005, u: Wahrnehmungsrecht in Polen, Deutschland und Europa, Berlin, 2006, str. 193 - 242. 17 U recitalu 11. Direktive o uslugama izrijekom se navodi da ona ne utjee na mjere koje se u skladu s pravom Zajednice poduzimaju u dravama lanicama Europske unije usmjerene ne zatitu i promociju kulturne i jezine raznolikosti.
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4. Sustav prethodnog odobrenja i naknadne kontrole zakonitosti rada udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje propisan u ZAPSP vs. naelo slobode pruanja usluga
U l. 9 - 14. Direktive o uslugama propisano je da sustavi prethodnog odobrenja za obavljanje djelatnosti pruanja usluga jesu suprotni naelu slobode pruanja usluga, osim ako kriteriji za dobivanje takvog odobrenja nisu opravdani na nain kako je to tamo opisano. Naime, ako se u nacionalnom zakonodavstvu kao uvjet za obavljanje odreene djelatnosti na podruju odnosne drave postavlja pribavljanje odobrenja nadlenog tijela, tada pretpostavke za dobivanje takvog odobrenja moraju biti nediskriminatorne, opravdane ciljevima od javnog interesa koji se njima postie te proporcionalne tim ciljevima od javnog interesa, jasne, nedvosmislene i objektivne, transparentne, tj. javno objavljene i pristupane. Nadalje, prema l.16/2/a Direktive o uslugama smatra se povredom slobode pruanja usluga na unutarnjem tritu Europske unije propis u kojemu se za obavljanje odreene usluge u dravi lanici propisuje kao uvjet da osoba iz druge drave lanice ima prebivalite ili sjedite u toj dravi lanici u kojoj obavlja uslugu. Takoer, prema l. 16/2/b Direktive smatra se povredom slobode pruanja usluga na unutarnjem tritu Europske unije propis u kojemu se osobi iz druge drave lanice kao uvjet za obavljanje odreene usluge propisuje potreba pribavljanja prethodnog odobrenja nadlenog tijela drave lanice u kojoj obavlja uslugu, osim ako je to doputeno u samoj Direktivi ili u nekom drugom aktu iz pravne steevine. No, istodobno, u l. 16/1 Direktive propisani su i uvjeti pod kojima e opisana ogranienja naelu slobode pruanja usluga biti opravdana. Ona e biti opravdana ako su nediskriminatorna, nuna te proporcionalna. U odnosu prema navedenim odredbama iz l. 9-14. te l. 16. Direktive o uslugama valja procijeniti postojee ureenje sustava davanja prethodnog odobrenja za obavljanje poslova kolektivnog ostvarivanja koja su propisana ZAPSP i pripadajuim podzakonskim aktima, s ciljem utvrivanja je li postojei propisani sustav nediskriminatoran, opravdan prevladavajuim naelom koje se odnosi na zatitu javnog interesa i nuan te razmjeran (proporcionalan) za postizanje cilja navedenog javnog interesa. U ZAPSP propisan je sustav prethodnog davanja odobrenja nadlenog tijela dravne uprave - Dravnog zavoda za intelektualno vlasnitvo (dalje Zavod),18 za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja. Istodobno je propisan i sustav trajnog inspekcijskog nadzora Zavoda nad radom udruga koje imaju odobrenje za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja prava. Takoer, propisana je i dunost udruga na izvjeivanje Zavoda o opem obraunu raspodjele kao i dunost revizije opeg obrauna o raspodjeli te dunost udruga na izvjeivanje Zavoda i ministra kulture o raspodjeli sredstava iz Fonda za poticanje kulturnog stvaralatva nekomercijalne naravi i kulturne raznolikosti.19
Vidi www.dziv.hr. U l.157. ZAPSP propisuje se da kolektivno ostvarivanje prava moe obavljati udruga nositelja prava koja ima za obavljanje takve djelatnosti odobrenje Dravnog zavoda za intelektualno vlasnitvo. Odobrenje e Zavod izdati udruzi koja ima sjedite u Republici Hrvatskoj, ima odgovarajui poslovni
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Udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje u prvome redu prikupljaju i raspodjeljuju autorske naknade i naknade nositeljima srodnih prava u kolektivnom sustavu. U ZAPSP propisane su minimalne pretpostavke koje udruga mora zadovoljiti da bi se mogla baviti djelatnou kolektivnog ostvarivanja, prvenstveno s ciljem osiguravanja dostatnog stupnja profesionalnosti i transparentnosti njenog djelovanja. Naime, rije je o znaajnim iznosima naknada koje se prikupljaju i raspodjeljuju u sloenom poslovnom sustavu u kojem se mora osigurati dobro poznavanje nacionalnog i meunarodnog autorskog i srodnih prava, raunovodstva i nancija, stranih jezika te kojeg mora podupirati zadovoljavajua informatika i komunikacijska podrka uz vjerodostojne i stalno odravane baze podataka o nositeljima prava i predmetima zatite u svjetskim okvirima, itd. Takoer, mora se osigurati i dostatna zastupljenost nositelja prava u lanstvu udruge, bilo neposredno na temelju punomoi, bilo posredstvom ugovora o uzajamnom zastupanju.
prostor, opremu i strunu slubu s najmanje jednom zaposlenom osobom sa zavrenim pravnim fakultetom te koja kolektivno ostvarivanje prava obavlja kao jedinu djelatnost, osim ako nije rije o kulturnoj ili umjetnikoj djelatnosti te djelatnosti udruge kojom se ostvaruju struni ili socijalni interesi lanova. Prema l. 159. ZAPSP Zavod moe izdati odobrenje samo jednoj udruzi za pojedinu vrstu nositelja prava i to onoj udruzi koja ima najvei broj lanova na temelju dobivenih punomoi, uz primjereni broj ugovora o uzajamnom zastupanju sa stranim udrugama, sukladno strunim mjerilima iz l.169/2. ZAPSP. Ta struna mjerila donosi nadlean ministar, a propisana su u Pravilniku o strunim mjerilima i postupku izdavanja odobrenja za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja prava i o naknadama za rad Vijea strunjaka NN 72/04 i 151/08 (dalje, Pravilnik o strunim mjerilima). Zavod obavlja i inspekcijski nadzor nad radom udruga koje obavljaju djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja (l.169/6. ZAPSP). Obavljanje inspekcijskog nadzora ureeno je u l.170. ZAPSP. Nadzor obavlja dravni slubenik Zavoda zaduen za provedbu nadzora (inspektor). Inspektor je ovlaten zahtijevati uvid u isprave i poslovnu dokumentaciju koja se odnosi na obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja prava. Ako inspektor utvrdi nedostatke ili nepravilnosti u obavljanju nadzora, zahtijevat e da se oni uklone te e za to ostaviti odreeni rok. Ako udruga u ostavljenom roku ne ukloni nedostatke i nepravilnosti, inspektor e pokrenuti prekrajni postupak protiv udruge i/ili postupak opoziva odobrenja. O pokrenutim postupcima obavijestit e ured dravne uprave koji vodi registar udruga. Prema l.167/6-8. ZAPSP svaka udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava duna je najmanje jednom godinje obavljati obraun i isplatu prikupljenih naknada. Opi obraun raspodjele mora utvrditi nadleno tijelo udruge te ispitati i ocijeniti ovlateni revizor. Opi obraun raspodjele udruga je duna dostaviti Zavodu u roku od 15 dana od dana primitka izvjea o obavljenoj reviziji. Npr., prema opem obraunu Hrvatskog drutva skladatelja na ime autorskih glazbenih prava javnog priopavanja i mehanike reprodukcije za 2008. godinu ukupno je prikupljeno 91.331.667,04 kn, od ega su prihodi iz inozemstva 4.295.997,62 kn. Vidi www.zamp.hr. Udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje prava obavljaju i kulturnu te socijalnu ulogu. U tome smislu one su dune poticati stvaralatvo iz onoga podruja za koje autorska ili srodna prava ostvaruju u kolektivnom sustavu, kao i poticati kulturnu raznolikost. U l. 167.a ZAPSP propisana je obveza udruga da u svojim pravilima o raspodjeli osnuje Fond za poticanje odgovarajueg umjetnikog i kulturnog stvaralatva preteito nekomercijalne naravi i kulturne raznolikosti u odgovarajuem umjetnikom i kulturnom podruju (dalje Fond). Prihode Fonda ine: sredstva izdvojena temeljem ugovora o uzajamnom zastupanju sa sestrinskim udrugama te temeljem pojedinanih punomoi nositelja prava koji su neposredni lanovi udruge; ukupna sredstava naplaenih naknada koja tijekom razdoblja od 5 godina nisu raspodijeljena zbog opravdane nemogunosti utvrivanja nositelja prava ili predmeta zatite; te 30% sredstava naplaenih naknada za privatno kopiranje (ako to pravo ostvaruju). O raspodjeli prihoda Fonda udruge su dune izraditi godinje izvjee te ga dostaviti Zavodu i ministru kulture. Prihodi Fonda smiju se koristiti iskljuivo u svrhu poticanja odgovarajueg umjetnikog i kulturnog stvaralatva preteito nekomercijalne naravi i kulturne raznolikosti u odgovarajuem umjetnikom i kulturnom podruju.
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U hrvatskom poslovnom okruju i prema hrvatskom iskustvu bilo bi potpuno neprimjereno i ugroavajue za djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja dopustiti obavljanje te djelatnosti bilo kome tko ne zadovoljava opisane minimalne profesionalne, strune i poslovne kriterije. Stoga je sustav prethodnog odobrenja Zavoda nuan. Zavod kao struna dravna upravna organizacija u kojem su osigurana specijalistika znanja o pravima intelektualnog vlasnitva, to ukljuuje i autorsko i srodna prava, u stanju je kontrolirati minimalne profesionalne, strune i poslovne kriterije koje udruga mora zadovoljavati da bi se bavila djelatnou kolektivnog ostvarivanja. Tome svjedoi i dobra i razvijena praksa davanja odobrenja Zavoda u proteklih 20 godina, tj. od osamostaljenja Republike Hrvatske koja je zadovoljavala kako potrebe nositelja prava tako i korisnika kojima se osigurao transparentan sustav kolektivnog ostvarivanja. Dodatno, uz prethodno odobrenje za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja nuna je i godinja inspekcijska kontrola rada udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje, s ciljem odravanja i unaprjeivanja zakonitosti te dostatnog stupnja profesionalnosti i transparentnosti njihovog djelovanja. Godinju inspekcijsku kontrolu neposrednim uvidom u poslovne knjige u prostorijama udruge obavlja slubenik Zavoda. Udruge su obvezne dostavljati Zavodu i godinje ope obraune te revizijska izvjea o tim obraunima. Do sada su se u obavljanju inspekcijskog nadzora utvrdile tek manje i sporadine nepravilnosti u radu udruga koje su po opomeni Zavoda u primjerenom roku otklonjene. Opisani sustav prethodnog odobrenja, kao i trajna kontrola Zavoda nad radom udruga znaajno su doprinijeli unaprjeenju transprentnosti djelovanja udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje. U tome smislu danas se s ciljem to boljeg informiranja ukupne javnosti najmanje jednom godinje javno objavljuju cjeloviti podaci o radu udruga koji i nisu propisani u ZAPSP ni u ikojem drugom propisu. Iz svega to je izloeno valja zakljuiti da je sustav prethodnog odobrenja za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja, u kombinaciji s naknadnim inspekcijskim nadzorom Zavoda nad radom udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje opravdan javnim interesom koji se sastoji u osiguravanju zakonitosti te dostatnog stupnja profesionalnosti i transparentnosti njihovog djelovanja. Takav je sustav nuan te je kao optereenje u djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja razmjeran cilju koji se njime postie jer su tereti za udrugu bitno manji od koristi takvog sustava za nositelje prava, korisnike predmeta zatite te javnost u cjelini. Ne bi bilo primjereno sustav prethodnog odobrenja zamijeniti samo naknadnim nadzorom nad radom udruge. Samo naknadnim nadzorom ne bi se uspjela ostvariti cjelovita kontrola rada udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje od strane Zavoda. Time bi bio ugroen i javni interes u transparentnom i profesionalnom radu udruga. Bez prethodnog odobrenja, kao prvo Zavod ne bi imao cjelovit uvid u obavljanje poslova kolektivnog ostvarivanja. Utvrivanje i stalno praenje pojavnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja te voenje evidencije o istom za Zavod bi iziskivalo bitno vie trokova koji bi se morali pokrivati iz dravnog prorauna. Bitno bolja ekonominost praenja djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja postie se sustavom prethodnog odobrenja kakav je propisan u ZAPSP. Njime se preveniraju i sve mogue tete koje bi
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mogle nastati u sustavu bez prethodnog odobrenja a koje bi nastale u razdoblju prije naknadnih inspekcijskih nadzora. Upitno je i kako bi se i s kojim uspjehom provodilo naknadne nadzore i bi li ih uope bilo mogue provesti jer bi se prethodno trebalo ex ofcio utvrivati koga uope nadzirati. I naposljetku, sustavi prethodnog odobrenja pokazali su se u viedesetljetnoj praksi vrlo dobrima te kao uspjeni sustavi osim u Hrvatskoj postoje u veini drugih drava Europske unije kao to su npr. Njemaka,20 Poljska,21 Maarska, Austrija, eka.22 Jo je ovdje vano ukazati da su kriteriji za dobivanje odobrenja za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja u cijelosti transparentni jer su propisani u ZAPSP te u Pravilniku o strunim mjerilima.23 Ti su kriteriji jasni, nedvosmisleni i objektivni. Ne postoji mogunost dodjeljivanja odobrenja za obavljanje djelatnosti po ikakvoj diskrecijskoj ocjeni. Zavod je duan dati odobrenje uvijek kada su zadovoljeni ti kriteriji. Oni su jednaki za sve subjekte, tj. za sve udruge koje pretendiraju baviti se kolektivnim ostvarivanjem. Slijedom toga, poduzetnika sloboda nije ograniena potrebom ishoenja odobrenja za obavljanje djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja ni naknadnim inspekcijskim kontrolama obavljanja te djelatnosti. Nadalje, ti su kriteriji opravdani ciljevima od javnog interesa koji se njima postie, kao to je osiguravanje minimalne razine profesionalnosti, strunosti i poslovnosti u radu udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje radi postizanja zakonitog, transparentnog i ekasnog sustava kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava. Istodobno, ti su kriteriji i pristupani jer ih moe ostvariti svatko tko se eli profesionalno baviti djelatnou kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava. Oni ne odstupaju od uobiajenih kriterija koje inae ispunjavaju udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje u dravama lanicama Europske unije. Sustav prethodnog odobrenja ima jedini nedostatak propisan u odredbi iz l.157/2/a) ZAPSP prema kojemu udruga mora imati sjedite u Republici Hrvatskoj. Taj bi kriterij mogao biti ocijenjen diskriminirajuim u odnosu prema l. 101. (ex l. 81) UFEU te suprotnim l. 14/1 i l. 16/2/a Direktive o uslugama. U svemu preostalome sustav prethodnog odobrenja jest u cijelosti nediskriminirajui. No, vezano uz kriterij sjedita udruge u Republici Hrvatskoj valja naglasiti da je taj kriterij propisan iskljuivo s ciljem osiguravanja ekasne kontrole rada udruga. Naime, teko je zamisliti kako bi hrvatski Zavod provodio kontrolu rada udruge koja ima sjedite npr. u vedskoj, Finskoj, panjolskoj ili Njemakoj. Trokovi koji bi bili spojeni s takvom kontrolom, pitanje jezika te pitanje nadlenosti Zavoda kao hrvatskog dravnog tijela na podruju vedske, Finske, panjolske ili Njemake doveli bi do toga da bi kontrolu rada udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje bilo i faktino i pravno nemogue
Vidi HIMMELMAN, Ulrich, Verwertungsgesellschaften und Staatsaufsicht Vergleichende Anmerkungen aus deutscher Sicht, u: Wahrnehmungsrecht in Polen, Deutschland und Europa, Berlin, 2006, str. 34 - 58, str. 37 - 42. 21 Vidi KEPINSKI, Marian, Verwertungsgesellschaften und Staatsaufsicht Das polnische Recht, u: Wahrnehmungsrecht in Polen, Deutschland und Europa, Berlin, 2006, str. 9 - 33. 22 Vidi FISCOR, Michaly, Collective Administration of Copyright and Neighbouring Rights, WIPO, Geneva, 1990, str. 74 -76. 23 Vidi bilj. 19.
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provesti. S druge strane, rad udruga koje imaju sjedite u Republici Hrvatskoj Zavod moe neometano kontrolirati. Posljedino, takva situacija dovela bi do diskriminacije domaih udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje naspram stranih jer bi one faktino i pravno podlijegale kontroli dok strane to ne bi. Stoga valja uzeti u obzir da bi eventualno uklanjanje potencijalno diskriminirajue odredbe iz l. 157/2/a ZAPSP prema stranim udrugama dovelo do diskriminacije domaih udruga. U svemu preostalome kriteriji za dobivanje prethodnog odobrenja u cijelosti su nediskriminirajui.
5. Monopol udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje vs. zabrana kvantitativnih ogranienja

U l.15/2/a Direktive o uslugama propisana je zabrana kvantitativnih ili teritorijalnih ogranienja. Vrlo iroko shvaeno (kakva shvaanja postoje unutar Europske komisije), kvantitativnim ogranienjem moglo bi se smatrati ogranienje broja udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje samo na jednu. Naime, prema l. 159/1. ZAPSP Zavod moe dati odobrenje samo jednoj udruzi za pojedinu vrstu nositelja prava i to onoj koja ima najvei broj lanova na temelju dobivenih punomoi te ugovora o recipronom zastupanju sa stranim udrugama. Citirana odredba ZAPSP uvjetovana je tradicionalnim monopolnim poloajem udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje na podruju jedne drave, bilo da je rije o de facto ili de jure monopolu.24 Ne bi se smjelo tumaiti da je Direktivom o uslugama monopolni poloaj udruge doveden u pitanje budui da on sam po sebi nije protivan trinom natjecanju. Protivna je samo njegova zlouporaba. Valja se prisjetiti i recitala 8. iz Direktive o uslugama u kojem stoji da ona nema za svoj cilj ukinuti postojee monopole. Monopoli, bili oni faktini ili pravni, u djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava nastaju po prirodi stvari. Do sada su oni uvijek bili vezani uz teritorij jedne drave. Udruga koja na podruju odreene drave obavlja djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja za jednu kategoriju nositelja prava u pravilu zastupa cijeli svjetski repertoar. Time je korisnik siguran da je jednim ugovorom stekao tzv. neogranienu licenciju (blanket licence). U sluaju da se pojave dvije ili vie udruga za podruje neke drave, korisnici se priklanjaju u svojem poslovanju onoj udruzi koja im daje najbolju ponudu. Oni e iznimno rijetko sklopiti ugovor s dvije ili vie udruga jer im se to u pravilu ne isplati. Naime, jedan od repertoara kojeg nudi jedna od vie udruga u pravilu e biti po svojem sadraju najvei te e sadravati najpopularnija autorska djela i predmete srodnih prava. Korisnik najee nema interesa plaati dodatnu naknadu za repertoar koji mu nije nuan ve e se zadovoljiti s onim reperetoarom kojeg smatra najboljom ponudom. S komercijalne strane gledano, sigurno e velikoj veini korisnika biti zanimljiv repertoar najpopularnijih autorskih djela, dok e djela koja nisu iroko popularna ostati zanemarena. Time e ostale udruge koje zastupaju manje iroko zanimljiv, ali u pravilu kulturno i umjetniki vrjedniji repertoar biti istisnute iz trinog natjecanja. Ako se neka drava brine za svoju kulturu i umjetnost a pri tome nije globalna ni regionalna sila u pogle24
Tako i FICSOR, op.cit., str. 68, 69.
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du svojeg kulturnog utjecaja, jasno da se mora pobrinuti da u kolektivnom sustavu ostvarivanja prava opstanu i autori manje globalno ili regionalno komercijalnih ili uope nekomercijalnih ali za kulturu i umjetnost vanijih djela. Sustav autorskih prava kao iskljuivih prava u Europi te izuzetno jaka zakonska zatita autorskih djela naspram drugih vrijednosti oduvijek se opravdavao potrebom za zatitom i poticanjem umjetnosti i kulture. Nikada se na autorska djela nije gledalo kao na obine predmete u trinoj utakmici, obinu robu. Stoga i kolektivno ostvarivanje tih prava treba biti usmjereno ne samo na to veu zaradu najkomercijalnijih ve i na opstanak onih manje komercijalnih, ali na drugi nain drutveno vanih intelektualnih tvorevina. U tome udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje imaju vanu i nezaobilaznu kulturnu ulogu. Ova analiza pokazuje da ogranienje da smije biti samo jedna udruga za jednu kategoriju prava nije diskriminatorno, kako ne prema lanovima udruge, tj. nositeljima prava tako niti prema korisnicima. Gledajui sa stajalita nositelja prava, u takvoj monopolnoj udruzi zastupan je cijeli svjetski repertoar, to je i propisano u l. 159/2 ZAPSP. Time je svaki nositelj prava na isti nain i pod jednakim uvjetima zastupan od strane udruge, bez obzira na to je li stranac ili domai dravljanin te bez obzira na koliinu djela ili predmeta srodnih prava koja je stvorio. Istodobno, svi korisnici pod jednakim uvjetima obzirom na nain i vrstu koritenja te kategoriju korisnika, na jednom mjestu, od jedne udruge i na temelju jednog ugovora stjeu licenciju za cijeli svjetski repertoar. Takav sustav ni na koji nain nije diskriminatoran. S druge strane, propisani monopol udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje je nuan jer na drugi nain one ne bi mogle ostvariti svoju kulturnu ulogu. Bez takvog sustava u kojem pod jednakim uvjetima svoja prava ostvaruju i komercijalni i umjetniki te kulturni sadraji zatieni autorskim i srodnim pravima ne bi se mogla ostvariti jedna od temeljnih i drutveno vrijednih svrha zatite i ekasnog ostvarivanja autorskog i srodnih prava te poticanje kulturnog i umjetnikog stvaralatva i kulturne raznolikosti. Takoer, takav je sustav i razmjeran jer korist koja se njime postie u ostvarenju cilja puno je vea od eventualne tete koju propisani monopol nosi. Tu valja uvijek imati na umu da monopol sam po sebi nije loa pojava i u nekim je djelatnostima, kao to je djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanja, prirodna je pojava. Opasna je i po trino natjecanje loa zlouporaba monopolnog poloaja. Prije opisan sustav prethodnog odobrenja te propisana kontrola udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje od strane Zavoda ali i Agencije za trino natjecanje te drugih nadlenih tijela jamstvo su ispravnog poslovanja udruga u okvirima doputenog i poeljnog monopolnog poloaja.
6. Statusni oblik udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje

Prema ZAPSP kolektivno ostvarivanje moe obavljati pravna osoba koja je po svom organizacijskom obliku neprotna udruga nositelja prava (l.157/1) ZAPSP.25 Taj zahtjev prema l. 15/2(b) Direktive valja procijeniti obzirom na to je li diskriminatoran, nuan te proporcionalan cilju koji se njime postie. Valja zakljuiti da on
25
Vidi i KEPINSKI, op.cit., str. 14, 15.
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nije diskriminatoran u odnosu na druge organizacijske oblike kao to su trgovaka drutva, ustanove itd. Organizacijski oblik udruge jami da je rije o pravnoj osobi koja u svojem djelovanju nije rukovoena prvenstveno zahtjevom za stjecanjem dobiti, to je inae npr. prirodna zadaa trgovakih drutava. Djelatnost kolektivnog ostvarivanje nije vezana samo i iskljuivo uz prikupljanje i raspodjelu novca uz to manji troak, ve se njome ostvaruju vani kulturni ciljevi. Postulati poslovne politike trgovakih drutava protive se djelatnosti kolektivnog ostvarivanja jer potonje opstaje zato to se i malim i ekonomski slabijim kretivcima te manjim kulturama i umjetnikim sadrajima koji nisu usmjereni ka irokim potroakim masama omoguuje i jami uspjeno ostvarivanje prava. U sustavu kolektivnog ostvarivanja potiu se manje komercijalne ali za kulturu i umjetnost vrlo vane intelektualne tvorevine. Izloena argumentacija govori u prilog tomu da je organizacijski oblik udruge nuan jer se njime osim postizanja privatnih interesa nositelja prava postie i ostvarenje ireg drutvenog interesa u poticanju i unaprjeivanju kulture, umjetnosti te kulturne raznolikosti. To kroz druge organizacijske oblike nije mogue. I naposljetku, pretpostavka da se kolektivno ostvarivanje mora obavljati kroz organizacijski oblik udruge je proporcionalan opisanim privatnim i drutvenim ciljevima koji se njime postiu te ih nije mogue postii drugim organizacijskim oblicima jer je s njima u suprotnosti.
7. Zakljuak
Provedena analiza daje dovoljno elemenata za zakljuak da se Direktiva o uslugama ne moe primijeniti na kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava, iako postoje i suprotna miljenja (koja su u odreenoj mjeri zastupljena i u Europskoj komisiji). S druge strane, jasno je da se kolektivno ostvarivanje autorskog i srodnih prava treba smatrati uslugom, kako prema nositeljima autorskog i srodnih prava tako i prema korisnicima autorskih djela i predmeta srodnih prava. Ono potpada i pod pravila o zatiti trinog natjecanja, kako na unutarnjem tritu Europske unije tako i na nacionalnim teritorijima. Ipak, kolektivno ostvarivanje je sloen poslovni model sa svojim osobitostima koje ga izdvajaju od svih drugih vrsta usluga i svakako zasluuje posebno ureenje koje e uvaiti potrebe za zatitom kulturnih i umjetnikih interesa a ne tek usko shvaenih iskljuivo komercijalnih interesa.
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SUMMARY SOME REFLECTIONS ON DIRECTIVE 2006/123/EC ON SERVICES IN THE INTERNAL MARKET AND COLLECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS Romana Matanovac Vukovi
The entry into force of Directive 2006/123/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on services in the internal market has raised a discussion on whether this Directive applies to the collective management of copyright and related rights. The opinion of the European Commission employees is that the Services Directive should also apply to the collective management of rights, while the paper presents a thesis that the collective management of rights is excluded from the scope of application of the Services Directive. There is no doubt that the activity of collective management of rights comprises the provision of services in the internal market and that it is, as such, subject to the competition rules. Collecting societies are traditionally organized on the principle of territoriality and have had so far either the legal or the de facto monopoly. Relationship between collecting societies and their reciprocity authorizations for the repertoire representations are traditionally regulated by a contract on the reciprocal representation, the content of which has been standardized under the CISAC. Such contracts have been subject to an examination by the European Court of Justice and the European Commission, and the clauses as considered to be contrary to the market competition rules in the European internal market, as well as the clauses considered to be a potential source of the monopoly misuse have been removed from them. The activity of collective management of copyright and related rights could not fall within the exemptions from the application of the Services Directive that are provided for in it. The European Court of Justice has clearly stated in the BRT II case that they do not provide services of general economic interest, therefore the activity of collective management of rights could not fall within the exemptions from the application of the Services Directive referred to in its Article 2/2/a. It could neither fall within the exemptions referred to in Article 17/11, which provides for that the freedom to provide services shall not apply to copyright and related rights. However, even without regard to the fact that there are no explicit provisions to that effect, essential characteristics of the activity of collective management of rights support a thesis that the Services Directive could not apply to the activity of collective management of copyright and related rights. Limitations as usually provided for in the Acts of the Member States of the European Union in respect of the collective management of copyright and related rights are non-discriminatory, but are both necessary and proportionate. They do not put foreigners into a less favorable position than nationals, they are necessary for the achievement of the goal of the collective management of copyright and related rights, and they are proportionate to the goal to be achieved. Apart from playing a role of collecting and distributing remunerations for copyright works, as well as remunerations for the exploitation of the subject matters of related rights, collecting societies play an unavoidable role in the creation and promotion of the art and culture, as well as cultural and linguistic diversity. They ensure that also small and economically less successful right holders may, among others, exercise their copyright and related rights successfully, and that small cultures and non-commercial artistic works and subject matters of related rights obtain an appropriate award for their exploitation in the public. Cultural goals achieved by collecting societies, as well as a guarantee that all the authors and
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holders of related rights, regardless of the nationality and economic strength, obtain award for the exploitation of their copyright works and subject matters of related rights are the goals of general interest of which the European Union takes account. Taking into account particular provisions of the Services Directive in relation to the activity of collective management of rights, it can be concluded that the system of prior authorization and subsequent control of the legality of the work of collecting societies, which is provided for in the Croatian Copyright and Related Rights Act OG 167/03 and 79/07 is not contrary to the principles of freedom to provide services. Conditions for obtaining such an authorization are non-discriminatory, justied by the goals of the public interest to be achieved and proportionate to such goals, clear, unambiguous and objective, transparent and accessible. The condition itself for obtaining a prior authorization is justied, because it is non-discriminatory, necessary and proportionate. The monopolistic position of a collecting society is not contrary to the prohibition of quantitative restrictions as provided for in Article 15/2 of the Services Directive. The monopoly, whether factual or legal, in the activity of collective management of copyright and related rights occurs by the nature of things. It is non-discriminatory, either for the members of the society or for the users. It is necessary, because otherwise, collecting societies could not play their cultural role. Such a system is also proportionate, since the advantage given by it in the achievement of the goal is bigger than a possible damage incurred by such a monopoly. From all the abovementioned it follows that the collective management of rights is a complex business model with its special features that single it out from all the other types of services and it certainly deserves a special regulation which will take into account the need for the protection of cultural and artistic interests and not merely narrowly conceived commercial interests.
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Saa Niki PRAVNA PROBLEMATIKA LINKA NA ZATIENI SADRAJ
Doc. dr. sc. Saa Niki
PRAVNA PROBLEMATIKA LINKA NA ZATIENI SADRAJ
U radu se razmatra privatnopravne aspekte postavljanja linka na zatieni sadraj. Pri tome se naglaava injenica da se na odgovornost za postavljanje linka na zatieni sadraj primjenjuju opa pravila privatnog prava i tek manjim dijelom posebni propisi koji ureuju elektroniku trgovinu i aktivnosti davatelja usluga informacijskog drutva. Osoba koja postavi link na sadraj koji je npr. zatien autorskim pravom ili predstavlja povredu prava osobnosti, odgovarat e za tetu ako se ispune ope pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu. Zbog injenice da povredom prava osobnosti i povredom autorskog prava ne nastaje iskljuivo pravo na popravljanje tete u radu su prikazana i druga prava, koja nastaju neovisno o odgovornosti za tetu. U radu su takoer prikazani i posebni propisi koji se primjenjuju u sluaju postavljanja linkova na zatieni sadraj kao to su propisi s podruja elektronike trgovine i propisi o medijima. Kljune rijei: link, pruatelji usluga informacijskog drutva, privatno pravo, odgovornost za tetu
1. Uvod
Raunala i raunalne mree znaajno su promijenile svakodnevni ivot i poslovanje. Sadraji koji su nekada bili dostupni samo u odreeno vrijeme, npr. u radno vrijeme biblioteke ili trgovine, te samo na odreenom mjestu u ogranienim prostornim kapacitetima, danas su na raspolaganju korisnicima kontinuirano 24 sata na dan, 7 dana tjedno, neovisno o tome gdje se nalaze. Razvoju i popularizaciji Interneta1 kao jedne od raunalnih mrea svakako je doprinijela tehnologija linkova. iroka mogunost distribucije razliitih sadraja ima i svoje negativne strane, a isto se odnosi i na linkove. Neovlateno umnoavanje, stavljanje u promet i stavljanje na raspolaganje javnosti autorskih djela, lano predstavljanje koritenjem tueg osob-
Saa Niki, Katedra za graansko pravo Pravnog fakulteta Sveuilita u Zagrebu Internet je globalna raunalna mrea, za razliku od tzv. intraneta i ekstraneta koji je privatna, podruna mree (M. KI: Informatiki rjenik, Naklada Ljevak, Zagreb, 2000, str. 374, 513, 514. i 518.).
* 1
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nog imena, tvrtke i vizualnog identiteta, povrede prava na privatnost osobnog i obiteljskog ivota samo su neki primjeri za takve negativne pojave. Tehnoloki razvoj i razvoj novih poslovnih modela pratilo je do odreene mjere i pravo. Krajem prolog i poetkom ovog stoljea doneseni su posebni propisi na podruju elektronike trgovine koji, izmeu ostalog, sadre posebna pravila o temi ovog rada pravnoj problematici koritenja linka. No, ne treba zaboraviti da posebni propisi s podruja elektronike trgovine ine samo mali dio pravnog sustava i da neka rjeenja koja sadre nisu nita drugo nego neto konkretizacija tradicionalnih pravila. Stoga pravnu problematiku postavljanja linka na zatieni sadraj nije mogue prikazati izvan konteksta opih propisa. Predmet ovog rada je analiza privatnopravnih posljedica postavljanja linka na odreene sadraje. U tom smislu postavljanje linka moe predstavljati povredu imovinskih i neimovinskih prava. Postavljanjem linka na odreeni sadraj moe nastati i teta (imovinska i neimovinska). Naime, teta se moe prouzroiti ne samo neovlatenim objavljivanjem odreenih sadraja na Internetu, ve i postavljanjem linka na neovlateno objavljeni sadraj. Nakon postavljanja linka zatienom sadraju pristupit e vei broj subjekata, pa e oteenik u pravilu pretrpjeti i veu tetu, u odnosu na razdoblje kada linka nije bilo. Postavljanjem linka teta takoer moe biti prouzroena u sluaju kada link slui zaobilaenju zatite, to omoguuje da se odreenim sadrajima pristupi npr. bez plaanja naknade. Postavljenje linkova na zatiene sadraje ne svodi se iskljuivo na odgovornost za tetu, jer osobi ija su prava povrijeena osim prava na popravljanje tete pripadaju i druga prava, o emu e vie rijei biti u nastavku.
2. Pojam linka
Link je elektronika poveznica nekog dijela web stranice s odreenim mjestom na istoj ili drugoj web stranice, ili s odreenom datotekom na Internetu. Naziv link potjee iz terminolgije informacijskih tehnologija, a prihvaen je u tom obliku i u zakonodavstvima izvan engleskog govornog podruja, pa i u naem zakonodavstvu.2 Link omoguuje da posjetitelj neke web stranice klikne pokazivaem mia na link, pa da na taj nain bude automatski preusmjeren na razliita mjesta u virtualnom prostoru.3 Ovisno o mjestu na koje link upuuje koriste se razliiti nazivi za linkove.4 Linkovi su zbog uinkovitosti u povezivanju razliitih sadraja, kao i jednostavnosti uporabe, imali znaajnu ulogu u razvoju Interneta.5 Link ne treba poistovjeivati sa samom adresom web stranice (tzv. URL Uniform Resource LoV. npr. l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini te l. 41. st. 4. Zakona o medijima Narodne novine br. 59/04. 3 W. ZANKL: E-Commerce Gesetz, Kommentar und Handbuch, Verlag sterreich, Wien, 2002, str. 189. 4 M. BRUNNER: Die Zulssigkeit von Hyperlinks nach schweizerischem Recht, Stmpi Verlag AG Bern, 2001, str. 6-8. 5 V. ERI, M. VARGA, H. BIROLLA: Poslovno raunarstvo, Znak, Zagreb, 1998, str. 265.; G. J. H. SMITH (ed.): Internet Law and Regulation, 3rd Edition Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2002, str. 32.
2
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cator), koju je potrebno prepisati u preglednik web stranica (engl. browser), pa se propisi koji se odnose na link ne primjenjuju neposredno na situacije u kojima je netko na vlastitim web stranicama samo napisao adrese drugih mjesta na Internetu. Naime, link nije isto to i adresa, jer link omoguuje automatsko preusmjeravanje na odreeno mjesto na Internetu ili drugoj raunalnoj mrei.6 Osim toga, link ne mora uope biti vidljiv u obliku adrese web stranice, ve se moe inkorporirati u datoteku koja sadri tekst, sliku, itd. U literaturi se posebno naglaava injenica da postavljanje linka nema znaenje umnoavanja sadraja ciljane web stranice.7 Meutim, budui da se link moe tehniki izvesti kao umanjena slika zatienog sadraja (npr. autorskog djela) tada samim postavljanjem linka moe doi do povrede tueg prava umnoavanjem (npr. autorskog prava na slici). Postavljanje linka omoguuje povezivanje sadraja koji se nalazi na brojnim web stranicama, a za pravo postaje relevantano kada upuuje na sadraje koji su, ili sami po sebi protupravni, ili je njihovo objavljivanje u suprotnosti s pravima odreenih osoba (najee se radi o publiciranju sadraja bez privole pravnih subjekta koji na takvim sadrajima imaju autorsko pravo i srodna prava, drugo pravo intelektualnog vlasnitva, pravo osobnosti, odnosno neko drugo subjektivno pravo koje djeluje apsolutno, a moe biti povrijeeno postavljanjem linka). Link moe posluiti i za zaobilaenje zatite koja postoji na ulazu na odreene web stranice (tzv. deep link). Linkove se postavlja na velik broj stranica. Neke od njih su osobne web stranice, druge su web stranice koje se koriste u poslovne svrhe (novinski izdavai, proizvoai, ponuai roba i usluga), a postavlja ih se i na web stranice javnih vlasti. Posebno su zanimljive situacije u kojima se linkovi postavljaju na web stranicama kao to su to tzv. news-portali budui da se u takvim primjerima osim opih pravila privatnog prava i posebnih pravila s podruja elektronike trgovine primjenjuju i propisi o medijima.
3. Pravni izvori
Pravne posljedice uporabe linkova ureene su veim brojem pravnih propisa. Za ovaj rad prvenstveno su relevantni oni propisi koji se primjenjuju u privatnopravnim odnosima. Stoga nisu razmatrani kaznenopravni propisi i upravnopravni propisi. U naem pravu postoje primjeri za propise koji izriito ureuju uporabu linkova. Zakonom o elektronikoj trgovini8 ureeno je oslobaenje od odgovornosti za postavljeni link. Prema odredbi l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini davatelj usluga koji putem elektronikog upuivanja otvori pristup treim podacima nije odgovoran za te informacije ako nema saznanja niti je mogao znati o nedoputenom djelo-
Naravno, to ne znai da e pravne posljedice stavljanja adrese web stranice biti bitno drukije od postavljanja linka. Jedino je vano da se posebna pravila o linku, ne mogu neposredno primijeniti na sluajeve u kojima je netko na Internetu objavio adresu na kojoj se nalazi zatieni sadraj. 7 G. J. H. SMITH (ed.), o.c., str. 33. 8 Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini, Narodne novine br. 173/03, 67/08. i 36/09.
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vanju korisnika ili sadraju podataka u tim informacijama, te ako odmah im je saznao da se radi o nedoputenom djelovanju ili podatku ukloni ili onemogui pristup podacima. Kao to se vidi iz navedene odredbe poseban propis ne ureuje cjelovito materiju linkova, ve propisuje jedino pretpostavke za osloboenje od odgovornosti. To znai da se, kada je rije o graanskopravnoj odgovornosti za tetu, na sva ostala pitanja vezana za tu odgovornost primjenjuje Zakona o obveznim odnosima9 (dalje u tekstu ZOO). Takoer treba voditi rauna o tome da se l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini primjenjuje samo u granicama primjene tog Zakona, to znai da se nee primijeniti na sve sluajeve u kojima je postavljen link. Naime, Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini prema odredbi l. 1. st. 1. tog Zakona ureuje pruanje usluga informacijskog drutva, odgovornost davatelja usluga informacijskog drutva, te pravila u vezi sa sklapanjem ugovora u elektronikom obliku. Pojam usluge informacijskog drutva (engl. information society services; njem. Dinste der Informationsgesellschaft; fran. services de la socit de linformation), koji je vaan za odreivanje podruja primjene Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini, preuzet je iz Direktive EZ o elektronikoj trgovini.10 Taj se pojam spominje i u Sporazumu o stabilizaciji i pridruivanju, sklopljenim izmeu Republike Hrvatske i Europskih zajednica i njihovih drava lanica11 u l. 99. st. 3. Sporazuma kojim je odreeno: Hrvatske e vlasti izraditi plan usvajanja zakonodavstva Zajednice na podruju informacijskoga drutva. Uporabom izraza usluge informacijskog drutva u Direktivi se htjelo naglasiti da je rije o aktivnostima u kojima ne sudjeluju iskljuivo gospodarski subjekti12, pa bi temeljem toga trebalo zakljuiti da je pojam usluge informatikog drutva iri od pojma elektronike trgovine. Pa ipak, budui da je slubeni skraeni naziv Direktive 2000/31/EZ Direktiva o elektronikoj trgovini, za praktine potrebe rasprava o terminologiji nema neki vei znaaj. Pojam usluge informacijskog drutva deniran je Direktivama 98/34/EZ13 i 98/84/EZ14 kao svaka usluga pruena na daljinu, uz naknadu15, sredstvima za elektroniku obradu i pohranu podataka, na pojedinani zahtjev primatelja usluge. Na temelju navedene denicije neki autori smatraju da se ona
Zakon o obveznim odnosima, Narodne novine br. 35/05, 41/08. Direcitve 2000/31/EC on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market (Directive on electronic commerce), Ofcial Journal L 178, 17. 7. 2000. 11 Narodne novine, Meunarodni ugovori, 14/2001. 12 E. RDER: Services in the Information Society, A commentary on the EC-Directive on Electronic Commerce, European Business Law Review, 11-12/1999., str. 472. 13 Directive 98/34/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 June 1998. laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the eld of tehnical standards and regulations and of rules on information society services, objavljenja u OJ L 204, 21.7.1998., zajedno s izmjenama uinjenim Smjernicom 98/48/EC, objavljenom u OJ L 217, 5.8.1998. 14 Directive 98/84/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 1998. on the legal protection of services on, or of, conditional access, objavljena u OJ L 320, 28.11.1998. 15 Smatra se da naknadu ne mora platiti primatelj usluge. Ako se npr. prilikom pretraivanja neke baze podataka na web stranicama prikazuju i reklame, tada e se i ova usluga smatrati uslugom informatikog drutva. - E. RDER, o.c., str. 473.
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zapravo odnosi samo na tzv. direktnu elektroniku trgovinu.16 Direktna elektronika trgovina odnosi se na sluajeve kada se moderna sredstva komunikacije ne koriste samo za sklapanje pravnih poslova, nego i ispunjenje ugovornih obveza. Tako bi direktna elektronika trgovina dolazila u obzir kada se radi o prodaji raunalnih programa, knjiga i asopisa u elektronikom obliku, pristupa bazama podataka i sl. Indirektna elektronika trgovina obuhvaala bi sluajeve u kojima se pravni posao sklapa pomou sredstava moderne komunikacije, a do ispunjenje ugovornih obveza dolazi klasinim putem, bez uporabe sredstava komunikacije na daljinu. 17 Oni koji smatraju da ova Direktiva ureuje samo direktnu elektroniku trgovinu, argument za svoju tvrdnju nalaze u dijelu denicije usluge informatikog drutva koja navodi da se usluga prua na daljinu, sredstvima za elektroniku obradu i pohranu podataka.18 Kao dodatni argument mogao bi im posluiti navod iz to. 18. preambule Direktive o elektronikoj trgovini, prema kojem uslugama informatikog drutva ne smatraju sluajevi isporuke robe ili pruanja usluga off-line. Postoje i drukija miljenja. Europska komisija je u Prijedlogu Direktive o elektronikoj trgovini iznijela shvaanje prema kojem isporuka robe klasinim putem offline nije relevantna za odreenje radi li se o usluzi informatikog drutva ili ne.19 Postoje i drugi argumenti u prilog shvaanja da podruje djelovanja Direktive o elektronikoj trgovini pokriva i indirektnu elektroniku trgovinu. Naime, l. 9. st. 2. Direktive propisane su iznimke od pravila da drave lanice moraju omoguiti sklapanje ugovora u elektronikom obliku. Jedna od iznimaka odnosi se na ugovore ureene obiteljskim i nasljednim pravom. Ako bi se odredbe Direktive odnosila iskljuivo na direktnu elektroniku trgovinu, tada ne bi bilo potrebno propisati navedenu iznimku, jer se navedene ugovore po prirodi stvari ne moe ispunjavati na daljinu, tj. elektronikim putem. Podruje primjene Direktive o elektronikoj trgovini vano je i za odreivanje podruja djelovanja Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini, a time i za odreivanje podruja primjene odredbe l. 19. Zakona, koja se odnosi na osloboenje od odgovornosti za postavljeni link.20 Prema tome, navedena odredba primjenjuje se iskljuivo na pruatelja usluga informacijskog drutva.
E. RDER, o.c., str. 473. E. RDER, o.c., str. 472.; I. MOTTL: Zur Praxis des Vertragsabschlusses im Internet, u: M. GRUBER, P. MADER: Internet und e-commerce, Manzsche Verlags- und Universittbuchhandlung, Wien, 2000, str. 14-15. 18 E. RDER, o.c., str. 473. 19 Proposal for a European Parliament and Council Directive on Certain Legal Aspects of Electronic Commerce in the Internal Market, COM(1998) 586 nal. 20 Budui da je Zakonom o elektronikoj trgovini u hrvatski pravni poredak preuzeta Direktiva o elektronikoj trgovini 2000/31/EZ, taj bi Zakon trebalo tumaiti u skladu s tom Direktivom. Naime, drave lanice EU obvezne su tumaiti nacionalno pravo u skladu s direktivama (A. HARATSCH, Ch. KOENIG, M. PECHSTEIN: Europarecht, 7. Auage, Mohr Siebeck, 2010, str. 175.) Iako Republika Hrvatska jo uvijek nije lanica EU ipak bi u pravilu implementacijske propise trebalo tumaiti u skladu s izvorima europskog prava ijoj implementaciji slue. Prilikom tumaenja Direktive o elektronikoj trgovini treba voditi rauna da osim privatnopravnih, ta Direktiva ima i javnopravne aspekte (B. SCHAUER: Electronic Commerce in der EU, Manzsche- Verlags- und Universittsbuchhandlung, Wien, 1999, str. 207.).
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Nadalje, odredbe Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini ne primjenjuju se na zatitu podatka, oporezivanje, javnobiljeniku djelatnost, zastupanje stranaka i zatitu njihovih interesa u postupku pred sudovima, igre na sreu s novanim ulozima, ukljuujui lutrijske igre, igre u casinima, kladionike igre i igre na sreu u automatima, u skladu s posebnim propisima koji ureuju navedna podruju (l. 1. st. 2. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini). To je takoer vano za primjenu l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini, pa se pravilo iz te odredbe nee primjenjivati na navedene djelatnosti. Osim ZOO-a i Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini za privatnopravne aspekte postavljanja linka na zatiene sadraje vani su i drugi propisi koji ureuju pojedina subjektivna prava, kao to su propisi s podruja intelektualnog vlasnitva. U tom smislu posebno mjesto pripada Zakon o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima21, budui da se u praksi Internet esto zlorabi za neovlateno objavljivanje raunalnih programa i drugih objekata zatienih autorskim pravom i srodnim pravima. Ako je link na zatieni sadraj postavljen u elektronikim publikacijama tada se primjenjuju i Zakon o medijima22 i Zakon o elektronikim medijima.23
4. Odgovornost za tetu
4.1. Openito
U suvremenim graanskopravnim porecima odgovornost za tetu je jedinstveni institut, pri emu u naelu za nastanak odnosa odgovornosti za tetu nije relevantno kako je nastala teta.24 U naem pravu prihvaeno je i naelo zabrane prouzroenja tete, koje svakoga obvezuje da se suzdri od postupaka kojima se drugom moe prouzroiti teta (l. 8. ZOO), pa u sluaju da netko povrijedi tu obvezu, duan je popraviti tetu. Pri tome nije vano kojima je sredstvom nanesena teta i na kojem je objektu izvrena tetna radnja. Uslijed djelovanja naela zabrane prouzroenja tete pojam zatieni sadraj je vrlo irok. Naime, budui da je naelno zabranjeno drugome prouzroiti tetu svaki sadraj ijim se objavljivanjem drugome nanosi teta moe predstavljati zatieni sadraj. No, to naravno ne znai da e se za svako objavljivanje ili postavljanje linka na zatieni sadraj za prouzroenu tetu zaista i odgovarati. Naime, iako je svakoj osobi koja pretrpi tetu u interesu da im prije i u to veem opsegu ta teta bude popravljena, pravni poredak ne predvia uvijek nastanak odnosa odgovornosti za tetu kao posljedicu tete. Propisivanjem pretpostavaka odgovornosti za tetu kao i pretpostavaka za osloboenje od te odgovornosti eli se postii ravnotea izmeu interesa oteenika da im teta bude popravljena, te
Zakon o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima, Narodne novine br. 167/03. i 79/07. Zakon o medijima, Narodne novine br. 59/04. 23 Zakon o elektronikim medijima, Narodne novine br. 153/09. 24 Naravno, postoje i iznimke kod kojih jest relevantan nain i okolnosti nastanka tete (npr. odgovornost za tetu izazvanu motornim vozilom, odgovornost za tetu organizatora priredbe, odgovornost proizvoaa za neispravan proizvod).
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interesa tetnika (ali i cijelog drutva)25 da u odreenim sluajevima ipak ne nastane obveza na popravljenje tete. Odgovornost za tetu moe nastati i postavljanjem linkova. Naime, kao to je ve uvodno istaknuto suvremeno odtetno pravo formulira pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu na apstraktan nain pa odnos odgovornosti za tetu moe nastati u najrazliitijim ivotnim situacijama. Nain na koji tetnik djeluje u naelu je irelevantan, jer im jedna osoba prouzroi tetu drugoj osobi dolazi do zasnivanja obveznopravnog odnosa odgovornosti za tetu, osim ako tetnik ne dokae da je teta nastala bez njegove krivnje (l. 1045. st. 1. ZOO). U svijetu raunala i raunalnih mrea teta moe biti posljedica raunalnih virusa (u obzir dolazi i drugi maliciozni software, tzv. crvi i trojanski konji), objavljivanja razliitih sadraja na Internetu, uporabe neispravnih elektronikih ureaja, greaka u raunalnim programima (tzv. bugovi), itd.26 Sama injenica da ovakvi primjeri nanoenja tete nisu izriito predvieni ni opim propisima obveznog prava, niti posebnim propisima koji ureuju informacijske i telekomunikacijske tehnologije, ne predstavljaju smetnju jer odtetno pravo ionako ne predvia pojedine delikte, kao to je to sluaj u kaznenom pravu, ve je teite na samom prouzroenju tete, neovisno o nainu na koji je tetnik radio ili neto propustio uiniti.27
4.2. Pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu

