INDEX

1) INTRODUCTION TO BIOMOLECULAR COMPUTING 4

2) HAMILTON PATH PROBLEM 5

3) PROGRAMMING OF PROBLEM USING DNA 8

4) WORKING OF DNA ______________________________________________10

5) APPLICATION 17

6) EFFICIENCY___________________________________________________ 21

7) ADVANTAGES-DISADVANTAGES 22

8) FUTURE 24

9) CONCLUSION___________________________________________________ 29
 FIGURES INDEX

2.1 Possible flight routes between seven

cities________________6

2.2 Connecting
Block___________________________________7

2.3 Double
Helics_____________________________________ 7

2.4 Long
Chain________________________________________7

2.5 Different
Colour___________________________________ 7

3.1 Linking Pieces of

DNA_______________________________ 9

3.2 Sequence of Sticky

Pieces_____________________________9

4.1 Synthetic
DNA_____________________________________11

4.2 Memory Unit

Structure________________________________12

4.3 Complementary Coupling

Nuclotide_______________________12

4.4 Coupling Rings Long

Chain____________________________13

4.5 Complmentary
Coupling_______________________________13
2
4.6 Double Helix
Structure_______________________________13

4.7 Complementary
Strands______________________________14

4.8 Split Doouble Stranded

Enzymes_______________________14

4.9 Complementary
Strands______________________________15

4.10 Copy Of Complementary

Strands_____________________16

5.1 DNA
MicroArray__________________________________20

3
 1. INTRODUCTION TO BIO-MOLECULAR COMPUTING
Computer chip manufactures are furiously racing to make the next
microprocessor that will topple speed records. Sooner or later, though, this
competition is bound to hit a wall. Microprocessor made of silicon will
eventually reach their limits of speed and miniaturization. Chip makers need a
new material to produce faster computing speeds.

You won’t believe where scientists have found the new material they
need to build the next generation of microprocessors. Millions of natural
supercomputers exist inside living organisms, including your living body. They
are nothing else but Bio-Molecules itself. Especially DNA. DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, the material our genes are made of, have the
potential to perform calculations many faster than the world’s most powerful
human-built computers. The other Bio-Molecules like Nucleotides,
Nuclesoides, Saccharides, Lignin, Lipids, Amino acids…

What is a DNA Computer?

Research in the development of DNA computers is really only at its

beginning stages, so a specific answer isn't yet available. But the general sense
of such a computational device is to use the DNA molecule as a model for its
construction.

Although the feasibility of molecular computers remains in doubt, the

field has opened new horizons and important new research problems, both for
computer scientists and biologists. The computer scientist and mathematician
are looking for new models of computation to replace with acting in a test tube.

The massive parallelism of DNA strands may help to deal with

computational problems that are beyond the reach of ordinary digital computers
-- not because the DNA strands are smarter, but because they can make many
4
tries at once. It's the parallel nature of the beast. For the biologist, the
unexpected results in DNA computing indicate that models of DNA computers
could be significant for the study of important biological problems such as
evolution. Also, the techniques of DNA manipulation developed for
computational purposes could also find applications in genetic engineering.

DNA computer can’t be still found at your local electronics store yet. The
technology is still in their development, and didn’t exist as concept before a
decade. In 1994, LEONARD ADELMAN introduced the idea of using DNA to
solve complex mathematical problems. Adelman, computer scientist at the
university of Southern California, came to the conclusion that DNA had
computational potential after reading the book “MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
OF THE GENE” written by JAMES WASTON, who co-discovered the
structure of DNA in 1953.In fact, DNA is more similar to computer. DNA is
very similar to a computer hard drive in how it stores permanent information
about your genes.

2. HAMILTON PATH PROBLEM

Adelman is often called the inventor of the DNA computers. His article in
a 1994 issue of Journal Science outlined how to use DNA to solve a well-
known mathematical problem, called the “Directed Hamilton Path problem”,
also known as the “Traveling Salesman Problem”. The goal of the problem is
to find the shortest route between a numbers of cities, going through each city
only once. As you add more cities the problem becomes more difficult.
Figure 2.1 shows a diagram of the Hamilton path problem. The objective
is to find a path from start to end going through all the points only once. This
problem is difficult for the conventional (serial logic) computers because they
5
try must try each path one at a time. It is like having a whole bunch of keys and
trying to see which fits into the lock. Conventional computers are very good at
math, but poor at “key into lock” problems. DNA based computers can try all
the keys at the same time (massively parallel) and thus are very good at key into
lock problems, but much slower at simple mathematical problems like
multiplication. The Hamilton path problem was chosen because every key-into-
lock problem can be solved as a Hamilton Path Problem.

