Q1.

State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

[2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008].

Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction: These are the

following laws which are known as the faradays laws of
electromagnetic induction.

1st law: According to the first law of electromagnetic

induction,.’ when ever the flux linking with a coil or circuit
changes, an emf. Induced in it.’’

This linkage can be obtained either by rotating the conductor in

the magnetic field or by rotating magnetic field keeping the
conductor stationary.

2nd law: According to the second law of electromagnetic

induction,’ the magnitude of the induced emf. In coil is directly
proportional to the rate of changed of flux linkage.’’
e rate of change of flux linkage.

Let there be a coil having ‘N’ the initial flux being 1 and the
final flux value after time‘t’ is 2.

The net change in flux

= 2 - 1

And the rate of change of linkage

Nφ 2 -N φ 1
= t
Now according to faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
The emf ∝ rate of change of flux linkage.

Nφ 2 -N φ 1 (φ 2- φ 1)
=k x N volts
 t t
where k is the constant of proportionality and here being unity
 ( φ 2−φ 1 )
x N volts
So, e= t
Induced emf.. = rate of change of flux x no. of conductors and
it can be otherwise stated as

e = d/dt x N volts

Q2. Define Fleming’s right hand rule [2002, 2004, 2005,

2007].

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: The direction of induced

electromagnetic e.m.f. in a coil can be found out by
applying Fleming's Right Hand rule. As shown in Fig.
"Stretch first finger, second finger and thumb of right
hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If first finger
indicates the direction of main magnetic field, thumb
indicates the direction of motion of conductor, then 2nd
finger will indicate the direction of induced e.m.f. in the
conductor.

Q3. State Lenz’s law [2002, 2004, 2005, 2008].

Lenz’s law: The e.mf. induced, according to the faradays laws

of electromagnetic induction, has got only the strength of the
magnitude and is silent over the direction. The direction was
stated by Lenz’s laws in 1835.
According to Lenz’s laws, the direction of induced e.g. because
of the electromagnetic induction is such a way as to the oppose
the caused which is responsible for the production of this e.g.
the equation can be given as
−d ∅
e =e= -d/dt x N volts.
dt
The minus sign indicates the direction of the induced e.g. i.e.
opposing.

Q4. Derive emf equation of DC generator [2002, 2004,

2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008].

EMF Equation of DC Generator: According to faradays laws

of electromagnetic induction, if a conductor cuts the magnetic
flux or it experience a rate of change of flux, an e.m.f. is
generated in that conductor, this e.m.f. can be given as.

e = d/dt V

Now here in case of D.C. generator, having the following data:

 = the flux per pole in Wb

Z = number of conductors
N = speed in r.p.m.
P = number of poles
a = number of parallel paths
and E = the induced e.m.f. in volts.

Now the total flux produced

= (P x ) Wb

Now the time required in one revolution when running at

N.rpm.

= 1/N min
= 60/N sec
Now e.m.f. induced = rate of change of flux

= P/60/N V
= PN/60 V

It is the voltage induced per conductor. But there are Z

conductors so the e.m.f.

= ZNP/60 V

In D.C. armature winding the closed type winding is done so

the total armature conductors (Z) are divided into the number
of parallel paths depend upon the type of winding. The voltage
taken out will be the voltage induced per parallel path. Here let
‘a, be the parallel paths, so the e.m.f. generated can be given as

E = ZNP/60a V

The above equation is said the e.m.f equation of the generator.

Q5. Enlist essential parts of a DC machine and explain

[2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008].

Parts of a DC Machine: The parts of D.C. generator can be

broadly divided into the followings:
(a) Stationary parts (b) Rotating parts

Stationary parts:
The parts of D.C. generator which remains stationary during
the working of the generator, are known as stationary parts.
These are followings:
Eye bolt, body yoke, poles, side cover, brushes, and rocker,
bearings and legs and bed sheet.

Rotating parts:
The parts of D.C. generators which rotates during the working
of d.c generators, are known as rotating parts. These are as
follows:
Armature, commentator, fan and shaft.

The brief description of these parts is as follows:

Stationary parts:

(a) Eye bolt: It is a stationary part and fixed on the top of

the body or yoke. It is used for lifting the machine. These are
one of two depending upon the frame size of the machine.

(b) Body or yoke: It is the outer frames of the machine. It

accommodates all parts of the generator. It is made of forged
steel or cast steel or cast iron. The cast steel is used for the
machines of large capacity because of the good magnetic
properties. The cast iron frames are used for the machines of
low capacity: because the magnetic properties are not so good

It is experienced that the frames size of cast iron or cast steel

differ for the same capacity, cast steel requires half the size.
Nowadays the yokes of large machines are almost invariably
fabricated steel because this material has good magnetic
properties, for example the permeability is twice that the cast
iron; and has hence the weight. (fig. 12.1. parts of D.C.
generator).

The yoke provides the magnetic path for the magnetic flux.
The flux in yoke is half than that of the flux pear pole, because
the flux passing diverts into the paths causing half the flux
through the yoke. Some times the body and yoke of the
machine are different but in most of the cases these are same.

(3) Poles: The main magnetic field is produced by the poles

excited by the Field coils. The poles are made either of the cast
iron or soft steel or the laminations of silicone steel. In small
machines the poles are casted with the body. In some
construction the pole faces are separate and attached to the
mountings. Nowadays the complete poles are made by
laminations of silicone steel which are pressed hydraulically
and riveted together. The poles are attached with the yoke or
body by means of bolts etc.
The field coils are wound with the different number off
conductors (shunt field coil- having more number of turns of
thin conductors series field coil- less number of turns thick
conductor) are place over the poles, in such away so that it
may not come out. The pole faces are made circular as to
provide uniform air gap around the armature and uniform flux
density also. The poles are always in pair; i.e. 2, 4, 6 and 8 etc.

(4) Brushes and brush gears: The main function of brushes is

to collect the current from the commutate and supply to the
external load circuit. These are housed in rectangular chamber.
The brushes are provided with a spring as to offer some
pressure which could easily be adjusted by the spring loading
finger. The assembly is called brush holder, generally made a
brass. These brush holders are mounted over the round
construction known as the “rocker” by the displacement of
rocker over the commentator, the brush position can be
changed.

(5) Bearings: The bearings are fitted in the cover, so as to

have minimum friction between the rotating and stationary
portions (shaft and side cover). The bearings also help in
keeping the armature in the centre for smooth running.

Rotating or rotary part:

The part which revolves during operation is called the rotating
part.

(1) Armature: The armature rotates in the magnetic field.

The conductors in which the e.m.f is induced, are housed in
the slots of the armature .the armature is made of laminations
of silicone steel to reduce the eddy current and hysteresis loss.
The laminations are assemble and riveted under hydraulic
pressure to avoid any air gap between the laminations. The
lamination are insulted from each other by means of the
varnish or sometimes thin insulating paper. By adding the
silicone in steel, the resistance is increased and thus decreases
the eddy currents which in other words decrease the eddy
current losses, the lamination instead of solid block, caused the
further reduction in current and ultimately reducing both the
eddy current and hysteresis losses. Generally the thickness off
each lamination is 0.4 to 0.6 mm.

In order to dissipate the heat, thus produced, some ventilating

ducts are provided. The air circulation through these ducts
increases the heat dissipation and keeps the machine
temperature under space limits.

(2) Commutator: It is made of the hard drawn copper

segments which are insulated from each other and from shaft
by means of mica or minacity. It is mounted on the shaft of the
machine. The copper segments are tapered and there is a rises
on one side of each segment. These Is a space provided to
solder the conductor with the riser or segment as shown in fig
12.3. It is round in shape to facilitate the collection of current
(in case of generator) from the armature.

The construction of the segment is such as, that it has “v,,

groove on both the sides to protect the segment from coming
out because of the centrifugal forces. Every segment is
properly insulated from every side i.e. from segment to
segment, from segment to shaft from segment to the sleeve and
‘v’ checks nuts by means of mica or minacity.

(3) Fan and shaft: a fan is mounted over the shaft in

opposite direction of commentator. It is made of cast iron or
thick mild steel sheets. It circulates the air through armature,
armature winding etc. to keep the temperature down.

A shaft generally of mild steel is used, which carries the

armature, commentator, fan and bearings. The pulley is also
mounted on the shaft after the side cover to enable the
mechanical energy to the load.

Q6. Explain the working principle of a DC generator

[2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2009].

Working Principle of a DC Generator: The D.C. generator

works on the principal of faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and that to the dynamic induction. The e.m.f. thus
induction or produced is known as the dynamically induced
e.m.f.

According to that “principal”, when ever the conductor cuts the

magnetic lines of force, an e.m.f. is generated in that
conductor. The e.m.f generated is directly proportional to the
rate of change of flux i.e. the angle of flux linkage. The total
e.m.f generated in the armature is also proportional to the
number off conductors.

Q7. Draw a block diagram showing a power stages of

DC generator [2002, 2006, 2007, 2009].