Odnos odgovornosti za tetu, koji je u pravnoj literaturi deniran kao obveznopravni odnos u kojem je jedan pravni subjekt obvezan popraviti tetu drugom subjektu, a taj drugi subjekt je ovlaten zahtijevati njezino popravljanje,28 nastaje kada se ispune propisane pretpostavke. ZOO za nastanak odnosa odgovornosti za tetu zahtijeva sljedee pretpostavke: 1./ nastanak tete na strani jednog pravnog subjekta, 2./ tetna radnja tetnika (druga strana u odnosu odgovornosti za tetu), 3./ uzrona veza izmeu tetne radnje tetnika i tete, te 4./ krivnja koja se predmnijeva (predmnijeva se obina nepanja) /l. 1045. ZOO Pretpostavke odgovornosti/. U pravnoj teoriji, ali i praksi, openito je prihvaeno shvaanje da je jedna od pretpostvaka odgovornosti za tetu i protupravnost.29 Ovdje treba dodati da se navedena pravila primjenjuju samo ako se radi o tzv. subjektivnoj odgovornosti za tetu, koja u
U literaturi se istie da pravo na popravljanje tete ne moe biti neogranieno. Odgovornost za tetu u svakom sluaju i bez odreenih ogranienja zapravo bi znaila prestanak obavljanja mnogih drutvenih aktivnosti, zaguenje sudova velikim brojem predmeta, porast razliitih trokova (npr. osiguranja), te pravnu nesigurnost (Z. STIPKOVI, Z.: Protupravnost kao pretpostavka odgovornosti za tetu, Zagreb, 1991, 1. i 83.; van BOOM, KOZIOL, WITTING (eds.): Pure Economic Loss, Springer, Wien, New York, 2003, str. 33-35.). Kod pojedinih vrsta tete, kao to je to npr. sluaj s neimovnskim tetama neke od spomenutih negativnosti posebno su naglaene (P. KLARI: Odtetno pravo, 4. izdanje, Narodne novine, Zagreb, 2003, str. 233.). 26 Za druge sluajeve v. C. REED, J. ANGEL (eds.): Computer Law, 4th Edition, Blackstone Press Limited, 2000, str. 87. 27 O tome opirnije v. P. KLARI, o.c., str. 75. 28 P. KLARI, M. VEDRI: Graansko pravo, 9. izdanje, Narodne novine, Zagreb, 2008, str. 583. 29 P. KLARI, M. VEDRI, o.c., str. 584. i 596-597.; Z. STIPKOVI, o.c., str. 84.
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naem pravnom poretku jest pravilo, ali uz razmjerno velik broj izuzetaka, kada je propisana objektivna odgovornost za tetu (odgovornost za tetu bez obzira na krivnju). Stoga kod objektivne odgovornosti za tetu krivanja uope nije relevantna. U nekim sluajevima odgovornosti za tetu prouzroenu pomou raunala i raunalnih mrea takoer bi mogla doi u obzir primjena pravila o objektivnoj odgovornosti za tetu.30 teta moe nastati i postavljanjem linka. Naime, osim to se samim objavljivanjem odreenih zatienih sadraja na Internetu moe prouzroiti teta, oteenik ima pravo zahtijevati popravljanje tete i od osobe koja takve podatke nije uinila neposredno dostupnima elektronikim putem (npr. objavljivanjem na vlastitoj web stranici) ve je na svoje web stranice samo postavila link prema odreenom mjestu na Internetu, na kojem se nalazi zatieni sadraj. Ako je time prouzroena teta te ako su ispunjene ostale pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu, za tetu e odgovarati i osoba koja je postavila link. Odgovornost za tetu za link dolazi do izraaja samo ako link upuuje na web stranice i sl. koje ne pripadaju osobi koja je postavila link. Ako je link postavljen prema vlastitoj stranici, odnosno unutar nje, tada se i ne radi o nekoj posebnoj odgovornosti za link, ve o redovitoj odgovornosti za sadraj web stranica. 4.2.1. Oteenik i tetnik Oteenik je osoba pretrpjela tetu, a tetnik je osoba koja je prouzroila tetu. Kod postavljanja linka na zatieni sadraj tetu moe prouzroiti jedan ili vie tetnika. Naime, kada je link postavljen na sadraj koji je npr. neovlateno objavljen na Internetu (bez privole nositelja prava), tada su tetu prouzroila dva tetnika jedan koji je sadraj objavio te drugi koji je postavio link na takav sadraj. Oteenicima iz praktinih razloga moe biti zanimljiva mogunost da popravljanje tete trae ne samo od osobe koja je objavila odreeni sadraj na Internetu, ve i od osobe koja je postavila link, ili ak iskljuivo od te osobe. Naime, ponekad e biti lake utvrditi identitet osobe koja je postavila link, nego osobe koja je moda ak i anonimno uspjela objaviti zatieni sadraj na Internetu. Isto tako, izgledi za namirenje mogu biti vei od osobe koja je postavila link, jer ta osoba moda ima imovinu vee vrijednosti u odnosu na vrijednost imovine tetnika koji je objavio podatke na Internetu. Osim toga, kada za tetu odgovara vie osoba primjenjuju se pravila o solidarnoj odgovornosti za tetu,31 to je takoer povoljnije za oteenika. I na kraju, treba spomenti i pravila o nadlenosti, posebno u sluaju kada je za tuenika koji je objavio sadraj na Internetu nadlean sud u inozemstvu, a za tuenik koji je postavio link nadlean je sud u Republici Hrvatskoj. Naravno, sve to je faktino pitanje, pa e u nekim situacijama oteeniku biti oportuno voditi postupak protiv osobe koja je neovlateno objavila sadraj, a ne protiv osobe koja je postavila link.
30 31
Npr. kod odgovornosti za tetu prouzroenu raunalnim virusom. l. 1107. ZOO Solidarna odgovornost.
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4.2.2. teta i tetna radnja Postavljanjem linka nekoj osobi moe biti prouzroena teta, pa e, ako nastane teta postavljanje linka imati karakter tetne radnje. teta je umanjenje neije imovine (obina teta), sprjeavanje uveanja imovine (izmakla korist) te povreda prava osobnosti (l. 1046. ZOO).32 Postavljanjem linka mogu biti prouzroene sve vrste teta koje i inae mogu nastati: imovinska i neimovinska, te obina teta i izmakla korist. U sluaju kada je teta poinjena postavljanjem linka u tzv. elektronikim publikacijama, denicija tete je neto drukija. Naime, Zakon o medijima, donesen je u vrijeme kada je na snazi bio stari Zakon o obveznim odnosima, pa je u l. 21. st. 2. Zakona o medijima teta denirana u skladu s tim Zakonom kao umanjenje neije imovine ili sprjeavanje njezina poveanja (materijalna teta) te nanoenje drugom zikog ili psihikog bola ili straha (nematerijalna teta).33 Razlika izmeu denicije tete prema novom ZOO-u i Zakona o medijima oituje se u razlici u poimanju neimovinske tete. Novi ZOO prihvatio je tzv. objektivnu koncepciju neimovinske tete, a stari ZOO i jo uvijek aktualni Zakon o medijima prihvaaju subjektivnu koncepciju neimovinske tete, prema kojoj je neimovinska teta prouzroenje bolova i straha. Ova neusklaenost u naem pravnom poretku e postojati tako dugo dok se Zakon o medijima ne uskladi sa ZOO-om, a moe se eventualno rijeiti tumaenjem, jer Zakon o medijima sadri odredbu prema kojoj se na ... utvrivanje odgovornosti za naknadu tete primjenjuju se propisi o obveznim odnosima, osim ako ovim Zakonom nije drugaije odreeno klasinim. (l. 21. st. 3. Zakona o medijima). Stoga se moda moe zakljuiti da ta odredba upuuje i na novi pojam neimovinske tete u skladu s objektivnom koncepcijom neimovinske tete kakva je prihvaena u novom ZOO-u. No, zbog postojanja posebne odredbe u Zakonu o medijima koja sadri pojam tete u skladu sa starim ZOO-om upitno je moe li takvo tumaenje biti prihvaeno. Bez obzira na to to za nastanak odnosa odgovornosti za tetu sam nain poinjenja tetne radnje u naelu nije neposredno relevantan, sistematizacija pojedinih naina poinjenja tetne radnje postavljanjem linka ipak moe biti zanimljiva i teoriji i praksi. U literaturi se spominju tri naina postavljanja linka koji mogu utjecati na odluku o odtetnoj odgovornosti, a nisu iskljuene niti druge varijante.34 Kao prvo, link je mogue postaviti prema web stranicima preko kojih se tek pomou itave serije linkova dolazi na one web stranice na kojima se nalazi sadraj (daPrava osobnosti ureena su odredbom l. 19. ZOO koja glasi: (1) Svaka zika i pravna osoba ima pravo na zatitu svojih prava osobnosti pod pretpostavkama utvrenim zakonom. (2) Pod pravima osobnosti u smislu ovoga Zakona razumijevaju se prava na ivot, tjelesno i duevno zdravlje, ugled, ast, dostojanstvo, ime, privatnost osobnog i obiteljskog ivota, slobodu i dr. (3) Pravna osoba ima sva navedena prava osobnosti, osim onih vezanih uz bioloku bit zike osobe, a osobito pravo na ugled i dobar glas, ast, ime, odnosno tvrtku, poslovnu tajnu, slobodu privreivanja i dr. 33 V. l. 155. starog ZOO: teta je umanjenje neije imovine (obina teta) i spreavanje njihova poveanja (izmakla korist), a i nanoenje drugome zikog ili psihikog bola ili straha (nematerijalna teta). 34 Tako G. J. H. SMITH (ed.), o.c., str. 46.
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toteka) putem kojeg je prouzroena teta.35 Osim toga, link moe biti postavljen prema web stranicama koje izravno vode na web stranice zatieni sadraja, i na kraju, link moe izravno upuivati na takav sadraj.36 Iako na Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini ne poznaje ovu diobu, ona moe olakati rjeavanja pitanja odgovornosti na posredan nain, o emu e vie rijei biti kasnije. 4.2.3. Krivnja U suvremenim pravnim porecima u naelu se odgovara u skladu sa sustavom tzv. subjektivne odgovornosti za tetu. To znai da se za nastanak odnosa odgovornosti za tetu zahtijeva postojanje krivnje (l. 1045. st. 1. ZOO). U naem pravnom poretku krivnja se predmnijeva (predmnijeva se najnii stupanj krivnje obina nepanja; l. 1045. st. 2. ZOO). U naelu se odgovara za svaku vrstu i stupanj krivnje, te u pravilu vrsta i stupanj krivnje ne utjeu na visinu odtete. U odtetnom pravu krivnja nije jedinstven pojam, pa stoga naglasak nije na jedinstvenoj deniciji krivnje, ve na pojedinim oblicima i stupnjevima krivnje. Krivnja se moe manifestirati kao namjera i kao nepanja, a nepanja moe biti obina i krajnja. Kada tetnik postavi link na zatieni sadraj sa znanjem i htijenjem da nanese tetu, tada postupa namjerno. S nepanjom postupa tetnik kada ne postupi ni kao svaki prosjean ovjek (krajnja nepanja), a takoer i kada ne primjeni onaj stupanj panje koja se u prometu zahtijeva panja dobrog domaina, panja dobrog gospodarstvenik, panja dobrog strunjaka37 to znai da je postupao s obinom nepanjom. S krajnjom nepanjom postupat e osoba koja je postavila link na datoteku s raunalnim programom koja se nalazila na neijim osobnim web stranicama, a rije o je programu za koji je opepoznato da se ne distribuira besplatno i da ga se moe pronai jedino na web stranicama proizvoaa. S obinom nepanjom e npr. postupati osoba koja je postavila link na datoteku manje poznatog raunalnog programa, a da pri tome nije provjerila je li rije o programu iji ga je autor dao u slobodnu distribuciju ili je npr. mogla, da je bila paljiva, uoiti da iz programa uklonjena zatita koju je autor postavio. S druge strane, ako osoba nije postavila link na zatieni sadraj neposredno, ve samo na web stranice s koje se moglo pristupiti zatienom sadraju (npr. pomou jo jednog linka), a da pri tome nije znala niti mogla znati za mogunost pristupa zatienom sadraju, tada joj se ne moe pripisati ni namjera niti nepanja, pa stoga nee postojati njezina krivnja.
4.3. Posebne pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu

Odluivanje o odgovornosti za link moe se, u izvjesnoj mjeri, zakomplicirati zbog primjene jo nekih posebnih propisa. Naime, iz denicija pojmova elektroniki
Ibidem Ibidem l. 10. st. 1. i 2. ZOO.
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mediji i elektronike publikacije, koje postoje u naem Zakonu o elektronikim medijima (l. 2. to. 1. i 2.) proizlazi da se, pod odreenim pretpostavkama, pravila o medijima (a to su pored pravila iz Zakona o elektronikim medijima i ona koja se nalaze u Zakonu o medijima38) primjenjuju i na web stranice, ili preciznije na osobe koje objavljuju informacije putem web stranica. Naime, prema Zakonu o elektronikim medijima elektroniki mediji su: audiovizualni programi, radijski programi i elektronike publikacije (l. 2. to. 1), a elektronike publikacije su uredniki oblikovane internetske stranice i/ili portali koji sadre elektronike inaice tiska i/ili informacije iz medija na nain da su dostupni irokoj javnosti bez obzira na njihov opseg (l. 2. to. 2.). Stoga se u pravnoj literaturi istie da pojam elektronike publikacije obuhvaa takozvane news-portale te online novinska izdanja i srodne stranice, dok ne obuhvaa obine internetske stranice, forume na kojima u pravilu nema urednikog oblikovanja, blogove, itd.39 Prema tome, na odgovornost za tetu koja nastane zbog postavljanja linka u elektronikim publikacijama primjenjuju se, izmeu ostalih, i odredbe l. 21-23. Zakona o medijima, koje oteenicima nameu odreene obveze, ako ele ostvariti svoje pravo na popravljanje tete.40 Naime, prema st. 2. l. 22. pravo na tubu za popravljanje neimovinske tete ima osoba (oteenik) koja je prethodno zatraila od nakladnika objavljivanje ispravka sporne informacije odnosno isprike nakladnika kada ispravak nije mogu.41 Objava ispravka moe se zatraiti u roku od 30 dana od objave informacije (l. 40. st. 2. Zakona o medijima). U okviru Zakona o medijima predvieni su i posebni rokovi za ostvarivanje prava na naknadu tete, jer se tuba za naknadu tete moe podii u roku od 3 mjeseca od dana saznanja za objavu informacije kojom je teta prouzroena (l. 23. Zakona o medijima). U literaturi se inae prigovara izjednaavanju osoba koje su postavile link s nakladnicima, ali zato to se smatra da bi te osobe trebale odgovarati za tetu pod blaim pretpostavkama nego to je to sluaj s odgovornosti nakladnika.42 U naem pravu to nije tako, ali ipak treba uzeti u obzir da ako osoba koja je postavila link odgovara pod odreenim pretpostavkama kao nakladnik, to znai da se od oteenika zahtijeva dodatni angaman ako ele da im teta bude popravljena, a time i povoljniji poloaj za tetnika, barem u odnosu na opa pravila odtetnog prava iz ZOO-a.
4.4. Odgovornost
Ako u konkretnoj situaciji nastane odnos odgovornosti za tetu oteenik moe zahtijevati popravljanje tete izvansudskim putem, a ako u tome ne uspije na raPrema l. 2. to. 1. Zakona o medijima pojam medija obuhvaa i elektronike publikacije. G. VOJKOVI: Prikaz Zakona o elektronikim medijima, Pravo i porezi, br. 7-8/2010, str. 36. 40 Prema odredbi l. 73. st. 2. Zakona o elektronikim medijima: Na prava, obveze i odgovornosti nakladnika i novinara, objavljivanje priopenja i ispravaka, ostvarivanja prava graana na odgovor i ispravak, te na pitanja programskog sadraja koja nisu ureena ovim Zakonom, primjenjuju se posebni propisi.. Posebni propis u ovom smislu bio bi upravo Zakon o medijima. 41 O pravu na objavljivanje ispravka v. l. 40-58. Zakona o medijima. 42 J.P. VAN CUSTEM, A. VIGGRIA, O. GTH: E-Commerce in the World, Aspects of Comparative Law, Bruylant, Bruxelles, 2003, str. 176. i 229.
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spolaganju mu stoji ostvarivanje prava u sudskom ili eventualno nekom drugom postupku. Oteenik koji sudskim putem ostvaruje svoju trabinu s naslova odgovornosti za tetu, morat e dokazati da su ispunjene one pretpostavke koje ZOO propisuje za odgovornost. To znai da e morati dokazati tetu, tetnu radnju, uzronu veza izmeu tete i tetne radnje, a nee morati dokazivati krivnju, jer se krivanja predmnijeva (kod odgovornosti za tetu koja potjee od opasne stvari ili opasne djelatnosti predmnijeva se uzrona veza l. 1063. ZOO). Ako neka od tih pretpostavaka nije ispunjena ne dolazi do odgovornosti za tetu. Kada oteenik tvrdi da mu je teta prouzroena postavljanjem linka mora dokazati iste pretpostavke kao i inae, jer, kao to je ve ranije spomenuto, Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini uope ne propisuje pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu.43 Po tome na pravni poredak nije poseban, pa se tako npr. i u austrijskom pravu44 sluajevi odgovornosti za tetu postavljanjem linka takoer prosuuju prema opim pravilima graanskog prava.45 Kao to je ranije spomenuto ako za tetu odgovora osoba koja je postavila link, a pored nje odgovara i osoba koja je postavila zatieni sadraj na koji je postavljen link, doi do zasnivanja solidarne odgovornosti. Naime, u ovom sluaju, osim tetnika koja je prouzroio tetu na nain da je na Internetu objavio odreeni sadraj, postoji i drugi tetnik koji je tetu prouzroio postavljanjem linka. Odredba l. 1107. ZOO otvara mogunost ostvarivanja popravljanja tete prema obojici, jer do solidarne odgovornosti dolazi kada su tetnici tetnu radnju poinili zajedniki (st. 1., l. 1107. ZOO), ali takoer i ako je rije o poticanju ili pomaganju (st. 2., l. 1107. ZOO). Osim toga, a to je kod odtetnopravne odgovornosti za link posebno vano, oteenikov poloaj pojaavaju odredbe st. 3. i 4. navedenog lanka, jer tetnici odgovaraju solidarno i kada su tetu uzrokovali neovisno jedan od drugog, a udjeli svakog od njih se ne mogu utvrditi, kao i kad je teta nastala uslijed radnje jednog tetnika, ali se ne zna kojeg (u potonjem sluaju se zahtijeva postojnje odreene povezanosti izmeu tetnika). Stoga e oteenik moi, u velikom broju sluajeva, zahtijevati popravljanje ukupne tete od tetnika koji je postavio link, to mu ovisno o konkretnim okolnostima moe bitno pojednostavniti dobivanje naknade. Osoba koja odgovara za tetu duna je popraviti imovinsku i neimovinsku tetu koja je nastala postavljanjem linka u skladu s opim pravilima o popravljanju tete.
Ranije spomenuti austrijski Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini takoer ne ureuje pretpostavke odgovornosti za tetu, ve samo razloge za osloboenje od odgovornosti. v. ZANKL, W., o.c., str. 146147.; BARTA, H.: Zivilrecht: Grundriss und Einfhrung in das Rechtsdenken, Wiener Universittsverlag, Wien, 2004, elektronika publikacija - http://www2.uibk.ac.at/zivilrecht/buch/ - pristupio 29. 7. 2004., str. 128. 44 Austrijski Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini (Bundesgesetz, mit dem bestimmte rechtliche Aspekte des elektronischen Geschfts- und Rechtsverkehrs geregelt (E-Commerce-Gesetz ECG) und das Signaturgesetz sowie die Zivilprozessordnung gendert werden, BGBl. I. 2001., Nr. 152.), u pogledu odtetnopravne odgovornosti za link, sadri slino rjeenje kao i na propis. Ipak, zbog razlika koje postoje izmeu naeg i austrijskog opeg odtetnopravnog ureenja, kao i drugih pravnih izvora, konani rezultati primjene ovih propisa nee se nuno poklapati. 45 ZANKL, W., o.c., str. 146-147. i 151.
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5. Osloboenje od odgovornosti za postavljeni link

Ako oteeni (tuitelj) ne uspije dokazati postojanje opih pretpostavaka odgovornosti za tetu, odnosno ako tetnik (tuenik) protudokazom otkloni djelovanje predmnjeve o postajanju onih pretpostavka koje oteenik ne mora dokazivati (krivanja kod subjektivne odgovornosti; uzrona veza kod odgovornosti za opasnu stvar ili opasnu djelatnost), sud nee usvojiti zahtjev za popravljanje tete. Za odtetnopravnu odgovornost za link tetnik, osim toga, nee biti odgovoran i ako dokae postojanje posebnih razloga za osloboenje od odgovornosti. Ti su razlozi ureeni Zakonom o elektronikoj trgovini. Na zakonodavac je propisivanjem razloga za osloboenje od odgovornosti za link, uinio korak dalje u odnosu na Direktivu o elektronikoj trgovini 2000/31/EZ koja ovo pitanje ne ureuje. U tom je pogledu na Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini blizak rjeenju austrijskog zakonodavca, jer je u austrijskom Zakonu o elektronikoj trgovini materija odgovornosti za link takoer ureena ( 17. austrijskog Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini). Odredbe Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini koje ureuju osloboenje od odgovornosti za tetu odnose se iskljuivo na sluajeve u kojima link postavi davatelj usluga informacijskog drutva. To znai da je tim propisom ureeno osloboenje od odgovornosti za tetu, samo ako je osoba koja je postavila link zika ili pravna osoba koja, uz naknadu, prua uslugu elektronikim putem na individualni zahtjev korisnika (l. 2. to. 2. i 4. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini). Iako se neke od navedenih pretpostavaka tumai ekstenzivno,46 u odreenom broju sluajeva osobe koje postavljaju linkove na svoje web stranice nee se smatrati davateljem usluge informacijskog drutva, pa se na njih ne odnose odredbe Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini o osloboenju od odgovornosti iz l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini. To bi moglo znaiti da osobe koje nisu davatelji usluga informacijskog drutva odgovaraju pod opim pretpostavkama odgovornosti za tetu, pa se na njih ne primjenjuju razlozi za osloboenje od odgovornosti predvieni posebnim propisom. Ipak, ako bi i na sve ostale pravne subjekte primjenili pravila o osloboenju od odgovornosti predviena Zakonom o elektronikoj trgovini to, u biti, ne bi bilo pogreno, jer bi se moglo protumaiti kao popunjavanje pravne praznine analogijom. Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini u odredbi l. 19. propisuje pretpostavke za osloboenje odgovornosti za link,47 i time se, ako je rije o odtetnopravnoj odgoTo se posebno odnosi na pruanje usluge uz naknadu. Naime, potrebno je voditi rauna da u ovom sluaju plaanje naknade ne mora nuno biti obveza primatelja usluge. Ako se npr. prilikom pretraivanja neke baze podataka na web stranicama prikazuju i reklame, usluga pristupa bazi podataka tretirat e se kao usluga informacijskog drutva bez obzira na to to osoba koja pristupi bazi podataka nije obvezna platiti naknadu. Naknadu zapravo plaa osoba koja davatelju usluge informacijskog drutva plaa reklamu. v. E. RDER: Services in the Information Society, A commentary on the EC-Directive on Electronic Commerce, European Business Law Review, 11.-12./1999., str. str. 473. 47 l. 19. (Linkovi) Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini glasi: Davatelj usluga koji putem elektronikog upuivanja otvori pristup treim podacima nije odgovoran za te informacije: ako nema saznanja niti je mogao znati o nedoputenom djelovanju korisnika ili sadraju podataka u tim informacijama,
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vornosti, nadovezuje na ZOO. Prema odredbi l. 19. osoba koja je postavila link nee odgovarati za tetu ako nije znala niti je mogla znati da je sadraj na koji link upuuje ve sam po sebi protupravan ili je protupravno objavljen na Internetu. Uz to, za osloboenje odgovornosti je potrebno da link bude uklonjen im osoba sazna za te okolnosti. Ovdje se zapravo radi o tome da osoba koja je postavila link, u izvjesnom smislu, nije kriva za prouzroenu tetu, jer nije znala niti je mogla znati za nedoputenost sadraja. U doktrinarnom smislu ipak je rije o posebnom sluaju, jer se inae kod krivnje procjenjuje odnos tetnika prema tetnoj radnji i teti.48 U l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini mjerodavno je je li tetnik koji je postavio link znao za doputenost, odnosno nedoputenost iz ega proizlazi da je zakonodavac osloboenje od odgovornosti vezao za postojanje neskrivljene zablude o protupravnosti. Drugim rijeima, osoba koja je postavila link nee biti odgovorna za tetu, ako nije znala niti je mogla znati da je djelovanje korisnika koji je objavio zatieni sadraj na Internetu nedoputeno, odnosno da je sam sadraj tako objavljenih podataka nedoputen. No, ovdje je rije o razlikama nijansama, pa u biti nema znaajne razlike izmeu opih razloga za osloboenje od odgovornosti i razloga za osloboenje od odgovornosti prema odredbi l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini. Prema Zakonu o elektronikoj trgovini za osloboenje od odgovornosti nije relevantno je li osoba koja je postavila link, neposredno povezala svoje stranice s odreenim sadrajem na Internetu, ili je rije o posrednoj vezi (preko linka na web stranicama tree osobe), odnosno, upuuje li izravno na nedoputenu datoteku ili samo na web stranice na kojima se takva datoteka nalazi. Sve to ipak nije nevano, pa e se u konkretnom sluaju tuenik koji je postavio link lake osloboditi odgovornosti ako link nije postavio neposredno na odreeni sadraj, jer e lake uvjeriti sud da nije imao saznanja niti je mogao znati o nedoputenom djelovanju korisnika ili sadraju podataka u tim informacijama (l. 19. Zakona o elektronikoj trgovini).
6. Ostali zahtjevi osobe ije je pravo povrijeeno postavljenjem linka

Odgovornost za tetu nije jedini privatnopravni institut koji se primjenjuje u sluaju postavljanja linka na zatieni sadraj. Povredom prava osobnosti nastaje na strani oteenika zahtjev usmjeren na prestanak radnje kojom se povreuje to pravo (l. 1048. ZOO). Kada je pravo osobnosti povrijeeno postavljanjem linka osoba ije je pravo povrijeeno ima pravo zahtijevati uklanjanje linka. Pravo zahtijevati da se prestane s povredom prava osobnosti nastaje za nositelja prava osobnosti neovisno o teini povrede i openito nije uvjetovano ogranienjima koja ZOO postavlja za priznavanje prava na novanu
ako odmah im je saznao da se radi o nedoputenom djelovanju ili podatku ukloni ili onemogui pristup podacima. 48 P. KLARI, M. VEDRI, o.c., str. 597
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satisfakciju zbog povrede prava osobnosti.49 Stoga pravo zahtijevati prestanak radnje kojom se povreuje pravo osobnosti nastaje ak i kada nisu ispunjene pretpostavke za zahtijevanje novane satisfakcije (npr. kod neznatnih povreda prava osobnosti). Pravo zahtijevati prestanak radnje kojom se povreuje pravo osobnosti po naravi stvari nastaje kod povreda prava koje su trajnog karaktera. Ako je rije o povredi prava osobnosti jednokratnog karaktera oteeniku stoje na raspolaganju druga pravna sredstva. Naime, kod povreda prava osobnosti koje nisu trajnijeg karaktera nositelj povrijeenog prava osobnosti ne moe zahtijevati prestanak radnje kojom je povrijeeno pravo osobnosti, ve e moi zahtijevati popravljanje tete, kojom e se otkloniti posljedice povrede prava. U l. 1048. ZOO-a vie ne postoji odredaba koja bi odgovarala odredbi l. 2. l. 157. starog ZOO (na mjesto odredbe l. 157. starog ZOO-a u sadrajnom je smislu stupila odredba l. 1048. ZOO). Naime, u starom ZOO-u stavkom 2. l. 157. bilo je odreeno da sud ili drugo nadleno tijelo moe narediti prestanak radnje pod prijetnjom plaanja odreene novane svote, odreene ukupno ili po jedinici vremena, u korist povrijeenog (sudski penali).50 Takve odredbe u novom ZOO-u vie nema, pa bi se iz toga moglo zakljuiti da mogunost izricanja sudskih penala u reimu novog ZOO vie ne postoji. No, to je samo prividno tako. Naime, odredba o mogunosti izricanja sudskih penala nije isputena zato da bi se mogunost odreivanja mjere koju sud ili drugo tijelo moe odrediti sasvim ukinulo, ve da bi ona bila usklaena s propisima graanskog parninog postupka i ovrnog prava. Naredba suda ili drugog tijela da se prestane s radnjom kojom se povreuje pravo osobnosti, po svojoj je naravi zapravo kondemnatorna odluka, jer se njome tueniku nalae ispunjenje odreene inidbe (prestanak povrede prava osobnosti), a prisilno ostvarenje te inidbe ostvaruje se u skladu s pravilima Ovrnog zakona.51 Pravila Ovrnog zakona o ovrsi nenovanih trabina, a subjektivno pravo osobnosti zajedno s odgovarajuim zahtjevom usmjerenim na prestanak radnje kojom se to pravo povreuje, nesumnjivo jest nenovana trabina, predviaju kao sredstvo za prisilno ostvarenje u l. 217. i 218 sudske penale.52 Problem s ureenjem ove materije prema starom ZOO-u bio je u tome da se iz odredbe st. 2. l. 157. moglo zakljuiti da sud ve u parninom postupku u sklopu svoje presude moe naloiti prestanak povrede pod prijetnjom plaanja odreene novane svote, odreene ukupno ili po jedinici vremena, u korist povrijeenog. Takvo rjeenje nije prihvatljivo uglavnom iz procesnopravnih razloga. Naime, moderiranje visine penala nakon pravomonosti presude parninog suda vie ne bi bilo mogue, a osim toga, dvostruki reim penala (jedan u okviru starog ZOO-a, a drugi prema pravilima ovrnog prava) stvarao je nesigurnost zbog neodreenog poloaja tuenika (pravni poloaj tuenika mijenjao se ovisno o tome jesu li penali izreeni ve u parninom postupku, ili tek kasnije
49 50 51
V. l. 1100. ZOO. A. FINGAR, u: B. T. BLAGOJEVI, V. KRULJ (ur.), o.c., str. 443. Ovrni zakon, Narodne novine br. 57/96, 29/99, 42/00, 173/03, 194/03. i 151/04, 88/05. i
67/08. O institutu sudskih penala v. M. DIKA: Sudski penali, Zbornik Pravnog fakultet Sveuilita u Rijeci, 23, 1/2002., str. 2.
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u ovrsi).53 Stoga iz navedenog proizlazi da odreivanje sudskih penala radi ostvarivanja zatite prava osobnosti u naem pravnom sustavu i nadalje postoji, ali je sada u potpunosti ureeno pravilima ovrnog prava.54 Posebni zahtjevi osobe ije je pravo povrijeeno postavljanjem linka na zatieni sadraj postoje ne samo kada je rije o povredi prava osobnosti, ve i kod drugih prava. Na ovome mjestu treba posebno istaknuti autorsko pravo. Naime, u praksi se u velikom broju sluajeva linkovi zlorabe da bi se omoguilo neovlateno koritenje autorskih djela. Odredbom l. 172. st. 2. Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima predvieno da je nositelj prava iz tog Zakona ovlaten zahtijevati prestanak radnje koja to pravo vrijea i proputanje takvih ili slinih radnji ubudue (prestanak uznemiravanja), popravljanje nanesene tete (naknada tete), plaanje naknade za neovlateno koritenje, plaanje zakonom odreenog penala, vraanje ili naknaivanje svih koristi koje je bez osnove stekla od povrijeenog prava (vraanje steenog bez osnove), utvrenje uinjene povrede, kao i objavu pravomone presude kojom je sud, makar i djelomino, udovoljio zahtjevu usmjerenom na zatitu prava iz tog Zakona. Osim toga, nositelj ije je iskljuivo pravo iz Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima povrijeeno ima pravo zahtijevati unitenje, odnosno preinaenje svih primjeraka koji su bespravno izraeni ili stavljeni na trite ili namijenjeni stavljanju na trita (l. 181. Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima).
7. Zakljune napomene
Postavljanje linkova moe imati karakter doputeno ili nedoputeno. Postavljanje linkova je nedoputeno ako su linkovi postavljeni na sadraje koji su sami po sebi protupravni ili je njihovo objavljivanje protupravno, jer osoba koja ima neko pravo na tom sadraju (npr. pravo osobnosti ili autorsko pravo) nije za to dala doputenje. Postavljanje linkova, a posebno odgovornost za postavljeni link, najveim je dijelom ureena opim propisima, a samo u pojedinim aspektima Zakonom o elektronikoj trgovini. Naime, Zakon o elektronikoj trgovini ureuje jedino iskljuenje odgovornosti za postavljeni link i to samo kada je link postavio tzv. davatelj usluge informacijskog drutva. Kada je rije o posebnim propisima moda ak i vanije mjesto zauzimaju Zakon o medijima i Zakon o elektronikim medijima, zbog injenice da se u odreenom broju pitanje odgovornost za link nadovezuje na odgovornost za tetu nakladnika, koja je ureena tim propisima. U svakom sluaju svi ti posebni propis ureuju tek pojedine segmente odgovornosti za tetu zbog postavljenog linka. Takoer je potrebno spomenuti da osoba ija su prava povrijeena postavljanjem linka imaju pravo na zatitu u okviru drugih propisa koji ureuju pojedine vrste subjektivnih prava, kao to su to npr. autorsko pravo i druga srodna prava te druga prava koja mogu biti povrijeena postavljanjem linka na sadraj na kojem postoji takvo pravo.
Tako M. DIKA, o.c., str. 5. i 6. U novom ZOO-u vie se ne nalazi odredba koja bi odgovarala l. 294. starog ZOO-a (Sudski penali). To znai da je materija sudskih penala sada u potpunosti ureena Ovrnim zakonom.
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SUMMARY LEGAL ASPECTS OF LINKING TO PROTECTED CONTENT Saa Niki

The topic of this paper is liability for links from the perspective of private law. It is important to emphasize that liability for links in Croatia is to the large extent governed by the general private law, and only certain aspects of liability are governed by specic provisions on electronic commerce and media law. The person who links his web site to another web site or a le on the Internet can be held liable if target of his link infringes right to privacy of another person, or inicts patrimonial damage. The liability will arise only if general conditions of civil law liability are met. If link violates copyright the holder of the right is entitled to seek protection under copyright law.
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Mladen Vukmir ABUNDANCE OF SOURCES
Mladen Vukmir*
ABUNDANCE OF SOURCES THE TRUE MEANING OF THE TERMS COPY AND ORIGINAL; SEMANTIC CHANGES IN ART AND COPYRIGHT TERMINOLOGY IN DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT AND CHANGE OF THE ROLE OF LAW IN DIGITAL SOCIETIES
Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the rst place. (Frderick Bastiat, The Law)1
In modern societies the role of law is changing upon accelerated modications of quantum, knowledge structure and information processing possibilities. The functions of copyright law and industrial property law are also experiencing historical changes, especially due to digitalization and global networking. The objective of this work is to delineate the constants and discontinuities in the legal protection of creativity through semiotic analysis of language, principally the one used throughout the past to designate different types of copies and originals and comparison between art history and legal language. Analysis of historical aspects leads also to conclusions on possible trends in copyright law and its role in digitalized societies. In short, these conclusions suggest
Mladen Vukmir, mr. sc., Master of Intellectual Property (MIP 90), Franklin Pierce Law Center, now Law School of the University of New Hampshire, Concord, NH, USA, attorney-at-law in Zagreb. Mladen Vukmir 2008-2011. Parts of this text were published for the rst time in August Augustini Gallery journal ANALI, year XXVIII-XXIX (2008-2009), No. 28-29, 421-460. The text in its full original version is scheduled for publication in the 2011 issue of the annual Review of the Croatian Copyright Society. This expanded version of the paper comprises the English translation of the integral text. The author wishes to thank Ms. Andrea Lebeninik for her splendid translation of the largest part of this text. The remaining errors, however, are mine. Thanks also to Stuart Meyer, Esq. of Fenwick & West, Mountainview, CA, USA for his remarks on some sections of the text that were partially published as a material available to the attendees of the ITechLaw Annual Conference in San Francisco, CA, USA in May of 2011, where the author was invited to present the article in the session aptly called The Past, Present and Future of Protecting Software in a Digitalized, Wired World. I remain thankful for that invitation. 1 Frderick Bastiat, The Law, (Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education, (1850), 1950) pp.5-6.
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an uninterrupted but shifted position of the role of copyright law and, at the same time, the appearance of a variety of parallel and simultaneous forms of copyright protection and increased role of automatized technology based protection of usage monitoring and royalties collection. Key words: copyright, law, creativity, intellectual property, language, digitalization, Internet, copy, original, DRM, technical means of protection
Introductory Notes
The consequences of technological advancements to which we participate have no precedent in human history. We cannot expect that they leave no trace in the organization of social realities, considering that much less extensive technological changes have in our history led to important business and legislative modications2. Researches conducted by various authors suggest that the amount of information processed by modern societies has a completely different order of magnitude than earlier in the past. They support the assertion that mankind has never before now been faced with such amount of information by a simple calculation based on the sum of bits available to the individual during different historical stages. They are convinced that similar exponential growth of available information cannot leave any consequence on social relations.3 We believe that there is no need to question such ndings. It is perfectly evident to any observer that such increase of the quantity of available information and theoretic possibilities of their processing is unprecedented. We can presume that the necessity of social changes is inevitable with the further growth of data volume and processing speed. It appears that this development leads directly to several strong, tectonic shifts in the manner societies use law to achieve the necessary balance between interests and relations. The legal concepts of sovereignty and territorial jurisdiction appear, among others, particularly susceptible to changes in that sense. Although we will have no opportunity to elaborate here this matter in detail, we need to put these assertions, at least supercially, into context. Without embarking upon a debate on these broader and deeper changes, we will only delineate here the observations lying beneath these assertions.
Vukmir, Mladen, Inuence of Technological Development on Copyright and Legal Nature of the Subject of Intellectual Property Protection, Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Vol. 2, Zagreb, 2001, pp. 9-40. 3 Robertson, S. Douglas, The New Renaissance: Computers and the Next Level of Civilization, Oxford University Press, USA; rst edition, 1998. See also Lawrence Lessig et al., Code: Version 2.0 (2006), ISBN 978-0-465-03914-2 - available as a free Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (by-sa) licensed download. Particularly relevant here is Part IV, Competing Sovereigns, pp. 284-313.
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As to sovereignty, we may plausibly claim that aspirations towards regional cohesion, primarily the European Union, and secondarily Mercosur4, Andean Community5 and NAFTA6 lead to layering of sovereignty. Modern redistribution of sovereignty is vertically partly ascending to supranational level, and partly descending to regional level. This process is undoubtedly intensied by modern communication and telecommunication technologies, and above all by the power of Internet, which moves part of information management and distribution power, representing earlier the basis and reection of sovereign power, to an even lower level; a level at which it has never before been distributed the level of the individual. Although in the history sovereignty was often impersonated by the individual, it has typically never been distributed among several individuals on the same territorial level. At the same time, the notion of territorial afliation is also affected by the same changes. Hence, if we accept that sovereignty is being redistributed, it is implied per se that its redistribution is also territorial. In fact, accelerated social relations brought by digital networking via the Internet put into question the sense and advantages of territorial borders. Considering that our notion of space is susceptible to our vision of sovereignty, changing the rst we change also the second. Thus, it is comprehensible per se that upon accelerated transactions and the new state of mental supraterritoriality7 brought by the Internet, the functionality of territorial power of sovereign legal systems is becoming questionable. These modications include, as changing concepts, the principle of territoriality, for instance, as one of the characteristic features of intellectual property law. In that connection, the questions of adequate solution in determining territorial jurisdiction in the application of intellectual property law, court jurisdiction, both related to decision-making and decision implementation, are raised and existing solutions to these questions t less and less adequately
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, article Mercosur, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercosur, 201101-09. Although arguably even in its layout Mercosur treaty carefully avoids impinging on the sovereignty of the signatories, and its practical implementation lacks even further behind, it is our opinion that such trade agreements actually reect the trend set by the EU integration efforts and will ultimately lead to the shrinking of sovereign power of the countries. Power of the markets themselves are crushing many of the elements of the sovereign right to fully control the monetary policies and many other economic aspects that theoretically lay witching the power of sovereign. 5 Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, article Andean community of Nations, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Andean_Community_of_Nations, 2011-01-09. 6 Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, article North American Free Trade Agreement, http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafta, 2011-01-09. Needless to say, the US Congress would never have ratied the Treaty should it ever have deemed that by doing it might in any way limit the sovereignty of the US. However, the very fact that the implementation of the Treaty encountered various obstacles, such as transport workers resistance which was only recently partially overcome, and the political resistance it encountered throughout its life, shows that the effects of the integrative efforts are perceived to lead to the erosion of sovereignty. 7 Anderson, Benedict Richard OGorman, Imagined communities: reections on the origin and spread of nationalism, Verso, 2006, pp. 7, where Anderson sets his main thesis that nations are imagined as inherently limited, sovereign and as communities, and interpretation of his theses by Reicher, Stephen, Hopkins, Nick, Self and nation: categorization, contestation and mobilization, Sage Publications, 2001, pp. 16-17, and Jackson, John H., Sovereignty, the WTO and Changing Fundamentals of International Law, Volume 18 of Hersch Lauterpacht Memorial Lectures, Cambridge University Press, 2009, pp. 13-14, 214.
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as legacy social relations advance under the strain of digitalization and networking. A discussion on these two questions would clearly require much more space than the one provided herein, thus, embarking upon a deeper analysis of the foregoing would be aimless. Let us focus on the topic of this article. We will elaborate the implications material reality digitalization and computer networking processes represent in the context of intellectual property law, especially with regard to copyright law. In that respect, the principle of territoriality is evidently one of the foremost candidates for radical changes in the world where the notion of territory and sovereign power over such territory is being modied. The consequences of present territorial jurisdiction systems represent one of the principal reasons why users of the legal system are avoiding its adoption in the rst place. The issue of change of the role of law in societies that base their vertical decision-making on the legal procedure is certainly a difcult question, which also goes beyond the framework of this article. Therefore, whilst the consequences of the conclusions drawn in the eld of intellectual property law are assuredly pertinent to the entire legal system, we shall leave the elaboration of full implications of such issues to another work. We shall restrict to analyzing the symptoms of the evolutionary sidetrack on which the legal system has found itself in a modern social environment. If we recur to elements of Bastiats postulate quoted as the motto of this article, life, liberty and property, and if we recur to the analogy with evolution processes in the biological sense, as a paragon of the events leading to the marginalization of legal system in modern economies, we will come to certain conclusions. We refer to new revelations on social reality that paradoxically emerge from unusual scientic elds. Namely, natural scientists have come to certain revelations leading them to the conclusion that using specic universal cognitions on the nature of things is worthy and necessary to re-examine and yield new conclusions and understanding of social processes.8 We refer principally to Stephen Wolframs assertions that an elementary set of simple rules can create various types of complex contents.9 Wolfram, thus, explores different relation points between the information theory and the efforts to dene the concept of complexity in social contexts as well.10 Apparently, although it was not a leading or fashionable model in the philosophy of science, especially in light of the Popperian analysis, the idea that analogy between social observation and scientic observation is ripe again for the analogies between the two.
Vedral, Vlatko, Decoding Reality: The Universe as Quantum Information, Oxford University Press, Part 3, Wolfram, Stephen, A new kind of science, General science, Wolfram Media, pp. 8-11. See also Lessig, Lawrence, Code and other laws of cyberspace, Part 11, Basic Books, 1999, pp. 216 where he talks about physical revelations from W. Heisenbergs quantum mechanics in the context of analogy with constitutional law. As we have obtained the Amazon Kindle edition of the Vedral work we shall quote its electronic reference number instead of its page numbers and will refer to those as location, no. AK (for Amazon Kindle). 9 Wolfram, S, ibid., pp. 11: But now, with the discovery that simple programs can capture the essential mechanisms for all sorts of complex behaviour in nature (). Wolfram shows that programs called cellular automata can create patterns of innite complexity from elements comprising just two or three simple rules, pp. 53-70, 867-868, 883-887. 10 Wolfram, S., ibid., pp. 1067-1069, 1135-1136,
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While we venture into scientic analogies, we will keep in mind Vedrals caveat: As a colleague of mine often said - sometimes working with a little physics can be more dangerous than working with none at all.11 He also notes that: To a scientist, any knowledge always refers to the knowledge of the future. Hence historians are not scientists - historians make predictions about the past - but science is all about predictions concerning the future. If we substitute lawyers for historians, we remain too close for comfort under this statement.12 At the same time he set his task as: More complex social structures, such as the distribution of cities, the wealth of citizens, and the social order are also seen through the eyes of an information theorist. He is continuing to conclude that: In this way, the laws themselves (in physics, biology, economics, sociology) could all be seen as short programs describing the makeup of reality.13 For some twenty years this author was inescapably driven to the conclusions that such analogies are not only useful, but that they are sensible and might partially be scientically defensible. What we wish to say with this analogy is that Bastiats set of values (life, liberty and property) which started regulating and providing protection with rules in an early phase of human civilization, from few initial rules, following the principles of cellular automata, evolved into a very complex system, today known as the legal system; including national and international legal systems. However, as in the evolution theory for many organisms complexity has not always been a comparative advantage in the ght for survival, analogously, in the context of accelerated, networked and digitalized social transactions the legal system can hardly survive in its complexity deriving from thousands of years of development and growth. The fact that today we see these complexities as fundamental elements of the legal system does not change the fact that law is just an attempt to regulate ethicality in the context of social relations. In order to serve this purpose successfully, legal systems need to keep direct proportion to their basic function unobstructed. Hence, we can expect, on the basis of similar rules of evolution, that the legal system as a lifes functionality will be adjusted to the new environment. The topic of this article is the result of efforts made to make a contribution towards such transformation in the eld of copyright law and industrial property law. In this article we will mostly pursue the analysis of the essential terms used by creators, intellectual property rights holders and users of the legal intellectual property rights protection system to name objects and means of protection. We will try to draw conclusions from legal language analysis on the dynamics of copyright traditions, state of copyright and possible changes caused by new social needs. In other words, we claim that the cumulative consequences of accelerated social interactions rate, increased transactions and relations frequency and volume is at present time weakening role of traditional legal instruments, particularly in the
Vedral, V., id., location 1284 AK. Vedral, V. ibid., location 212 AK. 13 Vedral, v., ibid., locations 176 and AK. He is also stating that: The rst substantial clue that information may play some role in sociology came in 1971 from the American economist and Nobel Laureate, Thomas Schelling. Up until his time sociology was a highly qualitative subject (and still predominantly is); however he showed how certain social paradigms could be approached in the same rigorous quantitative manner as other processes where exchange of information is the key driver. Location 1022 AK.
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eld of dispute resolution. We could argue that an increasing number of sophisticated legal system users consider litigation and arbitration in the resolution of disputes counterproductive to their interests. In fact, right holders are more and more often of the opinion that by initiating litigation or other adjudication proceeding they actually just add to the existing disputes and business problems a new layer of problems without solving the core one. On the basis of many conrmed experiences, legal system users have developed high levels of distrust in the legal system. The level of distrust is such that often initiating of litigation is not seen as a practical resolution of the problem due to length, costs and uncertain outcome. How have we come to this point and what can we do faced with this situation? In order to explain the level of changes we deem inevitable, we will recur to an example from Prof. Richard Susskinds work, who in his innovative book The end of lawyers predicts a business where, due to their complexity, and ultimately insolvability and irrelevance, resolution of legal questions and uncertainties will not be attempted at all, but only estimated for the purposes of management practicalities. Thus, legal risk shall not be resolved in consultation with attorneys, but as part of risk management performed by adequately trained risk managers. The cost of risk of possible legal error, according to Susskinds predictions, will simply be included in the price of the transaction to overcome inherent length and uncertainty of the legal proceeding. Use of legal proceeding is, thus, gradually becoming perceived as detrimental to mutual competitive positions and market competition. Subsequently, legal departments of large corporations will become just another outsourced backofce function, which, instead of a senior counselor, will be led by computers and risk manager. Many other authors today address the inadequacy of the legal system leading to gradual diminution of the purpose of recurring to law in modern societies as a means of resolving social tensions.14 The web site of the Common Good movement denes what they see as the problem with modern legal system in the US through the following statements: Law is supposed to be a framework for human judgment in a free society. Instead law has replaced freedom. Rules are so detailed that people cant act sensibly. Letting people sue for the moon does not support freedom, but infects daily dealings with legal fear. The land of the free has become a legal mineeld. Instead of striving towards our goals, Americans tiptoe through the day looking over their shoulders.
See: Philip K. Howard, Life Without Lawyers: Restoring Responsibility in America, W. W. Norton & Company, 2010, Philip K. Howard, The Death of Common Sense: How Law is Suffocating America, Grand Central Publishing, 1996, Philip K. Howard, The Collapse of the Common Good: How Americas Lawsuit Culture Undermines Our Freedom. Philip K. Howard is a respected practitioner and civic leader, partner in the Covington & Burling rm. Similar views are expressed also by Michael Ore (American Lawyer) in his review of the book Kronman, Anthony, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995, accentuates: (...) An eloquent and provocative book. When you listen to...(Kronmans) diagnoses of just what has gone wrong with the job of lawyering today, you begin to see that the spreading disaffection of lawyers for their work should not be underestimated. Web site www.amazon.com, 2011-01-06, http://www.amazon.com/Lost-Lawyer-Failing-Ideals-Profession/dp/0674539273/ref=pd_sim_b_7
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Modern law is based on the false premise that law is self-executing. So regulators organized society like an assembly linetrying to avoid human error by millions of words of regulation that eliminate human judgment. We dont trust judges eitherso we allow lawsuits over almost anything. But determining whats right or fair always requires a value judgment. To take responsibility, people must be free to make responsible choices. Society cant work unless everyone, at every level of responsibility, has freedom to use their common sense. Look around. Governors cant balance budgets when programs are cast in legal concrete. Teachers cant maintain order when compelled to prove what happened in a legal hearing. Doctors cant be candid when terried of lawsuits. America is paralyzed by decades of accumulated law and lawsuits. Thats why we need to start over.15 It could be concluded based on simple informed observation that the majority of cases circulating through legal systems are the result and the product of the working of the legal system itself. The legal services industry apparently nowadays serves in large part to maintain the system itself and create economic benets for the participants of that system, rather than serving society as a whole in the resolution of disputes. In other words, today many experts notice that legal system participants are misusing the system for various reasons, either to gain a tactical advantage over the competitor or the opponent due to systems length, complexity, inconsistency, unpredictability, contradiction and high cost, or to gain prot as system participants from their knowledge of said characteristics.16 These characteristics of the legal systems are seriously and rapidly undoing any remains of the trust the societies used to place into the system. While modern societies are conditioned to think that the rule by law is the only possible way of running a decent society, it appears that more and more members of the societies are skeptical towards such postulates. And indeed, we might ask our selves, what kind of a society is the one that needs to be ruled by law? At one point in time the feudal lords have also thought that democracies will for sure be ungovernable, chaotic places. For sure, they rightly saw a vast improvement in feudal organization over the earlier forms of social structure. When the democracies started replacing the older models of social organization and the feudal power was sidelined the law took its place and brought societies unprecedented benets. However, due to its increasing complexity and increasing internal inconsistencies legal systems might be today hindering some aspects of
Common Good movement, on its website www.commongood.org at its page The Problem, Drowning in Law http://www.commongood.org/pages/the-problem. See also the link to Start Over movement action web page at: http://www.commongood.org/page/s/joinus, 11-07-31. The movement is founded by Philip K. Howard. Emphasis added. 16 Many legal analysts and popularizes accentuate the imperfections of the legal system, sometimes even caricaturing the situation: Catherine Crier, The Case Against Lawyers: How the Lawyers, Politicians, and Bureaucrats Have Turned the Law into an Instrument of Tyranny--and What We as Citizens Have to Do About It, Broadway, 2003, and Walter K. Olson, The Rule of Lawyers: How the New Litigation Elite Threatens Americas Rule of Law, St. Martins Grifn, 2004.
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social processes. It is rapidly dawning that our societies will need to react quickly in nding the proper forms of social organization to serve the new circumstances in which the humanity nds itself. Searching for the underlying causes for the loss of efciency characterizing the modern legal systems we might look for the explanation in the physical world, as suggested earlier. If we try to make an analogy with the physical observations we could certainly use to the following view: () This was also realized by Leibniz who stated: `But when a rule is extremely complex, that which conforms to it passes as random. This perfectly encapsulates the Kolmogorov view of randomness: when the rule is as complicated as the outcome it needs to produce, then the outcome must be seen as complex or, in other words, random.17 Given that this article addresses the great changes early twenty-rst century social reality is going through, it may be of use even for a broader outlook to commence with the analysis of elements that have more or less constantly marked human creativity, and distinguish them from those denoting moments of change. In that light, we may easily notice that the majority of authors dealing with issues of copying point out that human tendency to unauthorized copying is one of the constants of social development. Whilst we could likewise claim that other types of illegal behavior have also shown similar recurrence, we believe that copy-making can be distinguished for its role in the development of life, education and creation, as we will explain below. Many, thus, state that from antiquity to modern times works of art of all types and techniques, especially those that at a given moment brought most prot, have been counterfeited. In addition to works of art, we should stress that throughout history other objects of everyday use have also been subject to counterfeiting, particularly those with recognized market value. Therefore, this article traces the phenomenon of unauthorized copying both in copyright law and trademark and design rights infringement. By scrutinizing the historical context we will try to delineate the constants and prepare the platform from which we intend to make out possible changes in the role and meaning of unauthorized copying. In doing so, we must bear in mind that copyright law has historically protected mainly commercial, rather than artistic aspects of creativity. In fact, from the beginning of modern copyright, not only have the laws been set in a way that did not value the results of human creativity as a prerequisite for protection, but insight into the court practice of all countries reveal that disputes have more often been initiated in cases of prospective monetary value, rather than in cases of works of extraordinary artistic value. Finally, it is evident that neither modern copyright laws distinguish between the different levels of artistic contribution of particular work or art; therefore, all protectable works have the same protection level. From our point of view taken in exploring copying issues, and also those copying that individuals and societies considered unauthorized, evidently appears that
Vedral, V. id. location 1867 AK. While due to the space constraints we cannot provide here for the full explanations for the physical concepts of randomness and the related rules of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, Prof. Vedrals work is actually accessible to any interested reader.
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copying is a constant commercial activity. We could even claim that copying is actually the warp and woof of life. With the multiplication of cells, and copying of DNA sequences, life is reproduced in all its forms, making reproduction, i.e., copying, the fundamental biological fact. Likewise, many components of persons behavior are also acquired during education through imitation, i.e., by copying the elder.18 Many authors stress that the basis of all human creativity is actually in the internalization of existing solutions, which, along with the extraordinary human ability to add with their personality a new view to an existing issue, yield the result of creativity. We think that too often we look away from this simple fact of life. The real truth is that life is based on copying in the same way people copy knowledge in order to create. Hence, if to absolutely evident facts on copying as the basis of life we add also the fact that human creativity is based on similar principles, we come to the conclusion that it could be suitable to compare the legal system, as a reection of the aspiration of human beings and societies to bring their regulations in line with natural principles, to principles that appear dominant in nature. This approach might be of use when looking for a response to the questions on the need for changes in social and legal relations brought by the above-mentioned rapid social progress, which we will analyze further hereinbelow.19 Hence, we are of the view that it will be useful to examine semiotic20 and semantic characteristics and properties of the terms used in social communication, and thereafter systematize the phenomena and concepts named, i.e., designated by those terms, which describe copying activities and objects derived from such activiE.g., see the discussion on copying-delity in Richard Dawkins, The selsh gene, Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 17-18. The author takes the fact of multiplication for granted, and elaborates the reasons of copying errors constantly appearing in the multiplication, explaining them as required for the evolution process. The discussion continues on pp. 28-29. On pp. 23 expressly states: DNA molecules do two important things. Firstly they replicate, that is to say they make copies of themselves. This has gone on nonstop ever since the beginning of life, and the DNA molecules are now very good at it indeed. 19 For an early sketch of the theory by which human creative ability has a constitutive effect related to creation of reality, based on Shannon-Weaver model of mathematical theory of information and digital anaogies, see Vukmir, Mladen, Integral protection of Intellectual Property, unnished work published on Amazon Digital Text Platform, 2010, original text from 1990, (Kindle Edition - May 3, 2010), http://www. amazon.com/Integral-Protection-Intellectual-Property-ebook/dp/B003KN3I94/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&m= ABZSE0W26BU7U&s=digital-text&qid=1281787230&sr=8-2, 10-08-14, Chapter 3. ASIN: B003KN3I94. The original text is published in Shannon, Claude E. and Weaver, Warren, The Mathematical Theory of Information, University of Illinois Press, Illini Books edition, 1963, especially in Weavers introduction pp. 3-28, in particular pp. 8-9. The basic thesis of outlined theory is that the fact of the freedom of choice, clearly evident in the mathematical model or in the digital analogy with the option of choice between 0/1, is the cornerstone of human creation having as consequence the creation of reality. Prof. Vedrals often quoted work raises the Shannon theory of information to another plane by developing fully its potential within the eld of quantum physics. Quantum theory of information is in our view even stronger as a basis for quantifying the information of creativity. 20 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Semiotics, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics, 2010-08-08 Semiotics is frequently seen as having important anthropological dimensions; for example, Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. For a wider context see Umberto Eco, Kultura, Informacija, komunikacija, Nolit, 1973, e.g. pp. 413 and 417 etc. (La Struttura assente: la ricerca semiotica e il metodo strutturale, Volume 39, Saggi tascabili, RCS Libri, 2004).
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ties. The necessity of nding the basis of diversities and terminological inadequacies ensuing from the comparison of art, legal and colloquial language is a special challenge and the next step to take. In this way we intend to come to understand the constants of copying activities and see how these constants can lead us to solutions necessary to manage properly social copying activities at the time of great social changes brought by digitalization and networking.21
HISTORY OF COPYING WITH AND WITHOUT AUTHORIZATION

