Sewerage system

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy

Associate Professor, Thapar University
Patiala (PUNJAB) – 147 004
 Sewerage system
Sewage – sewer – sewerage
• Sewage: municipal wastewater (domestic sewage, storm water
and infiltrated ground water)
• Sewerage: system for the collection and conveyance of
municipal wastewater to the STP or the point of disposal
• Sewer: conduit carrying the sewage
– Sanitary sewers, storm sewers and combined sewers
– Sanitary sewers carry sewage
• Residential, commercial and institutional sewage
• Industrial wastewater
• Infiltration water and some storm water
 Sewerage system
Sewers
• Conduit carrying the sewage mostly by gravity
• Asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced concrete, prestressed
concrete, PVC, vitrified clay material are used in sewer manufacturing
• Sewerage is converging network of sewers (building connections,
lateral sewers, main sewers, trunk sewers and intercepting sewers)
– Building sewers/building connections – begins beyond a building foundation
conveying sewage from the building to (lateral) sewer
– Lateral/branch sewer – first element of the sewerage system – receives sewage
from buildings and conveys to main sewers
– Main sewer – receives sewage from lateral sewers and conveys to trunk sewers or
intercepting sewers
– Trunk sewers – large sewers conveying sewage from main sewers to STP or
disposal facilities or to large intercepting sewers
– Intercepting sewers – large sewers used to intercept a number of main or trunk
sewers and convey sewage to STP/disposal facilities
 Sewerage system
Sewer
• Lateral sewers are sized larger than the building sewers
– Building sewers are either 100 or 150 mm size and 150 mm is
the recommended minimum size for a gravity sewer
• Flow in sewers is considered as steady and uniform
• A functioning sewer has to
– carry peak flow
– Transport suspended solids with minimum of deposition in
sewers
• Curved sewers are not usually preferred
– Can be used if compatible cleaning equipment is available
– Curved sewers do not allow use of laser type survey equipment
during construction to maintain sewer slope
 Sewerage system
Manholes
• Precast manholes are used
• Interconnect two or more sewers
• Provide entry and access to sewers for cleaning (and maintenance!)
• Located at changes in size, slope and direction
– for sewers of >1200 mm size changes in size, slope and direction can be made without
providing a manhole
Drop manholes
• Provided when difference in elevation between incoming and outgoing
sewers is >0.5 m
• Flow from the incoming sewer is dropped to the elevation of the outgoing
sewer by a drop inlet
• The drop inlet is provided inside the manhole for <600 mm sewers and for
larger sewers an outside drop is provided
Junction chambers (manholes constructed onsite)
• Provided when sewer diameters are large and precast manholes can not be
used
 Design of sewers
• Design involves finding slope and diameter of the sewer
– Slope for ensuring self-cleaning velocity for present peak flows
– Diameter to run partially full (d/D=0.8!) at the design peak flow
• Manning’s formula used in the design of sewers
• Nomographs for the use of manning’s equation are available for
the sewer design
– These relate discharge (Q) and flow velocity (V) with the sewer diameter
(D) and slope for different Manning’s n values when circular sewer is
flowing full
• Hydraulic elements curves developed from Manning’s equation for
circular sewers are used for obtaining the following when the
sewer is not flowing full for the known flow (q)
– velocity (v), depth of flow (d), hydraulic radius (R), flow cross sectional
area (a) and even the Manning’s n value
 Peak factor, and present & design peak flows
• Flow in sewers vary from hour to hour and also seasonally
• Peak factor is defined as the ratio of maximum hourly flow to average
hourly flow
• Peak factors depend on population density, topography of the site and hours
of water supply
• Peaking factor is taken as
<20000 3.00
20000-50000 2.50
50000-750000 2.25
>750000 2.00
• Peak factor for commercial, institutional and industrial areas are taken as 1.8,
4.0 and 2.1 respectively
• Minimum flow may be 1/3rd to ½ of average flow
• Sewers are designed for the peak flows
• Slope of sewers is based on the present peak flow
• Diameter of the sewer is based on the design peak flow
 Present and design peak flows
• Sanitary sewage generation can be assessed by using the water supply
information
• Population and per capita water supply (135 or 200 LPCD!)
• Return factor of the sewage (typically taken as 0.8)
For arid regions as it may be as low as 0.4, and for well developed area it may be
0.9
Use of other than municipal water supply (industries, commercial buildings,
etc.!) can upset the return factorForcasting sewage generation at the end of the
design period may require
• Sewers are desinged for a minimum of 100 LPCD sewage
• Land use pattern (contained in the master plan) and zoning regulations
• Land of a typical city may be
56% - residential area
20% - roads, 15% - gardens
5% - institutions (schools)
2% - hospitals and dispensaries, 2 % - markets
Industrial area - ?
 Present and design peak flows
• Ultimate (saturation) population densities are often used for
anticipating the population
• Floor Space Index (ratio of total floor area to plot area) can be used in
finding out the ultimate population densities basis
• Per capita floor area is also needed in the assessment (9 m2 per capita !)
• Population densities depend on the size of the town/city
<5000 75-150/ha.
5000-20000 150-250/ha.
20000-50000 250-300/ha.
50000-100000 300-350/ha.
>100000 350-1000/ha.
• Design period
– Length of time upto which the sewerage system will prove adequate
– Depends on the life of the structures and equipment to be used,
anticipated rate of population growth and economic justification
– Recommended design period is 30 years
 Infiltration of ground water
• Ground water infiltrates through sewer joints
– Depends on the workmanship in laying the sewers and the level
of ground water table
– For sewers laid above the ground water table sewage may lost
from the sewers
– Sewers require hydraulic testing after laying
• Suggested infiltration rates for sewers laid below the
groundwater table
– 5-50 m3/ha/day or
– 0.5-5 m3/km.day or
– 0.25 to 0.5 m3/manhole/day
 Manning’s Equation
3 3
2/3
R S 1/ 2
 n.v  2
AR 2/3
S 1/ 2  4 3.n.Q 
5 8