Power Stages in D.C. Generator

The various power stages in case of a D.C. generator are
given below:

Iron and friction losses

= A-B
Copper losses = B - C

Q8. State the different losses of a DC generator [2002,

2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009].

Losses in DC Generator: The losses in d.c. machines may be

divided into two groups: (1) Variable losses, and (2) Constant
losses.

1. Variable losses are proportional to the square of the

load current in the armature and the series and interpole
windings when employed. Due to the contact resistance
between the brushes and the commutator, there is
amore variable loss.
2. Constant losses are assumed to be constant over the
load range and comprise:
(a) Iron loss (due to hysteresis and eddy currents)
(b) Windage and friction loss, and
(c) Shunt field excitation loss.

The above losses can be calculated or obtained separately from

test results. The eddy currents losses due to change in flux with
load are additional to above losses and known as stray losses.

The above two groups of losses are discussed below:

(i) Armature losses: thee losses are of two types:

(a) I2 R loss in the windings of the armature; and
(b) Iron loss in the core of the armature, due to the
hysteresis and eddy currents. Hysteresis loss depends
upon the quality of iron. It is a function of frequency f
and approximately proportionate to the square of the
flux (2). The eddy current losses are proportional to the
square of frequency and the square of flux. Moreover
the eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the
thickness of the laminations.

(ii) Commutator losses: Commutator losses occur due to

the contact resistance and friction between the brushes
and the commutator segments.
(a) Contact resistance losses are dependent upon the
quality of the brushes.
(b) The frictional losses in the commutator segments
and brushes depend upon the brush pressure on the
segments, the coefficient of friction and the peripheral
speed of the commutator.
(iii) Excitation losses: These include the loss in a shunt
circuit (if so used) which is equal to the product of the
shunt current and the terminal voltage. In a shunt-
wound generator, this loss varies between no-load and
full-load, whereas in a level compound generator it is
almost constant. Excitation losses also occur in
commutating poles or interpoles series, and
compensating windings (if used), and are proportional
to the square of the armature current.

(iv) Losses due to bearing friction and windage: The

losses due to bearing friction are roughly proportional
to the speed. Windage loss is ordinarily very small
unless the generator is fitted with a cooling fan device,
and in that case, windage loss is proportional to the
cube of the speed.

(v) Losses due to stray load: The effect of armature

reaction to distort to flux. The flux densities in certain
regions of the armature are increased and in certain
other regions they are decreased. Hence the iron loss
depends upon the square of the flux density, Hence the
iron loss is increased due to armature reaction. Such
losses are known as stray losses.

Q8. Explain in detail the parallel operation of DC Shunt

generator with the help of diagram [2002, 2004,
2005, 2006, 2009].

Parallel Operation of Shunt Generators: When two shunt

generators are connected in parallel, they function together to
supply power to a common load and they are completely stable
whether or not their exact voltage versus current characteristics
are identical. This is because of the drooping voltage-current
characteristics of shunt generators.
Fig. shows the circuit diagram for the operation of two shunt
generators in parallel. Assume that generator A is in operation
with switch SA closed and that the load it is
delivering is about to be increased sufficiently to require the
use of a machine of larger rating than A or the
connection of a second generator to operate in parallel with A.
The procedure for connection of two shunt generators in
parallel is as follows:
1. Second generator B is brought up to rated speed by its
prime mover.
2. The field switch SB2 is closed whereupon the voltage
will build, assuring of course that all conditions for
build up are satisfied.
3. The voltage of generator B2 is adjusted until it is equal
to a slightly higher than that of generator A, the field
rheostat of the incoming machine being manipulated for
this purpose; special care should be taken that polarity
of B is exactly same as that for A with respect to the
load, i.e., the plus and minus terminals of the linking
machine must be traced to the corresponding bus
polarities across open switch SB.
4. With adjustment made and precautions taken as
indicated, main switch SB is closed; this places
generator B in parallel with A but the later still
supplying the entire load and machine B running idle,
i.e. floating.
5. To shift the load from A to B it is merely necessary to
adjust the field rheostat of two generators
simultaneously, cutting in resistance in the field circuit
of A and at the same time cutting out resistance in the
field circuit of B.

Any desired load shifting may be readily accomplished in this

way; in fact the entire load may be transferred to B, after which
the main switch SA can be opened to disconnect generator A
from the line.
When it is necessary to shunt down any of the generators, it is
not convenient to open its main switch suddenly. This would
cause severe sparking at the contacts and would cause a sudden
increase in the loads on the other machine. Instead it is better to
decrease its field current till the current supplied by this
generator becomes almost zero. Then its main switch can be
safely opened and its prime mover can be shut down.

Now let us designate generator A and generator B as generator

1 and generator 2 respectively and these are connected in
parallel. These generators have identical voltages and the
characteristic curves of both the generators can be plotted back
to back with terminal voltage in common on the vertical axis.
When generators of this sort are connected in parallel, the sum
of their line current must equal the current supplied to the load
on the system.
 IL1 + IL2 = Iload

The terminal voltage at which the power system operates will

be exactly the line voltage required to make the sum of the two
generator's currents equal to the current required for the loads.

If the speed or field current of generator 1 is increased in the

system, the entire characteristic curve of generator 1 moves
upward and the voltage at which the sum of two machine’
currents adds up to equal the load current rises. In addition,
generator 1 now assumes a large fraction of the total load on
the system. Similar adjustment of either generator 1 or
generator 2 can permit the system voltage and the power
sharing between the generators to be freely adjusted.

Q10. Explain the working principle of DC motor with

diagram [2002].

Working Principle of DC Motor: In a D.C. motor, when the

terminals are connected to external D.C. supply, the field
magnets on excitation become alternate N and S poles and
develop magnetic field which extends from North Pole to
South Pole. Also the armature conductors of the
motor carry currents. All the conductors under South Pole carry
currents in one direction while under North Pole; those carry
currents in the other direction. As explained,
the mechanical force acts on the conductors (placed in the
slots)and the armature of the D.C. motor tends to rotate in the
anti-clockwise direction as shown. The direction of motion of
the motor is determined by the Fleming’s left hand rule.
It is the arrangement of placing the conductors under the poles
such that the direction of the current flowing through these
armature conductors is as shown in Fig. or vice-versa. If the di-
rection of current in the conductors is otherwise reversed from
that shown in Fig. The motor will run in the clockwise
direction. It is thus a matter of convention we use. The
direction of motion of the motor is always determined by the
Fleming's left hand rule.

The force on conductors gives a combined effect to produce a

driving torque which makes the armature to continue rotating.
To understand the difference between motor and generator
action let we discuss there two separately Fig. (b) shows a
generator action where a mechanical force moves a conductor
in upward direction inducing an e.m.f. in the direction shown
by Fleming's Right hand rule. When a current flows as a result
of this e.m.f., there is a current carrying conductor existing in a
magnetic field: hence motor action takes place shown as a
dotted line in Fig. (a) the force developed as a result of motor
action opposes the motion which produced it.

Q11. State back emf of DC motor [2002, 2004, 2005].

Back EMF: In a D.C. motor when the armature rotates, the

conductors on it cut the lines of force of magnetic field in
which they revolve, so that an e.m.f. is induced in the armature
as in a generator. The induced e.m.f. acts in opposition to the
current in the machine and, therefore, to the applied voltage, so
that it is customary to refer to this voltage as the "back e.m.f.
'That this is so can be deduced by Lenz's law, which states that
the direction of an induced e.m.f. is such as to oppose the
change causing it, which is, of course, the applied voltage.
The magnitude of the back or counter e.m.f. can be calculated
by using formula for the induced e.m.f. in a generator, and it is
important in the case of the motor, to appreciate that this is
proportional to the product of the flux and the speed. Thus if Eb
denotes the back e.m.f., φ the flux and N the speed, we may
write,
where k is a number depending on nature of armature winding.

The value of back e.m.f. (Eb) is always less than the applied
voltage, although difference is small when the machine is
running under normal conditions. It is the difference between
these two quantities which actually drives current through the
resistance of the armature circuit. If this resistance is
represented by Ra, the back e.m.f. by Eb and the applied voltage
by V, then we have
V = Eb + IaRa
Where Ia is the current in the armature circuit.

Q12. Draw block diagram showing the power stages of dc

motor [2002, 2004].

Block Diagram of Power Stages IN D.C. Motor

Q13. Differentiate between secondary cell and primary

cell [2002, 2005].

Difference between Primary & Secondary Cells

Primary Cells
1 Primary cells cannot be
. recharged.
2 One may change the
. parts of the cells.
3 Primary cell is light
. weight.
4 Primary cell has
. high internal
resistance.
5 Primary cells have short
. life.
6 Primary cells can be
. used for low energy
applications.
Secondary Cells
Secondary cells can be
recharged.
Plates cannot be changed they
to be thrown out.
Secondary cell is heavy
weight.
Secondary cell has low
internal resistance.
Secondary cells have long
life.
Secondary cells can be used
for high energy applications.

Q14. List parts of DC generator [2004].