As many authors claim, copying of objects with the intention of hiding that it is done without authorization is a characteristic already present in the earliest more complex societies.22 Thus, evidences of false indications of origin were found in antiquity placed on utilitarian objects. The Roman Empire saw the falsication of Corinthian bronzes from earlier antique periods, than jewelry, Greek stone sculptures with their fraudulent signing.23 Furthermore, famous Martials laments teach us that poems (poetry) have been regularly plagiarized.24 In addition to art and artisan objects, money was also subject of falsication. A similar situation characterized other periods as well, as described in detail in contemporary records. If we were to apply modern criteria to past social relations, we could say that during Humanism and Renaissance many private collections were true forgeries storehouses as a result of increased social need for holding works of art. In Renaissance era forgeries content was also associated with antiquity, considering the high value attributed to that age, especially forgeries of monuments and portrait busts. Copies or replicas were often produced on order for collectors who wished to add to their collection the representation of a particular piece. 18th and 19th century Classicism represents another historical age, which saw many forgeries, especially those of antique gems.25 In 19th century, which was also
Vukmir, M., Inuence of Technological Development on Copyright and Legal Nature of the Subject of Intellectual Property Protection, Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Vol. 2, Zagreb, 2001. 22 A rich source of information on the history of forgery can be found on Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Art Forgery, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_forgery, 10-08-18: Art forgery dates back more than two-thousand years. Links lead to many other sources. 23 See also web site Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Metropolitan Museum of Art, http://www. metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rogr/hd_rogr.htm, 10-08-14, where it is stated Soon, educated and wealthy Romans desired works of art that evoked Greek culture. To meet this demand, Greek and Roman artists created marble and bronze copies of the famous Greek statues. Molds taken from the original sculptures were used to make plaster casts that could be shipped to workshops anywhere in the Roman Empire, where they were then replicated in marble or bronze. Artists used hollow plaster casts to produce bronze replicas. Solid plaster casts with numerous points of measurement were used for marble copies. 24 Vukmir, Mladen, The Roots of Anglo-American Intellectual Property Law in Roman Law (1991) 32 IDEA. See also note 130 below. 25 See also Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Metropolitan Museum of Art web site, http://www. metmuseum.org/toah/hd/carp/hd_carp.htm, 10-08-14, stating: There Carpeaux was trained both by the controversial modle estampe method of copying prints after master drawings and by copying eighteenthcentury sculpture.
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the period of great discoveries in Egypt, replicas of Egyptian monuments became the major target of forgery. The thematic eld of forgery has been expanding ever since, and Italy has, at its time, become the leading country in forgery production. In line with the strong Italian tradition of regional specializations, specic regions specialized in the forgery of specic groups of art objects. The above listing is made completely randomly. An actual elaboration on the history of forgery would go far beyond the framework of this work. We can conclude that in this activity forgery has always been successful if forgers successfully adopted high skills of the original author and complex knowledge about materials, techniques and historical context of the pieces they imitated, i.e., attempted to replicate. Hence, we could say that creativity in the eld of forgery has similar proportions to the genuine creative work. Besides standard forgery methods, modern technological possibilities pose new questions. For instance, let us mention in this context modern copying techniques that are based on digital techniques. Namely, if we accept that the future of material reality is also interpretable as digital, derived from its quantum mechanical properties, we would easily come to the conclusion, considering currently available techniques and their development in the near future, that many, and consequently even all the aspects of our material reality will be expressed digitally. Today we are already able to print various mechanically functional assemblies, perfumes, and architectural models. Many people take it with disbelief that muscle tissue can be printed and copied to demand.26 Might that in the future be applied also to entire buildings, footwear, clothing or wine?27 We could almost claim that the question of reality
The Economist, February 18, 2010, Making a Bit of Me: The advantage of using a bioprinter is that it eliminates the need for a scaffold, so Dr Atala, too, is experimenting with inkjet technology. The Organovo machine uses stem cells extracted from adult bone marrow and fat as the precursors. These cells can be coaxed into differentiating into many other types of cells by the application of appropriate growth factors. The cells are formed into droplets 100-500 microns in diameter and containing 10,000-30,000 cells each. The droplets retain their shape well and pass easily through the inkjet printing process. http://www.economist.com/node/15543683?story_id=E1_TVVQPGRP. Similar at the BBC: http://www. bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12507034. See also BBC programs at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00j74m5, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14282091, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-14030720, all links 11-08-05. In respect of buildings see: http://inhabitat.com/3-d-printer-creates-entire-buildings-from-solidrock/, http://www.blueprintmagazine.co.uk/index.php/architecture/the-worlds-rst-printed-building/, http://mashable.com/2010/04/21/d-shape-sand-printer/, all links 11-08-05. Although it is difcult to imagine digitally expressing wine, the perfumes have their digital expressions. See e.g. Perfume spraying printer, United States Patent 5975675, http://www.google.com/patents?id =eJkXAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&source=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false, 11-08-05. 27 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article 3D printing, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_printing, 2010-08-05, 3D printers offer product developers the ability to print parts and assemblies made of several materials with different mechanical and physical properties in a single build process. Advanced 3D printing technologies yield models that closely emulate the look, feel and functionality of product prototypes. In recent years 3D printers have become nancially accessible to small- and medium-sized business, thereby taking prototyping out of the heavy industry and into the ofce environment. It is now also possible to simultaneously deposit different types of materials. See also, The Economist, A Factory on
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digitalization is crucially dened only by processing and computer power available to our civilization. It is even more relevant to take into analysis the development of a subtype of 3D printing able to produce biologically functional organs. That combined digital-organic materialization demonstrates, to an even larger extent, the great advancement achieved by digitalization of our material reality.28 Signicant progress was made in the research of direct brain-computer interface, so we can expect completely new challenges when idea-sharing will be enabled via computer networking.29 What we wish to point out is that it is difcult to see the present copyright system remaining intact if the sharing of ideas becomes a reality as it seems it will become. We will address this question in a future articles that will follow this work. Let us now concentrate on copying technologies.
MODERN TECHNIQUES OF SPATIALLY FORMED OBJECTS DIGITALIZATION

Technology is, in our opinion, the generator of changes and realignment in society that will, in turn, impose changes within the legal system. During the history technologies have already proven their ability to play a crucial role in changing the legal intellectual property rights protection system. Let us have a glimpse at the technologies that today serve the purpose of spatial formation, a role played in the past by sculpture and architecture. In doing so, it could be inciting to consider the reections characterizing the period of high-analogue culture ourishing. Late 19th and early 20th century sowed the invention of many analogue reproduction techniques, such as lm projector, diorama, piano roll, and different types of gramophones.30
your Desk; Manufacturing: Producing solid objects, even quite complex ones, with 3-D printers is gradually becoming easier and cheaper. Might such devices some day become as widespread as document printers?, 09-09-03, http://www.economist.com/node/14299512, 10-08-15 28 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article 3D organ printing http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_printing CAD/CAM Technologies, 2010-08-05,: Because most of the above techniques are limited when it comes to the control of porosity and pore size, computer assisted design and manufacturing techniques have been introduced to tissue engineering. First, a three-dimensional structure is designed using CAD software, then the scaffold is realized by using ink-jet printing of polymer powders or through Fused Deposition Modeling of a polymer melt.[12]. 29 As per the technologies enabling a direct link between computer and persons see Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Brain-Computer Interface, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-computer_interface, 10-08-18, and also the article Brain Implant, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_implant#Brain_implants_in_ction_and_philosophy, 10-08-18, especially sections Ethical Considerations and Brain Implants in ction and philosophy. For a more complete information on advanced state of brain-machine interface technique development see the chapters of: Brockman, John, Editor, This Will Change Everything: Ideas That Will Shape the Future, HarperCollins, 2010, pp. 104-157, including esseys by Gary Marcus, Jamshed Bharucha, Leo M. Chalupa, Susan Blackmore, Kenneth W. Ford, Freeman Dyson, Peter Schwarz, et al. 30 Vukmir, Mladen, Inuence of Technological Development on Copyright and Legal Nature of the Subject of Intellectual Property Protection (in Croatian), Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Vol. 2, Zagreb, 2001. Diorama, 1823 as a type of picture-viewing device, from Fr. diorama (1822), from Gk. di- through (see dia-) + orama that which is seen, a sight (see panorama). Meaning small-scale replica of a scene, etc. is from 1902.
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As a consequence of those changes, our civilization lived then in the grip of new possibilities, which since the appearance of Gutenbergs printing technique were unprecedented as to implied cultural inuence. We could say that strong worries, sometimes even fears, philosophers felt at that time at the prospect of innovations, today constitute a good model for reecting on modern times. In mid-20th century the standpoints conrming the existence of a consensus over the fact that technology would actually lead to great changes in the civilization became clear. Paul Valry at the time stated: Our ne arts were developed, their types and uses were established, in times very different from the present, by men whose power of action upon things was insignicant in comparison with ours. But the amazing growth of our techniques, the adaptability and precision they have attained, the ideas and habits they are creating, make it a certainty that profound changes are impending in the ancient craft of the Beautiful. In all the arts there is a physical component that can no longer be considered or treated as it used to be, which cannot remain unaffected by our modern knowledge and power. For the last twenty years neither matter nor space nor time has been what it was from time immemorial. We must expect great innovations to transform the entire technique of the arts, thereby affecting artistic invention itself and perhaps even bringing about an amazing change in our very notion of art.31 We could almost envy our predecessors for this moderate anticipation of changes which, less than three generations ago, they deemed so fatal, given that the changes we are facing are immeasurably deeper and stronger than those they came across upon the introduction of analogue technologies. Therefore, if we accept that the potential for generating changes was signicant in the era of high analogue development, we believe that we will have no particular problem in accepting the fact that the beginning of full digitalization of society cannot even be compared in terms of magnitude to the changes taking place in the 20th century. Let us have a brief look, without further discussion, at examples of the technologies that today are already completely adopted. We have selected only two techniques applied for digital copying of 3D objects, ignoring thereat the promises of technologies that are currently being explored and yet to be introduced.32 Continuous alternation of technological
Paul Valry, Pices sur LArt, 1931, Le Conquete de lubiquite Quoted according to Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, http://www.marxists.org/reference/ subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin.htm. Steve Jobs paraphrased this Valerys paragraph which Benjamin prominently emphasized in his essay by replacing the term art with the term property: We must expect great innovations to transform the entire technique of the arts, thereby affecting artistic invention itself and perhaps even bringing about an amazing change in our very notion of property. (Steve Jobs, Keynote, MacWorld San Francisco 2004), according to Wizzards of OS web site http://www.wizards-ofos.org/index.php?id=711&L=3, 10-08-11. 32 See Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Simple microchip implant techniques: http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchip_implant_%28human%29, and the page showing the actual achievements of said technology: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VeriChip, 10-08-16, and speculations on possible achievements of said and similar technologies: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyborg, and http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_intelligence, 10-08-16.
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and social scenery is characteristic to the introduction of any new technology, including these digital reproduction techniques and associated business models.
Three-dimensional Scanners
We wish to present very common technologies, frequently applied today that many of us still see as science ction.33 Digital scanners34 are devices for the perception and digitalization of three-dimensional shapes, which generally use laser technology to perceive and store digital models of real-world objects. These devices analyze objects from the environment and collect data, including color, which can then be used to construct 3D models. The purpose of 3D scanners is to reconstruct objects from the analogue domain using digitally collected data.35 Generally, we know of two types of 3D scanners, namely, contact scanner, which requires physical contact with the object being scanned, and non-contact scanner, which uses light reections, ultrasound or x-ray to scan the object. Areas of their application include, for instance, industrial design where they accelerate the conversion of models into prototypes and vice versa, documentation of cultural artifacts where they have a similar role, and the entertainment industry where they make production of lms, computer games, etc., faster through rapid introduction of models of real-world objects into digitalized 3D images.36 An early example of statue scanning dates back to 1999 when Marc Levoy from Stanford University and H. Rushmeier and F. Bernardini from IBM scanned Michelangelos statues in Florence.37
Although I have personally never seen any particular satisfaction in science ction, we can not deny that many predictions of leading science ction authors were very constructive and, above all, exact prevision of technological advancements. Arthur C. Clarke, thus, claimed: Any sufciently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. See web site Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Clarkes three laws: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarke%E2%80%99s_three_laws 34 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; scan (v.), late 14c., mark off verse in metric feet, from L.L. scandere to scan verse, originally, in classical L., to climb (the connecting notion is of the rising and falling rhythm of poetry), from PIE *skand- to spring, leap (cf. Skt. skandati hastens, leaps, jumps; Gk. skandalon stumbling block; M.Ir. sescaind he sprang, jumped, sceinm a bound, jump). Missing -d in English is probably from confusion with sufx -ed (see lawn (1)). Sense of look at closely, examine rst recorded 1540s. The (opposite) sense of look over quickly, skim is rst attested 1926. The noun is recorded from 1706. According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; scanner, 1927 as a type of mechanical device, agent noun from scan. 35 Article 3D scanner, Wikipedia, English web site, 2010-08-05, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_ scanner A 3D scanner is a device that analyzes a real-world object or environment to collect data on its shape and possibly its appearance (i.e. color). The collected data can then be used to construct digital, three-dimensional models useful for a wide variety of applications. These devices are used extensively by the entertainment industry in the production of movies and video games. Other common applications of this technology include industrial design, orthotics and prosthetics, reverse engineering and prototyping, quality control/inspection and documentation of cultural artifacts. 36 Z Corporation scanner technology is highly developed, as the printer technology, so ZScanner 700 was a successful portable laser scanner model. See Z Corporation web site: http://www.zcorp. com/en/home.aspx, 10-08-17. 37 See web site The digital Michelangelo project: 3D scanning of large statues, http://portal.acm. org/citation.cfm?id=344849, 10-08-18
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More recent examples date to the last decade, e.g., 2002 when David Luebke scanned Thomas Jeffersons house. The scanner data were combined with color data from digital photograph to create the virtual model of his home, exhibited in the New Orleans Museum of Art in 2003.38
Three-dimensional Printing or Stereolitography39

Digitalization of the real-world requires also reproduction technology of 3D object created or stored in a digital environment in order to transfer digital matter from the cyberspace domain back to analogue, virtual space domain. Among the technologies in use today are DLP (Digital Light Projection), FDM (Fused deposition modeling), SLS (Selective laser sintering) and DMLS (Direct Metal Laser Sintering), stereolitography and the most popular technologies where 3D object is created by laying down successive layers (inkjet). One of the technologies used for 3D printing (Photopolymer Phase Machines) consists of combined use of ultraviolet light or laser to cure the thickness of each layer as it is deposited. Thanks to the use of powder, polymer, wax or metal this technology enables printing of nearly any imaginable shape. Development of highvolume metal prints is also in progress. All the technologies are able to produce mechanically functional prints corresponding to the recreation of the model of a tangible shape. Even though their works shall be mentioned below, when analyzing sculpture terminology, we must mention that artists have started using advanced technologies quite early, as they have done in the past. Hence, 3D printing technology attracted artistic work over a decade ago. An example of such early artistic activity is represented by the work of Bathsheba Grossman, a Californian artist combining computer design and 3D modeling, with metal objects printing technology.40 It needs to be pointed out that 3D printing in all of its additive manufacturing facets is progressing in strides as we prepare this article. Recently a rst airplane en-
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See David Luebke web site, with many 3D reproduction-related projects, http://luebke.us/, 10-
08-17. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article 3D printing, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_printing, 10-08-17, The democratization of 3D printing is evolving in two streams, rstly with DIY 3D Printers such as MakerBot and RepRap for home desktop manufacturing. The second stream is through online services such as Shapeways that allow users to upload their designs to have them 3D printed in a wide range of materials (currently 20 material options) and shipped worldwide. The creation of tools that enable 3D printing without the direct use of CAD are also currently being implemented. Likewise, article Stereolitography, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereolithography, 2010-08-05, see also Solid Concepts web site, a company for Rapid-Prototyping, i.e., production of 3D prototypes https://www.solidconcepts. com/, 10-08-17. Z Corporation printers, such as ZPrinter 450 or 650 enable 3D color printing. ZPrinter 310 Plus enables high-speed printing. See Z Corporation web site: http://www.zcorp.com/en/home.aspx, 10-08-17 40 Bathsheba Grossman, web site http://www.bathsheba.com/, 10-08-17.
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tirely manufactured by a printer has own.41 As stated elsewhere in this article also the rst building has been printed.42
SCULPTURE SPATIALLY-FORMED WORK OF ART

We have chosen sculpture as the subject of analysis of the specic language related to the designation of original and copy, as it is one of the earliest expressive and artistic human activities, and thus enables insight into the constant of copying development during various historical periods. Hence, we will start our analysis by probing the pertinent language and phenomenology of one of earliest named copyrightable works.43 We will pay attention that, in the case of works of sculpture, there is a clear correspondence between the copyright terms and their equivalents in the artistic eld. In doing so, we have chosen an artistic form, which not only is among the most ancient manners of human artistic expression, but since the beginning has been subject to copyright protection.44 Expression with spatial forms is certainly one of the longest human artistic expression practices and may thus enable optimum insight into the constants of creation and copying in different historical phases. Using this approach we will be able to dene the methodology of research to be used
Engineers at the University of Southampton have designed and own the worlds rst printed aircraft, which could revolutionize the economics of aircraft design. The SULSA (Southampton University Laser Sintered Aircraft) plane is an unmanned air vehicle (UAV) whose entire structure has been printed, including wings, integral control surfaces and access hatches. It was printed on an EOS EOSINT P730 nylon laser-sintering machine, which fabricates plastic or metal objects, building up the item layer by layer. No fasteners were used and all equipment was attached using snap t techniques so that the entire aircraft can be put together without tools in minutes. http://www.soton.ac.uk/mediacentre/news/2011/ jul/11_75.shtml, 11-07-25 42 In a small shed on an industrial park near Pisa is a machine that can print buildings. The machine itself looks like a prototype for the automotive industry. Four columns independently support a frame with a single armature on it. Driven by CAD software installed on a dust-covered computer terminal, the armature moves just millimeters above a pile of sand, expressing a magnesium-based solution from hundreds of nozzles on its lower side. It makes four passes. The layer dries and Enrico Dini recalibrates the armature frame. The system deposits the sand and then inorganic binding ink. The exercise is repeated. The millennia-long process of laying down sedimentary rock is accelerated into a day. A building emerges. This machine could be used to construct anything. Dini wants to build a cathedral with it. Or houses on the moon. http://www.blueprintmagazine.co.uk/index.php/architecture/the-worlds-rstprinted-building/, 11-08-05. 43 CRRA, II COPYRIGHT, Chapter 1 SUBJECT MATTERS, COPYRIGHT WORK, Article 5 1) A copyright work shall be an original intellectual creation in the literary, scientic and artistic domain, having an individual character, irrespective of the manner and form of its expression, its type, value or purpose, unless otherwise provided for in this Law. (2) The Copyright works shall be in particular: (...) works of visual art (in the eld of painting, sculpture, and graphics), irrespective of the material they are made of, and other works of visual arts, works of architecture, works of applied art and industrial design, (...) 44 See Vukmir, Mladen, Inuence of Technological Development on Copyright and Legal Nature of the Subject of Intellectual Property Protection (in Croatian), Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, Vol. 2, Zagreb, 2001, pp. 9-40.
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in a subsequent terms analysis, constituting one of the purposes hereof. In short, the analysis will include examination of the frequency of terms usage in the artistic practice, etymological structure of the terms, their semiotic aspects and frequency or absence of such terms in legal science and, nally, drawing conclusions on the meaning of the examined term in the context of both legal and artistic disciplines. In conclusion, we will try to outline the future development anticipated by the complex of relations regarding the concept echo of the chosen terms refers to. As an introduction to the analysis of nature of copying, we will take the example of sculpture, a branch of art characterized by the highest degree of denition through spatial presence. In this context, we will use the term statue (Lat. statua, from statuere, to set up, also status, social position)45 as a synonym of sculpture, considering that Latin terminology has, in our opinion, stronger universal value, more adequate for modern needs than national terminology. Interestingly, and not by coincidence, legal terminology uses the term statute, which is derived from the essentially same PIE root in order to denote a notion of a regulation intended to dene a long-term shapes for social relations.46 In that connection we were always wandering why the lawyers do not take the same amount of responsibility which urban planners and architects are prepared to undertake when they plan spatial organization that will be shaping social relations of the communities where such structures are to be erected for many years after the point of their creation. In that respect it is important to note that architecture is close to sculpture
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com, 2010-08-04, statue, c.1300, from O.Fr. statue (12c.), from L. statua image, statue, prop. that which is set up, back-formation from statuere to cause to stand, set up, from status a standing, position, from stare to stand (see stet). Statuary is from 1563. Statuesque is from early 1820s, patterned on picturesque. Dim. statuette, with Fr. ending, is rst recorded 1843. The childrens game of statues is attested from 1906. Related to constitute, mid-15c., verb use of adjective constitute, made up, formed (late 14c.), from L. constitutus arranged, settled, pp. adj. from constituere to cause to stand, set up, x, place, establish, set in order; form something new; resolve, of persons, to appoint to an ofce, from com-, intensive prex (see com), + statuere to set (see statue). Related: Constituted; constituting. According to Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com, 2010-08-04, sculpture, late 14c., from L. sculptura sculpture, from pp. stem of sculpere to carve, engrave, back-formation from compounds such as exculpere, from scalpere to carve, cut, from PIE base *(s)kel- to cut, cleave. Sculptor, 1630s, from L. sculptor, agent noun from sculpere (see sculpture). Sculpt, 1864, from Fr. sculpter, from L. sculpt-, pp. stem of sculpere to carve. The older verb form was sculpture (1645). During recent art history the term sculpture has experienced certain repositioning. Hence, during the middle of last century the term mobile, indicating sculptures having a different degree of solidity in space, appears. Generally mobiles are objects with moving parts, later evolving to ensemble of moving three- dimensional parts and other elements, for instance light. Mobile (adj.), late 15c., from M.Fr. mobile, from L. mobilis movable, from movere to move (see move). The noun is early 15c. in astronomy; the artistic sense is rst recorded 1949 as a shortening of mobile sculpture (1936). (...) 46 It is interesting to note the closeness to the legal term statute, late 13c., from O.Fr. statut, from L.L. statutum a law, decree, noun use of neuter pp. of L. statuere enact, establish, from status condition, position, from stare to stand from PIE base *sta- to stand (see stet). Statutory rst attested 1717; statutory rape, in U.S., sexual intercourse with a female below the legal age of consent, whether forced or not, is recorded from 1898. Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com, 2011-06-28. We cannot but to remark that apparently, carnal motives seem to drive legal terminology just as they drive introduction of new technologies.
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insofar that it involves shaping spatial forms, therefore also pertinent to our observations here. Architectures characteristic of being able to shape long-term human relations has been long noted.47 If the urban planners make meaningful projections ten or twenty years ahead, and such planning effects social relations in a community, why wouldnt the lawyers attempt to do the same? Once lawyers accept responsibility for their format of shaping social relations, their contribution to building relations on which our societies rests should be recognized, and their role in their societies enhanced in stature. However, we should devote space to the research of this issue in another article, and shall revert to our study of sculptural issues in the eld of copyright here. Traditionally, sculpture, as denition of three-dimensional volume in space, is the epitome of materiality. Apart from the spatial characteristics, primarily the material of which it is made has always distinguished it. Traditionally, sculpture is a three-dimensional work of plastic arts created by carving, modeling, fabricating or casting.48 Sculpture forms are created using two basic methods, called plastic arts techniques: modeling49 and carving50. In spite of their exceptional materiality, in the sense of their three- dimensional presence in space, sculptures are particularly interesting for their property of high reproducibility. In fact, long ago it was noticed that copying was more inherent
Winston Churchill famously remarked that We shape our buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape us., House of Commons (meeting in the House of Lords), 28 October 1943. http://www. winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/quotations, 2011-06-28. 48 Dimitrijevi, Braco, Accidental Sculpture, http://bracodimitrijevic.com/index.php?album=early_ works&image=early_works_008.jpg, 10-08-08. Braco Dimitrijevi did some interesting re-examinations of sculpture three-dimensionality and materiality in the 60s. Dimitrijevi disperses a pile of gypsum powder on the street. Accidental passing-by of a car makes its driver the author of three- dimensional cloud of dust, perceived like sculpture by observing the space it lls. Furthermore, in conceptual art tradition this shape is xed in a photograph as a document of three-dimensional shape in space. The original shape, due to the principle of the second law of thermodynamics, is unrepeatable, but the photo can be copied. It is interesting Dimitrijevis comment on the authorial aspect of the work revealing that not only the aspect of sculpture but also the aspect of authorship is subject to re-examination: In my work we have, in a way, this transfer of authorship to somebody who is unknown, somebody who created a visual change by accident. But then, this person had the opportunity to recognize that this was something of visual importance, and thus, signed and conrmed the existence of this artwork. The author comments his work also on ArtFacts.net web site, http://www.artfacts.net/index.php/pageType/newsInfo/newsID/4217/lang/1, 10-08-08. 49 Croatian Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Sculptural techniques, http://hr.wikipedia. org/wiki/Kiparske_tehnike, 10-08-10, Modeling is, for instance, when a sculptor models (shapes) formless mass of clay by hand, pressing or stretching, adding or taking away. When the clay is dried or red, the sculpture is hardened and gets the nal form which may be reproduced (e.g. in bronze) by molding. Modeling can be performed also in other materials: paper, cardboard, sheet metal, synthetic materials, glass (by casting), steel, etc. 50 Croatian Wikipedia, article Sculptural techniques, http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiparske_tehnike, 10-08-10, Carving means creating a smaller desired shape from larger piece of material wood, stone, marble, plaster - by splitting, cutting or shaping. Please note the relation to the additive and subtractive forms of 3D manufacturing discussed in relation to the 3D printing technologies, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Additive Manufacturing: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_manufacturing, 11-08-01.
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to sculpture than it was to painting. While copying of painting works was considered possible only with high-level skills, sculpture has always been easier to copy, whether by making a duplicate in clay, stone or, especially, casting into metal or alloy mold.51 Copyright law protects works of visual art (painting, sculpture and graphic art), whatever may be the material of which they are made, as well as other works of ne art, works of architecture, works of applied art in some copyright systems, etc. According to copyright laws of many countries various forms of completeness of sculpture will enjoy protection. Complete copyright work, incomplete work, parts of work meeting originality and individuality criteria and alterations if they constitute original intellectual creations and have individual character (e.g., adaptations, arrangements, etc.) shall enjoy protection as sculptural artwork. As in the case of all works of art, ideas for sculpture creation, processes and working methods are neither in sculpture subject to protection.52 In this article we shall occasionally revert to the particular legal provisions. Our method is not comparative and we shall not venture in comparing various particular provisions from copyright systems of various countries. Rather, in order to be able to demonstrate the characteristics of legal approach to legislating creativity we shall use the Croatian copyright law. This is a modern Continental European copyright legislation based on the German doctrine and incorporating all of the acquis communautaire, due to the impending Croatian EU integration. Simplied, it is as good as any copyright law for the purpose of this analysis. We should now start the task we have undertaken. We will choose particular terms considered indicative and analyze them according to the above-described methodology, with no intention of conducting an exhaustive or conclusive research. The terms are roughly arranged according to the level of their closeness to the original, i.e. those that require less steps of reproduction are closer following the analysis the term original. Let us start from the beginning and see what results we will obtain.
The materials used in sculpture include clay, modeling clay, wax, plaster, bronze, wood, stone, wire, glass, ivory, sheet metal, aluminum and copper foil, paper-plastic, papier mch, plastic, bitumen and other materials, combined technique (various materials), incrustation, assemblage. 52 Pursuant to the Copyrights and Related Rights Law (Ofcial Gazette No. 167/03 and 79/07, hereinafter: CRRA) a copyright work shall be an original intellectual creation in the artistic domain, irrespective of the manner and form of its expression, its type, value or purpose. Art. 5 CRRA
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Unique (Lat. unicus; the only, the single one of its kind, original)53
A single copy of the original work of visual arts,54 in this case sculpture,55 without ever being copied upon authors consent, represents a unique artwork. The unique work shall remain such regardless of unauthorized copying, since its status is based on the fact that the author has never copied or authorized the copying of the original. This shall apply both related to the absolute original work and relative original, i.e., derived work. In the context of sculpture the fact that it needs to be specically pointed out that there is only one copy of artwork becomes evident, as if it was implied that there could be more than one copy, as if copying was almost a natural property of the work of art. We should remember that in traditional sculpture making methods often the author rst sketches a two-dimensional model of the future piece, than he creates a three-dimensional model on a smaller scale, often in clay, and than he proceeds with the creation of the nal real-size model, often in plaster and only thereafter with the creation of metal or alloy mold where the piece shall be cast, or carved into stone. Elaborate techniques that include various devices using metal pins, sprues or other tools are deployed to transfer the sculptures from the mold into the nal material and to help maintain proportions in the case various sizes are being sculpted. Hence, even in the case of unique work, the preceding forms are strictly related to the nal work and it is actually possible that each of these stages represents protected work of art, each one possibly a unique original, all depending on the expressed will of an author.56 In the case of digital works, les containing earlier versions of the work are created, whereupon we can expect that many such earlier versions shall simply be replaced by later versions of the same work in the same le. This neatly demonstrates the disposability of digital copies, from the mere transitional copies stored into computer memories for purely technical reasons during the regular usage and automatically discarded in the process, to the numerous versions of a work stored during the process of creating by the author and by the computers in the process of backing-up.
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; unique, c.1600, single, solitary, from Fr. unique, from L. unicus single, sole, from unus one (see one). Meaning forming the only one of its kind is attested from 1610s; erroneous sense of remarkable, uncommon is attested from mid-19c. 54 Art.35 CRRA 55 Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, article Sculpture, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture, 1008-05. See also articles Bronze Sculpture, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_sculpture, Stone Carving, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_carving, Wood Carving etc. Many of those articles describe numerous specic techniques for reproducing copies. It is easy to remain impressed by the level of knowledge and intricacy of the techniques humanity developed in order to be able to reproduce copies. 56 For a concise overview of the types of authors relation to their works see: Gradation of Originality in Sculpture; Valuation of Sculptures in Procedures of Casting and Safeguarding of Gypsum Casts, ANALI year XXVIII-XXIX (2008 2009), No. 28-29, 421-460, pp. 209-217.
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Replica (Lat. replicare, to repeat, reply)57

In visual arts replica is principally a work of art resulting from a reproduction process whereby the author makes a copy of the original.58 In addition to this meaning, the term replica is used also to indicate works of art created with a new application of the same artwork motif, i.e., a work of art created as a reection of an earlier artwork of the same author, the new piece being created by other masters.59 Replica is often created if the unique work of art was lost or destroyed, but is known to the person recreating it who has a legitimate artistic or historical motive, order or other context making the creation of such replica highly legitimate, as is the case for the facsimiles that are actually a subset of replicas (as discussed bellow). In addition to the above-described meaning, the term replica is also used to indicate works of art legally reproduced for commercial reasons, for sale to customers who agree to have in their possession a work of art created by anonymous higher or lower quality masters for different reasons. Nowadays, there is a very developed business activity and web-based trade of such replicas of works for which copyrights have expired. Museum Replicas is an interesting example of company specialized in recreating world famous masterpieces using, allegedly, the same techniques once employed by the original artists.60 Replicas of bronze, marble and wood sculptures and other types of works of art are created on order. There are many web-based business projects dealing with the creation of famous artworks replicas.61
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; replica, 1824, from It. replica copy, repetition, reply, from L. replicare to repeat (see reply). Properly, a copy of a work of art made by the original artist. 58 See Fondation Beyeler web site, http://www.beyeler.com/fondation/e/html_15information/info04pres/pres_05son/17modrian_malewitsch/02_modrian_long.htm, 10-08-10, The exhibition includes a replica made by the artist in 1923 of his triptych of 1915, from the Russian Museum in St. Petersburg. and Books and Writers, http://www.kirjasto.sci./malevich.htm, 10-08-10, In Russia Malevich produced replicas of many of the paintings he had left in Germany. 59 See web site World Architecture News.com, http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index. php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectview&upload_id=1912, 10-08-10, One room is dedicated to Russian artist and architect Vladimir Tatlin and is dominated by replica huge model of his original designed to celebrate post-Czarist Russia. Tate Papers web site, https://www.tate.org.uk/research/tateresearch/ tatepapers/07autumn/leleu.htm, 10-08-10, This lost work has been reconstructed several times and each artifact synthesizes and formalizes a different state of knowledge in a given form and time. Pontus Hultn has been a major protagonist in at least two of these reconstructions. Various exhibitions justied their production, a recurrent circumstance in the history of replicas and reconstitutions of twentieth-century works of art. Also Metropolitan Museum of Art, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/duch/hd_duch. htm, 10-08-14, with photograph of Duchamps Bottle rack replica. 60 Web site of company Museum Replicas: http://www.museum-replicas.com, 10-08-08, outlines that in the production of replicas original techniques are used. Reproductions repertoire is not related only to sculpture, but also to works of architecture, painting and applied art. For instance, related to sculpture, replica of A. Rodins The Kiss is available in sizes from 60 to 180 cm at a price from USD 4,650.00 to 18,345.00. 61 See e.g. Fabulous Masterpieces web sites, http://www.fabulousmasterpieces.co.uk/page13.htm, 10-08-10, Classic Repro: http://www.classicartrepro.com/, 10-08-14, WahooArt, http://en.wahooart. com/, 10-08-14, or the web site of Steven Haigh, ne art painter promoting his copyist activities, in addition to his secondary portrait-painting activity: http://www.neartcopies.com/, 10-08-14
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The skills and virtue of ne reproduction in many Asian countries constitute values, which have a position comparable to the artistic contribution. With the growth of Chinese economy, this quality has also gained its position in export business. Thus, in addition to counterfeits production, nowadays China is producing large amounts of replicas, principally of classic works of art whereon copyrights have expired. Nevertheless, given that such copies are handmade and have not necessarily the same details as the original, many Chinese exporters point out that such works must also be treated as derived works, i.e., alterations and permit them to be placed on the market.62 Obviously, the term replica indicates to the long established and extensive craft of producing legitimate or justied copies in the analogue world, based on the set of skills that the original artist might use or approve of. However, it is important to bear in mind that the term replica has recently become popular among forgers of products protected by industrial property rights, especially fake watches. It seems that use of art terms implies the attempt to give to fake products market dignity they would not otherwise have.
Multiple (Lat. multiplus; manifold, multi-type, multiplex)63

Multiple is a work of visual art made in a technique allowing copying under specic technical, sales and other conditions. In the context of sculpture the term is related to cast sculptures. Clearly, this meaning implies multiplicability as an inherent property of cast sculpture, as outlined above. In the legal sense multiple would represent the name of the copy produced by authorized multiplication of the original work of art, which will thereupon cease to be unique. Furthermore, it ensues that replica could also be realized as multiple, revealing that language nesses are not subject to strict categorization and that many language qualications actually depend on the context of each artistic project.
See New York Times article dated 05-07-15, Own Original Chinese Copies of Real Western Art!, 10-08-14, Times, stating: Exporters of Chinese paintings say that even though the paintings often imitate well-known works of art, the copies are inherently different because they are handmade, and so do not violate copyrights. Robert Panzer, the executive director of the Visual Artists and Galleries Association, a trade group based in New York, disagreed. He said that the vast majority of paintings produced before the 20th century were in the public domain and could be freely copied and sold. But it is not legal to sell a painting that appears to a reasonable person like a copy of a more recent, copyrighted work, he said. 63 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; multiple, 1640s, from Fr. multiple, from L.L. multiplus manifold, from L. multi- many, much + -plus fold, from base of plicare to fold, twist; see ply (v.)). Multiple exposure rst recorded 1923.
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Series (Lat. seris; row, kind, corrtege, serere; to join)64

A series is a group of works linked by a common feature, where copies are not presumed to be identical, but to a certain extent variations of the genuine work. Also, in the copyright sense we start from the denition of the original work of visual art. Although we nd no practical signicance in the following solution, on a speculative level we could state that the author of the series, provided that during the exposition the series remains and is sold integral, acquires at the same time copyrights in the collection, obtaining, thus, two legal grounds for protection. Namely, even though it appears that the list of works that can constitute a collection of independent copyright works described in various copyright laws as protectable works of art65 has not been made taking into account this possibility, in case the author selected the works that will constitute a collection, we believe that the conditions for such dual protection could be acquired. This is so because the laws often provide that if collections constitute personal intellectual creations of their authors by reason of the selection or arrangement of their constituent elements which themselves represent independent works of art, they are protected as independent works of art.66
Version (Lat. versio, vertere; to turn, revolve)67

The term version indicates generally one of several different works with the same content, or variety, variant, different representation of the same authors thought. Bearing in mind that even the nal published variety of authors work is often not quite denitive, in the sense that often the author continues to develop the idea of work xed in the nal published version, we deem necessary to point towards the natural course and constant development of the idea dominated by variability as essential constituent. Even though this article will not examine one of the essential premises of creativity, which in copyright law is the relation between idea and work
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; series, 1610s, a number or set of things of one kind arranged in a line, from L. series row, chain, series, from serere to join, link, bind together, put, from PIE base *ser- to line up, join (cf. Skt. sarat- thread, Gk. eirein to fasten together in rows, Goth. sarwa (pl.) armor, arms, O.N. srve necklace of stringed pearls, O.Ir. sernaid he joins together, Welsh ystret row). Meaning set of printed works published consecutively is from 1711. Meaning set of radio or television programs with the same characters and themes is attested from 1949. 65 CRRA, Chapter 1. SUBJECT MATTERS, Collections and Databases, Article 7: (1) Collections of independent works, data or other materials, such as encyclopedias, collections of documents, anthologies, databases, and the like, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their constituent elements constitute personal intellectual creations of their authors shall be protected as such. (2) The protection enjoyed by the collection referred to in paragraph (1) of this Article, shall not extend to its contents and shall in no way prejudice the rights subsisting in the works and subject matters of related rights included in the collection. (...) 66 In other words, the wording of Art. 7 CRRA could also cover series. 67 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; version, 1582, a translation, from M.Fr. version, from M.L. versionem (nom. versio) a turning, from pp. stem of L. vertere to turn (see versus). Also with a M.E. sense of destruction; the meaning particular form of a description is rst attested 1788.
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of art, referring to versions, we must say that the requirement of xation, i.e., expression, as a precondition for work of art protection, actually conceals and obscures the nature of idea development. In that sense the phenomenon of version of work of art is an emancipation of creativity from strict requirements of copyright. By this we mean that it is actually the series of versions that is the natural state of interaction between author and his idea. The idea thus manifestly, through a series of versions, results in the unity of its evolution with many possible versions of a work of art emerging on the path of expression. In the creation of digital works this is even more visible, whereby les storing earlier versions of the work appear, one upon the other in the sequence of creation. It can be expected that many earlier versions will simply be replaced in the same le by later versions of the same work. This process can continue even after the publication and making available of a work of art if the author continues to work on the work.
Variant (Lat. varians; variable)68

The term variant indicates generally one of the forms in which the same essential content appears. It is a different representation of an authors idea. A search of New York Metropolitan Museum of Art web sites revealed that in English art language the term variant appears in general less frequently that the term version. It appears that more often the term variant denotes the relation of the work towards the general, as towards particular styles or other general features, rather than other particular works of the same or different authors.69 As with the term version, in the copyright sense we principally rely on the concept of original of a work of visual art and its relation with the concept of alteration.70 Here the term shall also indicate principally derived copyright work based on the original representing a genuine work of art, where the derivative work is the result of artistic contribution of the same author as well as of the original work. In certain cases the object resulting from artistic contribution may actually be incorporated into copyright protection of the principal work due to minimal contribution achieved by such variant. Even if we accept the foregoing without reconsideration, our task is to answer the following question: what happens with the original when both the original and its copies are digital? We should bear in mind that nowadays with the use of techAccording to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; variant (adj.), late 14c., from O.Fr. variant, from L. variantem (nom. varians), prp. of variare to change (see vary). The noun is rst attested 1848. Also, vary, mid-14c. (trans.), late 14c. (Intrans.), from O.Fr. varier, from L. variare change, alter, make different, from varius varied, different, spotted; perhaps related to varus bent, crooked, knock-kneed, and varix varicose vein, from a PIE base *wer- high raised spot or other bodily inrmity (cf. O.E. wearte wart, Swed. varbulde pus swelling, L. verruca wart). 69 Web site http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/search/ represents a very rich source for studying art and art history language, considering its representative scope and number of works, and highly specialized and skilled authors whose works are uploaded increase further the relevance of search results. 70 Art.35 and Art. 36 CRRA, respectively
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nology we can compose music and paint, but sculptors are also commencing to use completely digital technology. Let us rst see the situation described in a recent interview with the painter David Hockney, where the reporter described how she was receiving electronic paintings made by the artist: At the Biennale, sitting outside in the Giardini, checking my iPhone for emails. Im delighted to discover 24 new messages, all from DH, all with attachments. He has been sending iPhone drawings to friends over the last few months while he explores the technology. They are mostly still-lifes, with some sunrises. There is something incredibly free and joyful about these little pictures, and, regardless of the technology and their diminutive scale, they are instantly recognisable as Hockneys. I later discover he does them rst thing in the morning while he is still in bed. He has a tiny wooden easel on his bedside table where his iPhone rests at night.71 Let us ask ourselves which of the copies the author sent simultaneously to a number of his friends is different from the original. The mathematical physicist, Roger Penrose, discusses very deeply about the identity of digital records comparing them with quantum mechanics, however, we shall limit to the prosaic level of culture observation.72 In that sense, we can conclude that there is no difference between received drawings and the original, initially created by the artist in digital form, as there will be no difference between the original and hundreds and thousands further copies the authors work could undergo, should the recipients of the rst twenty-four e-mails decide to share received computer le with other recipients. The only difference would appear when and if one of the recipients was to intervene into such le by giving his authors contribution, or otherwise intervene into the work/le. The nature of digital work creation clearly shows a change in the traditional relation between original and copy and announces implications characteristic of its inherent property, multiplicability. Moreover, this multiplicability is effortless and costless. These implications clearly indicate that the work is inherently subject to copying, sharing and easy further modication. If we apply to these implications present copyright system rules they will evidently result incompatible with the new properties underlying the nature of digitalization. Copyright law aspiring at controlling copying as a form of control of work of art exploitation will be in collision with the fundamental feature of digitalized work which is inherently multipliable.73 CopyIntelligent Life magazine, Vol. 3 No. 4, Summer 2010, article Brushes with Hockney, pp. 80-89, http://moreintelligentlife.com/content/arts/karen-wright/brushes-with-hockney, 10-08-17. Italian press reports on Hockneys fashion detail, namely his custom made coat with a big pocket once containing a block of drawing paper was now used by the artist to carry the iPad, whereby he crated a fashion trend trying to resolve the problem of carrying relatively unwieldy iPad. 72 Penrose, Roger, The emperors new mind: concerning computers, minds, and the laws of physics, Penguin Books, 1991, pp. 24-25, about philosophical mathematical discourse on quantum mechanical particles identity. 73 Tobin, Jonathan, Licensing as a Means of Providing Affordability and Accessibility In Digital Markets: Alternatives to a Digital First Sale Doctrine (July 31, 2011). 93 J. Pat. & Trademark Off. Socy 167 (2011), pp. 17-21 and the works referened in the pertaining footnotes.
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right law striving at preventing alterations made to the work of art without the authors consent will be in conict with the alterations and contexts such work will go through during its digital life, i.e., digital eternity, considering its permanent presence in cyberspace. Finally, given that due to objective reasons we will try to restrict our reections to only one context of creativity, we have examined the foregoing terminology about sculpture as one of traditional creative methods. We have also already mentioned how this traditional activity is changing under the inuence of digitalization and networking and using a random selection of the activity and work of California artist Bathsheba Grossman as an example of the current artistic activities. She is one of the authors who combine computer design and 3D modeling and the technology of metal objects printing. By singling out her work we wished to show possible artistic trends regardless of the value of any particular piece or implying any evaluation or preference for certain approach or style.74
Facsimile (Lat. fac simile; made alike)75