V D  4 1  Q D 1

n S 2  n   .S 2 
Where V = velocity (m/sec)
Q = flow rate (m3/sec.)
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = slope of the energy grade line
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
D = Diameter of the pipe
• ‘n’ is reported to reduce with increasing pipe diameter
and also vary with the depth flow
• Manning’s n of 0.013 is used for new and existing well
constructed sewers, and for older sewers it is taken as 0.015
• Typically applied for open-channel flow conditions
• Design of sewers involves finding slope and diameter of
the sewer with peak design flow capacity
• Flow velocity should be 0.6 to 3.0 m/sec. during (present and
design) peak flow
 Properties of circular sewer section

Flow through sewer is open channel flow

N
Parameters of interest are Angle of flow    2
• Breadth of flow (b) 360
• Depth of flow (d)
 d
• Diameter of the sewer (D)   2 cos 1  2 
1

 D
Breadth of flow is needed for the
• Calculation of the risk of H2S generation  
• Escritt’s definition of hydraulic radius b  D sin  
2
Derived parameters
• Angle of flow ()    sin  
• Area of flow (a)
aD 2

 8 
• Wetted perimeter (P)
P  D
2
 Properties of circular sewer section
Hydraulic radius (r) = area of flow / wetted P  D
perimeter 2
d/D for simplified sewerage is 0.2-0.8 D  Sin 
r  1  
<0.2 do not ensure sufficient velocity for preventing 4  
solids deposition in the sewer
>0.8 do not allow sufficient ventilation a  Ka D2
For any known d/D, angle of flow can be found
r  Kr D
From angle of low, area of flow, hydraulic radius
and breadth of flow can be found 1
For d/D=0.2, Ka and Kr values are 0.1118 and K a    Sin 
8
0.1206 respectively
For d/D=0.8, Ka and Kr values are 0.6736 and 1  Sin 
K r  1  
0.3042 respectively 4  
 Gauckler-Manning Equation
1 2 3 12 1 2 3 12
v r i q  va  ar i
n n
• V is flow velocity (m/sec.)
• N is roughness coefficient, taken as 0.013 1 2 1
q  K a D ( K r D) i
2 3 2
for PVC, vitrified clay and even for n
concrete sewers 3
• The bacterial slime layer makes the 3 3 1  q  8

roughness almost same for all the D  n 8 K a 8 K r 4  1 

materials i 2 
• ‘i’ is sewer slope or gradient 1
• ‘q’ is sewage flow rate (m3/sec.) a  K a D 2    Sin .D 2
8
 d
1  Sin 
  2 cos 1  2 
1