Parts of DC generator: The basic essential parts of a DC
generator are:
(i) A magnetic field
(ii) A conductor which can so move to cut the flux

Q15. Explain types of DC generator [2004, 2006, 2007,

2008].

Types of DC Generator: When the field coils are excited by

the exciting current supplied by the generator itself, it is said
to be self-excited generator.

In a self-excited generator, the field coils may be connected

in series with the armature coils (series) or in parallel with
the armature coils (shunt) or partly in series and partly in
parallel with armature coils (compound). According to the
type of connections of the field coils with the armature coils
the self-excited generators may be classified in to:
(i) Series wound generator.
(ii) Shunt wound generator.
(ii) Compound wound generator.

(i) Series Wound Generator: Fig. shows a series excited

generator in which the field coils are in series with the arma-
ture and carry the total current of the generator. Fig. ( i )
shows the connections of a series wound generator where as
Fig. (ii) shows its conventional diagram. Since the field coils
carries the full load current therefore, it has a few turns of
wire of large cross-sectional area having low resistance.
Before the machine will excite, the external circuit must be
closed. Series generators are scarcely ever used except for
special purposes e.g., boosters.
 (i) Shunt Wound Generator: In a shunt wound
generator the field coils are connected in parallel (or shunt)
across the armature terminals as shown in Fig. ( i ) & (ii).
These coils have many turns of relatively small wire having
V
high resistance and carry a current IF or Ish = R sh , the
terminal voltage divided by the resistance of the field coil
circuit. This exciting current varies from about 0-5 percent of
the full load current of the machine to about 5 percent,
depending chiefly on the size of the machine, the larger pro-
portion of current being taken by the smaller machines. Fig. ( i )
& (ii ) shows the connections and conventional diagrams of a
shunt wound generator.

(iii) Compound Wound Generators: Fig. ( i ) & ( ii ) shows

compound wound generators in which there are both shunt
and series field coils on each pole-One is in series and the
other in parallel with the armature ; thus the compound
wound generator may be:

(a) Short shunt. In which the shunt coils are connected in-
side the series coils or in which the shunt field coils are
only in parallel with armature, the connection is said to be
short shunt as shown in Fig. (i).

(i)

(b) Long shunt. When the shunt coils are connected

outside the series coils, the machine is said to have a long-
shunt connection as shown in Fig. (ii).

(ii)
It makes no appreciable difference in the operating charac-
teristics which way the shunt is connected and the choice is
determined by mechanical considerations of connections or
reversing switches.
Q16. Explain the process of armature reaction with
diagram in a DC generator [2002, 2004, 2005, 2007,
2008, 2009].

Armature Reaction: The armature reaction is basically the

effect of the flux produced by the current carrying armature
conductors on the main magnetic flux. So,” the armature
reaction is defined as the effect of the magnetic field produced
by the armature conductors on the distribution of the flux under
the main poles.

Now consider an armature rotating in the magnetic field

produced by the two poles machine. When ever load is not
connected on the armature so no current is flowing through the
armature conductors, the magnetic field produced is merely
because of the main magnetic field as shown in the following
fig.

According to Fleming’s right hand ruler the conductors under

North Pole are carrying current in such a direction as shown.
Now the magnetic field produced by armature conductors is
shown in fig. (b) .the magnetic flux will contribute the
magnetic belt in the both sides of MNA and hence the direction
of armature flux is upwards. Now two magnetic fluxes,
because of main magnetic field and because of the armature
conductors are working at right angle to each other when these
are energized as shown in fig. (c). As a result, the main flux
will be distorted and the flux will be strong and TPT and weak
at LPT. Hence the brushes are to be given the forward lead in
the direction of motion of the armature, i.e. the new neutral
axis, which is at right angle to the resultant magnetic field. The
angle lead depends upon the load on the armature more load,
more angle and vice versa.

It is observed that the flux through the armature is no longer

uniform and symmetrical about the poles axis. The resultant
armature flux as shown in fig. has two components: the d =
the demagnetizing component and c = the cross-magnetizing
component. The demagnetizing the main flux and the cross-
magnetizing component is at right angle to the main magnetic
flux.

Q17. Explain the necessity of starter for DC motor [2004].

Necessity of a starter: When the motor is at rest the speed of

the motor is zero, there fore back emf E b is zero and if a dc
motor is connected directly tot eh supply mains, a heavy
current will flow through the armature conductors because
from the emf equation for armature circuit (E b= V- IaRa)
armature current Ia is given as and armature resistance Ra is
very small. For example consider a 400 V, 20 kW dc motor
having a total resistance of 0.5 Ω. If switched directly on to the
supply, it would draw a current of a while the full-load current
would probably be about 64 ampere. The starting current thus
would be i.e.12.5 times the full- load values. When running, of
course, the applied voltage V is opposed by the induced back
emf and, there fore, a much smaller current flows.

Heavy inrush of current at the stating instant may cause

(i) Heavy sparking at the commutator and even flash-
over’s.
(ii) Damaged to the armature winding, either by the heat
developed in the windings, or by the mechanical forces
set up by electro- magnetic action.
(iii) Damage to the rotating parts of the motor and load to
development of large starting torque an quick
acceleration and
(iv) Large dip in the supply voltage.

Hence for the protection of the motor against the flow of

excessive current during starting period (say 5 to 10 seconds),
it is necessary that a high resistance be connected in series with
the armature of the motor at the instant of starting and
gradually cut in steps as the motor gains speed, the additional
resistance from the armature circuit it totally disconnected. If
this additional loss of energy resulting in reduced operating
efficiency and (ii) reduction in operating speed of the motor.

However, a very small motor (frictional kW motor) may be

started simply by closing the switch which connects it to the
supply mains. The reasons for it are given below.

(i) The resistance and inductance of the armature winding

in case of small motors are generally sufficiently large
to limit the initial of current to values that are not
particularly serious.
(ii) The inertia of a small armature is generally so low that
it comes upto speed very quickly, there by minimizing
the detrimental effects that might otherwise result from
the excessive sustained current.

Q18. Define the operation and protection offered by 4

point starter [2004, 2009].

4-Point Starter: The three point starter cannot be used to

advantage on variable-speed motors having field control. Such
motors normally have a speed variation of 5 to 1. This results
in the field current having approximately the same range. The
hold up magnet may be too strong, therefore, at the higher
values of field current and too weak at the lower values. This
difficulty can be overcome by a four point starter as shown in
Fig. (b)., except that the hold up coil is of high resistance and is
connected directly across the line. The only difference in the
connection is that the "line" terminal must be connected to the
side of the line which runs directly to the common armature
and field terminals. When the supply voltage is shut down, the
hold up coil becomes de-energized and allows the arm to
spring back to the starting position.

In stopping a motor, the line switch should always be opened

rather than throwing back the starting arm. With shunt motors
the line switch can be opened with no appreciable arc, since the
motor develops a counter e.m.f. nearly equal to the line voltage
and the net voltage across the switch contacts is small. The
electro-magnetic energy stored in the field does not appear at
the switch but is discharged gradually through the armature. On
the other-hand, if the starting arm is thrown back, the field
circuit is broken at the last contact button. Owing to the
inductive nature of the field, this results in a hot arc which
burns the contact. To prevent the contact from being burned, a
small finger can be introduced to break the arc.

Q19. State types of DC motors [2004, 2005].

Types of DC motors: A dc motor must receive their
excitations from an outside source, therefore, they are
separately excited, their field and armature windings are
connected, however, in one of the three different ways
employed for self-excited dc generators, and so according to
the field arrangement there are three types of dc motors
namely: (i) series wound (ii) shunt wound and (iii) compound
wound.

1. Series Wound Motor: A series motor is one in which

the field winding consisting of few turns of thick wire is
connected in series with the armature so that the whole
current drawn by the motor passes through the field
winding as well as armature. Connection diagram is
shown in fig.

In a dc series motor,
Armature current, la = Series field current, lse
= Line current, IL = I( say)
Back emf developed, Eb = V-I(Ra + Rse)
Power drawn from supply mains = VI watts
where V is the supply voltage and I is the input current.
Power developed = Power input-losses in armature and field
= VI – I2 (Ra + Rse)
 = I [V – I (Ra + Rse)] = Eb I watts.

2. Shunt Wound Motor: A shunt wound motor is one in

which the field winding consisting of large number of
turns of comparatively fine wire is connected in parallel
with armature, as illustrated in fig.. The current
supplied to the motor is divided into two paths, one
through the shunt field winding and second through the
armature.

i.e. input line current, IL = Ia + Ish where Ia is the armature

current and Ish is the shunt field current given by the expression
V
Ish = R sh R shbeing the shunt fiend resistance and V the
supply voltage.
Back emf developed, Eb = V – Ia Ra
Power input = VIL
Power developed = Power input - losses in
armature and shunt field
= V IL –VIsh - Ia2 Ra
= V (IL –Ish ) - Ia2 Ra
= V Ia – Ia2 Ra = Ia (V- Ia Ra)
= Eb la
3. Compound Wound Motors: Compound wound
motors are of two types namely cumulative compound
wound and differential compound wound.
Cumulative compound wound motor is one in which the field
windings are connected in such a way that the direction of flow
of current is same in both of the field windings, as illustrated in
fig:. In the motor of this type the flux due to series field
winding strengthens the field due to the shunt field winding.