It might be considered unusual to include the mention of the facsimile in the section devoted to the sculpture. We have seen above that a replica might be considered a subset of facsimile. The facsimile is mostly understood as a copy or reproduction of an old book, manuscript, map or art print or other item of historical value that is as true to the original source as possible. We need to note the facsimiles are essentially three-dimensional objects that are copied. Arguably, the importance of the maps is heavy on the two-dimensional information on its surface. However, in all of these cases and even with maps it is spatial objects. Facsimile differs from other forms of reproduction by attempting to replicate the source as accurately as possible in terms of scale, color, condition, and other material qualities.76 According to Wikipedia, for books and manuscripts, facsimile entails a complete copy of all pages; hence an incomplete copy is a partial facsimile.
Bathsheba Grossman web site: http://www.bathsheba.com/artist/, 10-08-18. I have a grassroots business model. I dont limit editions, I price as low as costs permit, and most of my selling is direct to you, by way of this site. My plan is to make these designs available, rather than restrict the supply. Its more like publishing than like gallery-based art marketing: we dont feel that a book has lost anything because many people have read it. In fact it becomes more valuable as it gains wide currency and inuence. With the advent of 3D printing, this is the rst moment in art history when sculpture can be, in this sense, published. I think its the wave of the future. Other artists also using advanced digital sculptures analogizing technologies are: George Hart, http://www.georgehart.com/sculpture/sculpture.html, 10-0818, Bulatov, http://www.bulatov.org/metal/index.html, 10-08-18. These artists evidently nd their artistic motivation principally in visualizing and expressing mathematical forms, but we will not pursue the valorization of their artistic contribution. 75 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2011-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; facsimile, 1660s, from L. fac simile make similar, from fac imperative of facere to make (see factitious) + simile, neut. of similis like, similar (see similar). 76 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Facsimile http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facsimile, 1108-05. Facsimiles are used, for example, by scholars to research a source that they do not have access to otherwise and by museums and archives ()
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As such it is clear that a facsimile not only results as a copy of a three dimensional object per se, it also involves copying activity that is highly studied and involves high degree of various skills of old techniques and knowledge about the materials and the processes of ageing. Being such a complex, knowledge-dependent activity it is clear that facsimile making epitomizes high end copying activity where there is no unauthorized copying element involved due to the usually old age of the subject original. Without attaching additional signicance to the facsimile phenomenon we wish hereby to mention that the word facsimile is the underlying term for the word fax.77 The fax, as older among us would know, is the technology that used to serve for sending copies of documents over the phone lines. Together with photocopying78, faxing was one of the technologies that enabled modern reproduction of the two-dimensional surfaces that could be quickly and later on cheaply multiplied. The role of these two technologies in bringing about civilization change in perceiving and using copies cannot be underestimated and would deserve a dedicated research of its own, especially as these changes brought upon signicant pressures to the existing copyright protection systems. It could be said that the change in perception of the roles of reproduction were introduced most successfully by these two technologies in the last decades of pre-digital societies. In accordance with the concept of technological layering both technologies successfully morphed into digital realm, but were pushed aside by the true digital reproduction.79
SISTEMATIZATION OF TERMINOLOGY
We have aimed hereinabove at establishing a methodology of language analysis and comparison from the aspect of legal lexicon and art lexicon. We will try in similar
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2011-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; fax (n.), 1948, short for facsimile (telegraphy). The verb attested by 1970. Related: Faxed; faxing. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax, 11-08-05. Term Fax encompasses different technologies that were used at different times to prepare a copy of transmission. 78 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2011-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; photocopy, (v.), 1924 in the sense of make a photographic reproduction, from photo- light + copy (q.v.). The usual modern meaning arose 1942 with the advent of xerography. The noun is recorded from 1934. Photostat (1911) was a type of copying machine (trademark Commercial Camera Company, Providence, R.I.) whose name became a generic noun and verb (1914) for photocopy. Also, Xerox, 1952, trademark taken out by Haloed Co. of Rochester, N.Y., for a copying device, from earlier xerography photographic reduplication without liquid developers (1948), from Gk. xeros dry (see xerasia) + -ography as in photography. The verb is rst attested 1965, from the noun, despite strenuous objection from the Xerox copyright department, also 11-08-05. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia provides the informative entries for both Photocopier, http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopy and Reprography, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprography, both links 11-08-05. 79 The author wishes to thank Mr. Stuart Meyer, Esq. of Fenwick & West, past-president of the ITechLaw for his useful comments on the earlier version of this text, and for moderating a session at the ITechLaw Conference in San Francisco in May 2011, where some of the underlying ideas for this article have been presented for the rst time.
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fashion to analyze hereinbelow some of the fundamental copyright terms in general. In doing so, we have no ambition to be all-embracing, but we intend to outline only those terms we consider fundamental not only from the legal aspect, but mainly from the aspect of human creative activity said terms originally indicate. Furthermore, we shall attempt to encompass the terms characterizing the ght for enabling and sustaining protability of the industries that exploit the results of creativity. We believe, thereupon, that said ght is particularly intense during the rst decade of the 21st century upon the rapid growth of digitalization of reality and computer and computer users networking. Such growth has exerted unprecedented pressure on the classical copyright protection system and will certainly lead at least to legal institute changes, and probably to the redenition of the role of legal system in the eld of human creativity. Generally speaking, it could be argued that endeavors towards language systematization currently reveal difculties impending in the intent of nding consistency and coherence in copyright and art language. Not only is language lacking standardization between legal and art lexicon, but we could also say that neither within each of these disciplines is there any terminological uniformity and un-ambiguity. We shall not set here the nal consequences of our analysis, as there is no place or need therefore. The reader shall rather be left to draw his own conclusions based on our observations and essential information provided. Legal lexicon is characterized by another imperfection, primarily related to lack of thorough legal terminology precisely incorporating creativity phenomena and being in clear conformity with respective terminology of other disciplines. It is true that the legal system has had no need to analyze directly the processes of creativity, but focused only on regulating the exploitation of creative results. In that sense, we notice a possible analogy with the fact that copyright systems make no difference in the level of artistic quality of the copyright work as a protection criterion.80 Consequently, legal systems protect high art under the same conditions as simple commercial works of art (excluding the most banal ones, lacking originality and the lowest level of creativity). Similarly, copyright law makes no efforts to distinguish types of copies nor it provides even for the most fundamental differentiation, including naming types of unauthorized copies whose intangible component is subject to intellectual property right protection (either by copyright law or design, trademark, patent or another law).81 Traces of attempts to distinguish certain degrees of similarity that must be pointed out are brought by trademark law. Thus, trademark law outlines the degrees
It would be interesting to explore whether creativity, or rather the exact amount of creativity could be quantied and calculated using the 81 Analysis of the history of comparative copyright-related legislative activity reveals very restricted application of systematicity in the development of an international copyright system and incredibly high level of inconsistency and partiality of interests that inuenced certain solutions accepted nowadays with no further questioning. See Paterson, Lyman Ray, Copyright in historical perspective, Vanderbilt University Press, 1968 and Lessig, Lawrence, Remix: making art and commerce thrive in the hybrid economy, Penguin Press, 2008.
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of unauthorized imitation that could be brought down to and described as three degrees of unauthorized imitation: identical (slavish) imitation, confusing similarity and mental association with the original.82 In the most general sense, trademark law makes use of the terms counterfeit (ponaredek, Slo., Contraffazione It., Faelschung Ger.), fake, to indicate objects created through copying without authorization of the holder of rights to intangible component of the original and with the intention of covering up the fact that authorization was not given, i.e., was not even requested. Before embarking upon the analysis of the specic terms characterizing various copying techniques or artistic methods, let us rst try to list the fundamental terms commonly used in the legal language, despite having no grounds in the treaties or national intellectual property law. We shall commence our analysis with the terms recently dominating legal endeavors towards the reduction of unauthorized copying in early digitalization phases. The aggressiveness used in the implementation of intellectual property rights due to constant growth of the number of infringements, a consequence of various processes, e.g. the digitalization process, among the most dominant ones, resulted in the use of war terminology and analogy with military activities (anti-piracy combat, campaigns, etc.). Thus, we will also rst analyze the terms related to violation of rights resulting in the mental visualization of battle and armed conict in the ght against unauthorized copying. We must thereupon remember that the way of ghting to preserve intellectual property rights, although aggressive, is generally well founded in the applicable legal regulations. The social community today often grows feelings against this way of ghting for intellectual property rights. In our opinion criticisms expressed towards intellectual property rights holders for their aggressiveness in the protection of their rights are not necessarily criticisms towards the use of legitimate rights, but towards the perception that such use of intellectual property rights actually reects the ght for preserving business models surmounted by social changes addressed in this article.
Trademark Act, Ofcial Gazette, NN No. 173/03: EFFECTS OF A TRADEMARK, Rights conferred by a trademark, Article 7: (1) A registered trademark shall confer on its holder the exclusive rights therein. (2) The holder shall be entitled to prevent all third parties not having his authorization from using in the course of trade: 1. any sign which is identical with his trademark in relation to goods or services which are identical with those for which the trademark is registered, 2. any sign where, because of its identity with, or similarity to, his trademark and the identity or similarity of the goods or services covered by the trademark and the sign, there is a likelihood of confusion on the part of the public, which includes the likelihood of association of the sign with the trademark, 3. any sign which is identical with, or similar to, his trademark in relation to goods or services which are not similar to those for which the trademark is registered, where the trademark has a reputation in the Republic of Croatia and where use of that sign without due cause takes unfair advantage of, or is detrimental to, the distinctive character or the reputation of the trademark. CIVIL PROTECTION, Action concerning the infringement of rights, Article 75: (1) The holder of a trademark, if his rights referred to in Article 7 of this Act have been infringed or threatened to be infringed, may, by instituting an action, require from the competent court: ()(2) The imitation of a trademark () shall also be considered to be the infringement of a trademark within the meaning of paragraph (1) of this Article.
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In particular, it should be pointed out that not only the large majority, but surprisingly the entire lexicon of the ght for preserving existing business models has no grounds in the legal language at all. On the contrary, as we will show subsequently, its terminology is introduced as a result of destructive processes of introduction of new technologies to existing business models. It is important thereupon to bear in mind that the fact that rights are being infringed is and can not be diminished by the assertion that new usage methods are being generated which lead to such infringing. It is, however, unexpected to establish that so much of the lexicon of the antipiracy and anticounterfeiting terminology is not derived from the legal terminology. Thereafter, we shall try to conceptualize the differences ensuing from the standpoint and intentions of the person committing unauthorized copying, since it appears that the law does not take into account such aspect to the extent necessary in complex modern societies that base their wealth on human knowledge based creativity and copying of objects containing intangible component protected by intellectual property rights.
Legal Terminology Related to Unauthorized Copying

As indirectly mentioned above, it is interesting to note that intellectual property law has a relatively reduced language that concerns infringement through copying of the work. The language related to piracy and counterfeiting has developed independently of treatys and legislative language. Let us therefore research a bit actual legal terminology and see some basic terms used by the most important international treaties and several representative laws to describe different forms of infringement through unauthorized copying. We will chose four key terms as the subject-matter of our research: author, work of art, copy and original and we will try to locate these four terms in some of the most signicant international and national legal instruments.
Examples of International Treaties Terminology:

The fundamental sources of international copyright law are the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works83, the Universal Copyright ConvenBerne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works of 1886; (Paris Act, 1971) October 8, 1991 the text of the Convention was not published in the Ofcial Gazette. Decision on the publication of multilateral treaties the Republic of Croatia is party to pursuant to notication of succession was published in the Ofcial Gazette - International Treaties No. 12/93 and 3/99 and 11/99, and the Universal Convention published in No. 12/93 and 3/99, and in Gliha, I., Autorsko pravo, zbirka propisa, Informator, Zagreb, 2000, pp. 188-318. Paris text of the Universal Convention is published on the web site: http://portal.unesco.org/en/ ev.php-URL_ID=15241&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, Geneva text on the web site http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15381&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, 10-08-16, the last text of the Berne Convention on the web site: http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/ trtdocs_wo001.html, 2010-08-16, and the text of WIPO Copyright Treaty: http://www.wipo.int/treaties/ en/ip/wct/trtdocs_wo033.html, 2010-08-16. All the texts of international conventions administered by
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tion, the International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations (Rome Convention), the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms, the Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite, the TRIPS Agreement, the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT), and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT).84 This set of international treaties started expanding in 1886 with the adoption of the Berne Convention and has become one of the most eminent international multilateral convention systems, demonstrating by its universal acceptance the relevance given by many countries to the introduction and harmonization of intellectual property laws, specically copyright and related rights. Such nearly universal acceptance made this set of regulations one of the most successful international systems with the vast majority of world countries as members of the Berne Union. We could say that the importance of the role intellectual property law played in the industrial revolution was broadly recognized and other countries also going through the industrial revolution soon wished to achieve the same results Great Britain attained in late 19th century.85 There can be no doubt that the rst wave of global integration was powered by the industrial revolution, and the property based model that was used to protect the inventions and other form of human creativity was recognized by many other countries who wished to catch that train, so to say, and this common understanding then served as a platform for both Berne Convention and Paris Union negotiations. As to industrial property law, the fundamental convention regulating said eld shall be examined in a future version of this text. We refer to a contemporary of the Berne Convention in the eld of copyright and related rights, the so-called Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.86
the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO/OMPI) are published on the web site: http://www. wipo.int/treaties/en/, 10-08-18. 84 Gliha, I. Copyright Law, A collection of Rules with an Introductory Text (Autorsko pravo, zbirka propisa s uvodnim tekstom), Informator, Zagreb, 2000, Matanovac, R., Changes and Amendments to the Copyright and Neighboring Rights Law of 2007 (Novela Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima iz 2007), Informator, Novi Informator, No. 5600, of 7.11.2007, Matanovac, R., Gliha, I., Changes and Amendments to the Copyright and Neighboring Rights Law (Novela Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima iz 2007.godine ), in Matanovac, R. (op.red.), Harmonization of Croatian Intellectual Property Law with the European Law (Prilagodba hrvatskog prava intelektualnog vlasnitva europskom pravu), DZIV & NN, Zagreb, 2007, all in Croatian language. 85 Review of the book: Rosen, William, The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry, and Invention, Random House, 2010, in the article The industrial revolution; Fire and brimstone; Why it started in Britain, 2010-08-12, http://www.economist.com/node/16789318?story_id=16789318. The author dismisses the more traditional explanations about why the industrial revolution began in Britainsuch as an abundance of coal or the insatiable demands of the Royal Navyconcluding, instead, that it was Englands development of the patent system that was the decisive factor. 86 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) October 8, 1991 the text of the Convention was not published in the Ofcial Gazette. Decision on the publication of multilateral treaties the Republic of Croatia is party to pursuant to notication of succession was published in the Ofcial Gazette - International Treaties No. 12/93 and 3/99. Considering that a part of this research is dedicated also to trademark law, we should state that the fundamental international sources of trademark law are the Convention
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The easiness with which conventions remain at the surface of the issue, without immersing deeply into the substance of copyright law is unbearable for our needs. As an illustrative example we can mention, referring to copy, that the term is used in the Berne Convention three times in the singular, referring principally to copies of its own text, without opening the question of the nature of copy in copyright law at all. The only reference, of no interest for our needs, to the term copy in the substantial sense can be found in the context of the Appendix, Article II, which shall not be discussed here.87 In the plural form, the term copies is used less than about forty times, of which ten times in headings and table of contents. One of the most signicant contexts related to the term copy is Article 16, which prohibits distribution of copies infringing copyrights.88 It is self-understandable that an international legal instrument aiming at the harmonization of national laws will begin from the content of such law known and accepted in these countries, so it does not need to restate the basic principles of copyright protection ab ovo. However, from our point of interest the text of the convention appears quite shallow. Similar is the case with other conventions, and in that sense, we shall not take them into consideration now. Somewhat different is the situation with the term original. It appears more frequently, about fourteen times, of which about ten times in the context of the term original work, once related to the original text of the convention, and three times in other contexts. Perhaps the most substantial is the mentioning in Article 2 providing that derivative works will have the same status as original works of art.89 The term author appears in the text of the Convention less than forty times, but this frequency is drawing attention to the sources of the Convention ensuing from
Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization of 1967, the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883, the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks of 1891, the Protocol Relating to the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks of 1989, the Nice Agreement Concerning the International Classication of Goods and Services for the Purposes of the Registration of Marks of 1957, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of 1994, the Vienna Agreement Establishing an International Classication of the Figurative Elements of Marks of 1973, the Trademark Law Treaty (TLT) of 1994, and the Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trademarks of 2006. See also Zlatovi, D., Trademark Law (igovno pravo, in Croatian), Vizura, Zagreb, 2008, pp. 135, etc. 87 Berne Convention, Appendix, Article II, 9) (a) A license to make a translation of a work which has been published in printed or analogous forms of reproduction may also be granted to any broadcasting organization having its headquarters in a country referred to in paragraph (1), upon an application made to the competent authority of that country by the said organization, provided that all of the following conditions are met: (i) the translation is made from a copy made and acquired in accordance with the laws of the said country; (...) 88 Berne Convention, Article 16, [Infringing Copies: 1. Seizure; 2. Seizure on importation; 3. Applicable law] (1) Infringing copies of a work shall be liable to seizure in any country of the Union where the work enjoys legal protection. 89 Berne Convention, Article 2 [Protected Works: 1. Literary and artistic works; 2. Possible requirement of xation; 3. Derivative works; 4. Ofcial texts; 5. Collections; 6. Obligation to protect; beneciaries of protection; 7. Works of applied art and industrial designs; 8. News] (3) Translations, adaptations, arrangements of music and other alterations of a literary or artistic work shall be protected as original works without prejudice to the copyright in the original work.
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the efforts the ALAI and the famous author Victor Hugo used to provide authors with protection they have not had before on international level.90 Having in mind that the main purpose of the Convention text was the protection of authors, which is most likely why the term is mentioned more often than others. Without an extensive analysis, which we cannot conduct here, let us say that the term author is mentioned for utilitarian and pragmatic reasons, and it is not the Conventions intention to dene substantially the content of the term author, but to ensure the most extensive level of control over the economic use of his works. The term authorship appears about ten times, including its mention in headings and table of contents, but the far more relevant reference is in the context of determining what is included in moral rights under Article 6bis, where, even though the terms author and authorship are used insistently, there is actually no substantial relation with the terms used.91 The term work of art is mentioned only once, in the context of work of architecture, again completely arbitrarily, in the manner in which several other terms are used. So, apparently it was single members of the group working on the Convention draft(s) used particular terms in the article they were working on. This linguistic analysis would be quite intriguing if we would incorporate therein historical data on experts and national delegations working on every single text of the Convention as amended. Regrettably, there is no space for such analysis here, however, we are under the impression that we could demonstrate that many terms were used very inconsistently and their usage is grouped into sections prepared either by small groups of experts or related to the period of preparation of the single Convention text (Paris, Berlin, Brussels, Rome, Stockholm and Bern, some even several times).
Examples of National Legal Terminology:

Croatian Copyright Law92 is a modern law incorporating numerous modern-day solutions and is fully harmonized with EU acquis communautaire. A brief lexical
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Berne Convention, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works, 10-08-18, states: The Berne Convention was developed at the instigation of Victor Hugo of the Association Littraire et Artistique Internationalle. Thus it was inuenced by the French right of the author (droit dauteur), which contrasts with the Anglo-Saxon concept of copyright which only dealt with economic concerns. It is quite incredible, but a traditional and long-lasting organization as the ALAI has no article dedicated thereto in the Wikipedia, which is evidence of the marginalization of its activity in the public perception. ALAI has its own web site at: http://www.alai.org/index-a.php, 10-08-18. 91 Berne Convention, Article 6bis [Moral Rights: 1. To claim authorship; to object to certain modications and other derogatory actions; 2. After the authors death; 3. Means of redress] (1) Independently of the authors economic rights, and even after the transfer of the said rights, the author shall have the right to claim authorship of the work and to object to any distortion, mutilation or other modication of, or other derogatory action in relation to, the said work, which would be prejudicial to his honor or reputation. 92 Croatian Copyright and Related Rights Law, Ofcial Gazette, OG 167/03, 79/07, hereinafter referred to as CRRA.
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analysis reveals that the term author (Cro. autor) is used about twenty times in the text of the Law, the most distinct being the context laying down that the author of the work is always a natural person who has created the work.93 The adjective copyright/ authors (Cro. autorski) is used over four hundred times, predominantly as part of the syntagma autorska prava and autorsko djelo (copyrights and work of art, respectively) and is undoubtedly one of the most frequent terms in the Law. It is interesting to accentuate the disproportion between the use of the terms author and copyrights, and work of art, with large prevalence of the terms copyrights and copyright work. Without a detailed analysis, it would be difcult to establish the differences in the distribution among these two terms, and its relevance. We must certainly point out that the term work (of art) (Cro. djelo) appears in the text of the Law between ve and six hundred times, representing, thus, the prevailing term in the Law. The term copy (Cro. kopija) is used only ve times, twice in the context of photocopy (Cro. fotokopija, reprography) and three times in the authentic sense, which shall be analyzed in detail hereinbelow when discussing on the term copy as one of the key copyright terms. The term original (Cro. original) appears three times, in Art. 5, 6 and 116, which will be also discuss below when analyzing the term. The term source (Cro. izvor) is used ve to seven times, the adjective original, (Cro. izvorni, adj.) once, and the Croatian derivative of the latter original (Cro. izvornik, n.) is used about thirty times.
Fundamental Copyright Terms:

After the brief orientation lesson on the interpretation of the distribution of basic sculpture-related copyright terms in the rst part of the article and after the analysis of the basic copyright terminology in the legislative and treaty texts, and before embarking upon the analysis of colloquial copyright language, let us briey analyze the content of several fundamental copyright concepts these key terms indicate. We have chosen for this purpose only the fundamental terms that, in our opinion, are related to the essence of creation. These were the terms generally addressed in the research of the legislative and treaty terminologies above. We shall especially discuss the substantial content that we found missing in the legal terminology for the following terms: author, work of art, copy, original and reproduction.
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CRRA, Chapter 2, AUTHORS, The Author, Article 9 (1) The author of the work is a natural person who has created the work. (2) Copyright in a work belongs to its author by the mere act of the creation of the work.
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AUTHOR (Lat. auctor; founder, master, leader)94

An author, creator of a work represents undoubtedly one of the pillars of copyright and is one of basic terms in copyright law. Relatively late in its thousands-year long development law was ready to grant protection to the creator of new intangible contribution resulting from creative activity. The criteria required for that type of protection crystallized during the last three centuries and boil down to the denition of the type of contribution to be made in order to obtain protection. It is to be kept in mind, thereupon, that the law has never intended to quantify the amount of contribution to be generated by an author in order to acquire the status of author and the rights he is entitled to under copyright law. Anonymous authors of Wikipedia article Author point out: An author () is broadly dened as the person who originates or gives existence to anything and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created.95 The creative activity was recognized by the creators themselves, as well as by society and nally by the legal system as a specic effort whose result was subject to protection96. The term author is used both in the legal and artistic context signifying a person who has created a work of art (in the copyright sense), or work, piece,
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; author, c.1300, autor father, from O.Fr. auctor, from L. auctorem (nom. auctor) enlarger, founder, master, leader, lit. one who causes to grow, agent noun from auctus, pp. of augere to increase (see augment). Meaning one who sets forth written statements is from late 14c. The -t- changed to -th- on mistaken assumption of Greek origin. The verb is attested from 1590s. Related: Authored; authoring; authorial (1796), auteur, fr. 1962, from French, lit. author (see author), also authorship, c.1500, the function of being a writer, from author + -ship. Meaning literary origin is attested from 1825. In Croatian CRRA, Article 9, see note 94 above. 95 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Author http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author, 10-10-09: An author (sometimes, in reference to a woman author, authress or authoress) is broadly dened as the person who originates or gives existence to anything and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created. Narrowly dened, an author is the originator of any written work. It is interesting to take note that, whilst many other local Wikipedia web sites contain the equivalent of the English article on author, Croatian Wikipedia has no such article. This seems to conrm our thesis that Croatian society is largely blind to the values of intellectual property law and to the creativity preceding it. 96 From answers.com web site, http://www.answers.com, 10-08-10, the article on the noun author includes also the following quotation of a famous English author who describes the nature of creation based on his own experience: ...[W]riting means revealing oneself to excess .... This is why one can never be alone enough when one writes, why even night is not night enough. ... I have often thought that the best mode of life for me would be to sit in the innermost room of a spacious locked cellar with my writing things and a lamp. Food would be brought and always put down far away from my room, outside the cellars outermost door. The walk to my food, in my dressing gown, through the vaulted cellars, would be my only exercise. I would then return to my table, eat slowly and with deliberation, then start writing again at once. And how I would write! From what depths I would drag it up! [Franz Kafka] Anyone who has ever written is surely familiar with this description of writing as a form of creation and I quote this as a way of an excuse to my wife and my kids whom I have shamelessly asked to bear it.
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artifact (in the artistic sense). In direct connection with the term author (auctor) in the sphere of art lexicon is the term artist used to indicate one who is able by virtue of talent or skill to turn his creativity into a work of art. Although today the term indicates mainly one who makes artistic contributions in the eld of ne or dramatic arts, originally it denoted anyone skilled in a profession or craft. This connotation was particularly dominant after the Renaissance until the 19th century and the beginning of the romantic conception of authorship.97 If we focus for a moment on the denition quoted from Wikipedia, we must notice that the second part of the denition regards the element of responsibility the author holds for what is created. We should only stress that the question of responsibility constitutes, in our opinion, the central question of repositioning of the role of law in modern societies. We must emphasize that the decrease of the signicance of the role of law in modern societies will advance proportionally to the increase of the role of individuals responsibility in these societies. Why do we think that after many thousands years of restricted responsibility we are likely to see an increased responsibility of natural and legal persons? We regard that this increase is already visible and measurable, and derives from an exponential improvement of persons education, and the possibility of processing information in modern societies, described in the beginning of this article. We have no doubts that the phenomenon of increased responsibility will lead to the reduction of the role of third parties as arbitrators (adjudicators) in someone elses disputes. A conrmation thereof is found, for instance, in the appearance and increased recourse to mediation as a way of dispute resolution by the parties who have generated the dispute. Last decade saw a rapid growth in mediation services, and while penetration of mediation is lower than some proponents would hope for, our perception is that mediation is ourishing rapidly in modern context.98 We would like to make another remark. Inversely, if the author holds responsibility for what is created, to what extent is such responsibility imputable to the author of a copy, i.e., anonymous forger who has created an unauthorized copy? This moment reveals the inferior role of the one who creates a copy with no personal contribution, and lack of responsibility represents probably the point of divergence that denitively distinguishes the contribution based on forgery skills from true auAccording to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-14, http://www.etymonline.com; artist, 1580s, one who cultivates one of the ne arts, from M.Fr. artiste (14c.), from It. artista, from M.L. artista, from L. ars (see art (n.)). Originally used especially of the arts presided over by the Muses (history, poetry, comedy, tragedy, music, dancing, astronomy), but also used 17c. for one skilled in any art or craft (including professors, surgeons, craftsmen, cooks). Now especially of one who practices the arts of design or visual arts (a sense rst attested 1747), related to artiste, 1823, from Fr. artiste, a reborrowing of artist after the sense of artist had become limited toward the visual arts and especially painting. Also, artistic, 1753, from Fr. artistique, from artiste (see artist). Native artist-like was recorded from 1711, and artistry, artistic ability, 1837, from artist as chemistry from chemist, etc. 98 Web sites dedicated to various mediation organizations providing dispute resolution services to assist parties in conict resolve their problem: INTA, http://www.inta.org/index.php?option=com_co ntent&task=view&id=71&Itemid=219&getcontent=4,, CPR, http://www.cpradr.org/, IMI http://www.imimediation.org, AAA, http://www.adr.org, JAMS, http://www.jamsadr.org, NAF http://www.adrforum.com, CEDR http://www.cedr.co.uk, all 10-08-19, and many others.
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thors contribution. Moreover, according to modern researches the unethical component does not only remain with the author of a forgery, but is transferred also to the user of such artifact. Particularly interesting in that respect is a recent research conducted by a group of scientists led by Francesca Gino.99 Their conclusion is that use of counterfeits leads to increased users unethicality. Therefore, we will once more underline that constant, representing in our opinion not only the warp and woof of any reasonable legal regulation, but also a positive human quality in general, ethicality. We are of the view that the entire corpus of legal regulations of the whole human history could be reduced to: law is ethics for dummies.100 We have no doubts that repositioning of the role of legal systems in modern societies will lead to a greater signicance of ethicality, which will also be addressed below. One legal denition provides that the author of the work is the person who has created the work.101 The author is presumed to be a person whose name or pseudonym appears on the work, until proven to the contrary.102 The purpose of this provision is to facilitate the determination of authorship and seeks to introduce minimum formalities in denoting the work. It imposes to authors minimum discipline when disclosing their work, in order to avoid factual determination of authorship through the court. Other provisions on the copyright work provide in respect of collections
Gino, Francesca, Norton, M. I., and Ariely, D., (scientic article), The Counterfeit Self: The Deceptive Costs of Faking It, Psychological Science 21 (2010.): 712-720., and comments of the article: Fake and counterfeit goods promote unethical behaviour, Discover Magazine, Not exactly rocket science Blog, by Ed Yong, http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2010/04/09/fake-and-counterfeitgoods-promote-unethical-behaviour/, 10-08-10: Francesca Gino from the University of North Carolina has shown that counterfeit products actually make people behave more dishonestly. They cheat more in tests and they judge others as unethical with greater abandon. Even worse, theyre completely unaware of this impact. This effect is heavily ironic. People often buy fake goods to look good to other people. But Ginos study shows that these products can affect our moral choices precisely because they make us look worse to ourselves. As she writes, Feeling like a fraud makes people more likely to commit fraud., with quite interesting discussion going on in the blogs comments; and The Economist http://www.economist. com/node/16422414, Morality, Rose-coloured spectacles? 100 In homage to the for Dummies series of books by Copyright 2011 & Trademark by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Read more: http://www.dummies.com/#ixzz1UFjPpE4H. 101 CRRA, Article 9, see note 74 above. 102 CRRA, Presumption of Authorship and Exercise of Copyright where the Author is Anonymous, Article 12. (1) The author is presumed to be a person whose name, pseudonym, artists mark or code appears in the customary manner on the copies of the work or when the work is disclosed, until proven to the contrary. (2) If the author is not known, nor can be dened pursuant to the provision of paragraph (1) of this Article, the following shall be considered entitled to exercise copyright: 1. for a published work the publisher who has lawfully published the work, 2. for a disclosed, but unpublished work the person who has lawfully disclosed the work. 1. (3) The provisions of paragraph (2) of this Article shall cease to apply once the authors identity has become known, in which case the publisher or the person who disclosed the work, shall deliver to the author the economic benets derived from the exercise of his right, according to the rules concerning the legal status of a fair possessor who must deliver the object to its owner, unless otherwise provided for by a contract.
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that the author of a collection of works is a person who has created such collection, whereas the author of a translation, adaptation, musical arrangement or other alteration of the copyright work is a person who has translated, adapted, musically arranged or otherwise altered the copyright work. But who is really an author? Different attempts to dene an author or creator have been undertaken. Our preference is for some of the more intricate and profound denitions some of which reach into physics for explanation. We have already cited Oxford physics professor Vlatko Vedral. He is sharing with us the view that the most basic building block of reality is information in the sense of Claude Shannons theory of information. When we have ventured in that direction, our conclusions were much the same. When I wrote that: Creation is a sequence of choices made by the creator103 and have tried to quantify the level of creativity by stating that: The ability to open the choices is the artistic creativity104 back in the summer of 1990 my analysis rested on the theory of information.105 Vedral shows elegantly how an authors creativity is based on her/his choices: Here we can draw an analogy with sculpting. A sculptor starts with a block of stone out of which he intends to make a sculpture. In some sense, we can say that the initial untouched block contains all the possible sculptures to be made. This is a bit like our initial Universe where all possible realities exist at the same time, but are not actualized. The sculptor then makes the rst move, and chisels a piece away from the block. This rst cut by the artist breaks the symmetry and reduces the information contained in the initial block. We now no longer have all possible sculptures available...106 And as a sculptor continues his activity, based on his choices he creates our reality. This process of human creation is essentially the process of creating reality:
Vukmir, Mladen, Integral protection of Intellectual Property, unnished work published on Amazon Digital Text Platform, 2010, original text from 1990, (Kindle Edition - May 3, 2010.), http://www. amazon.com/Integral-Protection-Intellectual-Property-ebook/dp/B003KN3I94/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&m= ABZSE0W26BU7U&s=digital-text&qid=1281787230&sr=8-2, 10-08-14, Chapter 3, locations 1663 AK. ASIN: B003KN3I94 104 Vukmir, M., ibid., location 1684 AK. Also: But the choices which are more likely to be considered as legally relevant issues if author seeks the protection from infringement, can be more easily shown on the examples involving the forms of creativity which contain higher entropy, or the higher level of information, i.e. which require of the creator more choices made and done. The higher amount of choices opened by the creator, the higher level of creativity is involved in creation. location 1675 AK. 105 While it might be too lengthy to expose now that analysis that is undertaken in that work, we are gladly directing the reader to the text of ibidem publication from location 1607 to 1724 AK. While it is slightly embarrassing to reveal the youthful research that was neither properly studied nor polished to a publication requirements, I feel nowadays in the light of Prof. Vedrals research that it was quite a courageous undertaking for a young lawyer. However, in light of Prof. Vedral research that has begun some years after many of those courageous but not too well articulated ideas seem to have been vindicated. For this, I am deeply thankful to Prof. Vedral for his amazing book. 106 Vedral, V. id., location 2274 AK. I especially like the neat coincidence with this article in the fact that Prof. Vedral also uses sculpture as an example of creativity.
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And so it continues, with every next move that the sculptor makes the number of possible futures decrease. Once the sculpture is nished, one possibility is crystallized. Even then, there are more things that could be done to change the sculpture, so we never really arrive at something nal. Whenever we think we have something nal, the sculptor can always make another cut.107
WORK OF ART (Lat. artefact, ars+factum)108

Authors creation, or a work in copyright law is called work of art. It is to be kept in mind that the original meaning of the term art/ars is actually skill, craft, including, naturally, artistic creative skill. It is evident that this term originally indicated human creative ability using craft skills, and only secondarily in the artistic and legal context it refers to artistic, i.e., protected works. Therefore, it should not be controversial to assert that the legal requirement of a work to be literary, scientic or artistic is somewhat limiting toward the full scope of human creativity that might be protectable.109 In Croatian language work of art (Cro. autorsko djelo), appearing always in pair with the term author (Cro. autor), is the result of an individuals creative activity, the reection of his creative ability, an ability representing actually, as a nal consequence, the human extension of creation of material reality.110 What, in short, is the strange unit designated by the term, work? What is necessary to its composition, if a work is not something written by a person called an author? Difculties arise on all sides if we raise the question in this way. If an individual is not an author, what are we to make of those things he has written or said, left among his papers or communicated to others? Is this not properly a work? What, for instance, were Sades papers before he was consecrated as an author? Little more, perhaps, than rolls of paper on which he endlessly unraveled his fantasies while in prison.111
Vedral, V., ibid. location 2284 AK. The entire book of Prof. Vedral is fascinating. It rests on integrating knowledge of classical and quantum physics with various biological and social knowledge. It is profound yet accessible. 108 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; artefact, alternative spelling of artifact (q.v.)., artifact, 1821 (artefact) anything made by human art, from It. artefatto, from L. arte by skill (ablative of ars art; see art (n.)) + factum thing made, from facere to make, do (see factitious). Archaeological application dates from 1890. Artifactual (also artefactual) is recorded from 1950. 109 I remember our playful postgraduate student discussion with my friend and colleague Lic. Luis Schmidt Ruiz del Moral of Mexico in which we were exploring the possibility to protect culinary skills of the great chefs as a mixture of scenography and olfactory sculpture, and characteristic movements of great sport stars through choreography. We also considered possibility to build per se protection for those and other human creative skills that are not protected by traditional intellectual property rights. 110 See Vedral, V., id., Part 3, and Vukmir, M., Integral protection of Intellectual Property, unnished work published on Amazon Digital Text Platform, 2010, (Kindle Edition - May 3, 2010, Chapter 3. Vedral states, id., location 261 AK: Information is the language Nature uses to convey its messages and this information comes in discrete units. We use these units to construct our reality. This is essentially what I intended to argue in my old writing, information is the building block of capability of life to create material reality. 111 Foucault, Michel, Bouchard, Donald F., EDT, What is an Author? (Essay), p. 118.
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The question raised here by Foucault is deeply polemic, however, without being raised, the nature of creativity can hardly be properly understood. Work of art is one of the legally dened categories of copyright law. It seems that Foucault here describes creativity as a regular every-day phenomenon, almost an inevitable result of living. Works are continually developed throughout our lives, but until their creators are recognized as authors, they will have no status of a work of art. In copyright law this principle is reected in the nexus between work xation and individual rights ensuing from the act of creation.112 Generally speaking, this historical denition of work of art is completely consistent with the philosophical questioning of the nature of work and this aspect of copyright law demonstrates a fully adequate relation towards the phenomenon of creation in digital environment. The aspect in which the question of work, as a xed expression of an idea, will be put into question is when and if a direct network connection between human minds will become possible. In other words, rapid advances of brain-machine interface (BMI) technologies are leading us directly towards the possibility to exchange ideas digitally.113 In his contribution to the collection of essays This will Change Everything, Corey S. Powell, editor in chief of the Discover magazine states:
E.g. CRRA, II COPYRIGHT, Chapter 1 SUBJECT MATTERS, COPYRIGHT WORK, Article 5: 1. (1) A copyright work shall be an original intellectual creation in the literary, scientic and artistic domain, having an individual character, irrespective of the manner and form of its expression, its type, value or purpose, unless otherwise provided for in this Law. 1. (2) The Copyright works shall be in particular: works of language (written works, oral works, and computer programs), musical works with or without words, dramatic or dramatico-musical works, choreographic works and works of pantomime, works of visual art (in the eld of painting, sculpture, and graphics), irrespective of the material they are made of, and other works of visual arts works of architecture, works of applied art and industrial design, photographic works and works produced by a process similar to photography, audiovisual works (cinematographic works, and works created in a manner similar to cinematographic creation), cartographic works, presentations of a scientic or technical nature such as drawings, plan, sketches, tables, etc. 1. (3) The subject matter of copyright may be any copyright work, except the one, which cannot be such work by its nature, and the one for which the provisions of this Law provide that it cannot be the subject matter of copyright. 1. (4) The subject matter of copyright is the work as a whole, including an unnished work, the title of a work, and the parts thereof that fulll the pre-conditions set out in paragraph (1) of this Article. 1. (5) The title of the work, which does not fulll the pre-conditions for being the subject matter of copyright, and which has already been used for a certain work, shall not be used for the same kind of work, if such title is likely to create confusion as to the author of the work. 113 In his essay The Brain-Machine Interface in the collection This will Change Everything James Geary states, quoting Miguel Nicolelis, a Duke University neuroscientist and one of the pioneers of BMI: The bodys going to be very different a hundred years from now. In a centurys time, you could be lying on a beach on the east coast of Brazil, controlling a robotic device roving on the surface of Mars, and be subjected to both experiences simultaneously, as if you were in both places at once. The feedback from that robot billions of miles away will be perceived by the brain as if it was you up there. location 486 AK.
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Rudimentary brain prostheses and brain-machine interfaces already exist. Allowing one person to control another persons body would be a fairly simple extension of that technology. Enabling one person to transmit thoughts directly to another persons brain is a much trickier proposition, but not terribly far fetched, and it would break down one of the most profound isolations associated with the human condition. Broadcasting the overall state or mood of a brain would probably come rst. Transmitting specic, conscious thoughts would require elaborate physical implants to make sure the signals go to exactly the right place-but such implants could soon become common anyway, as people merge their brains with computer data networks. Prevailing chance for this happening makes it more a when rather than if. Obviously, the idea will be expressed digitally in such cases, but it will remain a challenge for the present copyright laws to protect such expression of the ideas adequately. In that case we will possibly have to nd another criterion and object of protection. However, we will be able, until then, to observe gradual increase of computer networking in order to draw certain conclusions on possible trends in the development of law.
COPY (Lat. copia; plenty, abundance)114

In many aspects this is the key term in our efforts to understand properly the challenges the whole copyright law system, and in many things also the whole IPR protection system are faced with today. Namely, copy linguistically originally denotes the concept of abundance. As such, its positive connotation intuitively cuts across the conception whereby copyright holders today try to demonstrate that multiplication of the number of copies represents a danger. Naturally, it is true that those controlling copying rights will not fully obtain such remuneration they could be
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; copy (v.), late 14 c., from O.Fr. copier (14c.), from M.L. copiare to transcribe, originally to write in plenty, from L. copia (see copy (n.)). Hence, to write an original text many times. Related: Copied; copying. Figurative sense of to imitate is attested from 1640s. Also, copyright, the right to make or sell copies, 1735, from copy + right. As verb, from 1806 (implied in pp. adj. copyrighted). According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; copy (n.), early 14 c., written account or record, from O.Fr. copie (13 c.), from M.L. copia reproduction, transcript, from L. copia plenty, means (see copious). Sense extended 15 c. to any specimen of writing (especially MS for a printer) and any reproduction or imitation. Related: copyist. According to Answers.com, http://www.answers.com, 10-08-19: copy (kp) n., pl., -ies. An imitation or reproduction of an original; a duplicate: a copy of a painting; made two copies of the letter. One specimen or example of a printed text or picture: an autographed copy of a novel. Material, such as manuscript, that is to be set in type. The words to be printed or spoken in an advertisement. Suitable source material for journalism: Celebrities make good copy; v., -ied, -ying, -ies., v.tr. To make a reproduction or copy of. To follow as model or pattern; imitate. See synonyms at imitate. v.intr. to make a copy or copies. To admit of being copied: colored ink that does not copy well. [Middle English copie, from Old French, from Medieval Latin cpia, transcript, from Latin, profusion.], also copyable copyable or copiable adj., copyright, the right to make or sell copies, 1735, from copy + right. As verb, from 1806 (implied in pp. adj. copyrighted).
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entitled to. Early theoreticians, as well as politicians, starting from USA constitutionmakers, already considered that society would be able to achieve its creativity reproduction systems potentials proportionally to its possibility of freely access works of art. Arguably, this entails copying. To be precise, their intention was to stimulate creative production by paying remuneration to authors, but they also wished to limit the scope and term of intellectual property rights as much as necessary to attain a balance between protection and free work of art access by members of the social community. In a way, this balance of interests has marked the entire history of the copyright system. The main effort and guarantee of IPR protection system success has in every historical era been lying exactly in a successful achievement of a balance between access to creative goods by the public and the possibility of remuneration for the author for his effort in the creative production. The reasons and need for recalibration of copyright creativity protection systems lurk behind the change of the meaning and role of copy in a digitally networked environment. With the general decrease of the relevance of the role of law in conditions of accelerated economy and costly legal system usage, the balance between social benet and individual interest has clearly shifted. It is likely to continue shifting even more if expected technical advancements in the eld of digital perception and communication by means of electronic components implanted in bodies turn real. In conditions of constant increase of creative contributions made by individuals and legal entities, and presuming that further creativity requires free access to past creativity results, the protection system must simply be adjusted so that access to the existing creativity products is made as simple as possible. All this notwithstanding the changes in perception of scarcity of goods in digital economy. Without entering into the discussion on the merit of assertions that scarcity issue is indeed different in digital from the material economy let us say that while we nd it difcult to accept that the value of economy in digital condition changes as a whole, we observe that the cost of distribution and copying of digital goods is lower than their equivalent in brick-and-mortar world. Returning to the issue of the shift towards the prosumers,115 when an increasing number of individuals are at the same time creators, they lose interest in protecting all the forms and results of their creativity. The new social balance built on public interest should recognize that and provide them, as well as other potential creators, with easy access to newly created works as a fuel for further creation. Perhaps, we could say that with an increasing number of authors, protection of all of their works in the same manner is becoming less important. It will become completely natural that particular authors will protect some of their works in one and others in another
Prosumer is as term coined from the words producer and consumer and is meant to denote the union of the two in a single author/consumer, enabled by modern means of communication, consumption and computation. Our preferred interpretation of the word rests on the meaning used by Marshall McLuhan and Barrington Nevitt suggested in their 1972 book Take Today, (p. 4) that with electric technology, the consumer would become a producer. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, article Prosumer, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosumer, 11-08-06.
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way. In other words, we think that it is only natural that an abundance of creativity will stimulate various modes of publication, exchange and distribution of creative results. In that sense, we believe that the most likely form of future protection systems will be in the exibility, variability and coexistence of present and new protection forms. We may presume that technology will make possible to monitor the usage of any work of art, enabling different protection regimes for each artistic work of a particular artist. This means that the years-long lasting status quo within collective protection systems, whereby the participation in many countries, is voluntary only up to the point of entry to such system will perhaps change. In many countries, once an author or a performer grants a power to a collecting society to collect his/her royalties, s/he cannot anymore keep some of his/her songs out of the system while the others remain in. It is an either/or situation, which has no exibility that would benet authors or performers who wish to have various regimes of protection for different works. It is either you-are-in, or you-are-out situation, which is evermore conicting with how many authors, see best for the exploitation for their particular works. Many authors and performers did express their desire for being able to renounce the benets of collective protections for some of their works, while keeping the benets of the collective protection systems for other of their works. In present situation this means that they think that their works would be sufciently protected through Creative Commons or another similar future system, exercising in each of said systems only specic rights from the traditional range of copyrights. This means that we can expect that authors will make available some of their works to the public domain, as an investment in their popularity, should the author consider it appropriate for the specic work of art in a particular phase of his career. This means that the future of copyright protection is likely to bring mixed or blended regimes as natural form of protection, considering that such combined system will in the best manner protect diverse authors needs and intents, contributing also to public interests. In the analysis of the term copy we believe that we should make a minor distinction between the term copia meaning plenty and the term duplicate.116 In that
According to Answer.com, http://www.answers.com/topic/copying, 10-08-18, copy (k p) n., pl., -ies. An imitation or reproduction of an original; a duplicate: a copy of a painting; made two copies of the letter. One specimen or example of a printed text or picture: an autographed copy of a novel. Material, such as manuscript, that is to be set in type. The words to be printed or spoken in an advertisement. Suitable source material for journalism: Celebrities make good copy., v., -ied, -ying, -ies., v.tr. To make a reproduction or copy of. To follow as model or pattern; imitate. See synonyms at imitate. v.intr. To make a copy or copies. To admit of being copied: colored ink that does not copy well. [Middle English copie, from Old French, from Medieval Latin cpia, transcript, from Latin, profusion.], copyable copyable or copiable adj. According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; duplicate (adj.) early 15c., from L. duplicatus, pp. of duplicare to double, from duo two + plicare to fold see ply (v.)). The noun is rst recorded 1530s. The verb is attested from 1620s. Related: Duplicated; duplicating, reduplicate, 1570, from M.L. reduplicatus, pp. of reduplicare to redouble, from re- back, again + L. duplicare to double (see duplicate). Also, duplication early 15c., from Fr. duplication (13c.), from L. duplicationem, noun of action from duplicare (see duplicate).
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sense a duplicate is a unique specimen of a copy, that is to say, a copy of which only one specimen was made, so that the object exists in two specimens. The meaning of the term is very clear in the Croatian translation of the verb duplicate, udvostruiti (to make twofold). We are of the view that this term has no special relevance for our analysis; therefore, we will not explain it in a separate section bellow. However, we should point out that we observe that the density of copying terminology is just as elaborate as the creativity terminology. Indeed, we must note that there is no difference in the terminological approach on an abstract level; therefore, the general impression left on who is observing these two phenomenologies is of a single human creativity unit. In order to comprehend the meaning of the term copy correctly, let us take a look at its meaning in the context of visual arts. We could say that in visual arts the term undoubtedly means a reproduction as faithful as possible of the original, preferably using the same material and technique. So, copying was valued according to the level of copy-makers artistic skills, the more faithful to the original it was, the more success it had. With the development of analogue reproduction techniques, the relation between copy and original has for the rst time signicantly changed, thus, Walter Benjamin says: () (T)echnical reproduction can put the copy of the original into situations which would be out of reach for the original itself. Above all, it enables the original to meet the beholder halfway, be it in the form of a photograph or a phonograph record. The cathedral leaves its locale to be received in the studio of a lover of art; the choral production, performed in an auditorium or in the open air, resounds in the drawing room.117 It is evident that already with the arrival of analogue mechanical reproduction means thinkers felt that the relation between the terms used to describe creativity was changing, i.e., that such relation would go through inevitable and irrecoverable modications. Yet, we claim that the profundity of change of the interrelation among these terms, including their meaning, in the context of mechanical reproduction appearance has by far been outreached by the advent of digital technologies. In that sense, digital copy must be described as the most faithful copy that has ever been available to people in their copying efforts history. Digital copy is absolutely identical to the original, to its source. For digitally created works this means that there is no difference between the digital original and its copies. Each copy is an original. Naturally, upon making digitalized models of material reality, digital copy/original will be as excellent as its digitalization process. In other words, if someone makes a low-quality copy of a real-world object, each of its following perfect and identical digital copies will be as imperfect as the rst digital copy or digital original. We can notice in this example a cancellation of the meaning original and copy
With regard to reproduction techniques see Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Duplicating machines, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplicating_machines, 10-08-18, 117 Benjamin, Walter, Underwood, J.A., The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, (essay) translator J. A. Underwood, Penguin Books, 2008, Section II.
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in the digital environment, and we can also see that neither molds118 appear in this process. Historically, a mold was an auxiliary instrument for making spatially formed objects. Today the mold is completely eliminated by digitalization, so that the form of the original object is stored in its original dimension in the form of electronic le. A complete digital creation will nowadays be the case with different forms of painting and musical works creation. Thus, it should be pointed out that many musical works will originate in an entirely digital environment. From composition, through playing and recording, to reproduction, musical works will be and remain completely digital. A similar fate will be shared by many visual and audiovisual works, which, except at the time of their reception by the audience, will not at any moment be made available to the analogue world. Today, photography as well as the majority of lm and television production is all generated in said domain. It is interesting also that we are today most probably moving towards the elimination of the analogue element in perception. As mentioned above, chip implantation technologies have advanced to such extent that in the future we will almost certainly be able to perceive digital contents by direct connections to our nervous system, without using our sensory organs, i.e., eyes, ears, nose.119 We should say that in the legitimate artistic sense copy has lost its past importance with the invention of photomechanical and galvanoplastic copying means, as described above or to be specied hereinbelow. The copy has maintained its importance principally when making it is used to study the skills. Namely, when conveying by hand, while looking at the original, not only the painting method (technical procedure: preparation, impasto and brushstroke) but also all the important components of the work, such as harmony of shapes, lines and colors are reproduced. It is particularly important to stress that the difference between copy and counterfeit is signicant. In fact, unlike counterfeits, copies are not intended to deceive; they are just the product of copying. Therefore, if a copy is declared as such and made upon authorization, it is completely legal also in the present protection system. If it is made without authorization, but declared as a copy, it may be completely legal since it might, depending on the circumstances of its use, fall under copyright exceptions.120 The problems nowadays arise in connection with the presence of copAccording to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; mold, hollow shape, 12c., metathesized from O.Fr. modle (Fr. moule), from L. modulum (nom. modulus) measure, model, dim. of modus manner (see mode(1)). Related: Molded. To break the mold render impossible the creation of another is from 1560s. 119 See note 27 above. With respect to the development of digital scent perception techniques see Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Machine olfaction, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_olfaction, 10-08-18, Electronic nose, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Nose, 10-08-18, Digital Scent Technology Blog, http://digiscents.com/blog/, 10-08-18, digital scent reproduction technology summary Digital Fragrances, http://we-make-money-not-art.com/archives/2005/04/ysophy-the-di.php, 10-08-18. Finally, web sites of Aromajet, producer of digital aroma generating technology, http://www.aromajet. com/port.htm, 10-08-18. 120 We consider copyright exceptions or limitations to be one of the central facilities of the copyright system. In comparison with the traditional property law they serve the role that servitudes played in
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ies/originals of digitalized works on the Internet, where their inherent reproducibility creates a situation in which the civilization of digital natives121 no longer deems necessary to request authorization for further copying. We shall discuss these issues in greater detail in the last part of this article.
ORIGINAL (Lat. originalis; authentic, genuine)122