 D r  K r D  1  .D
4  
 Tractive Tension (boundary shear stress)
Tangential force exerted by the flowing W .Sin gaL.Sin
sewage per unit wetted boundary  
area P.L P.L
Denoted by  and units are N/m2 or   grSin  gK r Di
Pascals, Pa
Obtained by dividing weight component    1
of the flowing sewage in the flow D   
direction by the wetted boundary  g  K r i
area of the sewer 8
1    3 13
W is weight of sewage q  K a K r 2   i 6
L is sewer length n  g 
 is density of sewage
6 16
a is area of flow 1  13    13 6

f is sewer inclination angle i   K a K r 2    q 13

n   g 
since  is very small sin =tan 
tan  is the sewer slope (i) 1 2 1
q  K a D ( K r D) i
2 3 2
n
 Design of the sewer
Find initial and final (at the start and at the end of the design
period) peak sewage flow rates
q  k1k 2 PW
If the flow is <1.5 L/Sec., then use 1.5 L/Sec. as peak flow
Using the initial peak sewage flow rate, for the minimum tractive
tension required, find minimum slope required
6 16
1 2 
13    13 6
i   Ka Kr    q 13

n   g 
Ka and Kr should correspond to d/D = 0.2 at which tractive tension
is minimum
Required tractive tension for simplified sewers is 1 Pa
For sanitary sewers it is 1-2 Pa and for storm sewers and combined
sewers it is 3-4 Pa
 Design of the sewer
Find sewer diameter using the Gauckler-Manning equation
3
3 3  q 
1
8
D  n K a K r  1 
8 8 4

i 2 
Here final peak sewage flow rate is taken as q
Ka and Kr values corresponding to d/D=0.8 are considered
The sewer diameters calculated may not be always commercially
available – then chose the next larger diameter sewer
commercially available
Minimum sewer diameter considered in simplified sewerage is 100
mm
Surface Material Manning's - n -
Asbestos cement 0.011
Asphalt 0.016
Brass 0.011
Brickwork 0.015
Cast-iron, new 0.012
Clay tile 0.014
Concrete - steel forms 0.011
Concrete – finished 0.012
Concrete - wooden forms 0.015
Concrete - centrifugally spun 0.013
Galvanized iron 0.016
Glass 0.010
Gravel 0.029
Masonry 0.025
Metal – corrugated 0.022
Plastic 0.009
Polyethylene PE - Corrugated with smooth inner walls 0.009 - 0.015
Polyethylene PE - Corrugated with corrugated inner walls 0.018 - 0.025
Polyvinyl Chloride PVC - with smooth inner walls 0.009 - 0.011
Steel - Coal-tar enamel 0.010
Steel - smooth 0.012
 Manning’s Equation
• Also can use nomographs to get solution.

From: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. and George Tchobanoglous. Wastewater Engineering: Collection and
Pumping of Wastewater. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1981.
 Self cleansing velocity
• In a sewer sufficient velocity (self cleansing velocity) should be developed on a regular
basis ensuring self cleansing
• Self-cleansing velocity can be found by Camp’s formula
1 16