Figure 2.1

Figure showing the possible flight routes between the seven cities.

The following algorithm solves the Hamilton Path Problem, regardless of

the type computers used.

1. Generate random paths through the graph.

2. Keep only those paths that begin with the start city (A) and conclude
with the end city (G).
3. Because the graph has 7 cities, keep only those paths with 7 cities.
4. Keep only those paths that enter all cities at least once.
5. Any remaining paths are solutions.

The key to solving the problem was using DNA to perform the five steps in
6
solving the above algorithm.

These interconnecting blocks can be used to model DNA:

Figure 2.2
DNA likes to form long double helices:

Figure 2.3

The two helices are joined by “bases”, which will be represented

by coloured blocks. Each base binds only to one other specific base. In our
example, we will say that each coloured block will bind only with the block
of same colour. For example, if we only had red coloured blocks, they
would form a long chain like this:

Figure 2.4

Any other colour will not bind with red:

Figure 2.5

3.PROGRAMMING OF THE PROBLEM USING DNA

STEP 1: Create a unique DNA sequence for each city A through G. For
each path, for example, from A to B, creates a linking pieces of DNA that
matches the last half of A and first half of B:

7
 Figure 3.1

Here the red block represents the city a, while the orange block represents
the city B. the half-red half-orange block connecting the two other blocks
represents the path from A to B.

In a test tube, all different pieces of DNA will randomly link with each
other, forming paths through the graph.

STEP 2: Because it is difficult to "remove" DNA from solution, the target

DNA, the DNA which started from A and ended at G was copied over and
over again until the test tube contained a lot of it relative to other random
sequences. This is essentially the same as removing all the other pieces.
Imagine a sock drawer which initially contains one or two coloured socks. If
you put in a hundred black socks, the chances are that all you will get if
you reach in is black socks.

STEP 3: Going by weight, the DNA sequences which were 7 "cities" long
were separated from the rest. A "sieve" was used which would allow
smaller pieces of DNA to pass quickly, while larger segments are slowed
down. the procedure used actually allows you to isolate the pieces which are
precisely 7 cities long from any shorter or longer paths.

STEP 4: To ensure that the remaining sequences went through each of

cities, “sticky” pieces of DNA attached to magnets were used to separate the
DNA. The magnets were used to ensure that the target DNA remained in the
test tube, while the unwanted DNA was washed away. First, the magnets
kept all the DNA which went through city A in the test tube, then B, then C,
and D, and so on. In the end, the only DNA which remained in the tube was
that which went through all seven cities.

8
 Figure 3.2
STEP 5: all that was left to sequences the DNA, revealing the path from
A to B to C to D to E to F to G.

4. WORKING OF DNA

DNA is the major information storage molecule in living cells, and

billions of years of evolution have tested and refined both this wonderful
informational molecule and highly specific enzymes that can either duplicate the
information in DNA molecules or transmit this information to other DNA
molecules.

Instead of using electrical impulses to represent bits of information, the

9
DNA computer uses the chemical properties of these molecules by examining
the patterns of combination or growth of the molecules or strings. DNA can do
this through the manufacture of enzymes, which are biological catalysts that
could be called the 'software' used to execute the desired calculation.

DNA computers use deoxyribonucleic acids--A (adenine), C (cytosine),

G (guanine) and T (thymine)--as the memory units, and recombinant DNA
techniques already in existence carry out the fundamental operations. In a DNA
computer, computation takes place in test tubes or on a glass slide coated in
24K gold. The input and output are both strands of DNA, whose genetic
sequences encode certain information. A program on a DNA computer is
executed as a series of biochemical operations, which have the effect of
synthesizing, extracting, modifying and cloning the DNA strands.