After analyzing particular terminological and semantic aspects in the eld of ne arts, we have found that term original signies authentic, primary work. In a broader sense the term signies also work itself as opposed to its copies, imitations and falsications. In sculpture, more casts of a single work of art can have the character of original, so the terminological distinction in a way loses its original sense. Namely, if it is possible to have more originals that are multiplied, the question is what meaning should have the genuine term original. We point this out since this terminological distinction is important in the digital environment, where technologys inherent reasons prevent a distinction between original and copy, as they are identical. When we extend this vague lexical distinction from the artistic language to the copyright language we may notice that the uncertainty in the application of the term remains present in a completely identical manner. In fact, if there is a plurality of
the traditional property, enhanced however in the digital world where copying is inherent. CRRA includes an entire chapter on exceptions and limitations of copyright. Although space does not permit us to conduct here an analysis of their content, as we are convinced that these exceptions contain the essence of the copyright permanence and are central for its successful future, we will here at least list the articles including exceptions and limitations of Chapter 6 CRRA. CONTENT LIMITATIONS OF COPYRIGHT, Common Provisions, Article 80, Temporary Acts on the Reproduction of the Copyright Work, Article 81, Reproduction of the Work for Private or Other Personal Use, Article 82, Ephemeral Recordings, Article 83, Restrictions for the Benet of Particular Institutions, Article 84, Collections Intended for Teaching or Scientic Research, Article 85, Use of Copyright Works by Disabled Persons, Article 86, Use of Copyright Works for Judicial, Administrative or Other Ofcial Proceedings, Article 87, Use of the Works for Teaching, Article 88, Use of Copyright Works for the Purpose of Informing the Public, Article 89, Quotations, Article 90, Reproduction of Copyright Works Permanently Located in Public Places, Article 91, Reproduction of Architectural Structure, Article 92, Posters and Catalogues, Article 93, Parodies and Caricatures, Article 94, Use of Copyright Works for the Purpose of Presentation and Testing of Equipment, Article 95, Erasure of Recordings, Article 96, Use of a Database, Article 97, Obligations of the Rightsholder, Article 98. 121 John Palfrey, Urs Gasser, Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital Natives, Basic Books, 2010. 122 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; origin (n.) The point at which something comes into existence or from which it derives or jest derived. Ancestry: We cannot escape our origins, however hard we try (James Baldwin). The fact of originating; rise or derivation: The rumor had its origin in an impulsive remark. Anatomy. The point of attachment of a muscle that remains relatively xed during contraction. Mathematics. The point of intersection of coordinate axes, as in the Cartesian coordinate system. [Middle English origin, ancestry, from Latin org, orgin-, from orr, to arjeste, be born.] According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; original (adj.) early 14 c., from L. originalis, from originem (nom. origo) beginning, source, birth, from oriri to rise (see orchestra). The rst reference is in original sin innate depravity of mans nature, supposed to be inherited from Adam in consequence of the Fall. Related: Originally. Originality, 1742, probably after Fr. originalit (see original (adj.)).
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originals, the question is how to determine which samples are copies. Despite that many laws provide no denition of original of the work of art per se. In the legal texts we analyzed we did nd some more limited reference to term original, such as in the context of visual works of art.123 The relation between the visual works of art and works of art in general is neither systematic, nor is it specically precise in the particular segment. Besides the context of work of visual art, the term original (Cro. original or izvornik) is used on more occasions by the CRRA in a broader context as its dominant usage. It would be interesting to research comparatively whether the term original is elsewhere also used principally as a term characterizing the work of art, i.e., denoting the subjective novelty as its principal content. What is especially important to notice related to the term originality is that among copyright and art language there is a signicant difference in the meaning of original. Namely, the term originality when used in the dialogue among art historians and lawyers can raise misunderstanding. Lawyers standardly use it to indicate subjective novelty, i.e., the quality of the intangible component of the work of art, namely, with respect to the existing state of creativity, i.e., as an external characteristic of the work of art (it refers to the relation between the creator and earlier works). Art historians, on the other hand, use it with reference to the material object, i.e., artifact where the work of art is embodied for the rst time, referring to the internal relation between the creator and his work.124 We may thus say that originality of the creative achievement, i.e., the achievement of human spiritual creativity in the sense of copyright does not require absolute novelty, but the so-called subjective originality, or novelty in the subjective sense. The work of art is considered subjectively original if the author does not imitate another work known to him. Works of art can be further divided into absolutely original works and relatively original works or derived works.125 To sum it up colloIn the more strict sense, in the context of authors economic rights provisions, precisely with respect to resale right, CRRA, e.g. provides that in visual art the original work of art will be considered as such if it is made by the author himself. CRRA, Original of a Work of Visual Art, Article 35. (1) The original of a work of visual art, referred to in Article 34, paragraph (1) of this Law, shall mean a work of visual art such as picture, collage, painting, drawing, engraving, print, lithography, sculpture, tapestry, ceramics, glassware or photography, where created by the author himself. (2) Copies of works of visual art which have been made in limited numbers by the artist himself or under his authority, shall be considered to be originals of works of visual art, referred to in paragraph (1) of this Article. Such copies shall normally be numbered, signed or authorized by the author. The fact that in the absence of a broader, basic denition of the term original, said denition is provided in the context of a marginally applied right, perhaps reects the relation of the law and the essential content of the terms describing creativity. 124 Vukmir, Mladen, Feldman, Boidar, Zakon o Autorskom Pravu (in Croatian), Zagreb, 1994, ISBN 9539618703, pp. Also, this is to thank Ms. Janka Vukmir, an art historian specialized primarily in contemporary art who read the original version of this text and commented on the terminology used in its Croatian version. She also contributed to the discussion on the meaning of original. 125 CRRA; Alterations, Article 6: (1) Translations, adaptations, musical adaptations and other alterations of a copyright work, which are original individual intellectual creations, shall be protected as independent works. (2) Translations of ofcial texts in the domain of legislation, administration and judiciary, shall be protected, unless made for the purpose of ofcially informing the public and are disclosed as such.
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quially, the meaning of original in the art language means simply a copy designated as principal among various attempted renderings, while in legal language it denotes the copy that has evolved and has been rendered by an author being sufciently remote from the copies other than his/her own, that s/he has known prior to his rendering.
REPRODUCTION (Lat. reproductio; the act of producing again)126

The term reproduction is according to our semantic criteria also at the top of the pantheon of central copyright concepts it denotes. Namely, the act of copying is actually that process which serves to divulgate the idea xed in a work of art. In the trinity idea work of art copy the act enabling cycle repetition in successful works of art is the reproduction of the work. That is to say, to reproduce, i.e., to copy is a verb expressing actions that transform these more or less abstract nouns into processes leading to the creation of those new works that are not even in the stage of idea, nor would they without copying of earlier works easily enter into such stage. Namely, let us use here a gure of speech: if a copy is not consumed there will be no fuel to activate a new creation cycle. We remind that, in our opinion, the creativity at its rst stage requires internalization of information through consumption of a work of art in order to enable creation of new artistic contributions at all. Term reproduction is expressly dened by law that was subject of our study in the way that conrms our thesis. Namely, its denition is all-embracing and encompasses both rst copying of the original work and any following copy-making. The term incorporates any and all the acts of copying, from xing in the material medium, to electronic storage of the work as a form of xation, which is especially signicant for the present digital context analysis.127
(3) Provisions of paragraph (1) of this Article shall not affect the rights of the authors of the works, which have been altered. According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; parody, 1590s (rst recorded use in English is in Ben Jonson), from or in imitation of L. parodia parody, from Gk. paroidia burlesque song or poem, from para- beside, parallel to (in this case, mock-) + oide song, ode (see ode). The meaning poor or feeble imitation is from 1830. The verb is attested from c.1745. Related: Parodic; parodical. 126 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; reproduction, 1650s, act of forming again; see re- + production. Of generation of living things, from 1782; of sounds, from 1908. Meaning a copy is from 1807, also repro, 1946 as a shortening of reproduction. 127 Reproduction, Article 19 (1) The right of reproduction shall be the exclusive right of making one or more copies of copyright works, in whole or in part, directly or indirectly, temporarily or permanently, by any means and in any form. The right of reproduction includes xation that shall mean the xing of copyright works in the material or other corresponding medium. (2) A copyright work is xed and reproduced in particular by graphic procedures, photocopying and other photographic procedures with the same effect, by sound or visual recording, by building or carrying out works of architecture, by storage of the work in electronic form, and by xing of the work transmitted by computer network on a material medium.
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The term reproduction is in many aspects the reason for misunderstandings in the present interpretation of intellectual property law. It appears as if the possibility of easy, instant copying of digitalized works is the cause of difculties in the notion of the copying process. As if users of the digital reality feel that the inherent copying quality of any work in the digital environment in a way generates a state where copying is not such anymore. It appears that our heirs, generations born in a digital environment, have come to the conclusion that the digital reality does not actually involve copying, but every copy is de facto an original which exists simultaneously, or even permanently, in more places.128 Even if this was the case, we deem that the single copy, the omnipresent digital original, actually still partially belongs to its author in that timelessly constant way that has been the fundamental element of copyright law over its entire history. What is even more confusing is that contemporary authors, in particular the authors from the coming generation, which was born in the digital environment, actually often renounce by themselves their copyrights.129 However such right, which as all intellectual property rights is simply a civilizations form of ownership adjusted to the fact that the object of protection is intangible, continues to exist in its original form regardless of the new environment causing many renouncements by the authors. Therefore, we must not confuse the fact that today there are many different forms of compliance or relinquishing of the intellectual property rules over intangible creativity objects, with the simple fact that such right still exists in its original form. Because we do believe that property in the creative results is equally important in the context of digital at it was in the analogue reality. Let us use an analogy from natural sciences that may help us understand the foregoing. Take, for instance, one of the most ordinary physical facts, a force which every person (except for astronauts) encounters every day. Gravitation is something we accept without questioning; we almost abstract it out from our perception of the world. Even though our hand weights several kilos we feel such weight only if we devote particular attention to it. Also, when we decide to swim, we do not sink to the bottom of the lake, since we have learned to master gravity with swimming movements. Tens of thousands of years after our ancestors learned to swim, only a few generations before us, mankind mastered the art of ying. Thanks to appliances heavier than air we are today able to raise our bodies in the air and once again overcome the force of gravity without falling to the ground, at least in the majority of cases. As by the ability of swimming and ying we do not deny the existence of gravity, in the same way with digitalization and networking through computer connection we do not deny the existence of ownership rights over creative results we call intellectual property. As ying is enabled by a technology called airplane, we may expect to use on the Internet a technology that will enable greater freedom of movement and creation, while complying with property regulations as we had done in the analogue world.
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If this is bringing our civilization closer to the intuitive understanding of quantum behavior, so
be it! See the results of researches in the eld of authors and copyright work consumers behavior in digital environment attained by Counterfeiting & Piracy Research FPS Project. The Project has its own web site at http://www.counter2010.org/, 10-08-20.
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The question of development of technologies enabling to monitor works of art usage in a digitally networked context is one of the most controversial issues of development of human creativity protection. There is no doubt that the matter deserves our attention within the framework of this research. However, due to the space constraints we prefer not to attempt formulating here the full scope of preconditions on which we base our previsions about the future development and the role of this technology. Without arguing here our assertions, let us just say that DRM (Digital Rights Management) technologies and their equivalents are in our view going to play a crucial part in the transformation of the role of law by compensating a signicant part of present works of art management efforts and enabling to manage copying of works. The retreating present systems of collective enforcement of copyright and performers rights will be partly compensated by technical means, as will be the case with many segments of individual rights enforcement. We believe that, whilst copyright law will continue to exist and be recognized as so far, new forms of its usage shall generate changes in its denition and regulation methods.
Terminology of the Anti-piracy and Anti-counterfeiting Services Industries:

Although it has no roots in treaties or legislative language, the industry related to unauthorized copying prevention developed a language that has became common in the public discourse on rights infringement prevention. Hence, by industry dealing with prevention we do not refer only to rightholders, in particular multinational economic entities whose rights are mostly infringed, but also to service providers assisting rightholders in that combat. We refer to various types of copyright and related rights agents providing assistance, individually or collectively, in the protection of rights, i.e., distributors in the trade of goods, who occasionally also play a role in this ght. These activities involve equally also private investigators, marking technologies providers (holograms, computer codes, invisible ink, laser engraving, genetic ink, etc.), patent and trademark agents, and public authorities, such as the police, customs and other administrative oversight authorities. This entire ecosystem is oriented towards the maintenance and enforcement of intellectual property rights and jointly represents the principal generator of the lexicon we will analyze subsequently.
Colloquial Professional and Working Terminology:

The terms analyzed hereinbelow indicate some of the fundamental copying concepts. At the same time, the almost complete absence of these terms in treatys and legal language gave us the impetus to devote thereto a special section in this article. In fact, without ever being part of the legal lexicon and professional language, these terms have today become dominant in the social communication regarding the phenomena of copying of copyright-protected works.
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Plagiarism (Lat. plagium; stealing (of goods, human souls))130

Plagiarism is a term traditionally associated specically with copyright, and is not used in other intellectual property laws to indicate infringement of rights. It has been used since antiquity where, in the lack of developed legal language, a borrowed term originally indicating the crime of stealing a slave of another was used. Despite the long-time usage, this term does not appear in treatys or legislative language. In science and art the term plagiarism is used to indicate a work generated by use of someone elses ideas, entirely, in substantial or recognizable part, appropriation of the work of others represented as ones own. Traditionally, in science and art a plagiarist would be ethically stigmatized and his behavior would be often judged as socially unacceptable.131 In our opinion, it is important to bear in mind this constant, as many report on change of these principles in conditions of accelerated and increasingly deeper society digitalization.132
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; plagiarism, plagiarism, 1620s, from L. plagiarius kidnapper, seducer, plunderer, used in the sense of literary thief by Martial, from plagium kidnapping, from plaga snare, net, from PIE base *p(e)lag- at, spread out. Plagiary is attested from 1590s. Vukmir, M., The Roots (), in a footnote: Stephen P. Ladas, The International Protection of Literary and Artistic Property, (1938), Vol. I, at 13, also states that [t]he Roman booksellers did a ourishing business, and slave labor was employed to furnish copies promptly, cheaply, and on a large scale. For this, in the footnote 3 he refers to Friedlander, Roman Life and Manners under the Empire, III, 36. See also Streibich, op.cit., footnote 22, at 5. So Philip Wittenberg, The Protection of Literary Property, (1957, 1968), at 4-5, referring to Martial, Horace, Pliny, still concluding that there was no notion of copyright developed at the time. He especially singled out Atticus, who responding to the demand for many copies of the works of popular authors, went into the mass publishing business. He had a reader work with a large number of trained slaves who took the dictation directly in book form so that a thousand copies of a small volume of epigrams and poems could be produced in a day. The books thus produced were both plentiful and cheap, selling for as little as what would now be seventy-ve cents. Everyone, says Martial, has me in his pocket; everyone has me in his hands. Ladas, id., at 13. Although Ladas briey reports on the history of legal protection under Roman law, in the footnote 2 he cites sources for his opinion that plagiarism was undoubtedly condemned by public opinion. He refers to Martial, Epigrams to Fidentinus (Book I, LIII, LXII, LXVI), and Cicero, who complained that Epicurus borrowed bodily all his physical theories, his philosophy as well, spoiled what he borrowed and gave no credit at all, as in Snyder, The World Machine, at 134. He also cites Renouard, Traite des droits dauteurs (1838), at 16 in stating that the term in Roman law was derived from plagium - the crime of stealing a human being. 131 See ABA (American Bar Association) Journal article published in August 2010 entitled Law Prof Sees More Plagiarism, Allows Do-Overs, http://www.abajournal.com/weekly/article/law_prof_says_ more_students_are_plagiarizing_paper, 10-08-10. 132 See New York Times article published in July 2010, Plagiarism Lines Blur for Students in Digital Age, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/02/education/02cheat.html?_r=1, 10-07-30. The notion that there might be a new model young person, who freely borrows from the vortex of information to mash up a new creative work, fueled a brief brouhaha earlier this year with Helene Hegemann, a German teenager whose best-selling novel about Berlin club life turned out to include passages lifted from others. Instead of offering an abject apology, Ms. Hegemann insisted, Theres no such thing as originality anyway, just authenticity. A few critics rose to her defense, and the book remained a nalist for a ction prize (but did not win).
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Due to the individual and ethical responsibility components that have always been prominent in the assumption of somebody elses creativity without authorization and indication of the author, it is self-understandable that the legal system developed a proper solution in the form of introduction of authors moral (individual) right to recognition of authorship.133 At the same time, it should be taken into account that given its individual and ethical character the institute of incorrect indication, i.e., non-indication of authors name falls under the provisions on the protection of authors moral (individual) rights. The CRRA, as well as other copyright laws, regulates the issue of (non-)indication of the authors name upon exploitation of the work of art. The author is, thus, entitled to choose a pseudonym ensuring his anonymity with respect to the work, if he wishes so. Also, fake authorship is not permitted and the author has the right to oppose to the use of his name to indicate the work of another.134 As to plagiarized work, the author is entitled to oppose to the appropriation of authorship of his work by another person.
Piracy135
Piracy is a contemporary term having no roots in legal or treatys language, and it is used to indicate unauthorized copying activities related to works protected by copyrights and related rights. Nowadays, we often use the term anti-piracy to indicate ght against unauthorized copying of the objects embodying protected copyright and related rights. Curiously, the relatively new usage of this term caused necessary alignments of the newly introduce term with the existing meanings. For instance, in Croatian language, the term piracy (Cro. piratstvo) has been taken form the international terminology related to the ght against IP rights infringement. Early on, during the development of Croatian anti-piracy language the question of use of the term piracy (Cro. piratstvo) appeared. In fact, some were of the opinion that the term piratstvo was characteristic of the Serbian language, whereas gusarenje would be proper
In the following articles of Chapter 3.1 Moral Rights of the Author, the CRRA denes the scope of authors individual rights: Right of First Disclosure, Article 14, Right of Recognition of Authorship, Article 15, Right of Respect for the Work and Honor or Reputation of the Author, Article 16, Right of Revocation, Article 17. 134 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; pseudonym, 1706 (in pseudonymous), from Fr. pseudonyme (adj.), from Gk. pseudonymos having a false name, from pseudes false + onyma dial. form of name. Properly of made-up names; the name of an actual author or person of reputation, afxed to a work he or she did not write, is an allonym. An authors actual name afxed to his or her work is an autonym (1867). 135 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com, piracy early 15c., from M.L. piratia (see pirate). Also, pirate (n.) mid-13c., from O.Fr. pirate, from L. pirata sailor, sea robber, from Gk. peirates brigand, pirate, lit. one who attacks, from peiran to attack, make a hostile attempt on, try, from peira trial, an attempt, attack, from PIE base *per- try (cf. L. peritus experienced, periculum trial, experiment, risk, danger, see peril). Meaning one who takes anothers work without permission rst recorded 1701; sense of unlicensed radio broadcaster is from 1913. The verb is rst recorded 1570s. Related: Pirated; pirating.
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Croatian equivalent of the term. Thus, in the heated post-war discussions the introduction of the simple intellectual property terminology has caused rather intricate ideological discussions. Soon, a more informed point of view became crystallized where the term gusarenje (privateering) signies war-like act against vessels, authorized by government, committed for the purpose of attacking and taking the property of parties at war by authorized private entrepreneurs. Piracy, on the other hand, includes the same acts committed against all persons and vessels, without any criteria, including those sailing under their own national ag without any authorization by national authorities, being, therefore, completely illegal. In that sense, the term piracy was in the end correctly chosen to indicate unauthorized use of copyright works and works protected by related rights.
Counterfeits136
Historically the concept of counterfeiting, i.e., unauthorized manufacture of objects that are identical to or imitate the original object with the intent to defraud is called counterfeiting, whereas counterfeited objects counterfeits. Today, activities against illegal copying of objects protected by trademark and design law are called anticounterfeiting. Wikipedia species the following counterfeiting characteristics and elds: A counterfeit is an imitation, usually one that is made with the intent of fraudulently passing it off as genuine. Counterfeit products are often produced with the intent to take advantage of the superior value of the imitated product. The word counterfeit frequently describes both the forgeries of currency and documents, as well as the imitations of clothing, software, pharmaceuticals, watches, electronics and company logos and brands. In the case of goods, it results in patent infringement or trademark infringement.137 This description reveals that in the majority of cases production of counterfeits includes the intention to deceive, thus, we should also distinguish possible products that are imitations, but are not made with the intention to deceive. In that sense, we can refer to cases of putting into sale discarded goods which could be sold as defective goods or are intended for destruction, but were put on the market by mistake or some type of illegal intent. We also refer to goods manufactured with the rightholders approval, but put into the market in a quantity which, again by mistake or other type of illegal intent, may exceed the approved quantity, despite having all the characteristics of the genuine product. These are situations where, regardless of
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; counterfeit (v.) late 13c., from O.Fr. contrefait imitated (Mod.Fr. contrefait), pp. of contrefaire imitate, from contre- against (see contra-) + faire to make, to do (from L. facere; see factitious). M.L. contrafactio meant setting in opposition or contrast. Related: Counterfeited; counterfeiting. The noun and adj. are from late 14c. 137 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Counterfeit, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit, 10-08-01.
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the rightholders will, the authorized manufacturer puts into the market products that exceed the approved quantity or products which do not meet rightholders standards for nished goods. As portrayed above, human counterfeiting activity is documented also in antique societies and we could say that it is present in all periods of historical progress in unreduced form. Counterfeit may also indicate fake copyright protected work of art in cases where the work of art is made or sold as a product with the intent to deceive the buyer, such as e.g. counterfeit pen holders with copyright protected cartoon characters on it. If an artistic work of art is copied illegally we must clearly also distinguish the question of intention, considering that in the artistic eld a work of art that imitates the original made for the purpose of practicing the technique can be made for study of the techniques, and it can even have the copyright holders approval. However, if it is put into sale without the relevant approval its sale will remain illegal if the buyer is not informed that the product is not genuine. We should emphasize that many counterfeit works of visual art involve no copyright infringement, since inasmuch as the work is an imitation of another work of art, copyrights in such work of art, in cases of imitation of old masters, have often long expired.138 This will be the case with many counterfeits of notorious paintings of historical authors, but since copyright is expired or has never existed, the counterfeit has no element of copyright infringement, but only the intention to defraud. Counterfeits were often brought into association with forms of illegal trade and transportation named smuggling. Also, in global economy conditions these two types of activities often appear in pair and are difcult to separate. In other words, a consequence of distribution of illegally manufactured copyright protected goods in nearly all cases involves, as a form of supranational market distribution, some form of smuggling or other illegal sale, such as street hawking, outside set up and legally regulated channels. The term smuggling indicates principally illegal activities in violation of customs regulations. Furthermore, counterfeit goods often remain outside ordinary economic ows, involving also tax consequences, i.e., and scal losses for the country. Nowadays one of the often-smuggled types of branded goods is tobacco. In the past, tobacco smuggling, just as is the case with some type of illicit drugs today, were not branded, although they might have been identied to the customs by their geographic origin. With regard to smuggling it is important to point out that this illegal behavior is also loosing its signicance in digitalized reality. Given the non-territoriality of the Internet, there are no physical objects passing state borders, thus, we can not talk about the illegal act of smuggling in the traditional sense of the word. Fiscal losses, however, do still occur.
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, see e.g. the article on the famous forger Han van Meegeren: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_van_Meegeren, 10-08-02, and the forger of his forgeries, Jacques van Meegeren: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_van_Meegeren, 10-08-20.
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Falsication (Lat. falso; mistaken, false + fare; to make)139

Falsication (Cro. krivotvorina, Ger. falsikat, especially related to copyright infringement) is a traditional term indicating copies, imitations or alterations of works of art or other objects made to defraud or deceive, with the purpose of passing them off as genuine. In some European languages, such as in Croatian, falsication (Cro. falsikat) has been taken over as the fundamental term indicating fraudulent copies. Today, thus, in colloquial Croatian the term lanjak (fake, see below) indicates copy made with the intention to represent it as genuine. The term is used particularly in the context of counterfeits when creating trademark-protected products. Also, the term falsication is used both in trademark and copyright law. We may notice that the term falsication is nowadays used principally in the context of art counterfeits, and is consequently often used in the description of copyright protected works infringement. In the context of art, falsication implies that a falsier crated a completely new work, imitating insofar as possible the style and techniques of an artist or a particular era, with the intention to disguise that it is a copy. We are also familiar with partial falsication, a term used when the falsier places on the work of a less famous or completely unknown artist the signature of a famous artist to achieve a higher price. This category includes also original works of which only fragments survived, where the falsier reconstructed destroyed parts without indicating so. From the art trade viewpoint, particular collectors desire that the objects in their collections were not fragmented led to the restoration of works of art, i.e., reconstruction of destroyed parts by trying to cover up that the reconstructed parts were not part of the original work. The result thereof was actually analogue to the production of copies without the authorization of intellectual property rights holder, and hiding such fact from others. In this case the situation is additionally modied, in fact, it is possible even that the buyer orders such false reconstruction, which will become false since it is not visible and evident to others as a subsequent intervention into the work of art. The term forgery140 nearly overlaps with the meaning of the term falsication and to an even more all-embracing extent indicates all works produced imitating
According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; falsify, mid-15c., to prove false, from Fr. falsier, from L.L. falsicare, from L. falsicus making false, from falsus (see false). Related: Falsied; falsifying. Meaning to make false is from c.1500. Also false, c.1200, from O.Fr. fals, faus, from L. falsus deceived, erroneous, mistaken, pp. of fallere deceive, disappoint, of uncertain origin. Adopted into other Gmc. languages (cf. Ger. falsch, Dan. falsk), though English is the only one in which the active sense of deceitful (a secondary sense in L.) has predominated. Related: Falsely. (...) According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; pseudo, comb. form meaning false, feigned, erroneous, from Gk. pseudo-, comb. form of pseudes false, or pseudos falsehood, both from pseudein to deceive. As stand-alone, false, spurious; see pseudo-. According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; trump (v.), fabricate, devise, 1695, from trump deceive, cheat (1513), from M.E. trumpen (late 14c.), from O.Fr. tromper deceive, of uncertain origin, perhaps from a verb meaning to blow a trumpet. Trumped up false, concocted rst recorded 1728. 140 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; forgery, 1570s, from forge + -ery; forge (n.), late 13c., from O.Fr. forge, earlier faverge, from L. fabrica workshop,
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the original with the intention of covering up that the resulting copy is unauthorized. Due to more frequent use of the term forging in the context of trademark infringement, nowadays forgery is equally or more frequently used in the context of infringement of industrial rights than copyrights.
Fake141
Fake is a term used in colloquial context to describe or induce someone to believe that something is not real or that it is false. Today, this colloquialism complemented or even replaced the terms falsication and counterfeit to indicate an artefact created with the intention to deceive. We will, in this context, try to carry out here a broader analysis of the appearance of fake works of art and behavior. Wikipedia article on fake points theta, among others, fake can signify the following: The term fake in the context of ction can indicate novels with made-up characters and places. Furthermore, fake can signify ctional examples used as case studies in law, medicine, etc. Also, in the context of Internet, for instance Facebook or other social networking services, often photos do not represent real persons. In fact some users utilize transgender avatars, therefore, these identities may also be marked as false. In the context of ction in art we can say that fake indicates those dramatic portrayals in lms or plays showing invented, ctional events, in particular when romanticizing history in apparently documentary form. Furthermore, this implies that actors can show fake emotions (Cro. miranje routine acting based on improvisation, poor acting catering to audiences lowest instincts) and, nally, that a screenplay or playscript often include, according to the nature of things, use of fake objects, such as fake houses or whole settlements. Moreover, fakes can also signify certain choreography sports, for instance professional wrestling shows organized by World Wrestling Entertainment.142
from faber (gen. fabri) workman in hard materials, smith. Sense of to counterfeit is in Anglo-Fr. verb forger falsify, from O.Fr. forgier, from L. fabricari to frame, construct, build. Related: Forged; forger; forging, ery, sufx forming nouns meaning place for, art of, condition of, quantity of, from M.E. -erie, from L. arius. Also: forge (n.), late 13c., from O.Fr. forge, earlier faverge, from L. fabrica workshop, from faber (gen. fabri) workman in hard materials, smith. Sense of to counterfeit is in Anglo-Fr. verb forger falsify, from O.Fr. forgier, from L. fabricari to frame, construct, build. Related: Forged; forger; forging. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, see article Art Forgery, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_forgery, 10-08-10. The page contains many bibliographic and Internet references to this topic. 141 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; fake, attested in London criminal slang as adj. (1775), verb (1812), and noun (1851, of persons 1888), but probably older. A likely source is feague to spruce up by articial means, from Ger. fegen polish, sweep, also to clear out, plunder in colloquial use. Much of our early thieves slang is Ger. or Du., and dates from the Thirty Years War [Weekley]. Or it may be from L. facere to do. Related: Faked; faker; fakes; faking. Finally, the French adopted term faux is also used, according to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; Faux, from Fr. faux false (see false). Used with English words at least since 1676 (Etheredge, faux-prude). Used by itself, with French pronunciation, from 1980s to mean fake. 142 See e.g. organizations web site http://www.wwe.com/, 10-08-02, and Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, article Fake, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake, 10-08-20.
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Interestingly, in many languages word fake, or its translations became a name for the fact of civilization of the turn of the twentieth century. Big segments of populations in the emerging economies and in developing world come into contact with the prevailing global trends in big parts exclusively through fakes. It is no wonder that for the consumers who have only known fakes this fact of their lives becomes the true life itself and that the term fake acquires and almost endearing meaning. However, if we take into account the research by Prof. Gino it is important to keep in mind the ethical consequences to the society which using fake goods, even unknowingly, might have.143
Imitation (Lat. imitatio; the product of imitating; copy) 144