Differential compound wound motor is one in which the field

windings are connected in such a way that the direction of flow
of current is opposite to each other in the two field windings, as
illustrated in fig.. In this type of motor the flux due to series
field winding weakens the field due to shunt field winding.
Q20. Explain with diagram, how the torque is developed
in a DC motor [2004].

TORQUE DEVELOPED IN A MOTOR: When the field of

a machine (of the type described as generator) is excited and a
potential difference is impressed upon the machine terminals,
the current in the armature winding reacts with the air-gap flux
to produce a turning moment or torque which tends to cause
the armature to revolve. Fig. illustrates production of torque in
a motor.

When the brushes are on the neutral axis, all the armature
conductors lying under the North Pole carry currents in a given
direction, while those lying under South Pole carry currents in
the reverse direction. The commutator (just as in a generator)
serves to reverse the current in each armature coil at the instant
it passes through the neutral axis, so the above relation is
always maintained as the armature rotates.

All conductors under the North Pole carry inward-flowing

currents which react with the air gap flux to produce down-
ward acting forces and a counter clockwise torque. Similarly
the conductors under the South Pole carry outward-flowing
currents which produce upward-acting forces. These forces
also give rise to counter clockwise torques. If the air-gap flux is
assumed to be radially directed at all points, each of the force
acts tangentially and produces a turning moment equal to the
force multiplied by its lever arm — the radial distance from the
centre of the conductor to the centre of the shaft.

Magnitude of torque developed by each conductor

= Bllr Nm
If the motor contains Z conductors, the total torque developed
by the armature
Ta = BllrZ Nm
Where B = gap density, T (Wb/m2)
I = armature current in a conductor, A
I = active length of each conductor, m
r = average lever arm of a conductor or the average radius at
which conductors are placed, m
Z = total number of armature conductors.
It is more convenient to express Ta in terms of armature current
Ia, total flux per pole φ and number of poles p.
Ia
I= a
φ
And B= A
Where a = number of parallel paths,
and A = the cross-sectional area of flux path at radius r.
2π rl
A= p
Z φlI a r p
Then B = 2π rl x a
Z φI a p
= 2π a Nm
Ia
Ta = 0.159Z φ px a
Or Ta = k φ la Nm
Zp
Where k = 2 π a is a constant for any machine.

Q21. State the applications of DC motors depending upon

their characteristics [2004].

Applications of motor depending upon their characteristic

1. Shunt motors: The characteristics of a shunt motor

reveal that it is an approximately constant speed motor.
It is therefore, used:
(i) Where the speed is required to remain almost constant
from no load to full load.
(ii) Where the load has to be driven at a number of speeds
and any one of which is required to remain nearly
constant.

Industrial Use: Lathes, drills, boring mills, shapers, spinning

and weaving machines etc.

2. Series motors: It is variable speed motors i.e. speed is

low at high torque and vice versa. However, at light or
no load, the motor tends to attain dangerously high
speed. The motor has a high starting torque. It is
therefore, used:
(i) Where large starting torque is required e.g. in elevators
and electric traction.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and
the speed is automatically required to reduce at high
torques and vice versa.

Industrial Use: Electric traction, cranes, elevators, air

compressors, vacuum cleaners, hair dry, sewing machines etc.

3. Compound motors: Differential compound motors are

rarely used because of their poor torque characteristics.
However, cumulative compound motors are used where
a fairly constant speed is required with irregular loads
or suddenly applied heavy loads.

Industrial Use: Presses, shears, reciprocating machines etc.

Q22. Define commutation [2004, 2006].

Commutation: Commutation means the process of current

collection by the brush or the changes which take place in a
coil during the period of short circuit by a brush. The period
during which this happens is called the commutation period.
Commutation is considered to be good when the changes of the
current in the coil sections are not accompanied by sparking
between the brushes and the commutator, and the surface of the
latter remains clean and undamaged during continuous
operation of the machine. Conversely, commutation is
considered to be poor if there is sparking at the brushes and
appreciable damage to the commutator surface hindering
reliable operation of the machine.

One of the main tasks in the analysis of commutation process is

to find the causes of sparking between the brush and the
commutator. The sparking may be called forth by causes
differing in their physical nature, i.e. mechanical and electrical.

Q23. State function of lead acid battery [2004, 2005, 2007,

2008, 2009].

Lead acid battery: Lead acid battery cells are used where
large currents and energy storage is needed. Lead acid cells the
most commonly used secondary cell and it is the power source
for the electric system of the most cars, trucks and tractors. It
can provide large current needed to crank internal combustion
engine. A lead acid cell produces about 2.1V. Higher voltages
are obtained by connecting cells together to form batteries. A
12 V automobile battery actually has a nominal voltage of 12.6
volts, because it contains six cells. A lead acid battery consists
of 3 cells, 6 cells and 12 cells. Now we are going to study in
detail construction, action and characteristics of, lead acid
battery one by one.
Q24. State the different methods of speed control of DC
motor and explain any one in brief [2004, 2007,
2009].

Speed control of d.c. series motor: The speed control of D.C.

series motors can be obtained by
(i) Flux control method (ii) Armature resistance control
method. The latter method is mostly used.

I. Flux Control Method: In this method, the flux

produced by the series motor is varied and hence the
speed. The variation of flux can be achieved in the
following ways:

(i) Field Diverters: In this method, a variable resistance

(called field diverter) is connected in parallel with
series field winding as shown in figure. Its effect is to
shunt some portion of the line current from the series
field winding, thus weakening the field and increasing
the speed (N = 1/). The lowest speed obtainable is that
corresponding to zero current in the diverter (i.e.
diverter is open). Obviously, the lowest speed
obtainable is the normal speed of the motor.
 Consequently, this method can only provide speeds
above the normal speed. The series field diverter
method is often employed in traction work.

(ii) Armature Diverter: In order to obtain speeds below

the normal speed, a variable resistance (called armature
diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature as
shown in figure. The diverter shunts some of the lien
current, thus reducing the armature current. Now for a
given load, if Ia is decreased, the flux  must increase
(T =  Ia). Since, N  1/, the motor speed is
decreased. By adjusting the armature diverter any speed
lower than the normal speed can be obtained.

(iii) Tapped Field Control: In this method, the flux is

reduced (and hence speed is increased) by decreasing
 the number of turns of the series field winding as shown
in figure. The switches can short circuit any part of the
field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as
the field turns are cut out, speeds higher than normal
speed are achieved.

II. Armature Resistance Control: In this method, a

variable resistance is directly connected in series with
the supply to the complete motor as shown in figure.
This reduces the voltage available across the armature
and hence the speed falls. By changing the value of
variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed
can be obtained. This is the most common method
employed to control the speed of d.c. series motors.
Although this method has poor speed regulation, this
has no significance for series motors because they are
used in varying speed applications. The loss of power in
the series resistance for many applications of series
motors is not too serious since in these applications, the
control is utilized for a large portion of the time for
reducing the speed under light load conditions and is
only used intermittently when the motor is carrying full
load.
Q25. Enumerate types of cell. Explain working of nickel
iron battery [2004, 2006, 2007].

Types of cells

1. Primary Cell: The basic working principle of cell is

.that an emf can be obtained by two dissimilar metal when
acted upon by an electrolyte. This emf will produced until the
chemical action has changed all of the electrolyte or electrode in
some other chemical form, then the cell is said to the
discharged. A primary cell is one which cannot be recharged. In
a primary cell it is not possible to reverse the chemical action to
bring the material into their original condition. The carbon-Zinc,
mercuric oxide silver oxide and alkaline cells are the most
common examples of primary cell.

2. Secondary Cell: Secondary cells work on the same

principles as primary cells but differ in the process in which
they may be renewed. In a secondary cell the chemical reaction
which takes between the electrolyte and electrode on discharge
can be completely reversed by sending a current through the
cell in the opposite direction from an external source of emf.
This is called charging. A secondary cell is one which can be
charged. In a secondary cell it is possible to reverse the chemical
action to bring the material into their original condition. The lead
acid nickel cadmium, silver Zinc and Edison cells are the most
common examples of secondary cell. Difference between a
primarv cell and a secondary, cell is that the primary cell and a
secondary cell is that the primary cell cannot be recharged after use
while the secondary cell can be recharged after use.

Nickel iron battery (Edison cell): The nickel-iron battery is a

storage battery having a nickel (III) oxide-hydroxide cathode
and an iron anode, with an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide.
The active materials are held in nickel-plated steel tubes or
perforated pockets. The nominal cell voltage is 1.2V. It is a
very robust -battery which is tolerant of abuse, (overcharge,
over-discharge, short-circuiting and thermal shock) and can
have very long life even if so treated. It is often used in backup
situations where it can be continuously charged and can last for
more than 20 years. Its limitations, namely, low specific
energy, poor charge retention, and poor low-temperature
performance, and its high cost of manufacture compared with
the lead-acid battery led to a decline in usage along with it
having the lowest energy-to-weight ratio.