Figure 4.1
The only fundamental difference between conventional computers and
DNA computers is the capacity of memory units: electronic computers have two
positions (on or off), whereas DNA has four (C, G, A or T). The study of
bacteria has shown that restriction enzymes can be employed to cut DNA at a
specific word(W). Many restriction enzymes cut the two strands of double-
stranded DNA at different positions leaving overhangs of single-stranded DNA.
Two pieces of DNA may be rejoined if their terminal overhangs are
10
complementary. Complements are referred to as 'sticky ends'. Using these
operations, fragments of DNA may be inserted or deleted from the DNA.

Figure 4.2

As stated earlier DNA represents information as a pattern of molecules on

a strand. Each strand represents one possible answer. In each experiment, the
DNA is tailored so that all conceivable answers to a particular problem are
included. Researchers then subject all the molecules to precise chemical
reactions that imitate the computational abilities of a traditional computer.
Because molecules that make up DNA bind together in predictable ways, it
gives a powerful "search" function. If the experiment works, the DNA computer
weeds out all the wrong answers, leaving one molecule or more with the right
answer. All these molecules can work together at once, so you could
theoretically have 10 trillion calculations going on at the same time in very little
space.

The hardware key to biological life is a very stable chemicals called

nucleic acid. It is the equivalent of silicon computer system. It can exist in the
form of chains of molecules known as nucleotides. There are only four different
nucleotides but each of them have a pair of complementary coupling points due
to an element of oxygen on one side and a phosphate site on the other. The
oxygen atom of any of the four nucleotides can bind to the phosphate site of any

11
other.

Figure 4.3

Nucleotides have an affinity to stick together due to a chemical formation at

each side which provides a physical coupling supplemented by
electromagnetic attraction

This ability of the nucleotides to bind side by side allows them to form
long chains without it mattering which type of nucleotide is binding to which
other type (see figure 3.2).

Figure 4.4

DNA can form digital strings of information because the four nucleotides
cannot be linked to each other in any order

A long string of these four bases can thus contain a massive amount of
information. The nucleotides also have another pair of complementary
coupling sites which, from a hardware point of view, give DNA other very
important characteristics. They allow each nucleotide to link up to a third
nucleotide. These extra binding sites are not universal coupling points like the
12
 chain building coupling sites, these binding sites allow only specific pairs of
nucleotides to bond - A will bind with T and T with A; C will bind with G and
G with C. These specific coupling pairs are illustrated in figure 3.3.

Figure 4.5

Nucleotides have additional binding sites which attract specific

complementary nucleotides to bind to them

This extra bonding site allows the formation of double strand, with one
strand being the complement of other. This forms the famous "double helix"
structure which carries genetic code.

Figure 4.6
The complementary coupling sites allow strings of DNA to form into double
strands with one strand being the complement of the other. The two
strands form into a double helix

The first advantage of the double strand structure is the increased stability
it provides. Although nucleotide bonding is quite secure there is so much
jostling in the environment of a cell that individual nucleotides can get
displaced.
13
 A double stranded structure of complementary strands allows
damaged sections of the strand to be repaired by referring to the
complement nucleotides

Figure 4.7

Enzymes can split a double stranded DNA into a two chain of nucleotides

Figure 4.8

The splitting process forms two separate chains with one the complement of
the other

Figure 4.9

The two halves of a DNA section which has been split down the middle
can each rapidly build an additional complementary strand. These results in the
splitting operation producing two copies of the original (see figure 3.8).
14
 Figure 4.10
The splitting of strands and then regrowing the complementary
strands results in the original strand being copied and is exactly analogous
to the way in which binary data is copied within a computer program.

DNA computing is a field that holds the promise of ultra-dense systems

that pack megabytes of information into devices the size of a silicon transistor.
Each molecule of DNA is roughly equivalent to a little computer chip.
Conventional computers represent information in terms of 0's and 1's, physically
expressed in terms of the flow of electrons through logical circuits, whereas
DNA computers represent information in terms of the chemical units of DNA.
Computing with an ordinary computer is done with a program that instructs
electrons to travel on particular paths; with a DNA computer, computation
requires synthesizing particular sequences of DNA and letting them react in a
test tube or on a glass plate. In a scheme devised by Richard Lipton, the logical
command "and" is performed by separating DNA strands according to their
sequences, and the command "or" is done by pouring together DNA solutions
containing specific sequences, merging.

By forcing DNA molecules to generate different chemical states, which

can then be examined to determine an answer to a problem by combination of
molecules into strands or the separation of strands, the answer is obtained.