In art the term indicates a work of art that imitates an existing model, created without required creativity or inspiration. Perhaps, one way we could consider an imitaSee note 100 above. In private communications with my relatives and acquaintances, including the fb contacts which I had in connection to the publication of the results of this research I was surprised to which level people were ready to reject its ndings. One of the most frequent reactions was that the study must have been sponsored by the brand owners and presumably slanted, followed by the speculation that it was not properly conducted under the double-blind scientic requirement.http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_experiment, 11-08-07. These arguments is also repeated on the blogs commenting the ndings, but are apparently refuted by the study itself which seem to have found that people tend to behave less ethically even when they think that that the original objects they are using are fake. See e.g. http://madisonian.net/2009/12/16/the-costs-of-counterfeiting/, 11-08-07. Although people buy counterfeit products to signal positive traits, we show that wearing counterfeit products makes individuals feel less authentic and increases their likelihood of both behaving dishonestly and judging others as unethical. http://pss.sagepub.com/content/21/5/712, 11-08-07. 144 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; imitation, c.1500, from O.Fr. imitacion, from L. imitationem (nom. imitatio) imitation, from imitari to copy, portray, imitate, from PIE *im-eto-, from base *aim- copy. (Related to L. imago, see image). Also, eng. simulation, mid-14c., a false show, false profession, from O.Fr. simulation, from L. simulationem (nom. simulatio) an imitating, feigning, noun of action from simulare imitate, from stem of similis like (see similar). According to Answers.com, http://www.answers.com, 10-08-19, imitate ( m -tt), tr.v., -tated, -tating, -tates. To use or follow as a model. To copy the actions, appearance, mannerisms, or speech of; mimic: amused friends by imitating the teachers. To copy or use the style of: brushwork that imitates Rembrandt. To copy exactly; reproduce. To appear like; resemble. [Latin imitr, imitt-.] imitator imitator n. SYNONYMS imitate, copy, mimic, ape, parody, simulate. These verbs mean to follow something or someone taken as a model. To imitate is to act like or follow a pattern or style set by another: Art imitates Nature (Richard Franck). To copy is to duplicate an original as precisely as possible: His grandfather had spent a laborious life-time in Rome, copying the Old Masters for a generation which lacked the facile resource of the camera (Edith Wharton). To mimic is to make a close imitation, often with an intent to ridicule: fresh carved cedar, mimicking a glade/Of palm and plaintain (John Keats). To ape is to follow anothers lead slavishly but often with an absurd result: Those [superior] states of mind do not come from aping an alien culture (John Russell). To parody is either to imitate with comic effect or to attempt a serious imitation and fail: All these peculiarities [of Samuel Johnsons literary style] have been imitated by his admirers and parodied by his assailants (Thomas Macaulay). To simulate is to feign or falsely assume the appearance or character of something: I ... lay there simulating death (W.H. Hudson).
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tion is as a work of art that represents such low creativity level that it might never reach the step necessary to obtain copyright protection.145 Copyright law provides for a clear solution in a situation of authorized imitation of the original work. We refer to a form of humorous reinterpretation called parody, one of the named exceptions/limitations of copyright reecting historical human ability to comment its reality reinterpreting the original in a way that reects specic imitators viewpoint.146 We could say that it implies the principle of freedom of speech incorporated into copyright law from its beginnings. It is our opinion that when the historic pendulum of intellectual property protection reached its apogee at the turn of the centuries a decade ago, the important relation between free speech and intellectual property protection was tilted in favor of the legal protection of intellectual property. This trend seems to have peaked, and we are seeing now the balance being restored, sometimes to the surprise of the counsel and rights holders.147 The court in a recent case stated that: the importance of (artist) Pilsner (freedom of expression through her work) outweighs the importance of (rightholders) Vuitton (protection of property). The Danish artist Nadia Plesner who was a defendant in this case herself stated: Today is a great day for art. If I had lost this, I believe it would have caused many artists to censor their own work to avoid legal trouble. Now we have won back our freedom to make reference to the modern society we live in. Modern societies are often self-referencing and often correlated its use of symbols. Pop artists of the twentieth century introduced the usage of visual symbols that might have been or are a property of private parties. However, the free speech principles have been invoked justiably whenever the usage of proprietary symbols has been all except in direct competition to the goods and/or services of the rightsholder in such a symbol. The underlying social logic is presumably that, should the rightholders impose on the society the omnipresence of their signage, they sure should allow the society some degree of freedom to relate itself to that omnipresence which is sometimes seen as intrusive. We expect further redenition of this balance in the future, not least by the changes in consumers habits caused by the recent nancial and economic crises. Again, this research if taken further here, would lead us to stray too far of the overall picture we are trying to sketch. In the general, colloquial use imitation outside of the intellectual property terminology indicates an object made to be presented to others as something else, more valuable (e.g. brass as gold, etc.). In some languages anti-counterfeiting terminology it has become customary to refer to imitation as a product that is not identical to the original, but it is presented to potential buyer as sufciently similar to the
Nevertheless, we believe that such romantic interpretation, seeking special inspiration when creating is relatively conservative and modern copyright law is less concerned with the level of special inspiration as a precondition for obtaining protection than two centuries ago. 146 CRRA, Parodies and Caricatures, Article 94. It shall be permitted to transform the work into a parody or caricature to the extent necessary for the purpose thereof, by indicating the work being transformed and its author. 147 Words (artist) and (rightholder) added by this author. http://www.thelmagazine.com/TheMeasure/archives/2011/05/06/artist-wins-copyright-case-brought-by-louis-vuitton
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original to mislead him and incite consumption of the imitation. Most often, such imitations constitute trademark infringement or unfair competition practices.
Dummy, Hoax148
Before concluding this brief language analysis, there is no harm to present briey also other forms of imitation that, in different social contexts, in a way have the function to deceive others. This is to say that our societies in the elds outside of the intellectual property rights protection did develop a stance towards the copies. In fact, from the listing of these functions, as done by Wikipedia, ensues that these imitations have a social function and that they form integral part of human creative activity. A short listing of the terms used to indicate something false reveals that the same terms are used not only for objects, but the same term, in this case dummy or hoax, indicates the quality of being untrue and the ability to fool. We may talk about deception occasionally when using counterfeits, i.e., fake document or photo or other object. Also, use of decoy, for instance in the form of wood tank model intended to fool the enemy is a completely accepted military technique used, for instance, on a massive scale by the Allies before their landing in Normandy in 1944. Within the framework of artistic, for instance, performers activity we can also nd numerous examples of more or less fraudulent behavior. Not only do the performers often change their biographies arbitrarily or express deliberately planned standpoints in interviews to gain wider success, which do not correspond to their true beliefs, but we can also nd true distortions of reality, e.g. a stage performance with pre-recorded sound accompaniment. Thus, often in television studios performers actually only lip-synch or mime the playing of an instrument. They move their lips or drum sticks to match their own-recorded musical interpretation accompanying the apparent performance, or in some cases those of the others. It is interesting that this context does not invoke particularly high level of scorn, or is considered as an unethical practice, although we could think that some musically sensible conAccording to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http://www.etymonline.com; hoax, 1796 (v.), 1808 (n.), probably alt. of hocus conjurer, juggler (1640), or directly from hocus-pocus, also sham (n.), 1677, a trick, a hoax, a fraud, perhaps from sham, a northern dialectal variant of shame (q.v.). Sense of Something meant to be mistaken for something else is from 1728. The meaning in pillow-sham (1721) is from the notion of counterfeit. The adj. is attested from 1681; the verb from 1677. Shamateur amateur sportsman who acts like a professional is from 1896. There are many other terms in English used to indicate fakes, e.g.: according to Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010-08-04, http:// www.etymonline.com; dud, c.1825, person in ragged clothing, from duds (q.v.). Sense extended by 1897 to counterfeit thing, and 1908 to useless, inefcient person or thing. This led naturally in WWI to shell which fails to explode, and thence to expensive failure. Also bogus, counterfeit money, 1839, Amer.Eng., apparently from a slang word applied in Ohio in 1827 to a counterfeiters apparatus. Some trace this to tantrabobus, a late 18c. colloquial Vermont word for any odd-looking object, which may be connected to tantarabobs, recorded as Devonshire name for the devil. Others trace it to the same source as bogey (1). See also articles Dummy, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dummy, 10-08-08, and Hoax http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoax, 10-08-08 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
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sumer is likely to ignore these programs. This also, we believe, should be evaluated in light of the Prof. Gino research mentioned above. Deceiver, charlatan, e.g. a person who pretends to be a physician or lawyer is also called a dummy or hoax. In this sense the term implies an individual, and not the object, hence, specic terms are used for these two examples. In the case of physician we use the term quack doctor and in the case of lawyer we use quack lawyer. In the personal sense the terms implying falseness, dishonesty are used to indicate persons who tend to show different personalities with different people or who in different contexts express different opinions of the same person. Hence, in a depreciatory sense the term dummy or hoax is used to indicate a person who lies, pretends to be something he is not. Various types of substitutes have to a certain extent the role of deceiving object, and they can have the same purpose, integral or partial, of the original item they replace. In addition to food and avor substitutes, fake objects may replace other materials in order to obtain lower construction weight (e.g. imitation of oak beam hollow from the inside, but covered by a thin layer of oak veneer). Similarly, in the desire of sparing the life of animals it is possible to substitute meat with soya steak prepared so as to resemble a meat steak. Fur for coats will be substituted with a faithful or less faithful imitation of fur, although this is done nowadays for entirely different reasons such as ecology, and piano keys will have imitation ivory coating instead of the real material. There may be different reasons for using a fake item instead of the real one, principally when the real object does not exist because it was destroyed, lost or even invented. In the reconstruction of historical items, fakes may be created on the basis of historical data or speculations. In the reconstruction of invented items, for instance replicas of swards used in movies, some of which have become famous, as Excalibur, the gear of Indiana Jones, or Light Saber from Star Wars TV series, we come to the situation where objects of our imagination are transformed into reality. It is interesting that players of digital games use today the abovementioned 3D printing technology to print a 3D object of their interest for cyberspace games, which is almost akin to making a material object out of the immaterial, imaginary world.149 Fake versions can also be made for easily accessible originals, for the purpose of price reduction (e.g., articial fruit avor used in lollipops requires no real fruit or glass costume jewelry, vinyl imitation leather, etc.) or to reduce the risk of damage or theft (e.g., when a famous panting replica is placed into the original location, while the original painting is being exhibited elsewhere). Furthermore, the risk of injury from dangerous products can also be reduced in this manner (e.g., weapons used as movie props).
The Economist, A Factory on your Desk; Manufacturing: Producing solid objects, even quite complex ones, with 3-D printers is gradually becoming easier and cheaper. Might such devices some day become as widespread as document printers?, 09-09-03, http://www.economist.com/node/14299512, 10-08-15: Z Corporations machines are being used by companies to let players of video games, including World of Warcraft, Spore and Rock Band, produce colourful, 3-D models of their in-game characters, for example.
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Fake weapons may be used in bank robberies. Due to their similarity to real weapons, there are regulations that forbid taking fake automatic ries or other weapons to certain areas. In case the original product is illegal it may be replaced on the market with a modied substitute (e.g., replicas of automatic AK-47 rie made for the American civilian market capable of delivering only semi-automatic re). Similarly, substitutes are used also when the original requires a license for its operation, e.g., replica of intlock muskets without powder ignition. The history of warfare has also seen the construction of fake objects covering the actual movements or the presence of military forces to trick the enemy (e.g. wooden dummy versions of tanks parked at their regular places in military bases, while the actual tanks are secretly sent to the front), or targets resembling airplanes, pulled by actual airplanes from a certain distance. We will conclude here the analysis of the different aspects of reproduction and copying history. Let us now take a look at the likely development of technical means of control of copyright works usage.
Expected Framework of Contemporary Social Reorganizations and Future Role of Intellectual Property Law
A strong upsurge in creativity, copying and use of works of art resulting from the introduction of digital technologies and computer networking has lead to uncontrolled and uncontrollable increase of unauthorized copying. We have seen already that copying naturally ows from the way life creates and is being created. If the event we copy and we create changes, it naturally follows that systems of protection are likely to follow. Societies have already faced and must face even more deeply the fact that in the future authors will prefer to choose themselves among very different forms of protection of their works of art. Thereupon, in case the authors will settle for a regime of charging for and controlling of the use of their works in globalized digital economy conditions, it seems unlikely that law is to maintain the role of primary copyright protection system. We will try to delineate briey the trends and consequences of technical protection systems development, which along with current trends on a broader intellectual property front, are already giving rise to the marginalization of the role of law. It may be advisable, in this regard, to explore the trends observable in the eld of legal enforcement of intellectual property rights over the last decades. Some of the most notable events recently has been World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) accepting the challenge in rethinking the approach to copyright regulation. WIPO has reached out to some vocal proponents of changes in the copyright eld and has invited Prof. Lawrence Lessig to address their organization in October 2010, where he expressed the following thoughts: A functioning copyright system must provide the incentives needed for creative professionals, but must also protect the freedoms necessary for scientic research and amateur creativity to ourish.
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In the digital environment, copyright has failed at both, said Lessig. And its failure is not an accident, he said. Its implicit in the architecture of copyright as we inherited it. It does not make sense in a digital environment. The copyright system will never work on the internet. Itll either cause people to stop creating or itll cause a revolution, said Lessig, citing a growing system of copyright abolitionism online in response to a worrying tendency to criminalize the younger generation.150 Following up on this line of thought the WIPO Director General, Francis Gurry expressed his view on the issue in the following way: Digital technology and the Internet have had, and will continue to have, a radical impact on those balances. They have given a technological advantage to one side of the balance, the side of free availability, the consumer, social enjoyment and short-term gratication. History shows that it is an impossible task to reverse technological advantage and the change that it produces. Rather than resist it, we need to accept the inevitability of technological change and to seek an intelligent engagement with it. There is, in any case, no other choice either the copyright system adapts to the natural advantage that has evolved or it will perish.151 Not only did WIPO move. Various national governments are also pondering their options in response to the erosion of the copyright and intellectual property erosion. Recently, the UK Government has published its response to the Professor Hargreaves Review of Intellectual Property and Growth. The Hargreaves Report is an independent study commissioned by the Prime Minister in November 2010, and it is important in the context of our research as an illustration of the institutional awareness that the status quo is behind us in all senses. While acknowledging that the IP framework is a vital part of the business environment and it must adapt to new forms of innovation, creativity and technology, the Government has endorsed all ten of Professor Hargreaves recommendations related, among others to introduction of an copyright exchange in order to stimulate the copyrights market, and which would also include raising the market exploitation and accessibility of the orphan works. In our view, rather importantly it also suggest a reform of the copyright limitations/ exceptions is necessary.152
As reported by the IP Watch: http://www.ip-watch.org/weblog/2010/11/05/lessig-calls-forwipo-to-lead-overhaul-of-copyright-system/, 11-08-07 151 2011-02-25 at the Blue Sky Conference in Brisbane, Australia: http://www.wipo.int/aboutwipo/en/dgo/speeches/dg_blueskyconf_11.html, 11-08-07. Emphasis added. 152 Due to the space constraints we shall remain on the level of reference to the sources. In that sense the material is available at: http://www.culture.gov.uk/publications/8365.aspx, 11-08-10. The report is available at: http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipreview, 11-08-10, and the UK Government Response is available at: http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresponse, 11-08-10. The very rst words of the introduction by Prof. Ian Hargreave state: When the Prime Minister commissioned this review in November 2010, he did so in terms which some considered provocative. The Review was needed, the PM said, because of the risk that the current intellectual property framework might not be sufciently well designed to promote
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What consequences could have been noted in the eld of practice of intellectual property rights protection? Considering the simple fact that over the last ten or fteen years there has been a signicant change in the way trademark right holders exercise their rights as a consequence of their efforts to control unauthorized ow of counterfeit goods into the market, in analogy to similar practices in the eld of copyright law, we will understand more clearly the nature of the changes in the general position of law as means of social behavioral control in the eld of intellectual property rights protection. In fact, from a situation where exclusive individual trademark rights were standardly exercised initiating litigation more than a decade ago, through the phase in which recurring to criminal law and harnessing the power of the ex ofcio action by the enforcement apparatus became the standard, we have come to a state where rights are enforced through the administrative apparatus, such as customs authorities or inspection services interventions. Litigations are today used only in a small number of infringement cases involving no counterfeiting or piracy elements. Even in such cases rightholders more and more often chose a business-to-business approach and negotiations with infringing parties, rather than litigation. Even a signicant number of initiated litigations are concluded through negotiations, mediations and settlements. We could say that we have come to certain automatism in the enforcement of intellectual property rights resulting from rightholders aims to maintain their budget, in conditions of increased infringement, within acceptable limits. We would like, hence, to point out that due to high costs, complexity and ultimately the unpredictability of the legal proceeding, rightholders have difculties in pursuing traditional options in the legal enforcement of their rights. Based on a twenty-year work experience in the ght against piracy and counterfeiting and contacts with persons responsible for the implementation of antipiracy and anticounterfeiting programs on behalf of corporations holding intellectual property rights, we can conclude that such trend shall continue and due to accelerated economic ows in conditions of internet economy, the law will be less and less effective in said ght. Namely, as sales are intensied by Internet offer and ordering, and copies are becoming increasingly available with the digitalization of material reality, the length, intricacies, methodicalness and cost of the legal system are becoming less and less adequate for the purposes of the rights holders in the fast moving economies. All these difculties are being compounded by the nancial and economic crisis. Conversations with many rightholders conrmed such sentiments and increased skepticism towards the purpose of recurring to the legal system, on which basis they structure the budget for their campaigns. Furthermore, considering that international trade is conducted in cross-border environment, and besides the length of legal proceeding there is also the complex
innovation and growth in the UK economy. () Could it be true that laws designed more than three centuries ago with the express purpose of creating economic incentives for innovation by protecting creators rights are today obstructing innovation and economic growth? The short answer is: yes. () Copying has become basic to numerous industrial processes, as well as to a burgeoning service economy based upon the internet. Emphasis added.
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question of territorially or otherwise competent jurisdiction in multi-jurisdiction conditions, the recourse to law as the essential means in the ght for intellectual property protection does not seem probable. Naturally, law will continue to be present and used in specic conditions and cases, however, such use will remain in a very law percentage with respect to the total number of IPR enforcement matters. We may, in this regard, notice that the anti-piracy ght is often led by investigative means, and many large corporations, which are holders of rights, to an increasing extent hire persons having extensive police and investigation experience in their anti-piracy and anti-counterfeiting teams. Attempts to build legal campaigns on RoI (return on investment) or other protable bases can also be interpreted as an expression of rightholders frustrations over the efciency of legal proceedings. If we look at the nature of changes occurring within the legal system, we will conclude that there is an international consensus over constant growth of the scope of intellectual property rights protection. It seems self-evident that contemporary societies have reached the conclusion that intellectual property rights constitute the basic means for generating social wealth in post-industrial societies and they must be protected as central social values. Hence, we must not be surprised by the expansion of the role of criminal-law protection and continuous reinforcement of the protection regime in the civil law system. The litigation system has undergone numerous changes pointing towards profound doctrinal advances due to the perceived importance of IP protection in modern economies and obstacles to an efcient protection of IP rights. For instance, we refer to the enhancement of the institute of protection of particular IP holders rights to levels not available twenty years ago or earlier. The TRIPS Agreement153 has, thus, introduced into many jurisdictions the right to hold civil hearing for the purpose of adopting provisional measure without the presence of the other side (inaudita altera parte), which before its introduction was hardly conceivable. The right to statutory damages in the civil procedure, as it was introduced e.g. in Croatian copyright law, was practically contrary to the doctrinal interpretation of the civil law indemnity system in traditional civil law legal systems. In the decade prior to its introduction objections of various types have been expressed against its introduction, for instance incompatibility with fundamental theoretical principles of the indemnity institute in continental legal systems. Today, that system of statutory damages is completely accepted. Copyright term extension represents another hardly imaginable expansion of the scope of intellectual property rights. Nowadays, those who harbor anti-IP sentiments take the fact that said changes were brought without many discussions to which the general public would participate as evidence that such changes were made under the inuence of intellectual property rights holders and should in a way be seen as if they occurred contrary to social interests. We cannot agree with this standpoint. The fact that the general
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, article Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS, and World Trade Organization (WTO) web site related to TRIPS, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/trips_e.htm, 2011-01-09
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public has now nally taken part to intellectual property rights discussion is as welcomed as it is late. Nevertheless, in increasingly rapid social advancements it is better that this nally happened, although later than we could have hoped for. The nature of democratic discourse is such that delay is better than silence. We could say that public involvement is seen as a nal afrmation of the role of intellectual property rights in modern societies and that after two centuries, intellectual property law has in conditions of digitalization and networking experienced its historical acceptance among the majority of modern societies. Until approximately fteen years ago intellectual property rights were strictly in the work domain of experts and rightholders and the two-hundred-year development of the system was taking place far away from public scrutiny. Precisely the abrupt increase of the use of human knowledge-based creativity results has generated changes in economic systems where added value is brought by intellectual property rights. In conditions of reduced sovereignty, new mass consumers and new mass creators (prosumers) have suddenly started looking at the development of intellectual property rights with newly opened eyes. That is the reason lying behind recent controversies inciting intellectual property rights debates. When we add thereto the strong changes in social relations brought by new technologies, the situation becomes quite complex. Consequently, the discourse of those harboring anti-IP sentiments is often not fully taking into account the basic historically opposed poles of IPR protection systems. We have stated earlier that every successful intellectual property protection system had to satisfy the issues of stimulating creativity with enabling access, so that the society at large can continue creating. In this sense we feel that there is no full awareness of historical tensions dening the success of a protection system in the history of intellectual property rights. To repeat, we base this on the understanding that throughout history those protection systems that managed to regulate the balance between availability and exclusivity in a way that leveled between such opposed interests in the most adaptable and exible manner were the most successful. In addition, anyone engaged in intellectual property rights discourse must take into account questions of competition law, privacy, employment law and other related aspects as well. We wish to say that, despite their frequently very realistic, even practical solutions, it appears that anti-globalist activists do not take sufciently into account the swing of the social balance pendulum which must satisfy opposite interests of the broadest possible availability of the newly generated creativity result and the question of creators protection and reward so as to stimulate further creation. On the other hand the traditional community of intellectual property experts, after a hundred-year-long position of a social avant-garde, representing the expertise in a cutting edge legal eld, did not get used yet to be placed in a reactive posture and being marked as conservative. After some hundred fty years of seeing itself as proponents of modernity, intellectual property community did not wake up easily to the new reality where they were experts in a mature skill which is lagging behind the quickly emerging new social needs. Upon such change, the community of intellectual property rights experts and specialists took a defensive tone in the discussion in progress. Without looking into the proposals put forward by the other side, the
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IP community accuses activists of lack of understanding and knowledge of inherent system rules, similarly as we outlined above. Naturally, the future lies in the escalation of dialogue, rather than in the escalation of controversy. First signs of mutual appreciation are noticeable, from addressing the issue of anti-IP sentiments at conferences of intellectual property expert associations154, to, for instance, involvement of leading experts who until now have criticized the IPR system in the work of traditional authorities with leader role in the promotion of IP rights.155 In an increasingly frequent use of criminal law system for the purpose of enforcement of intellectual property rights in many countries there has also been a shift from procedure initiation by ling a claim or private suit to automatic (ex ofcio) action of the repressive apparatus resulting in increased short-term functionality of intellectual property rights protection system. However, limited resources of countries whose well-being was not built up on mature IP exploitation systems obstruct the full implementation of the principle of use of repressive apparatus to prevent infringement of IP rights. This, nevertheless, does not mean that further use of self-generated intellectual property and introduction of new forms of multilateral international agreements, such as the ACTA156, will enable these countries to reach a protection level similar to post-industrial countries. We have no intention to remain supercial when generally stating that, in our opinion, many countries misjudge that by introducing intellectual property rights protection system they actually protect only the interests of foreign intellectual property rights holders from developed countries. Although we cannot here embark upon economic analyses in support of this thesis, we believe that, even to a casual observer clearly emerges that the introduction of legal protection system cannot remain self-aimed, nor it realizes its full purpose protecting only the interests of foreign rightholders. What we wish to point at is that transition societies157 do not gain the full benet of acceptance of the system for the protection of intangible values generated by human knowledge-based creativity by bare introduction and improvement of the system for legal protection of intellectual property rights. The full sense of intangible assets acceptance by a society is achieved only by initiating systematic creation of added value by creating and using own locally generated intellectual property and creating economic value as a result of its exploitation. In
See International Trademark Association (INTA) Leadership meeting, Phoenix, AZ, USA, October 2010, where Anti IP sentiment panel was held. A follow up is planned for the next Annual Meeting. 155 Already mentioned meeting held in Geneve, 2010-10-27 announced on ofcial World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) web sites: http://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2010/ article_0045.html, 2011-01-09. Numerous comments have been released, e.g. on the following blog: http://hblog.org/2010/11/07/wipo-needs-a-blue-sky-commission-says-lessig/, 2011-01-09. Finally, video recording of the speech of Prof. Lawrence Lessig, a prominent critic of the traditional copyrights protection system can be seen on http://blip.tv/le/4341980, 2011-01-09. 156 Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, article Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement: http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement, 2011-01-09. 157 We do not refer only to transition from communist to capitalist system, but also to other transitions from non-democratic to democratic society or from industrial or pre-industrial to post-industrial society.
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other words, it is hard to accept a lack of political awareness of the importance of intangible values and intellectual property rights creation and protection, too frequently characterizing transition societies, which have decided to complete a transformation into democratic market societies. Although we could presume that such decision was part of informed political process and commitment, many transition societies seemed surprised of the extent to which intellectual property rights need to be respected in order to complete the transition to economies able of creating value based on human knowledge-based creativity results. At the same time, we are surprised of the lack of awareness of the necessity that such transition process is completed as soon as practicable, and that the transformation of intellectual property rights into central social value is inevitable to nalize the social wealth creation process. Since it is inevitable, we believe that this must become a social priority and gain adequate political status enabling rapid implementation in societies that have not yet completed such transition process. Many countries simply overlook their vital interests due to the inability of understanding the nature of such transition process, and lack of self-reliance into own resources. If no resources are available, they must be gradually brought in using international aid mechanisms. In our opinion it is hard to nd a suitable alternative to this type of social development. We would like to illustrate two moments that have in many aspects dened modern civilization. Firstly, many modern societies and their legislators were evidently of the opinion that intellectual property rights are a fundamental lever for the development of social wealth and that production of high value-added goods by use of human knowledge-based creativity represents an essential requirement for social development. This revelation has generated an impressive increase in intellectual property rights prominence and their protection in modern economies, at a level to be seen as civilization advancement, especially noticeable over the last hundred years. Despite the fact that the period was characterized by upward and downward trends in the signicance of intellectual property rights, we can conclude that regardless of the oscillations, the trend was constantly towards the increase of the importance of intellectual property rights. Secondly, it is important to understand that the role of law in the conception and protection of intangible values including human knowledge-based creativity protection rights (intellectual property rights) is at least two-fold. The rst step was to bring societies in the position of comprehending the value of intangible assets, to be achieved through the introduction of the right of invention, perceived reputation (by consumers) and other forms of creativity protection. Thus, patent rights, trademark rights, copyrights and other intellectual property rights were established. The second step was to secure the efcient enforcement of the IPRs protection for the ever more intense trade of goods having human creativity-based value added protected by intellectual property rights. We described above the course of this process in industrialized countries, especially upon their transition to post-industrial societies. In transition countries, on the other hand, there has been an inversion where political integration dynamics, in line with general commitment to transition, has, roughly speaking, rst resulted in the introduction of the protection system, and only subsequently, to gradual concep-
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tion of the value of intangible assets and use of intellectual property rights. In other words, transition societies did the top down, inverted introduction of intellectual property rights protection whereby the societies themselves were not producing any immaterial assets created on the basis of creativity protected by human knowledgebased creativity protection rights (intellectual property rights). Therefore, it must be kept in mind that the dynamics of these two processes have not always coincided in terms of time and territory. This has generated a situation where the civilization debate on the introduction of intellectual property rights has not always been conducted with the same understanding of the participants coming from the different sides. The fact that human creativity represents potentially the most uniformly distributed resource was not a plausible argument for countries who understood that their population did not have the same education level as the population in those countries already creating value-added by means of knowledge and knowledge-based creativity. At the same time their political elites did not fully understand nor trust that the wealth could be indeed created using the human creative resources. Even developed countries have gone through different periods where the pendulum of IP rights protection was swinging in different directions in the fear that overprotection of IP rights could negatively affect the functioning of the market, due to the monopoly and exclusive nature of those rights.158 This complexity further complicates present discussions with advocates against giving high social relevance to intellectual property rights, especially in light of global integration processes intensifying at the same time specic social problems in transition countries. The raised tone often characterizing current debates on the future of intellectual property rights is a consequence of never clearly dened discourse of discussion. In fact, in increasingly complex social development conditions or simply increasingly complex social communities, the general aversion against the role of law and the above described legal system imperfections inuences the debate on the role of intellectual property rights. Thereupon, the general public normally anticipates that the protection of human creativity is principally a question of protection of economic values, which only subordinately pertain to the legal category. Consequently, they deductively extend their aversion against the legal system and inability to comprehend the complexity and inconsistencies thereof also to economic aspects of intellectual property rights. Although we can observe some signs of the pendulum of increase of the role of intellectual property rights protection already being pulled away towards reduction of the scope of protection, the general historical trend is, still, towards increase. Argumentation and profundity of analysis of fundamental principles of intellectual property rights is perhaps unprecedented in conditions of modern debate. It seems as if our societies have only now become aware of the process going on for about three hundred years where humanity comE.g., in the USA, Supreme Court Justices, Douglas and Black, rendered a series of decisions aimed at restricting certain aspects of the power of intellectual property. E.g., in: Herbert Hovenkamp, Mark D. Janis, Mark A. Lemley, IP and antitrust: an analysis of antitrust principles applied to intellectual property law, Volume 1 of IP and Antitrust, Aspen Publishers Online, ISBN 0735522073, 9780735522077 2001, ISBN 0735528365, 9780735528369
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menced to perceive as assets the value added by human knowledge-based creativity, and are now trying to determine with delay whether we should benet therefrom. Of course, this is a consequence of the denitive penetration of intellectual property rights exploitation mechanism into increasingly wider social pores, thus, we could hardly imagine that these discussions could result in any radical turning away from intellectual property. As a civilization, we have simply reached a higher level of perception of intangible assets as part of the economic model we used over the last century, with sudden and momentous increase of the number of individuals perceiving such increase personally. Coincidently with changes in the notion of sovereignty, where paradoxically members of anti-globalist movements and multinational companies have both demonstrated with their actions the same modern tendency towards removing frontiers and synchronized action on a supranational front, the debate on intellectual property rights has taken more severe tones. Although intellectual property law was during the majority of its historical course a very international eld of relatively high legal harmonization between countries-nations, today the consequence of that period is actually one of the most anachronistic elements of intellectual property law. The principle of territoriality, a reection of the time of establishment of Paris and Berne Convention in late 19th century, has come into severe collision with modern global economy needs. Apparently there is no doubt that the costs and complexities caused by territorial validity of law and requirement of territorial law enforcement are actually an encumbrance on the economy aiming at conducting business activities at the lowest possible level of friction and cost. Hence, it seems logical to expect further evaluation of the possibility of overcoming the limitations set by traditional territorial organization, based on jurisdictions that coincide with the territories of sovereign national countries. We believe that the entire European integration project is undoubtedly the result of efforts to eliminate the inefciencies embodied in such inherited organization. Its success at the eld of intellectual property rights streamlining is so far a mixed bag. Having successfully integrated trademark and industrial design regimes, it paradoxically lags in achieving the same in the eld of patents, and in copyrights and neighboring rights, with its own specics for each of those elds. Over the last ten years many authors studied the changes digitalization and networking made to the law in general and in particular to the IPR system. Thus, Prof. Lessig asserted that computer code represents the architecture, i.e., structure of the system for future access to works of art.159 The theses proposed by Lessig over the
Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, 2011-01-06 outlines related to book X: The primary idea, as expressed in the title, is the notion that computer code (or West Coast Code, referring to Silicon Valley) may regulate conduct in much the same way that legal code (or East Coast Code, referring to Washington, D.C.) does. More generally, Lessig argues that there are actually four major regulators -- Law, Norms, Market, Architecture -- each of which has a profound impact on society and whose implications must be considered. The book includes a discussion of the implications for copyright law, arguing that cyberspace changes not only the technology of copying but also the power of law to protect against illegal copying (125-127). It goes so far as to argue that code displaces the balance in copyright law and doctrines such as fair use (135). If it becomes possible to license every aspect of use (by means of trusted systems created by code), then no aspect of use would have the protection of fair use (136). The importance of this side
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last decade have proven reasonable. Despite his sometimes rather gloomy worldview and his continuous accentuation of the dangers new technologies create to human freedoms, the fundamental processes are described with great precision and have endured the test of time. Even though we do not completely share his concern, we agree with Lessig that the quantity of new technologies introduced has alone generated a situation of easy misuse with respect to existing expectations. In that context, without going into technical and historical development details, we will try to portray in short possible trends in the development of the role of technical intellectual property rights management means. Namely, as we are of the view that due to the nature of digital networks and modern supranational markets the introduction of more efcient IPR management means than those available today is inevitable, we deem appropriate to incorporate in the conclusion of this text few predictions on that front.
Technical Means of Transmission of Information on Author, Work of Art, Usage Monitoring and Royalties Collection
The above title lists functions that are very often called Digital Rights Management (DRM) technologies. DRM technologies have been present both as a concept and through limited application in practice for about ten years, coinciding with the bandwidth development that was allowing an ever-increasing number of the works of art to be uploaded in the realms of the digital network. There is no harm in stating immediately that during their existence DRM technologies have caused great resistance to their diffusion and great skepticism towards their future application. Many point out that DRM history has actually always been accompanied by failures, or at least divergence from expectations and intentions. Less frequently, the term ACTPM (Access Control Technological Protection Measure) is used related to DRM to indicate technologies for controlling access to protected work, which enable setting of specic technical and commercial restrictions to types of use. Similar, but in our opinion extremely important, are technologies permitting ow of Right Management Information (RMI). Technologies enabling circulation of right management information include information enabling the identication of the work itself, the author of the work, particular rightholders and work of art usage terms. They are used by rightholders in digital environment for exclusive identication of their works of art or to provide information on the pertaining rights.160
of the story is generally underestimated and, as the examples will show, very often, code is even (only) considered as an extra tool to ght against unlimited copying. See Lawrence Lessig et al., Code: Version 2.0 (2006), ISBN 978-0-465-03914-2 - available as a free Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (bysa) licensed download. Part 1, pp. 38-61, is particularly relevant for this discourse. 160 For a more exhaustive view of the functioning of legal system in tandem with technical protection measures we refer to several modern solutions. For instance, Singapore regulations intend to introduce and protect DRM and RMI systems. Information are available on Intellectual Property Ofce of Singapore website: http://www.ipos.gov.sg/ipos/Template/LeftNavigation.aspx?NRMODE=Published&N RNODEGUID={405D00FB-F050-4084-9BFB-BC11232282DE}&NRORIGINALURL=%2eftNav%2fcop %2fSpecic% 2bCopyright%2bIssues.htm&NRCACHEHINT=Guest#Measures, 2011-01-08
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Digital Rights Management Systems - DRMs are a term commonly used to describe a wide range of technical measures that are licensed for controlling, measuring and enabling use of copyright protected digital content. Such systems cover a range of technologies with different purposes. The UK Intellectual Property Ofce on their web pages describes briey the following fundamental types of measures of protection against unauthorized copying: * Systems to identify owners of rights and give information on licensing, e.g. to enable collecting societies to accurately pay royalties - Rights management Information (RMI); * Copy protection systems to prevent unauthorized copying, e.g. may prevent consumers from transferring lms stored on DVD to a computer hard drive Technical Protection Measures (TPM)161 The website also outlines the aspects that DRM critics present as negative sides of DRM technology usage model. For instance, whilst it may be legitimate for rightholders, use of DRM tools to prevent copyrights infringement can also prevent permitted activities that fall under copyright exceptions. This constitutes one of the aspects whereon opponents of DRM technologies base their objections. Furthermore, many DRM technologies opponents constantly and obstinately point at both theoretical and technical limitations preventing successful implementation and introduction of DRM technologies. Among loud and eloquent opponents, a recent BBC article presents the viewpoint of Cory Doctorow: There are some who think DRM represents a blind alley for authors and publishers, and risks alienating readers. Cory Doctorow, novelist and co-editor of the Boing Boing blog, is one. [Anyone who believes in DRM] has never met a typist, he says. The ability to specify you will read a book in one way on one device is unreasonably proscriptive, Doctorow believes. DRM is not an effective way of preventing copying nor is it a good way of making sales. There isnt a customer out there saying what I need is an electronic book that does less. Its as if Borders do a deal with IKEA and say you can only read this book under an IKEA bulb and have it on IKEA shelves.162 Whilst we would generally advise refraining from drawing any conclusions on the basis of direct analogies between digital and analogue worlds, in our opinion Doctorow wishes just to point out that neither in the digital world consumers have any desire for any substantial rightholders intrusion or their intended limitations on
See UK Intellectual Property Ofce website: http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/copy/c-other/c-protect.htm, 2011-01-07. 162 BBC website, 2011-01-07 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8314092.stm. Moreover, we also refer to Doctorows elaborated argumentation in that regard in his book Content: Selected Essays on Technology, Creativity, Copyright, and the Future of the Future, Tachyon Publications, particularly in the essay Microsoft Research DRM Talk, pp. 3-26, including inbuilt cryptographic defects pp. 4-7. The essay The DRM Sausage Factory is also very critical towards the introduction of DRM technologies, pp. 27-37.
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the use of the work of art. In our view Doctorow has a point when he is defending users (prosumers) rights to use the work they have legally acquired in a measure commensurate to the inherent nature of the digital environment that really appears to be broader than the analogue one. Judging from the number of results from a simple Google search, the discussion on those issues seems to have taken the most polemic tone around 2007, when the largest number of skeptical articles and statements on DRM technologies can be found. Thereafter, it appears that the discussion lost its intensity and the number of articles is dropping, whereas the industry seems to be trying to nd a way to please consumers, whilst protecting its interests. The success of Apples iTunes service, which, during its advancement, has gone through various phases of use or rejection of DRM technologies, also seems to have contributed with its experience to moderate the tones of discussion which has become less and less general, and more and more focused on particular practical usage aspects. On the other hand, many renowned commentators state that, regardless of the frequent obstacles, DRM is here to stay.163 In fact, despite the tardive and disproportionate presence, more and more reproduction technologies are using DRM. Even extremely successful services such as Apples iTunes have managed to successfully incorporate DRM technologies without affecting its business model. Commentators state that DRM technologies will be accepted if they t consumers expectations, which seems to be the case. As long as consumers encounter no limitations to ordinary usage there is no resistance to technologies introduction. Among the rst ones to address this question, at the time of major debates on the future of DRM, was Prof. Odlyzko in his brief article on DRM technologies. After a short microeconomic and behavioral analysis of consumers, Odlyzko comes to the conclusion that due to the particular interaction of market laws, DRM technologies introduction and acceptance is simply inevitable. In his equally concise, but also equally systematic review of Odlyzkos text, Bradner summarizes the dilemmas on the low success of DRM technologies stating: Andrew politely says that the record of DRM so far is not too inspiring. That is far kinder than I feel. As far as I know every major DRM system where the customer has possession of the computer on which it is used has been broken. Organizations such as the Trusted Computing Group164 have been working diligently for years on ways to cripple your computer to protect (among other things) DRM systems.165
Slate magazine web site, brings an interview of 2010 where the columnist and author, Farhad Manjoo, claims that DRM technology is not dead. DRM Isnt Dead, 2011-01-07 http://www.slate. com/id/2208441/. Manjoo is author of the book True enough: learning to live in a post-fact society, John Wiley and Sons, 2008. Amongst others, Manjoo says: Surveys show that when asked about DRM, most people arent opposed to the concept. But there is an obvious downside to DRM as its been implementedby inconveniencing law-abiding users, copy protection increases the allure of illegal trading. 164 Trusted Computing Group web sites https://www.trustedcomputinggroup.org/home/, 2011-0108. 165 General review of Prof. Odlyzkos article on Networkworld web site where Scott Bradner approaches very concisely and critically towards Prof. Odlyzkos standpoints, reporting his statements:
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We must remember that the referenced text is entitled: Digital rights management: Desirable, inevitable, and almost irrelevant and in a way reects on contested aspects of DRM in the most straightforward, mathematical manner and in the end reaches the same conclusions as we deem likely use of DRM technologies is inevitable.166 Outlining the reasons of the modest success of DRM technologies, Odlyzko points out that DRM all too often gets in the way of full achievement of the value of intellectual property and concludes that whilst the role of DRM system shall not be crucial as it shall not contribute to the economic growth of the market, for many practical reasons and in many segments, including in particular those having greater economic value, it shall almost certainly lead to a situation where adjusted and barely noticeable DRM systems shall subsist.167 Thus, Brander also concludes that Odlyzkos analysis is plausible.168 We also embrace this assessment and give similar prognosis. It simply seems likely that in a technological era the most simple and convenient way to implement fundamental legal principles shall be by way of available technological means. As to the length of DRM technologies introduction, one of the major barriers to their acceptance remains nowadays their diversity and incompatibility. For instance,
http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2007/100207bradner.html, 2011-01-08. Bradner proposes other concise reviews of recent technological events: http://www.networkworld.com/columnists/2007/ 040207bradner.html, 2011-01-08. Bradner also refers to the archaic viewpoints of Richard Stallman, the Open Source Movement guru: http://www.linux.com/articles/25842. Other authors also devoted their research to the DRM issues with more or less focus: see e.g. Tobin, J., id. pp. 21-23. 166 The Article can be found on University of Michigan web site where, at the time, Odlyzko was Head of Mathematics Department: http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/drm2007.pdf, 2011-01-08. 167 Ibid.: pp. 2-3: So what is the likely role of DRM? It seems certain that huge further investments in research, development, and deployment will be made, since content industries love the concept and are prepared to pay for it. But actual applications are likely to be far more modest. Still, it is likely that DRM will play a non-trivial role. In the online world, speed is key, and even small speed bumps are often going to be sufcient to change peoples economic decisions [3]. So some small barriers, even ones that are laughably insecure, may very sufce to enable new economic models that let content industries nourish. Let us not forget the long history of content providers opposing new technologies and businesses models, from libraries to the VCR (which was likened by Jack Valenti, the main Hollywood spokesman, to the Boston Strangler) yet learning to live with and love them as time went on [5]. (And indeed, the VCR became one of the main money makers for the movie studios soon after Valentis infamous claim.) What we are likely to end up with is a huge universe of free material, much of it of little interest to all but a handful of people. But the usual Pareto and related distributions will probably apply, so that some of these creations will attract the publics attention, and will also bring in substantial money ows. Some may be from advertising, some from explicit payments that DRM will help stimulate. And there will likely continue to be very expensive items that will be produced by large organizations and will be protected heavily. And in this wide spectrum of information goods, DRM will play a role in extracting money ows to producers, professional and amateur alike, but this DRM is likely to be often very insecure. Usability will continue to matter much more than tight control. 168 Bradner id.: Andrew does conclude that DRM will not go away - the content owners just think there is far too much money at stake - it may be a lot to tem but its not a big part of the Internet economy. () His last point in the article is that DRM is too important to the content owners to go away but that usability will continue to matter much more than tight control. In the end, the title Andrew chose for his article says it all: Digital rights management: desirable, inevitable, and almost irrelevant.
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if you buy music through Microsofts Zune Store you will not be able to use it on Apples devices and vice versa. This applies to other technologies as well. We are, nevertheless, of the opinion that a more adequate approach to this issue resolution is within the framework of competition law (anti-trust and consumer protection), rather than in the eld of intellectual property law. We believe that it is important to emphasize this aspect to disburden the intensive tone of discussion with intellectual property rights opponents. With respect to the efforts to remove the obstacles emerging form the incompatibility and fragmentation of present DRM technologies, it may be illustrative to refer to European efforts to contribute to the unication of technological platforms. So, The Fraunhofer Institute for Open Communication Systems (Fokus) is conducting a project for generating of technical preconditions for technologies unication in Germany. The project is led under the name Webinos, as the technical solution should be rooted on web technologies utilization.169 It is possible that this or similar projects will in the future create conditions for the introduction of single DRM technologies. It is also imaginable that such technical efforts will be followed by the national and supranational legislators moves in the similar directions, comparable to the EU micro-USB mobile phones power supply standardization efforts.170 The feasibility of this project is, however, accompanied by considerable skepticism. Thus, it is probable that insecurity over denitive introduction will continue to mark the way towards DRM system acceptance and introduction. What seems likely is that any system of works of art usage monitoring and royalties collection will have success only if the technology on which it is based is technologically neutral, if it respects privacy to the extent required according to future digitalized societies standards and if it permits all protected content usage related actions required by consumers. Although we do not accept most of the Doctorows previsions, we agree with him on one important aspect: technologies that will succeed will have open standards, be interoperable and universal. Doctorow is absolutely right when bringing out and criticizing the imperfections of DRM systems that are not in line with such criteria. In our opinion he is wrong to claim that there is no place for DRM technologies. We believe that DRM technologies which t above-said criteria without limiting consumers expectations in terms of freedom of use will probably constitute the way technology might replace law in the control of the usage of works of art and royalties collection, where applicable. It is to be kept in mind that the technical possibilities of usage control and royalties collection are very extensive. For instance, owners of databases containing stock photos, i.e., images purchased from authors for the purpose of commercial licensing, protect their interests in a variety of technologically developed ways. ProBBC News web site, Technology, 2010-10-22: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology11389416, 2011-01-09. 170 See e.g., 2011-01-09: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/rtte/chargers/index_en.htm, http:// phandroid.com/2009/06/30/microusb-becomes-european-standard-in-2010/, http://www.onechargerforall.eu/en/
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fessionals of the industry, whose interest is to control unauthorized use of the photos they have rights in, use various computer programs similar to spiders and crawlers to track usage, authorized or not, of their photos on the Internet. On a sample of digital matrix of only few pixels these programs can detect whether a particular photo has been used. A minimal sample of a few pixels is sufcient, since the probability that their combination overlap with another photograph is so low that the uniqueness of each photograph can be determined almost perfectly and without the use of dedicated DRM protection system. In other words, technical solutions must not necessarily be based on cryptography principles to conduct successful control over works of art usage. There is no doubt that the same can be performed on databases of any other digitalized work of art. Automatized or semi-automatized systems of delivery of royalties payment requests to detected unauthorized users is part of a monitoring system which only in extreme cases of refused cooperation result in legal enforcement of intellectual property rights. Hence, different forms of electronic monitoring, use and royalties collection can be achieved even without the problem of cryptographic access restrictions described by Doctorow. Of course, these types of access again raise questions of privacy and access to computers without the owners consent, and we understand that their adversaries are opposed to such in principle. At the same time, we believe that the notion of privacy will also go through further changes. Without entering into discussions on possible progresses of this issue, we must stress that researchers and commentators seem to agree on the fact that privacy is intensely eroding away. Whilst many are concerned with this course of events, we shall here only refer to the bibliography of this article for some of the titles addressing the issue of privacy vanishing. It is not very opportune to introduce at the end of a so extensive text a topic that would require special consideration, however, considering the relevance and unbreakable connection between these issues in modern societies, we believe that at least a few brief comments explaining the context of our anticipations must be made. Those surprised by the easiness of privacy erosion should bear in mind a thesis explaining such phenomenon. Namely, we may notice that as long as an activity is not illegal, nothing seems to be holding individuals to maintain their behavior private, provided that other persons in the social interaction show the same behavioral pattern. This dynamics leads to rapid change of the perception of the information representing the private sphere and year after year we witness a gradual reduction of the limits of what used to be considered private and is not subject to intrusion. So long as the persons feel they are in control of their information they seem to be willing to share them. Only if they feel that the information that they would otherwise be willing to share is obtained without their consent and bypassing the controls they believed they have had, will they object.171
During the preparation of the last version of this article the phone-hacking scandal was unfolding in the UK. Unauthorized access to users phone mailboxes caused a huge outcry. Interestingly, on the sides some individuals have suggested that the practice was so widespread and well known that many public gures were deliberately leaving their passwords on the default value, thus enabling the journalists to pore over their private records. BBC Radio 2, Daily ail, The Guardian reporting in mid July 2011.
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We believe that these trends will also contribute to easier introduction of DRM systems in the near future. When we observe with what easiness many music lovers permit to scrobblers such as Last.fm or Apples Ping to collect information on their consumer behavior model, clearly the conception of privacy is very individual. In fact, their desire to provide their friends with guidance on their musical taste has in many cases prevailed over any possible hesitation towards possible use of such information for prole-making by corporations having access to such information. The long-lasting privacy restriction process has generated different reactions, but they were limited to a small segment of members of the digital world and to a somewhat larger number of persons who are not part of the digital environment and are concerned with changes whose extent and deepness they can assess only with difculties.172 Actually some governments in countries that try to protect such segment of population leave the impression of anachronistic, rather than real protectors of such group of their voters. We are not underestimating here the dangers and unethicality of unauthorized gathering and use of private information, but we are of the view that we can expect great further re-examinations of the scope of traditional persons rights to privacy. In order for the DRM system to succeed, consumers desires and unpredictable expectations regarding the freedom of use of works of art in conditions of digitalized networking must be consistent with the restriction levels set by the technology. This means, for instance, that consumers would need to agree that it is cool to pay usage fees. We presume that this condition will be met when rightholders agree to make their contents available for regular private use at an acceptable price and within the functional framework consumers consider acceptable. When this economic framework becomes manifest, individuals are likely to accept such social consensus, including the technical measures of its implementation. We would like to provide specic economic ndings and researches in support of the above, but we shall refrain therefrom in this article. It is also interesting to give consideration to the results of a research conducted by a group of scientists in the interdisciplinary European FP7 project named COUNTER.173 Sociologists, marketing experts, economists and legal practitioners from ve European universities conducted a research on customer behavior in digital environment and reached several conclusions. Even though, while we are writing this article, we are familiar with several preliminary results, we look forward to the nal project report which will certainly reveal further possible trends in the development of works of art protection system in postmodern digital networking conditions. A project such as COUNTER is, in our opinion, very important for its interdiscipli-
It was interesting to see the reaction the German citizens expressed towards the Google cameras recording the streets of Germany. Media were making strides at explaining this particular behaviour on the historic reasons, while the citizens of some other countries seemed to be totally unfazed by the same process. When it was discovered that Google collected some personal data, such as network access passwords in similar instances a much bigger outcry resulted much more broadly. 173 See EU web site: http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/361_en.html, 2011-0109, providing project coordinates, and project web site: http://www.counter2010.org/, 2011-01-09.
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nary approach. Results were sought by a team of legal practitioners, economists, psychologists and marketing experts and this all-embracing character has certain qualities that mono-disciplinary teams simply do not have. When we add also the nature of modern consumer behavior in digital environment, dictated by generations of digital natives, it is hard to leave the research and conclusion drawing to experts of a generation that simply lives in a different environment. Considering that the generation of digital natives will soon take over leading managing and political roles in our society, we must be ready for changes in the assessment and decisionmaking structure of phenomena such as piracy seen from different angles than they are perceived today.174 When authors who study generations of digital natives come through their analyses of user technology relations to conclusions that the issue of new generations relation towards innovations and law is deeply conictual, we believe that such ndings must be taken into analysis also by us, legal professionals. In the book Digital Natives, after analyzing the sharing phenomenon (sharing of digital les), the authors conclude that: In a way unintended by the courts involved, copyright law in todays quicksilver technological environment has a negative impact on innovation innovation being the goal that intellectual property law is supposed to serve in the rst place. () Probably the most important lesson of all, however, is that all these issues are not things that can be delegated completely to lawyers and lobbyists. Copyright legislation, in particular, shapes the further evolution of technology. ()175 It is interesting that in the further analysis authors make an attempt to provide several guidelines enabling societies to nd a way out of the current situation whose resolution seams difcult to achieve by existing principles. In doing so they are led by the same instinct as we are: a period of experimentation with the clear goal of searching for the most successful creative result where present commercial interests would be subordinate to the different emerging dominant business relation models. In any case of doubt, it seems that authors propose to follow ethical norms and principles until new rules appear and solidify and to use legal rights in ways consistent with the purpose and ethicality of social behavior.176 We are not putting forward these conclusions as ours, as we would not regard them necessarily conclusive and complete enough. We deem them relevant nevertheless, as they are oriented towards the afrmation of ethicality and reasonability instead of hasty legislation of ever more rules that in a digital environment seem to gradually be losing sense. It appears that they are ready to accept that in the near future we will not be able to
Analysis of the digital natives relation towards piracy is provided, e.g. by Palfrey, John, Gasser, Urs, Born Digital: Understanding the First Generation of Digital Natives, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 136-150, in particular pp. 137 and 142, and related to DRM 145-147. Of course, Lessig analyses the problem in its numerous components with signicant analytical efforts and appropriate results. 175 Ibid. pp. 147-148. 176 Ibid. pp. 150-153.
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solve all similar situations in the same established ways. We believe that the time of attempted achievements of consistency of legal systems is irrevocably gone and in the kaleidoscope of facts emerging from thousands of relations in interaction-saturated information societies it is better to abandon consistency scaffolding in favor of ethical integrity foundations whose absence is now so alarmingly evident to the digitally-wired world population.177 If we go back to the practical aspects of the necessity to reward authors endeavor so as to encourage further creativity, we are convinced that the existing model based on romantic nineteenth-century visions of creativity is also subject to the critical judgment of the generation of digital natives. Naturally, we have no intention of disqualifying the model itself; there is nothing inherently bad in a romantic creative vision of an inspired individual. We simply believe that this is only one of the creativity models to be considered and its dominance within the present legislative model is potentially harmful. What needs to be done is to put such model into valid relative relation with the other models of creativity, especially collaborative models, characterizing digital environment and massively, serially, creative societies in order to derive benet from a historical perspective as enabled by the privilege of intimacy with historical models. It is not only us who note that present policy makers and those thinkers who are now at the peak of their output hold especial responsibility for opening way to the ideas that might be more applicable to the present problems in regulating copyright. Others have noted that: It is a year where we should denitively recognize that we live in a completely new reality. The context for global cooperation, for national policies and for business models has substantially if not fundamentally changed. New movers have emerged at a much greater speed than previously foreseen. The Millennials, a generation born digital, will have a much stronger impact on social behaviour than we currently assume.178 We are not particularly skeptical towards the survival of royalty-based works of art exploitation models and nd them certain to survive. We simply believe that in the future authors will more frequently willfully chose various models of usage of their works which will be distinguished both with respect to the single works and the different contexts of their exploitation. Authors will likely have at their disposal greater freedom of choice over business and legal models of exploitation of their works, whose monitoring and diversity will be ensured by the technology itself, i.e., technological intellectual property rights management means (i.e. DRM/RMI). From the consumers point of view we anticipate also a continuation of the exibility period. In other words, when contents will be available at very low prices,
Rather than quoting from it, we should direct interested reader to Prof. Vlatko Vedrals book quoted several time hereinabove. The profound questions of correlation, information and entropy that so aptly describe and explain this unprecedented social moment we are living are good way to understand by analogy the social processes we have tried to capture and explain in this article. 178 The Economist magazine, article: The predictions of Davos-man, Klaus Schwab, http://www. economist.com/blogs/theworldin2011/2010/11/predictions_davos-man_klaus_schwab, 11-08-11
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with minimal technological friction, i.e., with no further consumers effort, consumers will probably start accepting payment of low personal usage royalties in an increasing number of cases. Thereupon, a redenition of private versus commercial exploitation in a digitally networked environment is required, as we must keep in mind that the purpose and imminent characteristic of exploitation of any work of art in digitally networked environment is content sharing. The points at which such shared private use becomes commercial use will emerge gradually. This might easily be the central point of the future copyright protection systems, technologically based or otherwise. Finally, the issue of privacy, i.e., amount of information users agree to transfer to the holders and their technological agents must be dened according to the expectations of the generation raised in a continuous decline of privacy brought by current Lords of the Internet, leading to increasing restriction of the private sphere with no major frictions thus far. In short, everything that has been happening recently in the eld of copyright management suggests probable increase of the role of technical usage monitoring means (DRM/RMI) principally because such way of use is inherently consistent with digitally networked environment and it is the simplest way to fulll its task.
Instead of a Conclusion
After being present in modern societies for over two hundred years, intellectual property is starting to an increasing extent to be seen as a fact of civilization. Assuming gradually the role of underlying element for creating wealth in modern societies and complementing traditional property, said fact is still becoming subject of debates and polemics. Present polemical tones of discussion over intellectual property rights are, in our opinion, a direct consequence of increased real presence of those rights in modern societies. Perhaps more than ever before in its history, intellectual property has become a controversial topic implying no easy social consensus. This, in our opinion, is not a result of the fact that intellectual property would in a way become more controversial than in another phase of its history, but simply a consequence of the convergence of two moments: First: Intellectual property is indeed for the rst time at the threshold of general social perception, where the emergence of these rights is noticed by the major part of the social community. Current suspicion on the possibility of achieving social wealth through use of intangible goods contributes to the skepticism towards the importance of protecting those rights. This distrust seems more pronounced in societies with a lower average education level and transition societies that have not yet achieved post-industrial production level, nor have they afrmed knowledge and service skill values. Meanwhile, in post-industrial societies there is a need for re-examination of the principles of IP law resulting from a series of other reasons, principally the appearance of driving new business models.
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Second: Post-industrial societies attain high level of their social wealth through knowledge, creativity and management of immaterial values by means of intellectual property rights. As use of intellectual property rights is still based on industrial society models in the new contexts of social and increasingly of material reality digitalization and networking, the old models show inadequate and are confronted with many social criticisms. Reform of existing business and IPR exploitation models results inevitable, whereupon reform of legal IP doctrines appear absolutely unavoidable perhaps for the rst time more radically after its rst two or three centuries. There is no doubt that intellectual property law is inevitable to support established models of exploitation of human knowledge-based creativity results and that present controversies will not lead to the abandonment of intellectual property rights. In fact, given that our civilization is actually increasingly oriented toward the use of intangible goods resulting from the use of knowledge, intuition and creativity, we could expect that intellectual property will enhance its role in future societies. We believe there is a chance for this not to happen through growth of legal protection of immaterial property. This absence of law in the leading role will come as a consequence of general change of the role of law in modern societies. In our view it is likely that the future role of law might be leading towards a more specialized role in these societies than it has in ours. We foresee that as the role of law will be changing and undergoing relative marginalization, the role of technical protection means will be increasing. Eventually, new ethical and behavioral values will, in our opinion, be established and afrmed by society and become dominant in respect of legal regulations. We must remember that the changes we are facing are unprecedented in the history and that we must establish by ourselves the behavioral models to be followed, without relying on existing models. The task is not easy, but, as there will be no other choice, we propose to get down to work right now. This text is only a minor contribution in that direction. Due to the force and inevitability of the described processes, in the attempts to predict the future of social decision-making processes impending in relation to intellectual property rights, we must clearly analyze those constants that appear as regularly accompanying intellectual property rights throughout its history. In doing so, we must primarily stress that in our opinion there is no doubt that the civilizations IPR inheritance is an essential reection of the needs of modern creativity-based societies. Our societies will not renounce from the civilizations achievements that the results of creativity are regarded suitable for economic exploitation and for protection by the intellectual property rights. Signs of these needs can be traced long before the introduction of dened intellectual property law into the legal system. Property over intangible human creativity results we just learned to recognize will not disappear in conditions of digitally networked environment and upon a migration of reality in such sphere. In other words, paraphrasing the title of this article, we are certain that human creativity, including the development of new forms of creation, exploitation and protection of intellectual property rights protected works will in the future to an even greater extent represent a SOURCE OF ABUNDANCE for future societies.
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In order to predict future development of IPR protection system we must bear in mind a characteristic human communities demonstrate in a variety of contexts, e.g. historical or technological. Namely, researchers often describe the so-called layering concept as the property of simultaneous mutual separability and inseparability of various ideas from different historical periods.179 We are of the opinion that any prediction of the future must take into consideration this characteristic of historical development that, in practice, boils down to the fact that once a model is created it may change its social role, but it will be hardly completely abandoned or forgotten. In that sense, we believe that the existing protection system will undoubtedly remain one of the options and will constitute the primary element of choice between protection alternatives at the authors disposal. Along with a wider change of the role of the legal system in future societies, other two elements will constitute the cornerstone of future relation towards the results of creativity. One of them will be of technological character, which in the context of digitalization and networking means that we will use computer code-based technologies as elements of intangible goods management.180 The other is the element, upon whose creation our generation has embarked, of increased responsibility and decision-making based on clearer ethical principles we anticipate as a result of ongoing changes marking our societies.
See, e.g. Countryman, Edward, The Layers of New York History: A Look Through Time at Rensselaer County. New York History 89.1 (2008): <http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/nyh/89.1/ countryman.html>, 10-08-15, also, Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia, article Collage, http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Collage, 10-08-15 states: A collage in literary terms may also refer to a layering of ideas or images. In technological terms we also talk about interlayering, see The Economist, Information technology in transition; The end of Wintel; As Microsoft and Intel move apart, computing becomes multipolar, 10-07-29: The shift to mobile computing and data centres (also known as cloud computing) has speeded up the verticalisation of the IT industry. Imagine that the industry is a stack of pancakes, each representing a layer of technology: chips, hardware, operating systems, applications. Microsoft, Intel and other IT giants have long focused on one or two layers of the stack. But now rms are becoming more vertically integrated. For these new forms of computing to work well, the different layers must be closely intertwined. 180 Lessig, Lawrence, Code and other laws of cyberspace, Part 11, Basic Books, 1999, e.g. chapter Regulation by Code, pp. 20-21, and chapter Five, Regulating Code, pp. 42-60.
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SAETAK OBILJE IZVORA - PRAVA ZNAENJA TERMINA KOPIJA I ORIGINAL; PROMJENE ZNAENJA UMJETNIKE I AUTORSKOPRAVNE TERMINOLOGIJE U DIGITALNOM OKRUENJU Mladen Vukmir
Ovaj rad posveen je prouavanju drutvenih promjena koje ine vjerojatnim da e autorsko pravo doivjeti odreene promjene. Te su promjene prvenstveno uzrokovane tehnolokim mijenama uzrokovanim pojavom raunala i Interneta. Naime, injenica da je ljudski okoli u sve veoj mjeri digitaliziran te istovremeno umreen stvorilo je okoli u kojem se kreativnost u nekim aspektima odvija na nain koji nema presedana u ljudskoj povijesti. Pri tome se posebno istie da injenica da je svaka kopija istovremeno i svevremeno prisutna u obliku identinome svom digitalnom originalu radikalno utjee na poimanje autorskopravnog sustava. Tekst nastoji slijediti nekoliko terminolokih grupa te kombinacijom semiotike analize s komparacijom znaenja pojmova koje oznauju izabrani struni termini u autorskopravnoj, umjetnikoj i kolokvijalnoj terminologiji nastoji izvesti zakljuke o drutvenom poimanju sustava zatite kreativnosti. Postavljaju se pitanja o povijesnoj adekvatnosti pojedinih rjeenja, a osobito otvaraju pitanja o odrivosti dosadanjeg poimanja u projekciji promjena koje se odvijaju pod pritiscima digitalizacije i umreavanja. Sa svrhom odreivanja onih konstanti povijesnog razvoja autorskog prava tekst prati grupu termina koji na podruju skulpture oznauju pojmove vezane uz umnaanje autorskog djela. Idua grupa termina su neki od centralnih pojmova autorskog prava te se njihovom komparativnom analizom s identinim terminima koji se koriste u umjetnikoj terminologiji nastoji razumjeti i ukazati na ona sredinja znaenja koja se ukazuju pod novim svjetlom u digitalnom kontekstu. Konano, analizira se kolokvijalna struna terminologija koja se odnosi na fenomene umnaanja bez doputenja svojstvenog itavoj povijesti zatite intelektualnog vlasnitva, a koji izgleda doivljava eksploziju u kontekstu digitalizacije i umreavanja, sa zakljukom da gotovo niti jedan od tih termina nema svoje zakonske, odnosno pravne izvore. Eksplozivni porast stvaralatva, umnoavanja i koritenja autorskih djela koji se pojavio kao rezultat uvoenja digitalnih tehnologija i umreavanja raunala doveo je do nekontroliranog i nekontrolabilnog porasta nedoputenog umnaanja. Drutva se moraju suoiti s injenicom da e sami autori u budunosti eljeti birati izmeu vrlo razliitih oblika zatite pojedinih svojih djela. Pri tome, u sluaju izbora naplatnog i restriktivnog reima koritenja svojeg djela u uvjetima globalizirane digitalne ekonomije ne ini nam se vjerojatnim da e pravo zadrati ulogu prvenstvenog sustava zatite autorskih prava. Tekst ukratko nastoji prikazati i smjerove razvoja tehnikih sustava zatite i njihove posljedice, koji uz sadanje trendove na irem podruju intelektualnog vlasnitva ve dovode do marginalizacije prava. Drugim rijeima, iako e pravo ostati kao struktura kojom e se zasigurno regulirati odreena razina drutvenog ponaanja ono e odozgo biti potisnuto poveanjem uloge regulacije etinosti i odgovornosti, a odozdo nagrizena kako samoregulacijom brojnih drutvenih segmenata i tehnikim mjerama koje e nastajati kao posljedica poduzetnikih i tehnolokih nastojanja. Iako tekst nema namjeru ponuditi vrste zakljuke o moguim promjenama, nekoliko se teza namee samima po sebi. Promjene su vjerojatne, ali teko predvidive jer je i obujam promjena u drutvima bez presedana, a priroda digitalnog medija radikalno je drugaija od analognih mehanikih sredstava reprodukcije. Promjene u pravnom sustavu nee se odnositi samo na autorsko pravo i druga prava zatite nematerijalnih rezultata ljudske kreativnosti, ve na cjelovitu promjenu uloge prava u drutvima.
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Lucija Franji MOGUNOST AUTORSKE ZATITE BIKRAM JOGE
Lucija Franji
MOGUNOST AUTORSKE ZATITE BIKRAM JOGE
U dananjem modernom drutvu ziko zdravlje postaje sve znaajniji aspekt pojedinca. Kao jedna od mogunosti rekreacije nudi se Bikram joga koja postaje iznimno popularna i globalno rasprostranjena. Pitanje Bikram joge postaje znaajno za razvoj autorskog prava kada Bikram Choudbury poinje tvrditi da njegova kombinacija asana predstavlja autorsko djelo i kao takvo ga registrira u Amerikom uredu za autorsko pravo. Ovaj lanak bavi se pitanjem mogunosti zatite autorskog prava Bikram joge u amerikom autorskopravnom sustavu, analizom sluaja Open Source Yoga Unity vs Bikram Choudbury, teorijskim postavljanjem problema Bikram joge u hrvatskom autorskopravnom sustavu te moguim sustavom zatite kroz Tradicionalna znanja i tradicionalan kulturni izriaj. Kljune rijei: autorsko pravo, Bikram joga, copyright, koreograja, tradicionalna znanja, tradicionalan kulturan izriaj
Before you even start, make up your mind not to give up. Bikram Choudhury Bikram`s begining yoga dialogue
1. Uvod
Nebrojeno puta medicinski su dokazane blagodati zike aktivnosti te sukladno tome ziko zdravlje postaje sve znaajniji aspekt ivota. Uz takav razvoj svijesti sve vie raste tnes industrija i pojedinci, koji stvaraju sve inovativnije i zanimljivije naine rekreacije, postaju sve utjecajniji. Kao jedna od mogunosti za rekreaciju nudi se joga, koja dolazi na zapad sredinom 20. stoljea. Ta tradicionalno istonjaka kultura u svom moderniziranom obliku postaje globalni fenomen i sastavni dio zapadnog drutva. Danas ju moemo prakticirati u nebrojeno mnogo joga centara i tnes studija ili se samostalno poduavati putem digitalnih medija. Zajedno s popularizacijom joge rasla je i nancijska dobit svih koji su uspjeli pre*
Lucija Franji, dipl. iur.
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poznati takvu naglu ekspanziju. Tako utjecajni proizvoai sportske opreme nude svojim kupcima posebne linije proizvoda namijenjene vjebanju joge. Joga se sastoji od asana ili tjelesnih poloaja kroz koje prolazi osoba tijekom vjebanja. Kombinacija razliitih asana tvori sekvence, koje mogu predstavljati raznovrsne oblike joge. Razlikujemo Power jogu, Iyengar jogu, Vinyasa jogu i mnoge druge. S obzirom na nebrojeno mnogo mogunosti kombinacija asana, emu je razlog broj od otprilike 1500 asana, ak i unutar razliitih tipova joge, odabir odreene kombinacije asana, unutar sekvence, na pojedinom satu ovisiti e o jogiju tj. instruktoru joge. Jedan od istonjakih jogija je i Bikram Choudhury koji 1960-ih dolazi u Ameriku gdje poinje poduavati jogu. Svoj prvi studio otvara na Beverly Hillsu poetkom 1970-ih. Joga koju Bikram poduava sastoji se od 26 asana, dvije vjebe disanja i izvodi se u posebnim prostorijama na 40.5 C. Bikram izdaje i knjige te kompaktne i digitalne video diskove vezane za Bikram jogu koji su registrirani kao Bikramovo autorsko djelo1. Konano 2002. Bikram registrira i samu sekvencu pod nazivom Bikram yoga. Zatitio je i dijalog sa studentima tokom sata pod nazivom Bikrams Yoga college of India beginning yoga dialogue. Takva registracija, svojstvena angloamerikom pravnom sustavu, zahtjeva ispunjenje iskljuivo formalnih uvjeta te ne dovodi u pitanje mogunost autorske zatite autorskog djela koje se registrira. Proteklih godina Bikram je obavijestio nekolicinu joga instruktora da kre njegovo autorsko pravo ukoliko koriste njegovu sekvencu i sve sadrajno sline sekvence na svojim satovima. Na svojoj internet stranici je objavio da nitko ne moe poduavati Bikram jogu ukoliko nije certicirani instruktor pri emu diplomu instruktora moe izdati samo Bikram Choudhury. Certiciranim instruktorom Bikram joge postaje se iskljuivo pohaanjem intenzivne obuke koja traje 9 tjedana u Bikramovoj koli joge pri emu kolarina iznosi $10 9002. Uspjenim prolaskom obuke joga instruktor stjee pravo poduavanja u periodu od 3 godine, nakon ega je obvezan pohaati ponovni teaj recertikacije. U 2009. godini Bikram se odluio na prelazak iz licencnog u franizni sustav glede svih joga centara koji poduavaju Bikram jogu i koriste njegov ig. Prema Bikramu franiza bi trebala odrati njegovu jogu istom, a nain vjebanja pouzdan kao to je alica Starbucks kave. Rekreacijski centri diljem svijeta odluuju hoe li pristati na Bikramove uvjete franize i stvoriti, kako to novinari duhovito nazivaju, McYogu ili e prestati poduavati Bikram jogu. Sve to potaknulo me na razmiljanje o tome moe li joga openito predstavljati predmet autorskog prava te sukladno tome, Bikram joga, koja sadri elemente joge. Analizu tog pitanja u ovom lanku zapoet u kroz ameriki pravni sustav copyrighta gdje je to pitanje prvenstveno postavljeno s posebnim osvrtom na parnicu Open Source Yoga Unity v. Bikram Choudhury. Pouena razmatranjem problema kroz ameriki pravni sustav teorijski postavljam taj problem u hrvatskom autorskoU.S. Copyright Ofce, Pretrai katalog (Search Records), Pojam Bikram Choudhury, http://www. copyright.gov/records (kolovoz 2010.) 2 Ugovor o certikaciji http://www.bikramyoga.com/TeacherTraining/AdmissionGuidelines.php
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pravnom poretku u elji da saznam kakav odgovor na tu situaciju nudi hrvatski zakonodavac. Takoer smatram da je joga jedna od tradicionalnih vjetina na koju bi se mogli primijeniti instituti Tradicionalna znanja i Tradicionalan kulturni izriaj (folklor) koji su u nastajanju. I na kraju istiem razlike izmeu dva pravna sustava, anglosaksonskog i kontinentalnog s aspekta autorskog prava, to moe biti kljuno za eventualna razliita rjeenja istog, gore navedenog pitanja.
2. Predmet autorskog prava

Kada se govori o predmetu autorske zatite potrebno je precizno denirati koji je toan opseg toga pojma. Pitanje preciznoga deniranja poseban je izazov danas kada se suoavamo s nastankom kompleksnih i do sada nepoznatih intelektualnih tvorevina. Tvorevine takve naravi esto ne mogu pripadati unutar samo jednog predmeta autorskog prava ili je ak upitno mogu li se uope podvesti pod openite zakonske pretpostavke kako bi stekle autorsku zatitu. Za autorsko pravo postavlja se pitanje koje se djelo smatra autorskim. Zakonodavac postavlja granice autorske zatite zakonskim lancima, bez poblieg deniranja, kako bi se poticalo kreativno stvaralatvo te tako preputa tono deniranje pojmova sudovima u konkretnim parnicama. Kako bi odgovorila na pitanje moe li Bikram joga biti autorsko djelo potrebno je predstaviti pravne sustave unutar kojih se takvo pitanje postavlja.
2.1. Copyright kao institut amerikog prava