The ability of these batteries to survive frequent cycling is due

to the low solubility, of the reactants in the electrolyte. The
formation of metallic iron during charge is slow because of the
low solubility of the Fe3O4 which is good and bad. It is good
because the slow formation of iron .crystals preserves the
electrodes; bad because it limits the high rate performance:
these cells charge slowly, and are only able to discharge
slowly.

Nickel-iron batteries have long been used in European, mining

operations because of their ability to withstand vibrations, high
temperatures and other physical stress. They are being
examined again for use in wind and solar power systems and
for modern electric vehicle applications.

In many respects the Nickel/Iron battery was almost ''too

good". A battery that lasts for decades in many cases can
outlast the equipment that is was originally designed to power.
So from an economic standpoint lead acid, NiCd and other
technologies have been deemed "good enough" and are the
predominant technologies in use today even though they do not
last as long as a Nickel/Iron counterpart.

Q26. Define preparation of electrolyte of a required

specific gravity [2004, 2006, 2007, 2009].

Method of preparation of electrolyte for a given specific

gravity

Electrolyte: A substance through which an electric current can

pass in solution form or in molten form is called electrolyte.

Example: Nacl, KBr, H2SO4, NaOH, etc.

Types of Electrolyte: There are three types of electrolytes:

(i) Strong electrolytes
(ii) Weak electrolyte
(iii) Non-electrolytes
(i) Strong Electrolytes: The compounds which ionize to a
large extent in dilute solution and conduct electric
current to a large extent are called strong electrolytes.

Examples: HCl, NaOH, NaCl, etc.

(ii) Weak Electrolytes: The compound which ionize to a

small extent in dilute aqueous solution and conduct
electric current to small extent are called weak
electrolytes.
Examples: CH3COOH, benzoic acid, carbonic acid, etc.

(iii)Non-Electrolytes: The compounds, which do not

ionize in aqueous solution and do not conduct electric
current, are called non-electrolytes.
Examples: Sugar, urea, glucose, etc.

An electrolyte can be prepared by adding pure distilled water in

dilute sulphuric acid at specific gravity.

During charging process the amount of H2SO4 increased while

water content increased during discharging. The value of
specific gravity is never constant in electrolyte during charging
and discharging. Battery condition can be easily understand by
given specific gravity charge with the help of this chart we can
understand the battery condition and relevant specific gravity
of electrolyte.

Battery condition Relevant Specific gravity

Fully charged 1.26 to 1.30
About ¾ charged 1.23 to 1.26
Half charged 1.20 to 1.23
About ¼ charged 1.17 to 1.2
Discharged 1.11 to 1.14
The another factor for charging of specific gravity is
temperature of battery. At high temperature battery is fully
charged at comparatively low specific gravity as compared to
low temperature.

It should be noted that amount of heat is produced when acid

and water are mixed further if water added into acid it is
harmful for worker so first acid is added drop by drop into
distilled water for dilution.

Q27. Explain purpose of interpoles [2004, 2005, 2006,

2009].

Purpose of inter-poles: These are the poles mounded in

between the main poles. These are small in size than the main
poles. Generally these are 1/3 to 3/4 th of the main poles as
shown in Fig. The winding is done with thick conductor. It is
connected in series with the armature. The magnetic field
produced by these poles is proportional to the load current.
In case of D.C. motor, the polarity of inter-poles will be
opposite to the main poles ahead in the direction of rotation of
the armature.

Q28. Explain with neat diagram the Ward Leonard

system of DC motor speed control [2006].

Ward Leonard System: This method of control not only gives

a wide range of operating speeds, but reduces to the very
minimum the wastage of energy that ay take place at starting
and stopping. Fig shows the schematic arrangement of Ward
Leonard method.
M = main motor whose speed is to be controlled
G = separately excited generator which feeds the armature of
the motor M
E = an exciter (a small shunt generator) which provides field
excitation to the generator G and motor M
M’ = driving motor – a constant speed motor which drives G
and E
R = a potentiometer rheostat
S = a double throw switch

The working of this system is as follows:

 The motor M’ drives the generator G and excitor E at
constant speed. The voltage fed to motor M can be
controlled by varying the setting of R. A change in
voltage applied to motor M changes its speed. The
speed can be adjusted to any value from zero to
maximum in either direction by means of a rheostat R
and switch S.
 When the sliding contact of R is at extreme right, the
motor is running at full speed in one direction. To
decrease the speed the sliding contact is moved to the
 left. When the sliding contact is at the left extreme
position, the speed of motor M is zero. In order to
reverse the speed of the motor, the sliding contact is
shifted to the extreme left, the switch S is reversed and
the sliding contact shifted to right again.
 A modification of the Ward Leonard system is known
as Ward Leonard Ilgner system, which uses a small
motor generator set with the addition of a flywheel
whose function is to reduce fluctuations in the power
demand from the supply circuit. When the main motor
M becomes suddenly overloaded, the driving motor M’
slows down, thus allowing the inertia of the flywheel to
supply a part of the overload. However, when the load
is suddenly thrown off the main motor M, then M’
speeds up thereby again storing energy in the flywheel.
When Ilgner system is driven by means of an AC motor
(whether induction or synchronous) another refinement
in the form of a slip regulator can be usefully employed
thus giving an additional control.
 One important feature of the Ward Leonard system is
its regenerative action. When a locomotive, fitted with
this system, is descending a slope, its speeds up due to
the action of gravity. The speed of motor M increases
until its back emf exceeds the applied voltage motor M
then runs as generator and feeds the machine G which
now works as a generator and feeds electrical energy
back into the trolley wire. This results in salvaging of
considerable amount of energy and a superior and
smooth braking action. Such an action in known as
regenerative braking.

Q29. What are the necessary requirements for parallel

operation of DC generator [2008].

Requirements for Parallel Operation of DC Generator: The

following are the principle types of situations where paralleling
of DC generators is required:
  Paralleling shunt generators of the same or varying
sizes
 Paralleling compound generators of the same or varying
sizes
There are certain requirements that must be met for successful
electrical paralleling in all different situations. A parallel
circuit is defined as one in which the same voltage exists across
each unit as the paralleling point.

This is absolutely required by Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

The following three conditions may be met if the generated

voltages of the individual generators are not all the same, and
they are paralleled:
(i) If a generator is developing an internally generated
voltage Eg that is appreciably above the voltage at
the paralleling point, generator action is taking
place and the unit is delivering current to the load.
(ii) When a generator is producing the same voltage as
that existing at the paralleling point, no effective
generating action is taking place and no current is
flowing to the load. The generator is said to the
floating on the line. It is neither contributing nor
drawing current and is still being rotated by its own
prime mover.
(iii) If the setting of the generator is so made that it
develops less internal Eg than voltage at the
paralleling terminal, it will draw current from the
paralleling point and will be operating as motor.

The above three situations are in entire agreement with

Kirchhoff’s current law, as any parallel circuit must be.

The following are the requirements or conditions of paralleling

DC generators:
(i) The polarities of the generators must be the same or
the connections must be interchanged until they are.
 (ii) The voltages should be nearly if not exactly
identical so that each machine will contribute.
(iii) The change of voltage with change of load should
be of the same character.
(iv) The prime mover that drive the generators should
have similar and stable rotational speed
characteristics.

Q30. State the applications of DC Series, Shunt and

Compound motors [2008].

Applications of DC Motors

1. DC Shunt Motor
(i) Drills and milling machines
(ii) Line shaft drives
(iii) Boring mills
(iv) Grinders and shapers
(v) Spinning and weaving machines
(vi) Wood working machines
(vii) Small printing presses
(viii) Light machine tools generally

2. DC Series Motor
(i) Traction drives generally
(ii) Tram cars and railway cars
(iii) Cranes, derricks, hoists, elevators and winches
(iv) Fans and air compressors
(v) Vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines
(vi) Universal machines generally

3. Cumulative Compound Motor

(i) Punching, shearing and planning machines
(ii) Lifts, haulage gears and mine hoists
(iii) Pumps and power fans
(iv) Rolling mills, stamping presses and large printing
presses
(v) Trolley buses

4. Differential Compound Motor

(i) Battery boosters
(ii) Experimental and research work

Q31. What is the importance of DC machine testing?

Why it is necessary [2008, 2009].

Testing of d.c. machines

The following important performance tests are
conducted on D.C. machines:
1. The magnetization or open circuit test.
2. The load characteristics.
3. The determination of efficiency curve.
4. The temperature rise test.
 The procedure to conduct the magnetization or
open circuit test and load characteristic (external
characteristic) tests
 The methods for determining efficiency can be
divided into following three methods:
(i) Direct method (ii) Indirect method
(iii) Regenerative method.

Direct method: In direct test the generator or motor is put on

full-load and whole of the power developed by it is wasted.
Brake test is a typical example of direct test. The direct tests
can be used only on small machines.