Most of the possible answers are incorrect, but one or a few may be
correct, and the computer's task is to check each of them and remove the

15
incorrect ones using restrictive enzymes. The DNA computer does that by
subjecting all of the strands simultaneously to a series of chemical reactions that
mimic the mathematical computations an electronic computer would perform on
each possible answer. When the chemical reactions are complete, researchers
analyze the strands to find the answer -- for instance, by locating the longest or
the shortest strand and decoding it to determine what answer it represents.
Computers based on molecules like DNA will not have a vonNeumann
architecture, but instead function best in parallel processing applications. They
are considered promising for problems that can have multiple computations
going on at the same time. Say for instance, all branches of a search tree could
be searched at once in a molecular system while vonNeumann systems must
explore each possible path in some sequence.
Information is stored in DNA as CG or AT base pairs with maximum
information density of 2bits per DNA base location. Information on a solid
surface is
stored in a NON-ADDRESSED array of DNA words(W) of a fixed length (16
mers). DNA Words are linked together to form large combinatorial sets of
molecules.
DNA computers are massively parallel, while electronic computers would
require additional hardware, DNA computers just need more DNA. This could
make the DNA computer more efficient, as well as more easily programmable.
5.APPLICATIONS
DNA2DNA Applications
Another area of DNA computation exists where conventional computers
clearly have no current capacity to compete is the concept of DNA2DNA
computations as suggested and identified as a potential killer app. DNA2DNA
computations involve the use of DNA computers to perform operations on
unknown pieces of DNA without having to sequence them first. This is
achieved by re-coding and amplifying unknown strands into a redundant form
so that they can be operated on according to techniques similar to those used in
16
the sticker model of DNA computation. Many of the errors inherent in other
models of DNA computing can hopefully be ignored in DNA2DNA computing
because there will be such a high number of original strands available for
operations.

The potential applications of re-coding natural DNA into a computable

form are many:
• DNA sequencing;
• DNA fingerprinting;
• DNA mutation detection or population screening;
• Other fundamental operations on DNA.

In the case of DNA mutation detection, the strand being operated on

would already be partially known and therefore fewer steps would need to be
taken to re-code the DNA into a redundant form applicable for computational
form.

There are other models of DNA computation that suggest that DNA
might be used to detect and evaluate other chemical and biochemical
substances. It is suggested that nucleic acid structures, could play an important
role in molecular computation. Various shapes of folded nucleic acid can be
used to detect the presence of drugs, proteins, or other molecules.

Engineered riboenzymes could be used as operators to affect rewrite rules

and to detect the presence of such non-nucleic acid molecules. Using these
structures and operators to sense levels of substances, it would then be possible
to compute an output readable using proposed biosensors that detect
fluorescence or polarization. These biosensors could potentially allow
communication between molecular sensory computers and conventional
electronic computers.

17
Implications to Biology, Chemistry, and Medicine

While the development of DNA computational methods may have many

directly applicable applications, the biggest contribution of research in this area
may be much more fundamental and will likely fuel many indirect benefits. In
many papers, it is stressed that high levels of collaboration between academic
disciplines will be essential to affect progress in DNA computing. Such
collaboration may very well lead to the development of a DNA computer with
practical advantages over a conventional computer but has an even greater
likelihood of contributing to an increased understanding of DNA and other
biological mechanisms. The need for additional precision could affect progress
in biomolecular techniques by placing demands on biochemists and their tools
that might not otherwise be considered.

A particular area within the natural and applied sciences that may benefit
from advances in - DNA computation is combinatorial chemistry.
Combinatorial chemistry involves the construction of enzymes, sequences of
RNA, and other molecules, for use in biomolecular engineering or medicine.
The combinatorial chemistry involves generating large sets of random RNA
sequences and searches for molecules with the desired properties. Advances in
either area could easily benefit the other field or even pave a way to combining
the two fields, producing both products and related computational results in
parallel.
Several papers also extend the use of biomolecular computing into
applications in the emerging science of nanotechnology, specifically nano-
fabrication, making use of both the small scale computational abilities of DNA
and the manufacturing abilities of RNA. Since both fields are still very
embryonic, the practical or even experimental implementation of this use is still
highly speculative but promising.
Applying the techniques of DNA2DNA computing could result in
18
improved laboratory interfaces capable of performing computations prior to
input into conventional computers and may lead to improved methods of
sequencing DNA by motivating the use of magnetic beads, optical scanners, and
other emerging techniques that may allow DNA to be read directly into an
electronic interface.