Kada se analizira autorsko pravo u Sjedinjenim Amerikim Dravama (dalje SAD), potrebno je istaknuti da se radi o federalnom pravu. Amerikim Ustavom, Senatu je dana ovlast promovirati intelektualno vlasnitvo (Copyright clause). Tako Ustav u lanku 1, odjeljak 8, klauzula 8 predvia da Kongres ima ovlast ... promovirati napredak (sa)znanja i primijenjenih znanosti osiguravanjem na ogranieno vrijeme autorima i izumiteljima iskljuivo pravo na njihove zapise i otkria3. Materiju autorskog prava u Sjedinjenim Amerikim dravama ureuje Zakon o autorskom pravu (Copyright Act of 1976) koji je stupio na snagu 1. sijenja 1978. godine. Znaajni dijelovi zakona odnose se na subjekte autorskog prava, iskljuive ovlasti autora, kodikaciju doktrine potene uporabe (fair use), vrijeme trajanja autorskog prava, prijenos autorskog prava te registraciju i depozit. U anglosaksonskom sustavu prava sudovi su, osim zakonima koji predstavljaju samo pravnu bazu, vezani i presedanima. Presedani predstavljaju ve donesene presude, iji dio stare decisis4, obvezuje sudove ili druga sudska tijela kada odluuju u buduim parnicama o slinom pitanju ili injenicama. Na taj nain se kroz praksu sudova tumai i mijenja sam zakon.
Prijevod, Postel, Holger, Doktrina potene upotrebe u amerikom Zakonu o autorskom pravu i slini propisi njemakog prava, Nov-um: asopis za intelektualno vlasnitvo, 1( 2008), 3; str. 359-358. 4 Izraz stare decisis dolazi od latinske sentence Stare decisis et non quieta movere. to znai: Ouvaj ono to je odlueno i ne mijenjaj ono to je utvreno.
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Pretpostavke za stjecanje autorske zatite denirane su u lanku 102(a) Zakona o autorskom pravu SAD-a (Copyright Act 1976). Iz njega se mogu utvrditi osnovni elementi koji se moraju ispuniti kako bi se djelu pruila zatita koja proizlazi iz autorskog prava. Djelo mora biti ksirano na materijalnoj podlozi, mora biti originalno i mora se raditi o osobnom djelu onoga koji sebe smatra autorom5. Dovoljno je da autor stvori djelo samostalno ne kopirajui prije poznata djela i da pritom izrazi minimalnu razinu kreativnosti. Djelo moe postojati na etiri razine ovisno o prezentaciji. Tako razlikujemo potencijalno djelo u umu stvaratelja, takozvanu ideju, zatim djelo koje je izreeno u zamjetljivom obliku kao to su izgovorena rije, pokret, zvuk, zatim moe postojati kao ksirano djelo na podlozi koja nije trajna te ksirano na podlozi s koje se moe ponovno reproducirati. Autorskopravnim sustavom ne tite se ideje, a da bi djelo steklo autorsku zatitu u amerikom autorskopravnom sustavu potrebno ga je ksirati na podlozi s koje se moe ponovno reproducirati. Ispunjenjem tih pretpostavki svako djelo stjee zatitu autorskim pravom u momentu ispunjenja pretpostavki, a mogunost registracije, koja ovisi iskljuivo o autorovoj volji, moe donijeti odreene benecije za autora. U nastavku lanka odreuje se to moe biti predmet autorskog djela. To su: literarna djela, glazbena djela, s rijeima ili bez rijei, dramska djela, s ili bez glazbe, pantomimska i koreografska djela, slikarska, graka i kiparska djela, lm i druga audiovizualna djela, zvuni zapisi, djela arhitekture. Izvjetaj uz zakon (House Report) jasno je dao do znanja da su te kategorije samo ilustrativne, a ne ograniavajue6. Samim tim mogu nastati i djela koja nisu izriito navedena u zakonu te e ispunjenjem gore navedenih pretpostavki takoer stei autorsku zatitu. Postavlja se pitanje je li bitno imenovati takva autorska djela i tako ih razgraniiti od drugih? U amerikom autorskopravnom sustavu polazi se od samoga autorskog djela koje kao takvo zasluuje zatitu te bi iz toga razloga moglo biti bitno znati o kojem se tono autorskom djelu radi. Zakon, osim apsolutno originalnih kreativnih djela, takoer titi zbirke i izvedena autorska djela7. Zbirka se denira u lanku 101 kao djelo koje je nastalo prikupljanjem i sastavljanjem grae koja ve postoji ili odabirom, usklaivanjem i organiziranjem poCopyright Act 1976. 102(a)Copyright protection subsist... in original works of authorship xed in any tangible medium of expression... 6 H. R. Rep. No. 94-1476, str. 53-56 (1976). 7 Ibid 103(a)
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dataka na takav nain da rezultat u cjelini predstavlja originalno autorsko djelo8. Na taj nain kombinacijom elemenata koji se ne mogu zatiti autorskim pravom, elemenata kojima je istekla autorska zatita i elemenata zatienih autorskim pravom uz doputenje autora, moe nastati originalno autorsko djelo. Meutim, ako je prilikom koritenja tuih autorskih djela autor postupio nezakonito, nee mu biti pruena zatita koja proizlazi iz autorskog prava. Posebnost takvih djela istie se i kroz opseg zatite. Ukoliko su ta djela zatiena autorskim pravom ta zatita je tanka tj. odnosi se samo na supstancijalno isto djelo. Na taj nain buduem autoru ostaje mogunost da s istim podacima stvara neka budua djela. to je tanje autorsko pravo to mora biti vea slinost izmeu toga autorskog djela i djela kojim se kri autorsko pravo kako bi se moglo smatrati da je dolo do povrede. Copyright Act 1976. titi izvedena autorska djela, koja najjednostavnije reeno, predstavljaju ono djelo koje se bazira na jednom ili vie ve postojeih autorskih djela9. Ono to se ne moe ni na koji nain zatiti autorskim pravom navodi se u lanku 102(b). To su ideje, procedure, procesi, sustavi, metode rada/postupka, koncept ili otkrie, neovisno o formi u kojoj je opisano, objanjeno, ilustrirano ili utjelovljeno to djelo10.
2.2. Autorskopravno ureenje u hrvatskom pravnom sustavu

U Republici Hrvatskoj Ustav kao hijerarhijski najvii pravni akt ne navodi izriito pojam autorsko pravo. Meutim, to ne znai da Ustav nema odredbu iz koje se izvodi i na kojoj se zasniva Zakon o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima. Pravnim izvorom tog zakona smatra se lanak 68. st. 4. Koji navodi: Jami se zatita moralnih i materijalnih prava koja proistjeu iz znanstvenoga, kulturnog, umjetnikog, intelektualnog i drugog stvaralatva. Ovakav lanak predstavlja zajameno pravo koje se mora priznati stvarateljima. Osim jamstvene uloge, Ustav ostvaruje i svoju poticajnu funkciju. Takav stav izvodi se iz lanka 68. st. 2. koji propisuje da drava potie i pomae razvitak znanosti, kulture i umjetnosti. Iz takve ustavne norme raaju se zakonski pa i podzakonski akti. Ustavne odredbe razrauju se Zakonom o autorskim i srodnim pravima (dalje ZAPSP) koji je stupio na snagu 30. listopada 2003. godine te tako derogirao Zakon
Ibid l.101 compilation is a work formed by the collection and assembling of preexisting materials or of data that are selected, coordinated, or arranged in such a way that the resulting work as a whole constitutes an original work of authorship. 9 Ibid l.101 derivative work is a work based upon one or more preexisting works, such as a translation, musical arrangement, dramatization, ctionalization, motion picture version, sound recording, art reproduction, abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modications, which, as a whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a derivative work. 10 Copyright Act 1976. 102(b) In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.
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o autorskom pravu iz 197811. Njime se naputa dotada nejasan koncept pravne naravi autorskog prava i uvodi naelo monizma12, uvode se druga prava autora koja su mjeovite naravi, detaljnije se odreuju odredbe o pravnom prometu, uvode se nova prava (pravo proizvoaa videograma, pravo proizvoaa baza podataka i pravo nakladnika) te se tako usklauje s meunarodnim obvezama iz raticiranih meunarodnih ugovora i s acquis communautaireom Europske unije. Zadnje izmjene izvrene su 2007. godine i objavljene u NN 79/07. Zakon autorskim djelom smatra originalnu intelektualnu tvorevinu iz knjievnog, znanstvenog i umjetnikog podruja koja ima individualni karakter, bez obzira na nain i oblik izraavanja, vrstu, vrijednost ili namjenu13. Kako bi se zadovoljila pretpostavka originalnosti potrebna je odreena novost, koju e za potrebe stjecanja autorskog prava predstavljati subjektivna originalnost. Djelo e se smatrati subjektivno originalnim ukoliko autor ne oponaa drugo njemu poznato djelo. Takva originalnost moe biti apsolutna i relativna. Apsolutno originalnim djelom smatrat e se ukoliko je stvoreno potpuno neovisno o drugom ve postojeem djelu, dok se relativno originalnim djelom moe smatrati ono koje se sastoji od prerade ve postojeih djela ili ono koje nastaje na temelju drugih autorskih djela bilo inovativnim izborom ili rasporedom grae unutar djela. Sintagma djelo iz knjievnog, znanstvenog ili umjetnikog podruja je samo okvirna odrednica, jer se tim terminima moe pridodati znaajno ire znaenje. Kao pretpostavka za autorskopravnu zatitu ne trai se ksacija na materijalnu podlogu ili bilo kakav specian nain izriaja, ve je samo bitno da je djelo izraeno u zamjetljivom obliku. Zakon takoer egzemplativno navodi neke vrste autorskih djela kojima se prua autorska zatita14. Autorskim pravom tite se i prerade (izvedena autorska djela) pod kojima se smatraju prijevodi, prilagodbe, glazbene obrade i druge prerade autorskih djela ukoliko predstavljaju originalne intelektualne tvorevine individualnoga karaktera15. Takva autorska djela karakterizira relativna originalnost te ne smiju biti na tetu prava koja postoje u odnosu na izvorna djela kako bi stekli autorsku zatitu. Takvo autorstvo nee utjecati na prava autora djela koja su preraena, ukoliko to pravo jo traje. Zbirke predstavljaju kombinaciju samostalnih autorskih djela, podataka ili druge grae, koje prema izboru ili rasporedu sastavnih elemenata ine originalne inteZakon o autorskom pravu iz 1978. objavljen je u Sl. l. 19/78., a izmijenjen je i dopunjen 1986. i 1990. Preuzet je u hrvatsko zakonodavstvo na temelju Zakona o preuzimanju saveznih zakona iz oblasti prosvjete i kulture koji se u Republici Hrvatskoj primjenjuju kao republiki zakoni i objavljen u NN 53/91. Izmijenjen je i dopunjen 1993. i 1999. kada je objavljen kao proieni tekst u NN 9/99. Ponovno je izmijenjen dopunjen i ispravljen 1999. i 2000. te objavljen u NN 76/99, 127/99, 67/01., ModruanRanogajec ., Nova sadrajna ogranienja autorskog prava, Zbornik hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Br. 6 (2005), str.111. 12 Monistika koncepcija smatra autorsko pravo jedinstvenim spletom moralnih i imovinskih prava, dok dualistiki koncept smatra da se sastoji od dva povezana prava, autorskog imovinskog prava i autorskog moralnog prava koja zajedno ine autorsko pravo kao cjelinu te mogu imati razliitu pravnu sudbinu. 13 Zakon o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima l.5 st.1. 14 Ibid l.5. st.2. 15 Ibid l.6. st.1.
11
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lektualne tvorevine njihovih autora te baze podataka koje su ureene po odreenom sustavu ili metodi iji su elementi pojedinano pristupani elektronikim ili drugim sredstvima16. Autorska zatita zbirki ne protee se na njihov sadraj i ni na koji nain ne utjee na prava koja postoje na autorskim djelima i predmetima srodnih prava uvrtenih u tu zbirku, tako da se takvo autorsko pravo, kao i u amerikom autorskom pravu, moe smatrati tankim. Zakonom je takoer odreena razlika u zatiti baza podataka autorskim pravom od zatite baze podataka srodnim pravom. Na taj nain se prua sui generis zatita onim bazama podataka ije je stjecanje, provjera ili predstavljanje njezina sadraja zahtijevalo kvalitativno ili kvantitativno znatno ulaganje sredstava, utroenoga vremena i uloenoga truda. Takve baze podataka ne moraju predstavljati originalan izbor ili raspored sadraja. Time je u hrvatski autorskopravni poredak implementirana Direktiva o zatiti baza podataka Europske unije17. Predmet autorskog prava ne moe biti ono djelo koje to ne moe biti po svojoj naravi i ono kojemu je to izriito zabranjeno zakonom. To su: ideje same po sebi, postupci, metode rada, matematiki koncepti, otkria, slubeni tekstovi iz podruja zakonodavstva, uprave i sudstva te druga slubena djela ukoliko su objavljena radi slubenog informiranja javnosti, dnevne novosti i druge vijesti koje imaju karakter obinih medijskih informacija. Autorska djela ne predstavljaju narodne knjievne i umjetnike tvorevine u izvornom obliku, ali za njihovo priopavanje javnosti plaa se naknada kao za priopavanje zatienih autorskih djela (domaine public payant). Ovim predmetnim ogranienjem autorske zatite olakava se daljnje znanstveno i umjetniko stvaranje i razvitak te se uvaava zahtjev za slobodom informiranja i koritenja slubenih djela.
3. Joga kao eventualni predmet autorskog prava

Joga predstavlja tradicionalnu ziku i mentalnu disciplinu koja svoje podrijetlo vue iz Indije od kuda se proirila po cijelome svijetu u svim svojim oblicima. Svojim korijenima joga je vezana uz praksu hinduizma, budizma i jainizma. Takva disciplina sama po sebi ne moe zadovoljiti dananje pretpostavke za stjecanje autorskog prava i kao takva moe se smatrati da predstavlja ope dobro. Ope dobro se obino vee uz stvarnopravno ureenje unutar kojih predstavljaju ona dobra koja nisu sposobna biti predmetom iijih stvarnih prava bilo zbog svojih naravnih osobina ili zbog toga to su joj zakonske norme uskratile sposobnost da bude predmetom stvarnih prava. Jogu moemo shvatiti kao cjelinu koja ne moe biti podvrgnuta privatnoj vlasti i jednoga privatnopravnoga subjekta (u sluaju hrvatske autorskopravne zatite samo zike osobe), ali moe svakome sluiti za njegove potrebe, a i svima za ope
Ibid l.7 st. 3 Direktiva 96/9/EC o pravnoj zatiti baza podataka od 11.3.1996., http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/ index.htm
16 17
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potrebe. Time se joga moe izjednaiti sa zrakom u zemljinoj atmosferi, rijekama, jezerima, moru i morskoj obali koje kao cjeline ne mogu potpadati pod privatnopravnu vlast. U Zakonu o autorskom pravu i drugim srodnim pravima izriito se navodi da narodne knjievne i umjetnike tvorevine, a jogu moemo okarakterizirati kao takvu, u izvornom obliku nisu predmetom autorskog prava. U prilog iznesenom stavu moe se izloiti presuda Visokog trgovakog suda u kojoj se navodi da pravo iskoritavanja narodne kulturne batine nije ogranieno te ju svi mogu koristiti kao ope dobro i nitko na njoj nema iskljuivo pravo18. U angloamerikom pravnom sustavu postoji poseban termin u materiji intelektualnoga vlasnitva public domain uz koji se veu oni objekti koji ne mogu stei zatitu unutar intelektualnoga vlasnitva ili je takva zatita zbog ogranienoga roka trajanja istekla. Time se djela koja predstavljaju public domain ostavljaju na upotrebu svima i na temelju njih se mogu stvarati neka nova autorska djela. Tako na vrlo slian nain u oba pravna sustava joga moe sluiti na upotrebi svima bez mogunosti stjecanja autorskog prava na jogi kao cjelini. Postavlja se pitanje mogunosti stjecanja autorskog prava odreene kombinacije joga poloaja (asana). Moe li originalnim izborom i odabirom asana iz joge, kao to je to uinio Bikram, nastati autorsko djelo?
4. Mogunost zatite Bikram joge putem copyrighta u amerikom autorskopravnom sustavu

Ako bi se Bikram joga smatrala autorskim djelom moglo bi se jedino raditi o zbirci te bi se zatita pruila samo takvoj tono odreenoj kombinaciji asana, a nipoto pojedinanoj asani unutar Bikram joge. Kako bi odreeno djelo steklo autorsku zatitu prema Copyright Act-u 1976. ono mora biti ksirano na materijalnoj podlozi, mora se raditi o djelu onoga koji sebe smatra autorom i mora biti originalno19. Bikram joga je zadovoljila uvjet ksacije zapisom u knjizi Bikram`s beginning yoga class gdje se po prvi puta navodi toni slijed svih 26 asana i dvije vjebe disanja. Osoba koja je odabrala i rasporedila asane unutar sekvence je Bikram Choudhury i ukoliko djelo zadovoljava kriterij originalnosti ini se da bi imalo pravo na autorsku zatitu. Meutim ogranienje autorskopravnoj zatiti u anglosaksonskom pravnom sustavu ne pruaju samo zakonske norme ve i doktrine koje se razvijaju kroz precedentno pravo. Neke od tih doktrina bitne su za pitanje Bikram joge te ih je zbog toga potrebno izloiti.
18 19
VTS RH P-3243/96 od 23.rujna 1997., http://www.vtsrh.hr/, web odluke VTS-a Copyright Act 1976 lanak 102(a), http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#102
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4.1. Zbirka i pitanje originalnosti

Zbirka kao relativno originalno autorsko djelo temelji se na ope poznatim informacijama ili stvaralatvima drugih autora bilo da predstavljaju ili ne predstavljaju autorsko djelo te kao takvo istie pitanje originalnosti. Kada e se smatrati da je prikupljanje i sastavljanje ili odabir, usklaivanje i organiziranje podataka dovoljno originalno kako bi takvo djelo moglo biti autorsko? Prije presude u Feist sluaju sudovi su prilikom donoenja odluke o originalnosti djela uzimali u obzir i trud autora prilikom izrade djela (sweat of a brow doctrine). Smatrali su da je autor zbog svoga truda i uloenoga vremena pri izradi djela takoer ispunio kriterij originalnosti. Takvo razmiljanje danas je odbaeno presudom Feist Publications Inc. v. Rural Tel. Service. Co. Inc. u kojoj sud u obrazloenju utvruje da trud prilikom odabira ili prikupljanja informacija, koje e uvrstiti u zbirku, sam po sebi ne mora znaiti originalnost koja je neophodno potrebna kako bi autor transformirao odabir informacija u izriaj koji se titi autorskim pravom. Tako se utvruje da uvrtavanjem informacija kao to su telefonski brojevi oitim redoslijedom koji predstavlja abeceda ne moe znaiti da je prikupljanje, sastavljanje ili odabir, usklaivanje i raspored zadovoljio barem minimalnu razinu kreativnosti. Iako se injenice i informacije ne mogu zatititi autorskim pravom, ta se mogunost prua kombinaciji takvih podataka tako da je ograniavajui element za zatitu takvih autorskih djela originalnost. Tako sud navodi Zdrav razum nam nalae da 100 ope poznatih informacija ne moe magino promijeniti svoj status kada se okupi u cjelinu20. Ono to mijenja taj status je, kako se navodi u Feist sluaju, originalnost. Originalnost je sine qoa non mogunosti zatite autorskim pravom. Tako originalnost, kao termin s podruja autorskog prava, znai da je autorski rad samostalno djelo autora (kao suprotnost kopiranju tuih djela) i da predstavlja barem minimalnu razinu kreativnosti. Razina kreativnosti koja se trai je vrlo niska, tj. potrebno je pokazati barem iskru kreativnosti. Autorska zatita je ograniena iskljuivo na tako koncipirano autorsko djelo i ni u kojem sluaju se ne moe proiriti na injenice ili podatke koritene prilikom izrade zbirke. Tako utvrena doktrina originalnosti moe se primijeniti i prilikom analize pitanja originalnosti Bikram joge. Pojedinana informacija moe se usporediti s asanom u jogi te bi sukladno sluaju Feist originalnost postojala ukoliko bi se prilikom kombinacije asana dokazala barem minimalna razina kreativnosti. Rasporeda asana unutar Bikram joge je iskljuivo odabir Bikrama te kao takav nije postojao ranije i zato smatram da ova pretpostavka ne predstavlja prepreku autorskoj zatiti Bikram joge.
4.2. Doktrina neodvojivosti (Merger Doctrine)

Ono to se ne moe ni na koji nain zatiti autorskim pravom navodi se u lanku 102(b) te je tako izriito odreeno da se ideje ne tite autorskim pravom. Autorsko
20
Feist Publications Inc. v. Rural tel. Service Co. Inc. 499 U.S. 340 (1991. godina)
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pravo titi iskljuivo izriaj, a ne ideju samu po sebi. Time se ne ograniava druge potencijalne autore od koritenja ideja koje su predoene autorovim djelom. Sud je to, prije ozakonjenja u Copyright Act-u 1976, utvrdio u sluaju Baker v. Selden (1876. godine) gdje je autorsku zatitu pruio knjizi koja opisuje novi i poseban nain uvanja knjiga, a ne ideji prezentiranoj u knjizi. Pritom istie kako tvrdnja, da je neko djelo izum, otkrie ili korisna ideja, podlijee pod kontrolu patentnog ureda kako bi stekao takvo ekskluzivno pravo21. Tako nitko ne smije neovlateno kopirati ili raspaavati knjigu koja opisuje odreenu ideju zatienu autorskim pravom, no nije zabranjeno bez dozvole autora koristiti ideju opisanu u knjizi. U autorskopravnoj praksi SAD-a taj institut se naziva Idea/Expression dichotomy. Kao daljnji razvoj toga instituta nastala je doktrina sjedinjenja ili doktrina neodvojivosti (Merger Doctrine). Ta doktrina predstavlja stajalite da ukoliko je odreenu ideju mogue izrei samo na ogranien broj naina, tada niti taj izriaj nee biti mogue zatiti. Razlog tom stavu je injenica da bi takvim pruanjem zatite bio omoguen monopol autora nad tom idejom. Iako pravni strunjaci nisu jedinstveni po pitanju predstavlja li ta doktrina obranu od optube za krenje autorskog prava ili predstavlja ogranienje zatiti autorskim pravom, sudovi su je prepoznali kao armativnu obranu. U prilog takvom sudskom stavu pomoglo je to za stjecanje autorskog prava nije potrebna publikacija ni registracija djela u Uredu za autorsko pravo (Copyright ofce)22 iako registracija moe predstavljati beneciju za samog autora. Ova doktrina je za pitanje mogunosti autorske zatite znaajna u ovisnosti o tome s kojega aspekta promatramo jogu. Prvenstveno, neka nova individualna asana bi se neupitno susrela sa problemom dihtomije izmeu ideje i izriaja jer bi bilo jako teko razlikovati samu ideju asane od njezinog izriaja. Primjerice, asana mala kobra (bhujanga asana) koja se izvodi nakon prolaska kroz sklek (chaturanga asana) tako da se donji dio tijela nalazi u okomitom kontaktu s podom pri emu se gornji dio izvija prema stropu oslanjajui se na ruke, govori u prilog stavu da bi bilo vrlo teko razlikovati sam izriaj od ideje.
23
21 22 23
Baker v. Selden , 101 U.S. 99 (1879) http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1.pdf (kolovoz 2010) www.cafepress.com (kolovoz 2010.)
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Doktrina neodvojivosti takoer moe predstavljati prepreku autorskoj zatiti i zbirci asana, ukoliko se joga u cjelini predstavlja kao duhovna disciplina kojoj je spoj duha i tijela cilj koji se moe dosegnuti i izraziti vjebanjem joge. Ako je istina da postoji samo jedan ili ogranien broj puteva koji vode do takvog jedinstva, to je stajalite nekih joga praktikanata, tada bi takav stav ograniio mogunost autorske zatite raznih sekvenci asana. Ako se joga promatra kao svaka druga zika aktivnost, kojoj je cilj poboljati zdravlje ili vratiti se u ziku kondiciju, tada se to moe postii i kroz nebrojeno puno drugih zikih pokreta i time doktrina neodvojivosti ne mora biti prepreka autorskoj zatiti.
4.3. Doktrina funkcionalnosti (Functionality Doctrine)

Sukladno l. 102(b) autorska zatita u naelu nije mogua na onim objektima kojima je svrha postii neki cilj, slue izvrenju nekog zadatka ili je njihova funkcija korisnost te su tako funkcionalni bilo u cijelosti ili djelomino. Tako se autorskim pravom ne tite igre, poslovne metode ili recepti. Ova doktrina, utvrena presudom Mazer v. Stein (1954. godine), obino dolazi do primjene kod izriaja onih ideja koje imaju odreenu funkcionalnu vrijednost ali i sam izriaj te ideje je znaajan. Kao primjer moemo uzeti dizajn koji moe predstavljati autorsko djelo no takva zatita protee se samo na dizajn ukoliko se on moe identicirati odvojeno od onog predmeta na kojem je on primijenjen24. Poseban pravni izazov predstavlja povlaenje granice zatite takvih djela izmeu autorskog i patentnog prava, kako bi se izbjegle situacije gdje je isto djelo zatieno dvama razliitim pravima s razliitim koristima, svrhom zatite i rokom trajanja. Samo pitanje zatite Bikram joge izaziva sumnju gledano sa aspekta funkcionalnosti. Namee se pitanje koja je svrha zbirke kao to je ova? Odgovor moemo potraiti razmiljajui o cilju kojim se autor vodio prilikom sastavljanja sekvence? Je li njegov cilj bio estetski uitak same sekvence ili je njezin raspored podreen zikom napretku, bilo tjelesnom ili zdravstvenom? Ako je sekvenca funkcionalni sistem koji, kako navodi Bikram, pomae i lijei kardiovaskularne probleme, visoki tlak, lou cirkulaciju, anoreksiju, bulimiju25, tada se ne moe zatiti autorskim pravom, ve patentom. Svjedoenja mnogih studenata, koja Bikram istie kao blagodat njegove sekvence, govore tome u prilog. Praktikanti Bikram joge vjebajui su drastino poboljali i izlijeili zdravstvene tegobe. Iako Bikram diplomatski ostavlja mogunost da su i drugi faktori mogli imati pozitivan utjecaj na ozdravljenje, kao to su jaka elju za ozdravljenjem, samopouzdanje koje ire joga instruktori prilikom vjebanja, uloeni trud u svakodnevne odlaske na satove, ipak ostavlja na razmiljanje svim potencijalnim polaznicima to je to u Bikram jogi, samoj po sebi, da se uz nju veu takvi rezultati. Ovakvo predstavljanje Bikram joge nesumnjivo pomae u popularizaciji i promidbi same sekvence no jednako tako ograniava mogunost autorske zatite istoj.
24 25
Mazer v. Stein, 347 U.S. 201, 219 (1954) http://www.bikramyoga.com/BikramYoga/testimonials.php (kolovoz 2010)
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Smatram da e za rjeenje problema zatite Bikram joge, a i potencijalnih drugih sekvenci s podruja joge, od kljunoga znaaja biti sama narav Bikram joge. Predstavlja li ona u svojoj naravi sportsku disciplinu, koreograju ili metodu poboljanja zdravlja? Sukladno odgovoru na to pitanje biti e jasnija mogunost zatite autorskim pravom te njezin opseg. 4.3.1. Moe li se Bikram joga smatrati sportskom disciplinom? Neupitno je kako je joga po nainu prakticiranja zika disciplina budui da su neke od njenih koristi, primjerice jaanje tonusa miia, eksibilnost ili koordinacija pokreta, rezultat iskljuivo zikih aktivnosti. S tim stavom se oito slau i velike svjetske kompanije kao to su Apple, Nike, HBO i Forbes koje svojim zaposlenicima kao beneciju nude besplatne joga satove u tnes centrima26. Za njih, kao i za mnoge druge ljude diljem svijeta, joga predstavlja nain odravanja zdravlja i zike forme pojedinca. Sport u svojoj sri predstavlja ziku aktivnost u kojoj je cilj zabiti gol, tj. biti najbolji, najbri ili najjai. Promatrano kao takva vjetina ini se da sport ne bi imao mogunost autorske zatite zbog svoje primarno funkcionalne svrhe. Suprotno tome ako sport shvatimo kao zabavu, to on takoer predstavlja, iri se mogunost autorske zatite mnogim sportskim disciplinama. Tako danas sport ima neupitnu ulogu u svakom drutvu. Ostvarenje sportskog cilja pojedinca ili tima moe se smatrati usputno dok je zabava primarna svrha sporta. U prilog takvom stavu moe se istaknuti presuda Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co. koja navodi da ukoliko odreena djela neupitno izazivaju interes javnosti i samim time imaju komercijalnu vrijednost, bilo bi drsko rei da oni nemaju estetsku ili edukacijsku vrijednost27. Ukoliko sport promatramo na taj nain otvara se mogunost argumentiranja u korist autorske zatite sporta. Ako se sport stavi u odnos s autorskom zatitom s aspekta koje sportske discipline bi mogle imati takvu zatitu, a koje ne, sport se moe podijeliti u etiri kategorije. Moemo razlikovati sportske utakmice, zapisane sportske taktike, natjecateljske sportske sekvence i nenatjecateljske sportske sekvence. Stav je sudske prakse da timske izvedbe u natjecateljskom okruenju, kao i individualni sportski performansi, ne mogu biti predmet autorskog prava. Jedan od razloga u prilog takvom stavu je taj to se utakmica sama po sebi gotovo nikad ne sastoji od istih rutiniziranih pokreta, prvenstveno zato to se utakmica na terenu uvijek odigrava u odnosu na protivniku momad i nepredvidivost je upravo ono to sportske utakmice ini zanimljivim. Takoer, sama autorska zatita sportske utakmice bila bi suprotna smislu sporta. U prilog toj tvrdnji moe se istaknuti sudski stav u presudi National Basketball Assn v. Motorola Inc. gdje se navodi: tvrdnja da je netko jedini sporta ili sportski tim koji je izveo neko sportsko djelo ne znai ba
26 27
http://www.yogajournal.com/lifestyle/294 (kolovoz 2010) Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co., 188 U.S. 239 (1903)
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puno ako nitko drugi nije ovlaten pokuati28. Eventualna mogunost zatite sportskim priredbama mogla bi se pruiti kroz srodna prava kao to je pravo izvoaa priredbe koja se prema Copyright Act-u 1976. nudi iskljuivo izvoaima muzikih koncerata u ivo, ali vrlo teko bi se mogla pruiti mogunost zatite kombinacije pokreta. Zapisane sportske taktike mogu se denirati kao provedba specinog plana ili akcije od strane jednoga tima u odreenim okolnostima koji ukljuuju igrake formacije i strategije dodavanja. Takve sportske taktike pobijaju eventualni argument da nisu zapisane i da ne ukljuuju rutinizirane pokrete. Kao takve, bez daljnjega ulaenja u problem, ini se kako bi se one mogle zatiti autorskim pravom. Ono to bi u ovom sluaju moglo predstavljati nepremostivu zapreku je doktrina neodvojivosti ili sjedinjenja (Merger doctrine). Takva taktika predstavlja ideju odreenoga tima, koja moe biti izraena iskljuivo na ogranieni broj naina, to dovodi do nemogunosti zatite autorskim pravom. Kada se postavlja pitanje natjecateljskih sportskih sekvenci kao to su sinkronizirano plivanje, umjetniko klizanje ili gimnastika, jasno je da su one puno blie mogunosti zatite autorskim pravom. Kod takvih sportskih disciplina natjecateljski tim izvodi sekvencu samostalno, neovisno o drugom timu, te se takva sekvenca takoer moe zapisati i izvoditi nebrojeno mnogo puta na isti nain. U tom sluaju paralela izmeu takve sportske sekvence i koreograje, kao predmeta autorskog prava, je oita. Kako se ipak radi o natjecateljskoj disciplini, postoji mogunost, ipak vie teoretska nego realna, izmjene sekvence zbog nepredvidljivosti sportskog natjecanja. Moe se postaviti i pitanje originalnosti takve sekvence ukoliko je poznato da se prilikom sastavljanja sekvence moraju koristiti tono odreeni pokreti koji donose tono odreeni broj bodova kako bi tim ostvario to bolji plasman. U ovom sluaju postoji vea vjerojatnost autorske zatite, a ona bi svakako ovisila o konkretnim okolnostima. Ono to je najblie mogunosti autorske zatite su svakako nenatjecateljske sportske sekvence unutar joge i aerobika. Kao vrlo jak argument za mogunost zatite takvih sekvenci navodi se injenica da se sekvenca izvodi uvijek na isti nain bez natjecateljskog elementa i kao takva ona bi se eventualno podudarala s pojmom koreograje kao predmetom autorskog prava. Bikram joga se pokuava prolirati i kao natjecateljska disciplina te ak u nekoj dalekoj budunosti kao jedna od olimpijskih sportova29. Takav razvoj Bikram joge smanjio bi mogunost autorske zatite. No openito gledano, ukoliko bi se utvrdilo da su takve nenatjecateljske sekvence prilikom sastavljanja ispunile uvjet originalnosti uz druge uvjete, mogla bi se proiriti autorska zatita i na razne kombinacije joga poloaja i aerobik elemenata ukoliko se uspije prevladati negativnu pretpostavku funkcionalnosti.
28
National Basketball Ass`n and NBA Prop. Inc. v. Motorola, Inc., 105 F. 3d 841, 846 (2d Cir. http://www.bikramyoga.com/Documents/Rajashree.pdf (kolovoz 2010.)
1997)
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4.3.2. Moe li se Bikram joga smatrati metodom poboljanja zdravlja? Ono to me navodi na postavljanje ovoga pitanja je nain na koji Bikram predstavlja svoju vrstu joge. Izuzev svjedoenja njegovih polaznika, koja sam ve prethodno navela, o njihovom ozbiljnom zdravstvenom napretku, i on sam istie blagodati koje se mogu postii iskljuivo vjebanjem njegove vrste joge. Tako smatra da posebna temperatura od 40.5C titi miie u cilju dubljeg istezanja, potie detoksikaciju tijela (irenje pora i izluivanje toksina), prorjeuje krv kako bi takva proistila krvoilni sustav, pojaava otkucaje srca u cilju bolje kardiovaskularne vjebe te poboljava snagu miia dovodei miino tkivo u optimalno stanje za reorganizaciju masnih tvari (lipida) u miinu masu30. Sve to govori u prilog stavu da sekvenca predstavlja metodu ili sistem poboljanja zdravlja, a takva karakterizacija Bikram joge joj onemoguuje priznavanje autorske zatite. Zatita koja se prua u takvim sluajevima je eventualno patentna zatita. Mogunost zatite patentom zahtijeva ispunjavanje teih uvjeta nego autorska zatita, zbog ega je upitno pruanje takve zatite Bikram sekvenci. Smatram da je to denitivno najjai argument protiv mogunosti zatite Bikram joge autorskim pravom. 4.3.3. Moe li se Bikram joga smatrati koreograjom? Iako Bikram ne navodi izriito da njegova joga predstavlja koreograju, takvo stajalite moe se iitati iz izjava njegovih odvjetnika. Tako Susan Hollander iz odvjetnikoga ureda Manatt, Phelps & Phillips, koja je zastupala Bikrama u parnici protiv OSYU, navodi: Bikram joga je kao balet. Pas de deux i plie postoje ve stoljeima, ali Labue jezero je jedinstveno31. Kako bi istraili potencijalne slinosti, potrebno je prvenstveno utvrditi to se smatra koreograjom u amerikom autorskopravnom sustavu. Kao predmet autorskog prava koreograja se samostalno, prvi puta spominje u Zakonu o autorskom pravu (Copyright Act 1976) kao predmet autorskog prava u l. 102(a) t. 6., dok je u prijanjem zakonu iz 1909. godine (Copyright Act 1909) koreografsko djelo bilo zatieno samo ako je imalo priu, prenosilo ili karakteriziralo neke emocije te na bilo koji nain predstavljalo dramski koncept ili ideju. Tako je koreograja bila zatiena samo kao jedna vrsta dramske kompozicije. Zakonodavac je, prepoznavi nagli razvoj i ekonomski znaaj plesa, izriitim uvoenjem koreograje kao samostalne forme autorsku zatitu pruio i mnogim apstraktnim koreografskim dostignuima Zakonom o autorskom pravu iz 1976. Takvim ekstenzivnim pristupom pojmu koreograje ne ograniava se autorski umjetniki izriaj. Upravo iz tog razloga, kako navodi izvjetaj uz zakon (House Report), u zakonu nije navedena denicija koreograje32.
http://www.bikramyoga.com/BikramYoga/FAQ.php#7 (kolovoz 2010.) Yoga copyright raises question of ownership, USA Today: lipanj 2006. http://www.usatoday. com/tech/news/2006-06-28-yoga-usat_x.htm(kolovoz 2010) 32 H. R. Rep. No. 94-1476, 53-54 (1976)
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Kao okvirna denicija koreograje moe se smatrati ona Ureda za autorsku zatitu (Copyright ofce). Pod pojmom koreograja smatra kompozicija i raspored plesnih i zikih pokreta sa ili bez muzike pratnje, dok se pod pojmom plesa misli na statiki i kinetiki uzastopan ziki pokret u odreenom ritminom i prostornom odnosu. Takoer se navodi da se autorska zatita ne prua drutvenim plesnim koracima niti jednostavnim koracima kao primjerice osnovnom koraku valcera ili individualnom baletnom pokretu. Ukoliko se oni spoje u originalnu koreograju tek tada postoji mogunost zatite autorskim pravom. Na taj nain u potpunosti se prilikom zatite koreograje slijedi princip zatite zbirke. ini se da Bikram joga, gledana kroz prethodno navedenu deniciju koreograje, moe zadovoljiti pretpostavke za zatitu. Poto se u deniciji istie da koreograju mogu predstavljati i ziki pokreti, a ne samo plesni, koji ukoliko ispunjavaju pretpostavku da su rasporeeni u odreenom ritminom i prostornom odnosu primjenom dovoljne koliine originalnosti mogli bi kroz analogiju s koreograjom predstavljati autorsko djelo. Ured za autorsko pravo ne zahtijeva da sekvenca bude javno izvedena kako bi se zatitila, no ak i da je to jedna od pretpostavki koje se moraju ispuniti, ona ne bi predstavljala prepreku, jer javnom izvedbom mogu se smatrati i joga satovi u tnes centrima kojima mogu pristupiti svi zainteresirani polaznici.
5. Analiza sluaja Open Source Yoga Unity v. Bikram Choudhury (No. C 03-3182 PJH)
Bikram joga poinje predstavljati zanimljivo pitanje s aspekta autorskog prava kada Bikram, pod prijetnjama tubom, poinje upozoravati sve joga instruktore i vlasnike studija, koji su poduavali istu ili modiciranu sekvencu kao to je Bikram joga, kako kre njegovo autorsko pravo. Zahtjeva od instruktora stjecanje certikata u Bikramovoj koli joge ako ele nastaviti poduavati Bikram jogu. Joga zajednica se po prvi puta suoila sa situacijom u kojoj pojedinac tvrdi da ima autorsko pravo na odreenom tipu joge. Kao odgovor na novonastali sluaj, joga instruktori i vlasnici centara osnovali su neprotnu organizaciju Open Source Yoga Unity (dalje OSYU) s ciljem da prue otpor pokuajima autorske zatite bilo kojeg oblika joge. Potujui nain poduavanja bilo kojeg joga instruktora uz duboko uvjerenje da nitko nema pravo kontrole nad poduavanjem drugih instruktora ili vjebanjem polaznika, OSYU smatra da joga predstavlja public domain33. S tom idejom 2003. godine OSYU pokree parnicu u San Franciscu (Nothern District of California) protiv Bikram Choudhurya zahtijevajui deklaratornu presudu da Bikram nema valjano autorsko pravo. OSYU, iako priznaje da je Bikram kreativno odabrao i sastavio individualne, nezatiene i funkcionalne asane u Bikram joga sekvencu, smatra da se Bikram joga ne moe zatiti autorskim pravom jer se vjebanje joge ne moe smatrati kreativ-
33
http://www.yogaunity.org/ (kolovoz 2010.)
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nim izriajem, ve iskljuivo kombinacijom funkcionalnih zikih pokreta. Tako OSYU zastupa stajalite kako ziki pokreti i kombinacije zikih vjebi ne mogu predstavljati predmet autorskog prava te da se Bikram joga ne moe smatrati koreograjom. Bikram Choudhury u odgovoru na tubu navodi da Bikram joga predstavlja autorsko djelo jednostavno zato to se radi o originalnoj zbirci asana koje su kreativno odabrane i sastavljene u cjelinu. Iako suprotstavljene strane u sporu imaju dijametralno suprotne stavove, slau se u nekim argumentima. Obje strane smatraju da je joga drevna zika vjeba i da individualne asane, koje se nalaze unutar Bikram joga sekvence, predstavljaju public domain. Ovaj sluaj zanimljiv je zbog toga to namee nekolicinu pitanja vezanih za objekte autorskog prava. Kao to navodi sud: na prvi dojam moe se initi nevjerojatno i nemogue da sekvenca joga poloaja moe biti bilo ije intelektualno vlasnitvo34. Suprotno takvom stavu, isti taj sud, potvrdio je mogunost zatite autorskim pravom. Postavlja se pitanje koji su argumenti za takvu odluku? Prilikom postavljanja problema sud smatra da se radi o dva suprotna principa autorskog prava. S jedne strane autorsko pravo ne titi injenine i funkcionalne podatke ili informacije koje predstavljaju materiju unutar public domain, dok s druge strane autorska zatita iri se na zbirke takvih informacija ili podataka koje su sastavljene na dovoljno kreativan nain. Kako pomiriti ta dva principa u ovom sluaju? Tako bazu za rjeenje problema sud pronalazi u sluaju Feist koji je utvrdio da e se autorska zatita pruiti onoj zbirci koja je prilikom nastanka autorskog djela izrazila barem minimalnu razinu kreativnosti. Kao inicijalno pitanje OSYU je istaknuo svoje stajalite kako Bikram joga nije ispunila formalne uvjete za registraciju. Vjerojatno iz razloga kako tuenik ne bi mogao pred sudom isticati benecije koje proizlaze iz registracije, kao to je primjerice prima facie dokaz postojanja autorskog prava. Bikram je registraciju svoje sekvence u Uredu za autorsko pravo napravio kao dodatak registraciji knjige Bikram`s beginning yoga class pri emu nije okarakterizirao o kojem predmetu autorskog prava se radi35. OSYU smatra da dodatna registracija knjizi ne ispunjava formalne pretpostavke kako bi se Bikram joga mogla registrirati, ve je potrebno samostalno registrirati novo autorsko djelo. Sud je ipak utvrdio kako e takva registracija biti valjana jer dodatak prethodnoj registraciji moe proiriti autorsko pravo i na neko drugo autorsko djelo. Ako se ta materija nalazi unutar prethodno registriranog autorskog djela te ako je mogue pruiti autorsku zatitu Bikram jogi, takva registracija biti e valjana. Razmatrajui problem sud je samo zagrebao po povrini problema. Iako utvruje da se iskljuivo funkcionalnim djelima ne nudi autorska zatita ve samo estetski odvojivom dijelu ne dovodi tu doktrinu u vezu s Bikram jogom, a OSYU
Open Source Yoga Unity v. Bikram Choudhury No. C 03-3182,1.travanj.2005. http://www.copyright.gov/(search records), Bikrams Beginning yoga class, By Bikram Choudhury, TX0005624003/2002-10-24 kao dodatak TX0000179160/1979.
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ju ne istie kao kljuni argument protiv autorske zatite Bikram joge. Iako Bikram smatra da je odabrao raspored sekvence na nain koji je i estetski ugodan i koji poboljava zdravlje polaznika joga satova takva tvrdnja nije argumentirana. Kao argument u korist stava da se zike vjebe u cjelini ne mogu titi tuitelj istie parnicu National Basketball Assn and NBA Prop., Inc. v. Motorola, Inc. uz tvrdnju da NBA nema autorsko pravo nad koarkom. Tuenik u odgovoru na takav argument s pravom istie da je razlog zato sportske aktivnosti openito nemaju pravo na autorsku zatitu taj to nisu rutinizirane niti zapisane ve predstavljaju nepredvidive zike pokrete koji su rezultat natjecateljske prirode sporta. Iz razloga to Bikram joga predstavlja rutinizirane i zapisane zike pokrete (asane) sud smatra da se gore navedena parnica ne moe primijeniti na pitanje Bikram joge. Iz takvog stajalita suda proizlazi da se mogunost autorske zatite iri ukoliko su ziki pokreti rutinizirani i zapisani. Tako se pitanje sporta i zikih vjebi samo naelno postavilo u ovoj parnici bez dubljeg ulaenja u sr problema, koji je, kao to sam ve prethodno objasnila, puno kompleksniji. Sud utvruje da OSYU nije pridonio dovoljno argumenata u prilog svojim tvrdnjama kako zbirka asana ne moe biti zatiena na isti nain kao to se tite druge zbirke te iako priznaje i ak se slae kako primjena prava na zbirke asana moe predstavljati zlostavljanje smisla joge, nije uspio utvrditi toan subjekt kojega bi takva primjena prava otetila. Poto se u ovom stadiju postupka (summery judgment) ne moe raspravljati o originalnosti autorskog djela sud odbija prijedlog za presudu i upuuje stranke u parnicu jer se to pitanje utvruje suenjem u parnici ispitivanjem injenica. Ako se ustvrdi dovoljna razina originalnosti, to smatram da ne bi trebalo predstavljati problem, pruit e se autorska zatita Bikram jogi. Iako je suenje zavrilo nagodbom izmeu stranaka koja se dri u tajnosti36, neupitno je da se Bikram joga danas smatra autorskim djelom. Kao prilog toj tvrdnji mogu istaknuti ugovor o certikaciji gdje Bikram navodi u toki 6.2. da je jedno od njegovih autorskih prava Bikram joga asana sekvenca koja se ne smije izvoditi bez njegovog odobrenja koje se stjee jedino prolaskom obuke na njegovoj koli joge. U ovoj parnici OSYU istaknuo je i pitanje krenja autorskog prava te pitanje zatite iga, meutim, nisam to smatrala bitnim za daljnju analizu.
6. Teorijsko postavljanje problema Bikram joge u hrvatskom autorskopravnom poretku

Premda se ranije opisani sluaj nije do sada pojavio u kontinentalnom pravnom krugu, smatram da njegovo pojavljivanje nije upitno, imajui u vidu proces globalizacije koji zadire u sva podruja drutva. ini se zanimljivo, barem teoretski, odgovoriti na to pitanje u hrvatskom pravnom sustavu sukladno Zakonu o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima.
Bikram has threatened OSYU with litigation for providing the Settlement Agreement to OSYU members. OSYU is currently suspending providing the settlement to agreement to members while discussing the matter with Bikrams attorney, http://www.yogaunity.org/learn/index.asp (kolovoz 2010)
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Kada postavljamo problem autorske zatite Bikram joge u hrvatskom autorskopravnom poretku prvo se susreemo sa pitanjem o kakvom se autorskom djelu radi. Bikram jogu mogli bi okarakterizirati kao zbirku odreenih tjelesnih poloaja koje prema odabiru asana i njihovom rasporedu unutar sekvence predstavljaju relativno originalnu intelektualnu tvorbu autora. Zatita koju uiva takva zbirka nee se protezati na njezin sadraj te tako individualne asane ostaju na upotrebi svima koji ih ele upotrijebiti u nekim buduim joga sekvencama. Sama narav Bikram joge moe i u hrvatskom autorskom pravu biti presudna i kod odluke o autorskoj zatiti. Poto ZAPSP takoer ne omoguuje zatitu metoda niti postupaka, isticanje zdravstvenih blagodati i shvaanje joge kao metode poboljanja zdravlja dovodi do nemogunosti zatite autorskim pravom te upuuje na ispunjavanje pretpostavki za patentnu zatitu. Jedna od tih pretpostavki je da je djelo objektivno inovativno to bi se moralo utvrditi u upravnom postupku pri emu bi znaajan utjecaj na odluku imalo miljenje vjetaka. Kada se razmilja o jogi kao sportskoj disciplini susree se jedno novo pitanje. Hrvatska autorskopravna zatita prua se originalnim autorskim djelima s podruja umjetnosti, knjievnosti i znanosti. Iako se ti termini tumae vrlo ekstenzivno upitno je na koji nain bi se moglo proiriti njihovo znaenje tako da obuhvaa i sport. Mislim da bi to bilo gotovo nemogue za sportske priredbe i sportske taktike, no natjecateljske i nenatjecateljske sportske sekvence eventualno bi mogle predstavljati autorsko djelo zbog svoje analogije sa koreograjom. Sasvim sigurno, ako se Bikram joga moe okarakterizirati kao koreograja, stei e zatitu autorskim pravom kao jedno od taksativno navedenih djela. Iz stava da se umjetnost, knjievnost i znanost tumai ekstenzivno, moe se argumentom a maiore ad minus zakljuiti kako pojam koreograja takoer treba tumaiti iroko. Ipak, gdje je granica takvom ekstenzivnom tumaenju i to se smatra koreograjom kao autorskim djelom?
6.1. Koreograja kao autorsko djelo

Iako je neupitna injenica da koreograja ulazi u opseg predmeta autorskog prava, nejasno je koja se to tono djela mogu smatrati koreograjom. O koreograji kao predmetu autorskog prava postoji vrlo malo zapisa i sporova. U nekim zakonima koreografska djela ak niti nisu izdvojena kao posebna vrsta autorskog djela nego su obuhvaena pojmom dramska djela (britanski zakon) ili su navedena uz dramska djela (panjolski zakon). U veini zakonodavstava koreograja se istie kao zasebna vrsta autorskih djela, primjerice u Copyright Act-u 1976, Bernskoj konvenciji te Hrvatskom ZAPSP-u. Takav stav ini mi se opravdan s obzirom da koreografsko djelo ne mora predstavljati dramsku radnju ve moe ukljuivati apstraktne, formalne i nenarativne sadraje, a gledatelju preputa da u tome vidi ili nae neki svoj potpuno novi smisao. Sam pojam koreograja dolazi od grke rijei choros to znai kolo, ples i grafo to znai piem37. Takvo etimoloko znaenje rijei navodi nas na zakljuak
37
Klai B., Rjenik stranih rijei, Nakladni zavod MH, Zagreb 1986.
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da koreograja predstavlja zapis plesnih pokreta. U suvremenoj upotrebi, meutim, izraz koreograja podrazumijeva raspored i odabir plesnih pokreta koji se zapisuju38. Postavlja se pitanje, s obzirom na specian nain izraavanja pokretom, je li potrebno ksirati koreograju, bilo pismeno ili pomou nekog medija, kako bi ona predstavljala autorsko djelo. Fiksacije je bila potrebna prema Zakonu o autorskom pravu iz 1978. i Bernskoj konvenciji sve do Stockholmskog akta. Danas se Bernskom konvencijom, kao i ZAPSP-om, ne postavlja navedeni uvjet i odreuje se openito da je pridrano zakonodavstvima zemalja potpisnica da propiu hoe li sva autorska djela ili jedna ili vie vrsta takvih djela biti zatiena samo ako su ksirana na materijalnu podlogu (l. 2 st. 2). ZAPSP navodi u l. 5 da e se autorskim djelom smatrati ono koje ispunjava zakonske pretpostavke bez obzira na nain i oblik izraavanja te ne zahtijeva ksaciju na materijalnu podlogu kako bi djelo bilo zatieno autorskim pravom. Specinost je koreografskoga autorskog djela to postoji samo dok ga netko izvodi te je tako individualnost takvih djela tee identicirati iz samih pokreta tijela ili mimike. Ako autor eli ksirati takvo autorsko djelo mora to uiniti pomou nekog sredstva kojim se moe utvrditi toan sadraj takvoga djela. U prolosti se taj problem rjeavao plesnom notacijom dok je danas pitanje ksacije uspjeno prevladano razvojem suvremene tehnologije te tako koreogra svoja djela snimaju digitalnom video kamerom pomou ega se mogu ponovno reproducirati. Takvim razvojem koreografska djela su postala lake dostupna, posebice zbog razvoja multimedije i interneta, to rezultira uestalim krenjima koreografskih autorskih prava na internacionalnoj razini. S obzirom da se koreografska djela najee prikazuju uz glazbu postojalo je stajalite da zajedno predstavljaju jedinstveno autorsko djelo. Takav stav je odbaen sudskom presudom VSH iz 1972. godine kojom je zauzeto stajalite da su scenarij i glazba baleta s jedne strane i koreograja s druge strane djeljivi i time odvojena zatiena djela39. Takvo stajalite sudske prakse pokazalo se tonim jer se danas koreograja ne mora nuno izvoditi uz glazbu niti ju uvijek prati scenarij. Na odvojenost tih autorskih djela ukazuje i zakonodavac razliitom formulacijom glazbenog i koreografskoga djela. Sama denicija koreograje i to tono ona obuhvaa, nejasna je. Tako Henneberg navodi da je koreograja autorsko djelo izraeno pokretom ljudskoga tijela, gestom i mimikom40. Tako deniran, pojam koreograje mogao bi znaiti kombinaciju zikih pokreta kao u sluaju sinkroniziranog plivanja, modne revije, umjetnikog klizanja, aerobika, gimnastike. injenica je da se termin koreograja na taj nain u
Termin kinetograja danas predstavlja zapis plesnih pokreta. Dok je izvorno znaenje pojma chorgraphie, koji su francuski plesai i koreogra Beauchamp i Feuillet koristili za svoje sisteme plesnih zapisa krajem XVII i poetkom XVIII st., predstavljao plesni zapis. Tek kasnije naziv koreograja poinje se koristiti u dananjem smislu. Labanova kinetograja samo je jedan od sistema plesnog zapisa, vjerojatno i najpoznatiji. Postoji jo Stjepanova notacija, koju su Rusi krajem XIX st. koristili za zapis klasinih baleta i Benesh notacija koja je danas najee u upotrebi. A. Jelii, objanjenje pojma Plesna notacija. 39 Henneberg Ivan, Autorsko pravo, Informator , Zagreb, 2001. str. 97. 40 Ibid str.96
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praksi upotrebljava vrlo esto, ime pojam postaje nejasan. Sukladno tome, smatram da treba razlikovati koreograju kao kreaciju u umjetnikome smislu, bilo baleta ili plesa (analogno glazbenoj kompoziciji, poeziji i drugima) od ireg pojma koreograje (analogno irem pojmu kompozicije) kao planiranja i povezivanja nekih pokreta i prostornih odnosa u odreenu cjelinu. Jelii navodi, da se na taj nain govori o koreograranju aerobik sekvence, modne revije pa se ak govori i o koreograji kamere u nekim umjetnikim lmovima, dakle sve to ima neke veze s pokretom moe se danas povezati s koreograjom41. Ipak zakonski se titi koreograja samo s podruja umjetnosti. Kako bi se ustanovilo moe li se Bikram joga smatrati koreograjom potrebno je preciznije denirati taj termin. Tako Milko paremblek, eminentni koreograf, navodi: Pokret spada u kategoriju geste i obratno. Nema razlike. U danom trenutku koreografska fraza postaje reenica koja se razvija. Ne mora biti podvrgnuta dramaturgiji, ili pak moe. Koreograja je tekst koji je vrlo precizan, u njemu jedna reenica imperativno dovodi do neke vrste odgovora. Tako je u jeziku, tako je u glazbi. Isti su odnosi, ista pravila, koja se onda prekruju42. Ovom denicijom koreograje posebno se istie znaenje koreografskog teksta koje se moe iitati iz pokreta jednako kao to iz glazbenih nota moemo uti veselje ili tugu. Takvo znaenje ne mora biti zasnovano na dramaturkim principima ali stvaranje i spajanje koreografskih sekvenci ima svoju logiku koja se razvija unutar djela i kojom koreograf prenosi svoju ideju. Pokreti se spajaju tako da postaju rijei, a one potom reenice koje zatim dovode do neke vrste odgovora. Enciklopedija Britannica navodi da je koreograja umjetnost stvaranja plesa, sastavljanja i organiziranja pokreta u odreenom redoslijedu i uzorku te razlikuje koreografska autorska djela, koja su rezultat individualnog stvaralatva autora, usporedivih sa piscima, kompozitorima i slikarima od kompozicija drutvenih, narodnih, zabavnih i drugih vrsta plesova koji su produkt evolucije gdje su grupe ljudi i anonimni pojedinci pridonijeli razvoju tradicionalnih formi43. Ovakvim shvaanjem koreograje istie se njezino razvijanje, ne kao sluajan produkt evolucije koji nastaje posredstvom zajednice, ve kao rezultat individualnoga stvaralatva autora, koje moe biti inspirirano drutvenim i narodnim plesovima. Time predstavlja niz plesnih pokreta iji rezultat putem odreenog redoslijeda i uzorka prenosi smisao i znaenje ideje te moe biti izjednaen s apstraktnim slikarstvom, muzikom kompozicijom ili romanom. Moda najiru deniciju nudi Vanslova u lanku koreografski tekst, gdje navodi kako je koreograja sveukupnost svih plesnih pokreta i poza koje, uz odreenu logiku i konzistentnost, ine neki ples, plesno-plastinu epizodu ili cijelu baletnu
Usmeni intervju, Jelii Andreja, magistrica plesnih studija, donedavno direktorica preddiplomskih studija na Laban Centre u Londonu gdje je predavala povijest plesa, estetiku i klasini balet, momentalno honorarni docent na Umjetnikoj akademiji u Osijeku, (lipanj 2010.) 42 paremblek M., Minuta koreograje na dan denicija sjajnog dana, Vjesnik, 20. oujka. 2007. 43 Enciklopedija Britannica, unesi pojam choreography, http://www.britannica.com/
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predstavu. Koreografski tekst stvara se iz elemenata plesnog jezika koji po svojoj logici i meusobnoj povezanosti ine integriranu cjelinu44. Iako se sa sigurnou moe tvrditi da postoji velik broj denicija koreograje, bile one iroke ili uske te se mogu odnositi na koreograju u baletu ili plesu openito, ono to ih povezuje je faktor umjetnike proizvodnje. Tako Andreja Jelii istie da je jedna od osnovnih znaajki umjetnosti da komunicira, dijeli s ostalim lanovima zajednice ideje, misli, osjeaje. Dakle za umjetnost je, bez obzira na najrazliitije vrste denicija, kljuno da je rezultat autorove potrebe da neto prenese (od emocionalnog ushita i estetskog uivanja do politike ili intelektualne ideje), uz bitnu ulogu mate i kreativnosti, koje ine umjetniko djelo esto simbolinim i vieznanim. Bitna je interpretacija gledatelja koja je otvorena i samim time obogaujua za publiku.
6.2. Moe li Bikram joga predstavljati koreograju?