Though this method is simple in looking, but involves

complication in the measurement of mechanical power input in
the case of a generator and output in case of a motor.
If brake is to be applied to a series motor, the brake must be
tight before the motor is started, otherwise the armature may
get damaged and fly to pieces.

Indirect method: This method consists in measuring the losses

and then calculating the efficiency. The simplest of the indirect
tests is Swinburne test.

This method enables the determination of losses without

actually loading the machine. The power is required to supply
the losses only, so there is no difficulty in applying this method
even to very large machines.

The disadvantage of this method is that machine is run light

during the test which gives no indication as to the temperature
rise on load or to the commutating qualities of the machine.

Regenerative method: This method requires two identical

machines; one of them works as a motor and drives the other,
which is mechanically coupled to it. The other machine works
as a generator and feed back power into the supply. Thus the
total power drawn from the supply is only for supplying
internal losses of the two machines. Thus even very large
machines may be tested as the power required is small.

Hopkinson test is a regenerative test for determining efficiency

of D.C. machines.

Q32. Explain the Hopkinson’s test [2004, 2008, 2009].

Hopkinson test
The back to back test for dc machines was devised in its
original form by Hopkinson and is similar to the Sumpner's test
for transformers. In practice the modification of the original
Hopkinson test by Kapp is employed and it is usually called the
Hopkinson test. The connection diagram for the Hopkinson test
is shown in Fig.. Two dc shunt machines are mechanically
coupled and losses are supplied electrically.

Machine M is started with the help of a starter as a dc shunt

motor and brought to speed with switch SW open. Since both
the machines M and G are mechanically coupled, both the
machines run at the same speed. The field current of the
machine G is adjusted till the voltmeter VI reads zero and the
switch is then closed. Under this condition the generator will
float neither taking nor giving current to supply. Any desired
load can be put on the generator by increasing the value of its
induced emf; this in turn can be accomplished either by
increasing the generator exciting current or by decreasing the
exciting current of the motor or both adjustments may be made.
The machine with lower field current will act as motor and the
other will work as generator. The power supplied from the
mains is only the power required to supply the losses of the two
machines. At the end of the test, the resistances ra1 and ra2 of
the armature circuit are measured by passing full load current
through them and measuring voltage drops with field circuit
open. The total current 11 is supplied from the mains to two dc
machines M and G.

Armature current of generator is

 l g = I2 + I4
Armature current of motor is
l m = I1 - I4 + I2
Armature copper loss of generator
= I2g ra2
Armature copper loss of motor
= I2mra1
Field copper loss of generator
= VI4
Armature copper loss of motor
= VI3
Total iron + friction losses for the two machines
= Vl1= - (I2mra1+ I2g ra2 + VI3 + VI4))
Total iron + friction loss per machines
P0 = 0.5 (Vl1- (I2mra1+ I2g ra2 + VI3 + VI4))
Motor power loss
P11 = P0 + I2mra1+ VI3
Motor input power
P1 = V (I1 + I2)
Motor output power = P1 - P11
Motor efficiency is given by
2
m
P 1 - P11 V( I 1 + V 2 )−(P 0 + I r a1 +Vl3 )
=
Efficiency = P1 V ( I 1 + 12 )
Generator power loss
P12 = P0 + I2gra2+ VI4
Generator output power
P2 = VI2
Generator input power
P2 = P12
Generator efficiency is given by
P2 V 12
=
P 2 + P 12 2
m
Efficiency = VI 2 + P 0 + I r a2 + Vl 4

Q33. Explain the methods of charging of battery and

explain in brief any one of them [2001, 2004, 2008].

Charging of battery: For charging a battery a d.c. supply of

voltage little higher than the battery voltage is applied across
the battery. The care should be taken that positive terminal of
battery should be connected to positive terminal of supply and
negative plate to negative terminal of supply.
The current passes from positive plate to the negative
plate inside the cell the chemical reaction is an follows.
At Negative plate:
PbSO4 + 2H+ = Pb +
H2SO4
(Lead sulphate) (Hydrogen) (Lead)
(Sulphuric acid)
At Positive plate:
PbO2 + SO-4 + 2H2O = PBO2 +
2H2SO4
(Lead sulphate) (Sulphate) (Water) (Lead peroxide)
(Sulphuric acid)
The changes occurs during charging is as below:
(i) The positive plate changes to lead peroxide (PbO2),
which is dark chocolate brown in colour.
(ii) The negative plate changes to spongy lead which is
slate grey in colour.
 (iii) The voltage per cell increases from 1.8 volt to 2.1
volt.
(iv) The specific gravity of each cell rises from 1.180 to
1.280.
The cell stores electrical energy in form of chemical
energy. Fig. illustrate charging of battery.

Q34. How the battery is discharged, give its process in

brief [2004, 2008].

Discharging of Battery: When the cell is fully charged the

positive plate is of nickel hydroxide [(Ni (OH 4)] and the
negative plate, is of iron (Fe). When load is connected to the
terminal of the cell, current flow from positive plate outside the
cell and from negative to positive inside cell. The current
through the electrodes breaks it into potassium ions (K+) and
hydroxide ions (OH-). The K+ moves toward the anode and OH-
towards cathode the chemical reactions is as given below:
At Negative plate:
Fe++ + 2OH - Fe (OH)2
(Iron) (Hydroxide of potassium) (Ferrous hydroxide)
At Positive plate:
Ni (OH)4 + 2K+ = Ni (OH), + 2KOH
(Nickel hydroxide) Potassium (Nickel of lower oxide) (Potassium hydroxide)
The following-changes occur during discharging:
(i) The negative plate turns into ferrous oxide,
(ii) The positive plate turns into the lower hydroxide of nickel,
(iii) The strength of electrolyte remains constant.

Q35. Explain Swinburn’s and Dynamometer test [2009].

Swinburne's test: This is an indirect method of determining

the efficiency of a motor by measuring the losses. In this
method the iron and friction losses are determined by
measuring the input to the machine on no-load, the machine
being run as a motor at normal voltage and speed. Copper
losses are calculated from measured values of the various
resistances. This test is carried out for shunt machines. The
connection diagram for Swinburne's test is shown in Fig.

In the case of shunt motor, let I 0 = the total current on no-load,

V being the supply voltage. Then the total losses on no load are
Vlo. A small and normally negligible portion of these losses
consists of ohmic losses in the armature, brush contacts and
inter-pole endings. The armature copper loss is I2a0 ra where ra
is the armature resistance and the armature current is Ia0 = I0 -
If. The total iron, friction and windage losses are
Po=VI0-I2a0 ra
For an input current I, Ia = I- If and line voltage V, the
efficiency of the dc machine as a motor is given by
2
a
VI- I r 2 - P 0 - VI f
Efficiency = VI
Knowing the losses the efficiency of the machine as a
generator can be determined from the relation
VI
2
a
Efficiency = VI- I r 2 - P 0 - VI f
The armature resistance is measured by a dc test by passing a
rated current from a battery supply.

Dynamometer test: The dyno must be able to operate at any

speed, and load the prime mover to any level of torque that the
test requires. A dynamometer is usually equipped with some
means of measuring the operating torque and speed.

Dynamometers can be equipped with a variety of control

systems. If the dynamometer has a torque regulator, it operates
at a set torque while the prime mover operates at whatever
speed it can attain while developing the torque that has been
set. If the dynamometer has a speed regulator, it develops
whatever torque is necessary to force the prime mover to
operate at the set speed.

A motoring dynamometer acts as a motor that drives the

equipment under test. It must be able to drive the equipment at
any speed and develop any level of torque that the test requires.
Only torque and speed can be measured; Power must be
calculated from the torque and speed figures according to the
formula:

Where K is determined by the units of measure used as can be

seen below:
To calculate power in horsepower (hp) use:

where:
Torque is in pound-feet (lbf·ft)
Rotational speed is in revolutions per minute (rpm)
To calculate power in kilowatts use:

where:
Torque is in newton-metres (N·m)
Rotational speed is in revolutions per minute (rpm)
(On graphs of torque vs. rpm the numerical values of torque
and power are always equal when the rpm value is equal to the
constant, K. The numerical values of horsepower and lbf·ft of
torque are always equal at 5252 rpm because 5252 rpm in the
numerator cancels out the constant, 5252 in the denominator
leaving only the torque figure equal to the power, Fig.)

Detailed dynamometer description

Electrical dynamometer setup showing engine, torque
measurement arrangement and tachometer

A dynamometer consists of an absorption (or absorber/driver)

unit, and usually includes a means for measuring torque and
rotational speed. An absorption unit consists of some type of
rotor in a housing. The rotor is coupled to the engine or other
equipment under test and is free to rotate at whatever speed is
required for the test. Some means is provided to develop a
braking torque between dynamometer's rotor and housing. The
means for developing torque can be frictional, hydraulic,
electromagnetic etc. according to the type of absorption/driver
unit.