V  R K S  SG  1 d p
n
 1
2

• SG is specific gravity of the particle

• dp is particle size
• Ks is constant and its value is taken as 0.8
• Recommended selfcleansing velocity is 0.6 m/sec.
• Ensures transport of sand particles of 0.09 mm size and 2.65 specific gravity without
allowing settling
• For preventing deposition of sand and gravel 0.75 m/sec. velocity is recommended
• Self-cleansing velocity of 0.8 m/sec. at design peak flow and 0.6 m/sec. at present
peak flow are often suggested
• Velocity in the sewer is recommended not to exceed 3 m/sec. for avoiding damage to
sewers from erosion
• Flow velocity for the present peak flow should be >0.6 m/sec. and for the design peak
flow it should be <3.0 m/sec.
 Slope and diameter of sewers
• For sewers running partially full for a given flow and slope,
flow velocity is little influenced by pipe diameter
• Slope of sewer is first fixed for the present peak flow, then
pipe diameter is decided on the basis of design peak flow and
permissible depth of flow
• For ensuring a minimum velocity of 0.6 m/sec., slope of the
sewer can be
S.No. Present peak flow (LPS) Slope
1. 2 6 in 1000
2. 3 4 in 1000
3. 5 3.1 in 1000
4. 10 2 in 1000
5. 15 1.3 in 1000
6. 20 1.2 in 1000
7. 30 1.0in 1000
• Minimum practical slope considered for construction is 1 in
1250
 Sewer ventilation
• Sewers are preferably run partially full (d/D <0.8) for
facilitating ventilation
• Sewer ventilation is needed to avoid
– Dangers of asphyxiation of maintenance personnel
– Buildup of odorous gases
– Development of explosive mixture of sewer gases
(methane and oxygen)
• Hydrogen sulfide can be generated in the sewer
specially when laid at minimum slope
– H2S can cause odour problems, precipitates trace metals
as sulfides, and deteriorates cement containing materials
 Design computations
• Accurate and detailed map of the area to be covered by the
sewerage system
– Scale of the map can be 25 m = 1 cm (maps of 5 m = 1 cm are
also often needed
– Location of streets, alleys, highways, railroads, public buildings,
parks, streams/drains, ditches, etc., features should be
identified on the map
– Accurate elevations of street center lines at every 15 m distance
and elevation at all locations of abrupt surface slope changes
• Decide on the layout of the sewer line
– Draw the sewer map
– Identify, locate and number the manholes on the sewer map
and code the sewers
• Locations of change of direction, sewer junctions, and upper ends
of the sewers can have manholes
• Manholes can be provided at regular distnaces (30 m -120 m)
 Design computations
– Find surface elevation of the upstream and downstream ends of
each of the sewer
– Identify the local tributary area for each of the sewer
– Find the present and the design population equivalents of the local
tributary areas
– Find present and design average and peak sewage flow for the local
tributary area
• Collect additional information for the right of the way of the sewer line
– Profiles of all existing and proposed streets, alleys and potential
right-of-ways
– Location of surface and subsurface utilities like water mains,
electrical conduits, communication lines, and other underground
structures
– Soil data upto 1.5 m below the bottom of proposed sewer
• Prepare sewer design computation table
 Sewer design computation table
• This can be an excel worksheet and include
• Columns identifying the sewers and summerizing basic data
– Sewer code and upstream and downstream manhole numbers
– Sewer length
– Local (tributary) area, its present and design population, and its present
and design average and peak sewage flow
– Present and design average and peak flows from commercial, institutional
and industrial activities of the local (tributary) area
– Infiltration allowance for the sewer length
– Surface elevation at the upstream and downstream sewer ends
• Columns showing cumulative present average flow and peak flow and
average and peak flow at the end of design period
• Columns showing computed slope and diameter of the sewer and Qfull
 Sewer design computation table
• Columns showing hydraulic elements for the present and the
design peak flows when Manning’s n is variable
– d/D corresponding to the qPFP and to the qPFD
– Flow velocity at qPFP and at qPFD
• Columns showing sewer layout data (invert elevations at the
upstream and at the downstream ends of the sewer)
• Corrected invert elevations of the sewer on the basis of
– Sewer pipe thickness and crown cover required
– In case of a sewer junction, invert elevation of the outlet sewer is
fixed by the lowest inlet sewer’s invert elevation
– If sewer size increases crowns of the sewer in question should be
matched with that of the upstream sewer at the manhole