U hrvatskom autorskopravnom sustavu autorska djela se ne registriraju te tako Zavod za intelektualno vlasnitvo nije denirao to se smatra koreografskim djelom. Presumpcijom autorstva ureenom u l. 12 st. 1 Zakona o autorskom pravu i srodnim pravima autorom se smatra osoba ije je ime, pseudonim, umjetniki znak ili kod na uobiajeni nain oznaen na primjercima autorskog djela ili pri objavi autorskog djela dok se ne dokae suprotno. Bikram bi mogao sebe oznaiti autorom koreografskog djela Bikram joga ukoliko se pojam koreograja tumai iroko, kao zbirka elemenata koji su zasnovani na ili imaju veze sa pokretom ljudskoga tijela. No ono to ja smatram ograniavajuim elementom za pruanje zatite Bikram jogi je injenica da se tite autorska koreografska djela s podruja umjetnosti. Premda je jako nezahvalno pokuavati postaviti granicu ekstenzivnom tumaenju pojma umjetnosti smatram da je to kljuno u rjeenju ovog pitanja. Bikram joga i koreograja svoj sadraj zasnivaju na zikom pokretu i samim time postavlja se pitanje gdje je granica izmeu sportske sekvence i umjetnike koreograje. Ono to ih nesumnjivo razlikuje je namjera i smisao koji vodi autora prilikom povezivanja pokreta u sekvence. U Bikram jogi asane su rasporeene na nain da doprinose zikom boljitku pojedinca, usprkos Bikramovoj tvrdnji da su takoer i estetski odabrane. Takvom stavu u prilog govori i injenica da Bikram na svojoj internet stranici predstavlja Bikram jogu kao sekvencu koja doprinosi odravanju zdravlja pojedinca i osiguranju maksimalne funkcionalnosti njegovog tijela45. S druge strane, nain vezanja pokreta koreografa je potpuno drugaiji tj. pokreti slue u prenoenju unutranje ideje. Pri takvom razumijevanju koreograje mogue je i da modikacija joge (upotrebom njezinih osnovnih elemenata, asana) u nekim
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Vanslova V. V., Koreografski tekst, Sovjetska enciklopedija, Moskva (1981), str. 564., prijevod http://www.bikramyoga.com/BikramYoga/about_bikram_yoga.php (kolovoz 2010)
Jelii A.
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sluajevima moe predstavljati koreograju ukoliko je pokret vezan iskljuivo kako bi autor prenio neku svoju ideju46. U takvom kontekstu pojedinac moe vjebanjem Bikram joge stei vjetinu kako bi mogao svojim pokretom prenositi umjetniku ideju koreografa. U komentaru o baletnom natjecanju, Jelii istie razliku izmeu sporta i umjetnosti: Za razliku od sportskog klizanja, u kojem je npr. axel zadani element i isto izvedeni trostruki axel u natjecanju donosi vie bodova od dvostrukog, u baletu, smatramo li ga jo uvijek umjetnou, takva jednostavna raunica ne stoji: obian jednostruki tour attitude en dedans izveden s istom linijom, s dinamiki tonim ili ak izazovno pomaknutim smjetanjem u muziku frazu te s artistiki promiljenom, koreograji primjerenom ekspresijom, daleko vie vrijedi, naime daleko vie govori, od ziki isforsiranog no besadrajnog etverostrukog okreta. S jedne strane, samo jaka tehnika do koje je dug i naporan put osigurava lakou i uvjerljivost umjetnike interpretacije. Kada ona postaje sama sebi svrha, put u ekshibicionizam je otvoren, put umjetnosti zatvoren47. Tako jaka tehnika predstavlja vjetinu odreenog plesaa koja se u umjetnikom koreograranju koristi kako bi koreograf imao veu mogunost izraza svoje ideje. Smatram da usprkos ekstenzivnom tumaenju umjetnosti postoji granica, iako nejasno izraena, izmeu estetski ugodno i funkcionalno odabranih i rasporeenih asana i odabira i rasporeda pokreta koji izraavaju neiju emociju ili ideju. Joga se ne izvodi radi neijeg estetskoga uitka, nego radi koristi koje donosi pojedincu koji vjeba. S obzirom na tradiciju joge kao prvotno duhovno-zike discipline, to je logino, jer svrha i smisao joge su u vjebanju sudionika, a ne gledanju. Sudjelovanje pak nije (bez obzira na neke tendencije u suvremenoj umjetnosti i koreograji) primarni, odredbeni faktor umjetnosti, (ali jest rituala, funkcionalnih vjebi, drutvenoga, amaterskoga i rekreativnoga plesa te folklornih plesova), pa je ve i po tom kriteriju kategorizacija joge kao umjetnosti problematina48. Bikram joga predstavlja sustav vjebanja, koji kao takav moda moe ispunjavati neke pretpostavke za stjecanje autorske zatite, no zasigurno se ne moe smatrati umjetnikom koreograjom kao autorskim djelom. Eventualna mogunost za zatitu takvim djelima, kao to je Bikram joga, mogla bi se nazrijeti kroz injenicu da su autorska djela u zakonu samo egzemplativno navedena te tako kao neko novo autorsko djelo stei autorsku zatitu. No sve to pod uvjetom da takve sekvence uspiju dokazati da ulaze u podruje umjetnosti. Premda Bikram joga moda moe biti vrlo kvalitetna te korisna za pojedinca kao sistem vjebanja i odravanja zdravlja, pruanjem autorske zatite takvim sekvencama tjelesnih pokreta dolo bi do trivijalizacije plesne umjetnosti, a zatita bi se nudila onim autorima kojima prvotno nije bila namijenjena.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcqvlJIjh9g,Philip Askew i Lydia Walker, Variations on Surya Namaskara, Glazba Jonah Rank, plesna koreograja bazirana na asanama putem kojih autor kreativnim rasporedom poloaja i kretnji prezentira svoju ideju. 47 http://www.plesnascena.kulisa.eu, A. Jelii, to donose baletna natjecanja (kolovoz 2010.) 48 A. Jelii, usmeni intervju (lipanj 2010.)
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7. Tradicionalna znanja i tradicionalan kulturan izriaj (folklor)

Ono to razlikuje nacije i regije je njihova kulturna batina te drutveni i povijesni identitet. Te karakteristike raznih naroda rezultat su razvoja ovisnog o geografskom poloaju, povijesnim prilikama i neprilikama, drutvenom okruenju te stupnju svijesti pojedinaca na tim podrujima. Danas, kada svijet predstavlja globalno selo, kulture i tradicije pojedinih naroda postaju lako dostupne svima. Tradicije, metode, prie i plesovi koji su se prenosili preteno usmenom predajom generacijama potomaka unutar odreenih zajednica, postaju izvor ili sama autorska djela pojedinaca. Tradicionalni ritmovi mogu se uti u glazbi mnogih popularnih izvoaa, ljekoviti pripravci koji su se razvijali stoljeima, postaju lijekovi velikih farmaceutskih kompanija te i donose veliku ekonomsku korist onima koji su stekli zatitu unutar sistema intelektualnog vlasnitva. S druge strane intelektualne tvorevine naroda predstavljaju javno dobro slobodno na upotrebu svima. Zbog takvoga stanja stvari, na inicijativu ekonomski nerazvijenih zemalja, koje se najvie osjeaju zakinute ovakvim sustavom zatite, razvija se novi institut u okviru intelektualnoga vlasnitva pod nazivom tradicionalna znanja i tradicionalan kulturan izriaj ili folklor. Cilj je zatititi, na neki nain, zajednice koje ne poznaju ili nisu poznavale moderan sustav intelektualne zatite od krae pojedinaca koji tako stvaraju autorska djela, ali i zatiti kulturnu raznolikost od nestajanja posredstvom globalizacije. Tradicionalne vjetine predstavljaju znanja u podruju javne domene i slue na upotrebu cjelokupnom drutvu pomou novih sredstava dokumentacije, a izvan tradicionalnoga kruga autohtonih zajednica. elja takvih autohtonih zajednica je da njihova znanja i vjetine i dalje predstavljaju civilizacijsko dobro, no da se ne mogu zatiti kao intelektualno pravo pojedinaca i tako predstavljati njihovu ekonomsku korist. Trenutana situacija predstavlja paradoks, budui da se tradicionalna znanja i vjetine nalaze unutar javne domene, te kao takva ne mogu biti zatiene pravom intelektualnog vlasnitva, dok bilo kakva modikacija, koja moe predstavljati i oskvrnue, postaje podobna za zatitu unutar postojeega sustava. Taj institut prvenstveno se poeo razvijati u okviru Svjetske organizacije za intelektualno vlasnitvo (World Intelectual Property Organization, WIPO). Ona predstavlja specijaliziranu ustanovu pri Ujedinjenim narodima koja je osnovana 1976. godine kako bi potaknula kreativnu aktivnost promoviranja i zatite intelektualnog vlasnitva na svjetskoj razini. Unutar takve ustanove 2000. godine osniva se Meuvladin odbor za intelektualno vlasnitvo i genetske resurse, tradicijska znanja i folklor koji na meudravnoj razini pregovorima usuglaava stajalita vezana uz tradicionalna znanja i folklorni izriaj u elji potpisivanja konvencije koja e osigurati efektivnu zatitu. Sukladno stavu odbora, tradicionalna znanja obuhvaaju pitanja poljoprivrede i prehrane, okolia, posebno ouvanje bioloke raznolikosti, zdravlje, ukljuujui tradicionalnu medicinu, ljudska prava u odnosu na autohtona stanovnitva i aspekte trgovine i ekonomskoga razvoja, dok tradicionalni kulturni izriaj sadri muziku, umjetnika ostvarenja, dizajn, imena, znakove i simbole, performanse, arhitektonske forme, runi rad i prie autohtonih naroda. Na konvencijskoj razini pitanje tradicionalnih znanja se susree u Konvenciji o biolokoj raznolikosti
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iz 1992. godine, gdje se po prvi puta postavlja pitanje zatite biolokih vrsta, ekosistema i okolia te njihova upotreba. Daljnja konvencija koja je otvorila nova pitanja, ne samo o tradicionalnim znanjima, ve i o tradicionalnom kulturnom izriaju ili folkloru je Sporazum Svjetske trgovinske organizacije o trgovinskim aspektima Intelektualnog vlasnitva (TRIPs) koja se mogla protumaiti tako da proturjei konvenciji o biolokoj raznolikosti te je time postao potreban konsenzus na svjetskoj razini o tim pitanjima. Postoje razliita stajalita o tome na koji nain bi se trebalo rijeiti trenutano stanje. Neke drave su spremne istraiti kako bi se taj problem mogao rijeiti na meudravnoj razini unutar intelektualnog vlasnitva kakvo postoji danas. Naprotiv, u drugim dravama prevladava miljenje da je najadekvatnije rjeenje da svaka drava sama odabere nain zatite svojeg tradicionalnoga znanja i folklora te takoer da se zatita moe potraiti i unutar ljudskih prava kao zatita religije, identiteta i kulturne batine. Sama injenica da je ono to predstavlja povredu tradicionalnih znanja i folklora, njihova modikacija i implementacija u sustave izvan svoga autohtonoga podruja, zahtjeva, po mom miljenju, konsenzus na svjetskoj razini. Trenutaan sustav intelektualnog vlasnitva nije adekvatan za pruanje zatite tradicionalnim vjetinama i folkloru i to iz vie razloga. Poto se prava intelektualnog vlasnitva stjeu kao subjektivna prava pojedinca postavlja se pitanje na koji nain bi ta prava mogla stei zajednica autohtonog stanovnitva. Jedno od predloenih rjeenja jest da se takva prava priznaju autohtonim zajednicama na isti nain kao to su priznata prava vlasnitva dravama u meunarodnom javnom pravu49. Jedan od glavnih kriterija za stjecanje autorske zatite je da se radi o subjektivno originalnom djelu. Takve uvjete je skoro nemogue ispuniti s obzirom da se radi o starim, generacijama prenoenim vjetinama i znanjima te ukoliko se eli ouvati i zatiti te vrijednosti ne bi ih trebalo modicirati kako bi stekli pravo na zatitu. Takoer prepreku predstavlja i vremenski rok unutar kojega postoje prava na zatitu. Takva odredba o vremenskom trajanju prava intelektualnog vlasnitva nije pogodna za zatitu tradicionalnih vjetina i folklora jer je cilj da oni kao dio kulture ostanu utkani u identitet autohtonih naroda. Svi ti razlozi govore u prilog potrebi nastanka sui generis intelektualnoga vlasnitva kako bi se zatitilo takve objekte. Na meunarodnoj razini to pitanje jo nije rijeeno te ne postoji konsenzus o tome treba li konvencijska zatita predstavljati obvezujui ili neobvezujui sustav zatite. Tako je, 2009. godine, na Generalnoj skuptini dogovoreno da e se nastaviti pregovaraki napori jo dvije godine, u elji postizanja zajednikoga stava koji bi se pretoio u meunarodnu konvenciju.
7.1. Joga kao tradicionalan kulturni izriaj

Joga kao duhovna i mentalna disciplina originalno potjee iz Indije, od kuda se proirila po cijelom svijetu, u raznim oblicima. Joga kakvu danas poznajemo razvijala se stoljeima i prenosila generacijama kroz uenja raznih jogija. Tako su razni
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Ahren M., Legal Aspects related to Traditional Knowledge,WIPO
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uitelji stvarali razne stilove joge i modicirali su je na naine za koje smatraju da su najkorisniji za njihove polaznike. Joga je na taj nain predstavljala ope dobro, koje slui na upotrebu svima. Prelaskom joge na zapad dolazi do toga da mnogi pojedinci poinju smatrati jogu svojim vlasnitvom te razne kombinacije asana i tehnika poinju titi sustavom intelektualnoga vlasnitva, pri emu je najpoznatiji primjer Bikram joga. Tako joga postaje unosan posao za pojedince, dok onima koji su je stvarali stoljeima i nesebino dijelili preostaje samo smatrati takav nain upotrebe joge protivan njezinom smislu i uenju. Ono to bi u budunosti moglo predstavljati nain zatite joge su tradicionalna znanja i tradicionalan kulturni izriaj. Iako o tom pitanju jo nije postignut konsenzus na svjetskoj razini, Indijska vlada je pokrenula inicijativu za dokumentaciju oko 1500 joga asana ili poza kako bi ih pohranila u Digitalnu bazu tradicionalnih znanja, od kuda bi mogle biti na raspolaganju za uvid svim uredima Intelektualnog vlasnitva u svijetu. Takvu dokumentaciju radi petnaest najpoznatijih jogijskih kola u Indiji ukljuujui Iyengar institut. Prema trenutnom nacrtu odredaba o tradicionalnom kulturnom izriaju WIPOa najiri opseg zatite se nudi za one izriaje od odreene kulturne ili duhovne vrijednosti za zajednicu, pod uvjetom da su prijavljene i registrirane. Takva zatita, koja bi dijelom odgovarala klasinim iskljuivim pravima u intelektualnom vlasnitvu, omoguena je pomou potrebne slobodne, prethodne, i obavijetene dozvole (PIC). Ako bi zajednice odlue da su odreeni folklorni izriaji toliko vani za tu zajednicu da zasluuju najvii stupanj zatite te ispunjavaju formalnosti, mogli bi uivati ne samo ekonomska prava koja su usporediva s klasinim iskljuivim pravima autora, ve i prava usporediva s autorovim moralnim pravima50. Stjecanjem takve zatite joga e i dalje moi predstavljati ope dobro, na upotrebi svima, bez mogunosti stjecanja individualnih prava kroz sustave dosadanjeg intelektualnog vlasnitva.
8. Razlika anglosaksonskog instituta copyright i autorskog prava kontinentalne Europe

Razlog moguih razliitih pravnih rjeenja problema Bikram joge moe se pronai u razlici izmeu dva pravna sustava. Kompleksnost toga pitanja prelazi okvire ovoga rada tako da u se u ovom izlaganju zadrati iskljuivo na osnovnim razlikama. Copyright kao institut razvio se u Britanskom zakonu (Statute of Anne) iz 1710. godine od kuda se proirio na sve britanske dominione, pa tako i na Sjedinjene Amerike Drave. U svim tim zemljama osnovni principi copyrighta i dalje ostaju pravna baza, iako se neke pravne pretpostavke razlikuju. Copyright sustav prvenstveno jami prava imovinske prirode tako da autora stavlja u monopolni poloaj
Lewinski von S., Meunarodna zatita folklora, Zbornik hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo, br. 9 (2008) str. 137 150.
50
177
glede iskoritavanja njegova djela. Ono polazi od koristi samog objekta, kako za drutvo, tako i za pojedinca, a pravnu narav autorskog prava izjednaava s pravom vlasnitva. Autorski pravni sustav vue porijeklo iz Francuskih zakona iz 1791. i 1793. godine koji smatraju da pravo autora proizlazi iz njegove osobnosti te da zbog toga postoje dva aspekta takvog prava: imovinski i moralni. Bilo da stoji na stajalitu monizma (Njemaka) ili dualizma (Francuska), takav koncept autorskog prava polazi od veze izmeu autora i njegovog djela zbog toga to je ono plod njegovog uma. Taj utjecaj iri se na sve zemlje kontinentalnog pravnoga kruga. Takve polazne teorije rezultirale su razlikom u podruju moralnih prava na nain da ih copyright sustav ne smatra znaajnim, dok u sustavu autorskog prava moralna prava su tradicionalno bitna i zajamena. U angloamerikom sustavu autorskog prava zakoni o autorskom pravu, do Britanskog zakona iz 1988., ne sadravaju odredbe o autorskim moralnim pravima, nego se osobni interesi autora tite prema pravilima obveznog prava, kaznenog prava, prava o suzbijanju nedoputenog trinog natjecanja ili prava o zatiti privatnog ivota51. U kontinentalnom sustavu prava zakonski su priznata ona moralna prava koja obuhvaaju pod razliitim nazivima i u razliitim formulacijama: pravo objave djela, pravo na povlaenje djela iz prometa, pravo na priznanje autorstva (paternitetsko pravo), pravo na potivanje cjelovitosti djela, pravo na ast i ugled autora. Danas je ta razlika djelomino prevladana Bernskom konvencijom za zatitu knjievnih i umjetnikih djela revidiranom u Rimu 1928. gdje se u l. 6 bis st.1. navodi da e neovisno o autorskim imovinskim pravima, ak i nakon prijenosa tih prava, autor imati pravo na priznavanje autorstva kao i pravo na potivanje cjelovitosti djela. U vrijeme pristupanja Bernskoj konvenciji postojala je bojazan da tadanja zakonska regulativa nee biti u skladu sa samom konvencijom. Takvo miljenje je odbaeno Implementacijskim aktom Bernske konvencije iz 1988. u l.2(3) gdje se navodi da amandmani implementirani ovim zakonom zajedno sa dotadanjim zakonodavstvom zadovoljavaju obveze SAD-a u potivanju konvencije. Veliki korak u prepoznavanju moralnih prava predstavlja Visual Artists Rights Act iz 1990. U njemu se lankom 106.A likovnim umjetnicima (deniranim u l. 101) jami: pravo paterniteta, pravo sprjeavanja upotrebe njihovog imena kao autora bilo kojeg djela koje nije njihovo, pravo zabrane upotrebe njihovog imena kao autora djela, ukoliko je ono izoblieno, osakaeno ili modicirano na bilo koji nain koji teti autorovoj asti ili ugledu te pravo sprjeavanja namjerne modikacije njihovog djela52. Na taj nain se iskljuivo odreenoj kategoriji djela jami moralno pravo.
51 52
Henneberg Ivan, Autorsko pravo, Informator , Zagreb, 2001. str. 155 Copyright Act 1976, l. 106A,(kolovoz 2010).
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Ta razlika se znaajno reektirala i na nain prenoenja autorskog prava. U kontinentalnim pravnim sustavima autorskopravnim ugovorima autor osniva pravo iskoritavanja djela ili neka od tih prava u odreenom trajanju za drugu osobu. Moralna prava, kao osobna prava autora, nisu prenosiva meu ivima nego su eventualno djelomice prenosiva u sluaju smrti. Razliito navedenom, u anglosaksonskom sustavu prava postoje dva tipa ugovora na temelju kojih se daje pravo koritenja autorskog djela. Jednim dolazi do prijenosa autorskog prava kao takvog u cjelini, ustupom buduem nositelju autorskog prava (assignment contract),dok drugim nositelj autorskog prava daje drugoj osobi samo odobrenje za koritenje autorskog djela (licensing agreement). Razlika se vidi i kroz ovlatenja subjekta autorskog prava. U sustavu copyrighta ovlatenja autora su skup tono odreenih ovlasti, autoru je doputeno iskljuivo ono to je zakonom propisano, dok u kontinentalnom sustavu autor ima sva mogua ovlatenja osim onih koja su zakonom zabranjena. Unato tome promjene su neminovne i u ovom podruju. Tako Gliha navodi: S druge strane ni kontinentalnoeuropska prava nisu imuna na utjecaj naroito amerikog prava te pojedina ovlatenja dobivaju tono odreene sadraje, to bi u krajnjoj liniji jednog dana moglo dovesti do unutarnjih ogranienja53. Razlika se takoer odnosi i na opseg moguih predmeta autorskog prava. U copyright sustavu kao uvjet za ispunjavanje pretpostavki da bi objekt stekao zatitu autorskim pravom, trai se da je ideja ksirana na materijalnoj podlozi s koje se moe vizualno zamijetiti ili reproducirati, bilo samostalno ili uz pomo ureaja. Suprotno tome u sustavu autorskog prava zahtjeva se da je ideja samo izraena u zamjetljivom obliku. Iako se na prvi pogled ta znaajka ne ini pretjerano bitnom, ona na kraju rezultira time da se u kontinentalnom pravu prua autorska zatita predmetima koji takvu zatitu ne bi stekli u anglosaksonskom sustavu. Tako je u Francuskoj artistiki koncipiranom svjetlosnom prikazu, nazvanom Son et Lumiee, pruena autorska zatita te bilo kakvo neovlateno fotograranje ili snimanje svjetlosnog prikaza predstavlja povredu autorskog prava. U angloamerikom sustavu takva instalacija ne bi bila zatiena dok god nije ksirana na materijalnoj podlozi. Tek nakon takve ksacije (bilo snimkom, fotograjom, zapisom) neovlatena fotograja bi predstavljala krenje autorskog prava. Zbog razliitoga pravnoga podrijetla instituta copyright i autorskog prava, teoretske debate o prednostima jednoga i nedostatcima drugoga sustava i vice versa e se zasigurno i dalje nastaviti. Kako krenje autorskog prava postaje sve vie globalno, tako e i sam sustav autorskog prava u odgovoru na takve napade morati napustiti nacionalna podrijetla i postati internacionalno. Veliki znaaj na tom putu nesumnjivo predstavljaju meunarodne konvencije, pa makar i na minimalnoj razini u cilju to veeg broja drava potpisnica.
53
Gliha Igor, Hrvatski autorskopravni poredak neke novosti, Pravo u gospodarstvu, 37(1998),
str. 1232.
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9. Zakljuak
Prethodno navedene razlike u pravnim sustavima autorskog prava kontinentalne Europe i anglosaksonskog sustava copyrighta uzrok su moguim razliitim pravnim rjeenjima pitanja Bikram joge. Ono to povezuje dva pravna sustava je injenica da Bikram joga u oba predstavlja zbirku koja se titi autorskim pravom. U amerikom pravnom sustavu trenutaan stav suda o mogunosti autorske zatite Bikram joge implicira ne samo stajalite da ako prilikom kombiniranja sekvence postoji dovoljna razina kreativnosti Bikram joga stei e autorsku zatitu, ve i stav da i druge kombinacije zikih sekvenci uz ispunjenje istih uvjeta mogu stei autorsku zatitu. Tako bi se u budunosti mogli susresti s bezbroj parnica vezanih uz krenje autorskog prava sekvenci s podruja aerobika, sinkroniziranog plivanja, umjetnikog klizanja, pilatisa. Usprkos tome da takve aktivnosti nesumnjivo predstavljaju razonodu u slobodno vrijeme, smatram da su one u svojoj biti primarno funkcionalne, a ne ekspresivne i samim time ne bi se trebale titi autorskim pravom. Bikram joga kao predmet autorskog prava daje Bikramu mogunost zabrane modikacije sekvence ime zapravo gui eventualan razvoj same Bikramove sekvence. Nema razloga vjerovati da Bikram joga ne moe biti kvalitetnija, a tako i sve druge funkcionalne zike sekvence. Takvim irenjem opsega autorskog prava ograniila bi se mogunost razvoja zikih sekvenci. Danas, s jedne strane postoji potreba za liberalizacijom autorskih prava kroz copyleft sustave kako bi bili primjereniji dananjem drutvu, dok s druge strane irenjem autorskog prava i na zike sekvence ograniila bi se mogunost koritenja i razvoja takvih sekvenci. Na sudskoj praksi je odgovornost da postavi standarde pri odgovoru na ova diskutabilna pitanja. Teoretsko postavljanje problema u hrvatskom pravnom sustavu dovelo me do pitanja denicije koreograje kao autorskog djela jer Bikram joga i koreograja svoj sadraj zasnivaju na zikom pokretu, a najvea mogunost zatite postoji kroz analogiju sa koreograjom. Kako se zakonski titi samo umjetnika koreograja smatram da ak i ekstenzivno tumaenje tih termina ne moe proiriti mogunost zatite na odabir i raspored zikih vjebi spojenih radi zike dobrobiti pojedinca. Takvom zatitom dolo bi do trivijalizacije plesne umjetnosti, a zatita bi se nudila onim autorima kojima prvotno nije bila namijenjena. Povezivanjem krae joge s Tradicionalnim znanjem i Tradicionalnim kulturnim izriajem (folklorom) postavlja se pitanje uspostavljanja zatite joge tim institutima u meunarodnoj zajednici. Smatram da bi, zbog internacionalnog aspekta tog pitanja, najadekvatnije rjeenje bila zatita sui generis unutar intelektualnog vlasnitva kako bi joga, kao do sada, predstavljala ope dobro na upotrebi svima. Iako pravno ureenje tih pitanja jo nije urodilo plodom na meunarodnoj razini, popisivanje joga poloaja u svrhu upoznavanja Digitaliziranih baza ureda Intelektualnog vlasnitva s tom tradicionalnom vjetinom je zasigurno dobar temelj za buduu zatitu unutar Instituta u razvoju.
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SUMMARY POSSIBILITY FOR COPYRIGHT PROTECTION OF BIKRAM YOGA Lucija Franji

This paper considers the issue of copyrightability of Bikram yoga sequence in the American and Croatian copyright systems. Bikram yoga consists of 26 postures (asanas), conducted precisely in the same order every time and two breathing exercises which are all performed in a room heated to 105 Fahrenheit or 40.5 degrees Celsius. Yoga has its roots in ancient India and is over ve thousand years old which is the reason for its presence in the public domain. By selecting and rearranging asanas in the public domain, Bikram made a compilation which he registered at the American Copyright ofce under name Bikram yoga. In order to nd out whether Bikram yoga can fall under the scope of copyrighted works in USA, it is necessary to understand its nature. Does Bikram yoga represent sport, a system of health benets or choreographic work? The main concern with classifying yoga as a sport activity is the idea that sports activities are inherently functional and that they should be barred from copyrightability under the functionality doctrine. That barrier could be skipped if we consider sport as entertainment. The area of sports in the context of copyright could be divided into four general groups, each one representing a different set of issues with regard to copyright protection: sports events, scripted sports plays, routine-oriented competitive sports, and routine-oriented non-competitive sports. Bikram yoga, as stated on its website, brings tremendous physical, mental, and other benets to its practitioners and that is the reason why it can be regarded as a system which could not be protected under Copyright Act 1976. Viewing Bikram yoga as choreographic work gives it the biggest chances for copyright protection. Bikram gained status as a controversial gure when he began to send cease and desist letters to individuals teaching his yoga system, claiming that they were violating his copyright and trademark rights by teaching Bikram yoga. In response to Bikram`s litigious treats Open Source Yoga Unity sought declaratory relief in Nothern District of California against Bikram and challenged the validity of Bikrams copyrights. The case was settled, but in the courts opinion a sequence of yoga positions could be eligible for copyright protection if it is originated in a sufciently creative way, opens the question whether this result could extend to other athletic activities, such as exercise routines. In the Croatian copyright system Bikram yoga deals with a situation where all copyrighted works are derived from the eld of art, science and literature. If we consider Bikram yoga choreography, which is highly copyrightable, Bikram should argue that it is an esthetically arranged combination of asanas that represents choreography. In my opinion it is slightest possible because a combination of inherently functional asanas with the primary purpose to improve practitioners health cannot be considered artistic choreography. Future protection of Yoga from gaining prot by creating legal proprietary systems of asana sequences could be found through developing institutes Traditional knowledge and Traditional cultural expression under World Intellectual Propriety Organization. The Government of India has issued documentation of asana postures and stores them in the Digital Traditional Knowledge Library to be made available worldwide and developed, as it used to be, through the community.
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Zoran Vujasin KAZNENOPRAVNI ASPEKTI ZLORABE INTERNETA
Zoran Vujasin*
KAZNENOPRAVNI ASPEKTI ZLORABE INTERNETA

Saetak izlaganja s XI. savjetovanja HDAP u Zagrebu, 26. studenog 2010. godine
Internet je javno dostupna globalna paketna podatkovna mrea koja zajedno povezuje raunala i raunalne mree koritenjem istoimenog protokola (internet protokol=IP). To je mrea svih mrea koja se sastoji od milijuna kunih, akademskih, poslovnih i vladinih mrea koje meusobno razmjenjuju informacije i usluge kao to su elektronika pota, chat i prijenos datoteka (podataka) te povezane stranice i dokumente World Wide Weba. U Hrvatskoj je bilo dosta rasprave pie li se rije internet velikim ili malim poetnim slovom. Odgovor glasi: i jedno i drugo. Naime, internet je naziv za bilo koju mreu koja koristi IP. Ta mrea moe biti samo u jednoj zgradi ili se prostirati cijelim svijetom, ali biti potpuno odvojena od svih ostalih mrea, tada i s imenom intranet. S druge strane, rije Internet oznaava ime mree: globalne, javno dostupne mree koja se sastoji od meusobno povezanog mnotva drugih mrea. No nisu svi interneti povezani u Internet. Postoje privatne, specijalizirane mree koje su zasnovane na IP, ali nisu povezane u Internet. Takoer, lako se moe zamisliti, pa i oekivati, da e u budunosti postojati i druge mree, odvojene od dananjeg Interneta ili zasnovane na drugim protokolima. Zato, kad govorimo o globalnoj, javnoj mrei koja nas danas povezuje, ispravno je pisati Internet jer je to naziv mree, dok je svaka druga, izolirana (privatna) mrea koja koristi IP, bez obzira kako ju vlasnik zvao, istovremeno i internet ( ali i intranet). Svjetska mrea koja povezuje milione raunala. Vie od 100 zemalja je povezano u razmjenu podataka, vijesti i stavova. Za razliku od tzv. Online servisa, koji su centralizirano kontrolirani Internet je decentraliziran po dizajnu. Svako raunalo na Internetu postaje host (domain) te je nezavisno. Njegovi operateri mogu birati koji Internet servis ele koristiti i kojeg lokalni servis uiniti dostupnim globalnoj Internet zajednici. Zadivljujue je da ova anarhija po dizajnu funkcionira nevjerojatno dobro. Postoji razliiti nain pristupa Internetu. Veina online servisa kao pr. America Online nude pristup nekim Internet sevisima. Mogue je ostvariti i pristup putem komercijalnih Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Zoran Vujasin, odvjetnik
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Meutim, upravo ta rasprostranjenost s jedne strane, a necentreliziranost s druge strane Inetrnet ini podobnim za zloporabe koje mogu motivom i nainom izvrenja ostvariti obiljeja praktiki svakog danas nam poznatog kaznenog djela. Kaznenopravni aspekti zlorabe inerneta. Radnje izvrenja koje ostvaruju obiljeja kaznenih djela, i to: - kleveta, ali i - prijevara, - raunalna prijevara, - raunalno krivotvorenje, - unitenje, oteenje, promjena raunalnih podataka, - povreda intelektualnog vlasnitva, ali i - raspirivanje mrnje i netrpeljivost (rasne, vjerske, nacionalne), - pijunaa, sve do - pedolije, - itd. Katalog kaznenih djela ve po nazivu namjenjen zatiti prostora raunalnih programa (syber space). Zakon, KZ titi ve i sam raunalni podatak, l. 223. Raunalno krivotvorenje l. 223a Raunalna prijevara 224a Internet moe biti prostorom izvrenja (na pr.prijevara) ili alatom (sredstvom) izvrenja (npr. raunalna prijevara, raunalno krivotvorenje) kaznenih djela.
Budunost
Trendovi
Servisi za online pohranu podataka (Cyberlockers) Upotreba 10 najrairenijih servisa poveala se za 4.9% tijekom drugog kvartala 2010.* Servis Rapidshare: 41 milijun pojedinanih korisnika mjeseno / Servis Mega Upload: 34 milijuna pojedinanih korisnika mjeseno / Servis Hotle.com: 19 milijuna pojedinanih korisnika mjeseno*
*
Statistics from the Envisional Report Piracy Trends: Second Quarter 2010.
Sites) U razdoblju od srpnja do kolovoza 2010.** porast prometa ovih servisa iznosio je 40%.
Internetski servisi s prijenosom sadraja u realnom vremenu (Streaming Link
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Zoran Vujasin KAZNENOPRAVNI ASPEKTI ZLORABE INTERNETA
Udio pojedinanih korisnika koji posjeuju ove servise porastao je sa 15.7% (1.9 milijun pojedinanih korisnika) ukupnog prometa prema 10 najrairenijih sajtova u svibnju na 28.3% (3.3 milijuna pojedinanih korisnika) u lipnju.** Ukupni prijenos video materijala putem Interneta premait e prijenos putem P2P servisa do kraja 2010.*** Streaming i download s Interneta porasti e na gotovo 60% ukupnog korisnikog prometa do 2014 godine.***
** ***
Statistics from DtecNet: MPAA Video Link Site Report June 2010 and July 2010 Cisco Visual Networking Index: Forecast and Methodology, 2009-2014.
Peer to Peer
Ukupni promet prema 10 najveih portala servisa BitTorrent pao je za 2.7% tijekom drugog kvartala 2010.* Male promjene u korisnikoj populaciji tijekom drugog kvartala za posljedicu su imale pad broja korisnika peer to peer sustava na prosjeno najniu razinu tijekom posljednjih godinu dana. Prosjeni broj istovremenih korisnika servisa BitTorrent iznosio je 7.5 milijuna, a servisa EDonkey 2 milijuna tijekom drugog kvartala 2010.*
* Statistics from the Envisional Report Piracy Trends: Second Quarter 2010.
Iako u RH ne postoje statistike iz kojih bi bila razvidna zlouporaba Interneta bilo kao prostora izvrenja ili alata (sredstva) izvrenja kaznenih djela iz pojedinanih predmeta u tijeku pred Sudovima nedvojbenim je uestala (zlo)upotreba te mree svih mrea komunikacije i razmjene podataka za poinjenje kaznenih djela povrede intelektualnog vlasnitva (ponudom, skidanjem i/ili na drugi nain ukljuujui prijevaru (ponudom krivotvorenih proizvoda) do krae identiteta, koji su svi modusi operandi poznati i procusirani u drugim zemljama rasprostranjenog koritenja Interneta. Stoga e i u RH biti potrebno neprestano educiranje svi dravnih tijela kao i gospodarskih subjekata u zatiti njihove komunikacije i drugih oblika koritenja i Interneta i intraneta, ali i u borbi protiv onih koji (zlo)upotrebljavaju Internet za poinjenje zabranjenih radnji posebice kaznenih djela.
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eljka Modruan-Ranogajec IN MEMORIAM BRANKO MARSI
IN MEMORIAM
BRANKO MARSI (1922. 2011.)
U Zagrebu je dana devetog rujna 2011., u 89. godini ivota, preminuo dipl. iur. Branko Marsi, istaknuti hrvatski strunjak za autorsko pravo i dugogodinji lan Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo u kojem je obnaao i funkciju predsjednika Nadzornog odbora. Gimnaziju i Pravni fakultet zavrio je u Zagrebu, nakon ega radi u Dravnom tuiteljstvu, zatim kao odvjetnik te kao uspjean i cijenjeni voditelj pravnih poslova u Zagrebakom velesajmu. Godine 1973. zapoinje raditi u Jugoslavenskoj autorskoj agenciji, OOUR za Republiku Hrvatsku, a od 1987. do umirovljenja vodi svoju tvrtku ART-JUS, specijaliziranu za zatitu autorskog prava. Odrastao i odgojen u visoko intelektualnoj sredini, neizmjerno uljudan i s istananim senzibilitetom za umjetnost, stupanjem na mjesto ravnatelja Autorske agencije, autorsko pravo u Republici Hrvatskoj, ali i u bivoj SFRJ, dobilo je u Branku Marsiu najboljeg odvjetnika. Izvrstan erudita nevjerojatne memorije, vrsni poznavatelj svih grana umjetnosti, a napose domae i inozemne literature, bio je i ostao uzor svima koji su s njime dolazili u doticaj. Pamtit emo ga kao portvovnog i vrstog zastupnika interesa autora, ali i autorskog prava kao grane prava koju je trebalo razvijati i unaprjeivati. Nije stoga neobino da je upravo Branko Marsi aktivno sudjelovao u svim izmjenama i dopunama autorskopravnog zakonodavstva u bivoj SFRJ, da je organizirao mnoge seminare i okrugle stolove o autorskom pravu te da je, kroz nebrojeno mnogo privatnih i slubenih razgovora s autorima i svima onima koji su imali neki problem glede autorskog prava, nesebino pomagao i davao savjete. Kao elni ovjek Autorske agencije razvijao je i nakladniku djelatnost, nastojei i na taj nain pribliiti problematiku autorskog prava to irem krugu zainteresiranih. Tako je odmah po dolasku u Autorsku agenciju zapoeo s izradom tipskih ugovora za gotovo sve vrste autorskih djela kako bi omoguio autorima to bolje snalaenje u materiji autorskog prava, a po donoenju Zakona o autorskom pravu iz 1978.godine, o troku Autorske agencije u svojstvu izdavaa, odmah je dao tiskati lijepo opremljenu knjiicu s tada novim zakonskim tekstom koja se besplatno dijelila autorima. Uoivi nunost povezivanja autorske agencije s autorskim drutvima, Branko Marsi intenzivno je suraivao s Drutvom hrvatskih knjievnika, ne samo kroz tipinu odvjetniku djelatnost u smislu pruanja pravne pomoi, nego i kroz suizdavatvo asopisa za meunarodne knjievne veze Most kojime su se promovirali hrvatski autori u inozemstvu, a kroz uzajamno djelovanje Matice Hrvatske, iji je bio lan, i Autorske agencije, niz je godina potpomagao odravanje seminara Zagrebake slavistike kole. Takoer, zajedno s Drutvom hrvatskih knjievnika i knjievnih prevoditelja sklopio je sa svim izdavaima u Republici Hrvatskoj Sporazum u kojem su se nalazili vrlo detaljni kriteriji za odreivanje autorskih naknada, a potpunu novost predstavljale su odredbe prema kojima su minimalne autorske
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naknada bile u korelaciji sa slubeno zajamenim osobnim dohotkom u Republici Hrvatskoj, ime se na najizravniji nain titio dignitet knjievnika i knjievnog stvaralatva. Suradnja s Udruenjem likovnih umjetnika primijenjenih umjetnosti Hrvatske i Drutvom dizajnera Hrvatske rezultirala je izdanjima prvih Pregleda autorskih naknada za djela fotograje i za djela grakog dizajna u Hrvatskoj (takoer su se besplatno dijelili autorima). Ti su Pregledi autorskih naknada doivjeli nekoliko izdanja te su jo cijeli niz godina sluili autorima prilikom ugovaranja naknada, a odvjetnicima i sucima kao nezaobilazna smjernica prilikom dosuivanja autorskih naknada u sudskim sporovima. Osim toga, Sporazumom o meusobnoj suradnji zakljuenim s drutvima likovnih umjetnika bilo je onemogueno da se putem Autorske agencije isplauju autorske naknade i za ona djela koja nisu autorska. Naime, pojedine sekcije navedenih drutava davale su potvrde o autentinosti autorskih djela svojih lanova te je na taj nain u potpunosti bila izbjegnuta mogunost krenja, prvenstveno, poreznih propisa, budui da su tada za koritenje autorskih djela bile predviene znatno nie porezne stope. Napose je bila zanimljiva suradnja izmeu Autorske agencije i umjetnika izvoaa. Koristei injenicu da je pravo umjetnika izvoaa kao ugovorno pravo priznavala sudska praksa, Branko Marsi uspio je da se putem Autorske agencije umjetnicima izvoaima isplauju naknade od tzv. mehanikih prava i prije nego to su prava umjetnika izvoaa uope bila priznata naim zakonodavstvom. Naime, tek mnogo godina kasnije, novelom Zakona o autorskom pravu iz 1990.godine prava umjetnika izvoaa dobila su svoj zakonski okvir. Takoer, Branko Marsi osnovao je u okviru Autorske agencije fond za unaprjeivanje autorskopravne zatite iz kojeg su se inicirali i materijalno pomagali mnogi projekti. Tako su se svake godine redovito podupirali mladi autori iji su knjievni prvijenci ugledali svjetlo dana upravo zahvaljujui dobrohotnosti i razumijevanju Branka Marsia, ili ije su slike i skulpture bile po prvi puta javno izloene, ali i oni autori kojima je nedostajalo sredstava za tiskanje kataloga, ili za izdavanje monograje, ili za putnu kartu u inozemstvo Nesebinost Branka Marsia u poticanju umjetnikog stvaralatva, njegova potena i iskrena borba za drutvenim priznanjem prava autora, njegovo nastojanje da autorsko djelo nikada ne postane roba, tj. zamjenjljiva stvar - jer se onda gubi i smisao autorskog prava, a napose njegova odanost etikim naelima prilikom poslovanja, uinili su Autorsku agenciju vanom i nezaobilaznom ustanovom na kulturnoj karti Hrvatske, ali i cijele bive SFRJ. Ipak, najznaajniji doprinos razvoju autorskopravne znanosti u Hrvatskoj Branko Marsi dao je iniciranjem ideje o potrebi osnivanja Postdiplomskog magisterijskog studija za specijalizaciju Autorsko pravo na Pravnom fakultetu u Zagrebu. Poam od 1977.godine, vizionarski je neumorno ukazivao na potrebu specijalistike edukacije pravnika koji na bilo koji nain dolaze u doticaj s autorskim pravom. Proroki je zazvuala njegova reenica prema kojoj se suvremeno gospodarstvo i ekonomska propaganda, publicitet i marketing uope ne mogu zamisliti bez koritenja cijelog niza duhovnih tvorevina, a to pretpostavlja i formirane
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eljka Modruan-Ranogajec IN MEMORIAM BRANKO MARSI
strunjake za autorsko pravo koji rade na tim poslovima. Voen vlastitom karizmom i upornou, unato mnogim preprekama, i ne samo administrativne prirode, 31.svibnja 1982. napokon je doivio ostvarenje svog sna: toga je dana, naime, bilo sveano otvaranje specijalistikog studija iz autorskog prava u vijenici Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu. Studij je poluio velik interes drutvene zajednice, budui da je to bio prvi specijalistiki studij na Pravnom fakultetu u Zagrebu te prvi i jedini poslijediplomski studij za specijalizaciju iz autorskog prava u tadanjoj Jugoslaviji. Kao jedan od rijetkih studija takve vrste u svijetu, bio je registriran kod UNESCO-a u Parizu i OMPI-a u enevi. Branko Marsi bio je predava na specijalistikom studiju iz autorskog prava, a kao nadasve metodian pravnik ostat e zapamen po legendarnoj otroumnosti u rjeavanju najkompliciranijih pravnih problema. Njegova miljenja nikada nisu ostavljala dileme i to je svima koji su traili savjete ulijevalo sigurnost. Unato tomu, na samo sebi svojstven nain, Branko Marsi ostao je samozatajan, vjeiti zaljubljenik u umjetnost i autorsko pravo.
mr. sc. eljka Modruan-Ranogajec, odvjetnica u Zagrebu
189

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ZBORNIK

HRVATSKOG DRUTVA ZA AUTORSKO PRAVO

ZAGREB 2011., vol. 11-12

Nelka Fikeys Krmi LICENCNI UGOVORI ZA RAUNALNI SOFTWARE

Dr. sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi

PRAVNI STATUS AUTORSKIH DJELA STVORENIH U RADNOM ODNOSU NA SVEUILITU

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

2. Opa pravila o imovinskopravnim raspolaganjima autorskim pravom

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

3. Pravni status autorskih djela stvorenih u radnom odnosu

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

3.1. Posebno o raunalnim programima

3.2. Posebno o audiovizualnim djelima

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

3.3. Posebno o kolektivnim djelima

l. L132-24. CPI. Vidi i GLIHA, op. cit., str. 107, 108.

Odreenje lmskog producenta vidjeti l. L132-32. CPI.

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

4. Autorska djela stvorena u radu na sveuilitu

4.1. Vrste autorskih djela koja se stvaraju na sveuilitu

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Vidi l. 75. ZAPSP. Vidi l. 52/3. ZAPSP.

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Vidi l. 53. ZAPSP. Vidi l. 44/5. ZAPSP.

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE

Prof. dr. sc. Aleksandra Horvat

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Opsena (masovna) digitalizacija

Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE

Efemerna graa i umetnuta djela

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Djela siroad (orphan works)

Direktiva o djelima siroadi

Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Arrow. Dostupno na: http://www.arrow-net.eu

Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Digitalizacija u hrvatskim knjinicama

Digitalizirana zagrebaka batina. Dostupno na: http://kgzdzb.arhivpro.hr

Aleksandra Horvat DIGITALIZACIJA I KNJINICE

SUMMARY DIGITIZATION AND LIBRARIES Aleksandra Horvat

Dr. sc. Romana Matanovac Vukovi*

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

3. Izuzeci od primjene Direktive o uslugama

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

5. Monopol udruga za kolektivno ostvarivanje vs. zabrana kvantitativnih ogranienja

Tako i FICSOR, op.cit., str. 68, 69.

6. Statusni oblik udruge za kolektivno ostvarivanje

Vidi i KEPINSKI, op.cit., str. 14, 15.

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Zbornik Hrvatskog drutva za autorsko pravo Volumen 11-12

Saa Niki PRAVNA PROBLEMATIKA LINKA NA ZATIENI SADRAJ