One means for measuring torque is to mount the dynamometer

housing so that it is free to turn except that it is restrained by a
torque arm. The housing can be made free to rotate by using
trunnions connected to each end of the housing to support the
dyno in pedestal mounted trunnion bearings. The torque arm is
connected to the dyno housing and a weighing scale is
positioned so that it measures the force exerted by the dyno
housing in attempting to rotate. The torque is the force
indicated by the scales multiplied by the length of the torque
arm measured from the center of the dynamometer. A load cell
transducer can be substituted for the scales in order to provide
an electrical signal that is proportional to torque.

Q36. Explain parallel operation of DC Compound

Generator [2009].

Parallel Operation of Compound Generator: Since these

machines possess winding in series with the armature and
usually having a rising characteristics, it is again necessary to
equalize their field currents. This is usually affected by means
of an auxiliary bar on the main switch board, the bar being
called the "equalizer bus bar". Essential connections for
parallel operation of compound generators are shown in Fig. In
absence of the equalizing bar, an accidental increase in the
generated voltage of one machine causes it to supply more load
current which in time strengthens its series field. This increases
the generated emf further, with still further increase in its load
current.

When the equalizing conductor is used, two series field coil

windings are connected in parallel and this cumulative action
can not take place. An increase in generated emf of one
machine increases its armature current but series field is not
strengthened so that successful parallel operation is possible.
The equalizer should be connected at the junction of inter-pole
and series field windings. This is necessary so that the inter-
pole winding carries the armature current. For satisfactory
operation, the resistance of the equalizing connector should be
very small in comparison with that of the field coils.

Q37. Write short notes on the following [2002, 2004, 2005,

2006, 2007, 2008, 2009].

Dry Cell: It is a portable cell. Dry cell is a modification of

Lachlanche cell. In this cell the electrolyte in the paste shape. It
is a mixture of FeSO4, 7H2O, NH4C1 and H2O. The depolarizer
is a mixture of crystals of carbon, MnO2, H2O etc. A Zn
cylinder is used to house all the chemicals and other
components; it works as negative terminal. A carbon rod is
placed in centre and it works as positive terminal of the cell.
The paste is surrounding the carbon rod in a muslin bag which
works as the porous pot. A vent plug is provided to escape the
NH3 gas. Figure shows the simple construction of the dry cell.

3-Point DC Motor Starter: The starter shown in Fig. is of

more practical arrangement. This is a shunt motor starter. The
field has been permanently connected to the first stud of the
resistance and the risk of opening the shunt field circuit is thus
avoided. An electromagnet, known as "no-volt release" is
arranged to hold the arm in "on" position against the pull of the
spring provided in the starter arm. When the supply fails then
the arm is released and is pulled back by the spring to the 'off
position.

An 'over load release' shown in Fig. provides an overload

protection. When the current is high enough to attract the ar-
mature of the overload release, then a pair of contacts is
bridged. These contacts are connected to the ends of the coil of
the no-volt release which, consequently is released and return
to the "off position. This overload release is instantaneous in
action. In practice overloads of large magnitude but of short
duration usually occur, thus such an instantaneous 'overload
release' is sometimes suitable.

Voltage Build up in DC Generator: One of the simplest

forms of self-excited generator is the shunt wound machine, the
connection diagram (without load) of which is shown in figure.
The manner in which a self-excited generator manages to
excite its own field and build a D.C. voltage across its armature
is described with reference to figure in the following steps:

(i) Assume that the generator starts from rest, i.e., prime-
mover speed is zero. Despite a residual magnetism, the
generated e.m.f. E, is zero.
(ii) As the prime-mover rotates the generator armature and
the speed approaches rated speed, the voltage due to
residual magnetism and speed increases.
(iii) At rated speed, the voltage across the armature due to
residual magnetism is small, E1 as shown in the figure.
But this voltage is also across the field circuit whose
resistance is Rf. Thus, the current which flows in the
field circuit I1, is also small.
(iv) When I1 flows in the field circuit of the generator an
increases in mmf results due to I fTf, Tf being field turns,
which aids the residual magnetism in increasing the
induced voltage to E2 as shown in figure.
(v) Voltage E2 is now impressed across the field, causing a
large current I2 to flow in the field circuit. I 2Tf is an
increased mmf which produces generated voltage E3.
(vi) E3 yields I3 in the field circuit, producing E4. But E4
causes I4 to flow in the field producing E5; and so on, up
to E8, the maximum value.
(vii) The process continues until that point where the field
resistance line crosses the magnetization curve in
 figure. Here the process stops. The induced voltage
produced, when impressed across the field circuit,
produces a current flow that in turn produces an
induced voltage of the same magnitude, E8, as shown
in the figure.

Chemical Action during Charging and Discharging of Lead

Acid Battery:

Chemical Process during Discharging: By discharging of a

cell we mean that it is delivering current to the external circuit.
Consider a charged lead acid cell with anode of PbO 2 and
cathode of Pb; the electrolyte being dilute H 2SO4 (See figure).
Sulphuric acid splits up into hydrogen ions (H +H+) and sulphate
ions (SO4--). The sulphate ions move towards the cathode and
hydrogen ions move towards the anode causing the following
chemical actions:
At cathode: On reaching the cathode, a sulphate ion (SO 4--)
gives up its two extra electrons to become sulphate radical.
These electrons given up at the cathode move through the
external circuit to the anode where they are available to
neutralize the positive ions (H+H+) arriving there. Since
sulphate radical cannot exist, it enters into chemical action with
cathode material (Pb) to form lead sulphate (PbSO4).
SO4-- - 2e  SO4 (radical)
Pb + SO4  PbSO4

At anode: On reaching the anode, each hydrogen ion takes one

electron from it to become hydrogen gas. This electron is given
by the sulphate ion at the cathode and has come to the anode
via the external circuit.

H+H+ + 2e  2H

The hydrogen gas liberated at the anode acts chemically on the

anode material (PbO2) and reduces it to lead oxide (PbO).

PbO2 + 2H  PbO + H2O

Sulphuric acid reacts with PbO to form PbSO4

PbO + H2SO4  PbSO4 + H2O

The chemical changes that take place during discharging can
be summed up as under:
(i) Both the plates are converted into lead sulphate
(PbSO4) which is whitish in colour.
(ii) Water is formed which lowers the specific gravity of
the electrolyte (H2SO4). When the cell is fully
discharged, the specific gravity of H2SO4 falls to about
1.18.
(iii) The e.m.f. of the cell falls. The lead acid cell should not
be discharged beyond the point where its e.m.f. falls to
about 1.8 volts.
(iv) The chemical energy stored in the cell is converted into
electrical energy.

It is important to note that e.m.f. of the cell provides little

indication to the state of discharge of the cell since it remains
close to 2V for 90% of the discharge period. In practice,
specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4) is used to know the
state of discharge. The cell should be recharged when specific
gravity of H2SO4 falls to 1.18.

Chemical Process during Charging

Consider a discharged lead acid cell having both the plates
converted to lead sulphate (PbSO4). In order to recharge the
cell, direct current is passed through the cell in the reverse
direction to that in which the cell provided current. To do so,
the anode is connected to the positive terminal of d.c. source
and cathode to the negative terminal of the source as shown in
figure. The electrolyte (H2SO4) breaks up into hydrogen ions
(H+H+) and sulphate ions (SO4--). Hydrogen ions move towards
cathode and sulphate ions move towards anode causing the
following chemical reactions:

At anode: On reaching the anode, a sulphate ion (SO 4--) gives

up its two extra electrons to become sulphate radical. These
electrons given up at the anode move through the external
circuit to the cathode where they are available to neutralize the
positive ions (H+H+) arriving there. Since sulphate radical
cannot exist, it enters into chemical reaction with water as
under:

SO4-- - 2e  SO4 (radical)

SO4 + H2O  H2SO4 + O

The oxygen in the atomic state (i.e. O) is very active and reacts
chemically with anode material (PbSO4) to produce the
following chemical change.

PbSO4 + O + H2O  PbO2 + H2SO4

At cathode: On reaching the cathode, each hydrogen ion (H+)
takes one electron from it to become hydrogen gas. This
electron is given up by the sulphate ion at anode and has come
to the cathode via the external circuit.

H+H+ + 2e  2H

The hydrogen gas liberated at the cathode reacts with cathode

material (PbSO4) to reduce it to lead (Pb) as under:

PbSO4 + 2H  Pb + H2SO4

As the charging process goes on, the anode is converted into

PbO2 and cathode into Pb. The H2SO4 produced in the chemical
reactions above increases the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
The chemical changes that occur during recharging can be
summed up as under:

(i) The positive plate (anode) is converted into PbO2 and

the negative plate (cathode) into Pb.
(ii) H2SO4 is formed in the reactions. Therefore, the
specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2SO4) is raised.
 When the cell is fully charged, the specific gravity of
H2SO4 rises to about 1.28.
(iii) The e.m.f. of the cell rises. The e.m.f. of a fully charged
lead acid cell is about 2 volts.
(iv) Electrical energy supplied is converted into chemical
energy which is stored in the cell.