DNA MICROARRAY

Figure 5.1
DNA microarray, or DNA chips are fabricated by high-speed robotics,
generally on glass but sometimes on nylon substrates, for which probes* with
known identity are used to determine complementary binding, thus allowing
massively parallel gene expression and gene discovery studies. An experiment
with a single DNA chip can provide researchers information on thousands of
genes simultaneously - a dramatic increase in throughout.

There are two major application forms for the DNA microarray
technology: 1) Identification of sequence (gene / gene mutation); and 2)
Determination of expression level (abundance) of genes.

19
6.Efficiency :

In both the solid-surface glass-plate approach and the test tube

approach, each DNA strand represents one possible answer to the problem that
the computer is trying to solve. The strands have been synthesized by
combining the building blocks of DNA, called nucleotides, with one another,
using techniques developed for biotechnology. The set of DNA strands is
manufactured so that all conceivable answers are included. Because a set of
strands is tailored to a specific problem, a new set would have to be made for
each new problem.

Most electronic computers operate linearly--they manipulate one

block of data after another--biochemical reactions are highly in parallel: a single
step of biochemical operations can be set up so that it affects trillions of DNA
strands. While a DNA computer takes much longer than a normal computer to
perform each individual calculation, it performs an enourmous number of
operations at a time and requires less energy and space than normal computers.
1000 litres of water could contain DNA with more memory than all the
computers ever made, and a pound of DNA would have more computing power
than all the computers ever made.

The Restricted model of DNA computing in test tubes is simplified to:

Separate : isolate a subset of DNA from a sample.

Merge : pour two test tubes into one to perform union.
Detect : Confirm presence/absence of DNA in a given test tube
Despite these restrictions, this model can still solve Hamiltonian Path problems.

Error control can also be achieved mainly through logical

operations, such as running all DNA samples showing positive results a second

20
time to reduce false positives. Some molecular proposals, such as using DNA
with a peptide back bone for stability, have also been recommended.

7. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

There are several advantages to using DNA instead of silicon:

• Perform millions of operations simultaneously;
• Generate a complete set of potential solutions;
• Conduct large parallel searches; and
• Efficiently handle massive amounts of working memory.
• As long as there are cellular organisms, there will always be a supply of
DNA.
• The large supply of DNA makes it a cheap resource.
• Unlike the toxic materials used to make traditional microprocessors,
DNA biochips can be made cleanly.
• DNA computers are many times smaller than today's computers.

Storage and Associative Memory

DNA might also be used to mirror, and even improve upon, the
associative capabilities of the human brain. A content addressable memory
occurs when a data entry can be directly retrieved from storage by entering an
input that most closely resembles it over other entries in memory. This input
may be very incomplete, with a number of wildcards, and in an associative
memory might even contain bits that do not actually occur within the closest
match. This contrasts with a conventional computer memory, where the
specific address of a word must be known to retrieve it. The use of this
technique would replicate what is thought by many to be a key factor in
human intelligence.
21
 Baum has further speculated that a memory could be constructed where
only portions of the data are content addressable and associative, with other
information on an object compactly stored in addresses relative to the
associative portion of the entry. To save on operating costs and reduce error
frequency, this portion of the memory could be kept in double stranded form.

DISADVANTAGES

These models also have some of the following drawbacks:

• Each stage of parallel operations requires time measured in hours or days,

with extensive human or mechanical intervention between steps.
• Generating solution sets, even for some relatively simple problems, may
require impractically large amounts of memory.
• Many empirical uncertainties, including those involving: actual error
rates, the generation of optimal encoding techniques, and the ability to
perform necessary bio-operations conveniently in vitro or in vivo.

8. FUTURE
DNA computing is -few years old (November 11, 1994), and for this
reason, it is too early for either great optimism of great pessimism. Early
computers such as ENIAC filled entire rooms, and had to be programmed by
punch cards. Since that time, computers have since become much smaller and
easier to use. DNA computers will become more common for solving very
complex problems; Just as DNA cloning and sequencing were once manual
tasks, DNA computers will also become automated.

22
 In addition to the direct benefits of using DNA computers for performing
complex computations, some of the operations of DNA computers already have,
and perceivably more will be used in molecular and biochemical research.

DNA's Role in Computer Science

The study of DNA as both a natural storage medium, and as a tool of

computation, could shed new light on many areas of computer science. Despite
the high error rates encountered in DNA computing, in nature DNA has little
understood but resilient mechanisms for maintaining data integrity. By studying
genetic code for these properties, new principles of error correction may be
discovered, having, use within conventional electronic computation in addition
to the new biomolecular paradigms.

With the advent of DNA computational paradigms, especially those

directed towards improved methods of solving NP-hard problems, will come an
increased understanding about the limitations of computation. DNA based
computers may postpone certain expected thermodynamic obstacles to
computation as well as exploring the limitations of Turing machines and
questioning theories of computation based on electronic and mechanical models.

Developments in parallel Processing algorithms to take advantage of the

massive parallelism of "classic" DNA based computation may serve as a
foundation for future developments in other parallel processing architectures
using more conventional electronic computers

DNA based computing may also be able to contribute to other

unconventional areas of computation. Through the use of its massive
parallelism and potentially non-deterministic mechanisms, DNA based models
of computation might be useful for simulating or modeling other emerging
23
computational paradigms, such as quantum computing, which may not be
feasible until much later. As well, the trials and tribulations experienced by
DNA computing researchers may very well be related to the future obstacles
expected to face other revolutionary ideas within computer science and
information systems.

Future Outlook

With so many different methods and models emerging from the current
research, DNA computing can be more accurately described as a collection of
new computing paradigms rather than a single focus. Each of these different
paradigms within biomolecular computing can be associated with different
potential applications that may prove to place them at an advantage over
conventional methods. Many of these models share certain features that lend
them to categorization by these potential advantages. However, there exist
enough similarities and congruencies that hybrid models will be possible, and
that advances made in both "classic" and "natural" areas of DNA computing
will be mutually beneficial to both areas of research. Advancements in DNA
computing may also serve to enhance understanding of both the natural and
computer sciences. For these reasons, and due to the many areas dependent on
each of computer science, mathematics, natural science, and engineering,
continued interdisciplinary collaboration is very important to any future
progress in all areas of this new field.

A "killer app" is yet to be found for DNA computation, but might exist
outside the bulk of current research, in the domain of DNA2DNA applications
and other more natural models and applications of manipulated DNA. This
direction is particularly interesting because it is an area in which DNA based
solutions are not only an improvement over existing techniques, but may prove
to be the only feasible way of directly solving such problems that involve the
direct interaction with biological matter.
24
 On the "classical" front, problem specific computers may prove to be the
first practical use of DNA computation for several reasons. First, a problem
specific computer will be easier to design and implement, with less need for
functional complexity and flexibility. Secondly, DNA computing may prove to
be entirely inefficient for a wide range of problems, and directing efforts on
universal models may be diverting energy away from its true calling. Thirdly,
the types of hard computational problems that DNA based computers may be
able to effectively solve are of sufficient economic importance that a dedicated
processor would be financially reasonable. As well, these problems will be
likely to require extensive time they would preclude the need for a more
versatile and interactive system that may be able to be implemented with a
universal computing machine.

Even if the current difficulties found in translating theoretical DNA

computing models into real life are never sufficiently overcome, there is still
potential for other areas of development. Future applications might make use of
the error rates and instability of DNA based computation methods as a means of
simulating and predicting the emergent behavior of complex systems. This
could pertain to weather forecasting, economics, and lead to more a scientific
analysis of- social science and the humanities. Such a system might rely on
inducing increased error rates and mutation through exposure to radiation and
deliberately inefficient encoding schemes. Similarly, methods of DNA
computing might serve as the most obvious medium for use of evolutionary
programming for applications in design or expert systems. DNA computing
might also serve as a medium to implement a true fuzzy logic system.

25
9.CONCLUSION:
DNA computers will become more common for solving very
complex problems; Just as DNA cloning and sequencing were once manual
tasks, DNA computers will also become automatedes. Studying DNA
computers may also lead us to a better future enhancement.

With so many possible advantages over conventional techniques, DNA

computing has great potential for practical use. Future work in this field should
begin to incorporate cost-benefit analysis so that comparisons can be more
appropriately made with existing techniques and so that increased funding can
be obtained for this research that has the potential to benefit many circles of
science and Industry.

26