Nickel Cadmium Battery: Active material used for positive

plate and the electrolyte used in nickel cadmium cells are the
same as that used for nickel iron cell. For negative plate a
mixture of cadmium and iron is used.

The number of positive plates used in nickel-cadmium cell is

one more than the number of negative plates.

The working of nickel-cadmium cell is almost similar to nickel

iron cell. When current passes through the cell, the electrolyte
KOH breaks up into K+ and OH- ions. During discharging the
K+ ions move to anode and OH- ions move to cathode.
Following chemical changes take place when the cell is
supplying current to the external circuit.

At Anode: Ni (OH)2 + 2OH  Ni (OH)4

And at Cathode: Cd + 2OH  Cd (OH)2

When the cell is charged by connecting the anode to the

positive terminal of supply and cathode with the negative
terminal of supply the direction of current flow is opposite to
that during discharging. Therefore, K+ ions move to cathode
and OH- ions move to anode. Following chemical reactions
take place during charging.

At Anode: Ni (OH)2 + 2OH  Ni (OH)4

At Cathode: Cd (OH)2 + 2K  Cd + 2KOH

Nickel cadmium batteries are more suitable than nickel iron

batteries for floating duties in conjunction with charging
dynamo. Open circuit losses in these batteries are also low as
compared to nickel iron batteries.

Efficiencies of DC Generator

1. Electrical efficiency:
Generatorou output in watts
λ m = Elect . power developed in armature
C V IL
= B Ish = E g I a
2. Mechanical efficiency:
Elect . power developed in armature in watts.
λm = Mechanical power input
 B
= A
Eg I a
= B.H . P. x735.5

3. Overall or Commercial efficiency:

Generator out put .
λ c = Mech . power input
C V IL
= A = B.H . P. x735.5
Unless otherwise told, commercial efficiency is always
understood.

Shaft Torque: The torque developed by the armature is the

gross torque. Whole of this torque is not available at the pulley,
since certain percentage of torque developed by the armature is
lost to overcome the iron and friction losses. The torque which
is available for useful work is known as shaft torque Tsh. It is
so called because it is available at the shaft. The horse power
obtained by using shaft torque is called brake horse power
(B.H.P.).
T sh x 2 πN
B.H.P. (metric) = 735 .5
2 πN
¿
60
B.H.P.(metric) x 735.5¿ ¿
∴ T sh = ¿ ..(5.6)
Where N = speed of armature in r.p.m.
The difference Ta - Tsh is known as lost torque (i.e. torque lost
in iron and friction losses)
 i ron and friction losses
N
= 0.159 x 60 Nm

No-Load Saturation Characteristic (or O.C.C.)

 If the generator is run at constant speed with the main
switch open, and the terminal voltage is noted at
various values of exciting or field current then the
O.C.C. shown in

Fig. can be plotted. This is also referred to as the 'magnetization

curve' since the same graph shows, to a suitably chosen scale,
the amount of magnetic flux, there being a constant
relationship (depending upon speed of rotation) between flux
and induced voltage.
 It will be noticed that a small voltage is produced
when the field current is zero, this being due to a small
amount of permanent magnetism in the field poles.
This is called residual magnetism and is usually
sufficient to produce 2 or 3 per cent of normal terminal
voltage, although in some special cases it is purposely
increased to 10 per cent or more.
 The first part of the curve is approximately straight
and shows that the flux produced is proportional to
 the exciting current; but after a certain point,
saturation of the iron becomes perceptible as the
curve departs from straight line form.

NUMERICALS
Q1) A six pole wave wound armature has 640 conductors
the flux / pole is 0.06 wb. Emf generated as 256 V.
Find the speed in rpm.
P=6
A=2
Z = 640
 = 0.06 wb
E = 256 Volts
N=?
E= ×
N=
N=
N = 133.33 rpm
Q2) A eight pole wound armature has 960 conductors
and it runs at a speed of 800 rpm, the emf is 320 V,
for flux / pole.
A=P=8
Z = 960
N = 500 rpm
E = 320
=?
E=
=
 = = 0.04 wb

Q3) Calculate the e.m.f. generated by a 4-pole wave

wound armature having 45 slots with 18 conductor
per slot when driven at 1200 r.p.m. The flux per pole
is 0.016 weber.
P=4
A=2
Z = 45 × 18
N = 1200
 = 0.016 wb.
emf = ?
emf = ×
= ×
= 518.4 volts.

Q4) A conductor of length 3 meter moves at 60 degrees

to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 5 web/m 2
with a velocity of 45 m/sec. Calculate the e.m.f.
induced in it.
 B = 5 wb/m2
l=3m
 = 60°
 = 45 m/sc
emf = ?
emf = BL Sin
emf = 45 × 5 × 3 × Sin 60°
emf =

Q5) In a 4 pole dynams, the flux per pole is 30 m web.

Calculate the average e.m.f. induced in one of the
armature conductor if the armature is driven at 600
r.p.m.
 = 30 mwb
N = 600 rpm
P=4
A=2
emf = ?
emf = ×
emf /Z = ×
=×
emf /Z = 0.6 volts

Q6) A conductor of length 10 meter moves at an angle of

45° to uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.5
wb/m2 with a velocity of 25 m/s. Calculate the e.m.f.
induced in it.
L = 10 m
 = 45°
B = 1.5 wb/m2
  = 25 m/s
emf = ?
e = Bl Si 
e = 1.5 × 10 × 25 × Si 45°
e=
Q7) A coil is would with 500 turns, a current of 5
Amperes flowing in the coil. Produces a flux of 60
micro, webers. Find the inductance of the coil.
N = 500 tonnes
d = 60 wb
di = 5 Amp.
L=?
e=–N
e=–L
–L =–N
L=N
L=
L = 6 × 10–3 H

Q8) A coil having an inductance of 75 milli Henries is

carrying a current of 100 A. Calculate the self
induced e.m.f. when the current is
(i) Reduced to zero in 0.02 seconds
(ii) Reversed in 0.02 seconds
L = 75 mH
I = 100 A
Self induced e.m.f. = ?
(a) When current charges by 100 Amps in 0.02 sec.
Average rate of change of current =
= 5000 Amp. / sec
  Self induced e.m.f. = L
= 75 × 10–3 ×
= ×
= 375 Volts
(b) Current charges by 200 Amp. in 0.02 sec.
Average rate of charge of current =
= 10000 Amp. / sec.
 Self induced e.m.f. = L
= ×
Q1) A shunt generator supplies 195 Ampere at 220 volt.
Armature resistance 0.02 ohms, shunt field
resistance 44 ohm. If the Iron and Friction loss 1600
watt. Find: (a) E.m.f. generated, (b) copper loss, (c)
Commercial and electrical efficiencies.
IL = 195 A
V = 220 volts
Ra = 0.02 __.
Rsn = 44 __.
Iron and Friction loss = 1600 watt.
a) Emf generated = ?
b) Copper loss = ?
c) Commercial efficiency = ?

a) Isn =
Isn =
Isn = 5A
Ia = 195 + 5
Ia = 200 A
Armature drop = Ia Ra
= 200 (0.02)
 = 4 volts
Generated e.m.f. = 220 + 4 = 224 volts
b) Cu loss
Armature Cu loss = Ia2 Ra
= (200)2 (0.02)
= 800 watt.
Shunt Cu loss = V Ish.
= 220 × 5
= 1,100 watt
Total Cu loss = 800 + 1,100
= 1800 watt
c) Commercial efficiency:
Total loss = 1900 + Iron & Friction
= 1900 + 1600
= 3500 watt
c = × 100%
c = × 100%
c = 92.45%

Q2) The armature of a 16 pole d.c. generator is required

to generate an e.m.f. of 600 volts on open circuit
when revolving at a speed of 900 r.p.m. Calculate
the magnetic flux per pole required if the armature
has 144 slots with 2 conductors per slot. The
armature is wave wound.
P = 16
A=2
Emf = 600 volts
N = 900 rpm
Z = 144 × 2
 =?
e= ×
=
=
 = 0.0173611 wb.

Q3) A shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 volts and

the resistances of the shunt field and armature are
50 __ and 0.03 __ respectively. Calculate the
generated e.m.f.
IL = 450 A
V = 230 volts.
Rsh = 50 __
Rsn = 0.03 __
General emf = ?
Ish = = 4.6 A
Ia = 450 + 4.6 = 454.6 A
General emf = V + Ia Ra
= 230 + (454.6) (0.03)
= 243.638 volts

Q4) A short shunt compound generator supplies a load

of 15 kW at 300 volts through a pair of feeders of
total resistance 0.1 __ armature resistance .04 __,
series field resistance .03 __, shunt field resistance
80 __. What is the e.m.f. generated.
P = 15 kW
Vl = 300 volts
Ra = 0.04 __
Rs = 0.03 __
 Rsh = 80 __
Eg = ?
Load current = 15,000 / 300 = 50 A
Voltage drop in series winding = 50 × 0.03 = 1.5 V
Voltage drop in series shunt winding = 300 + 1.5 = 301.5 V
Ish =
Isn = 3.76875 A
Ia = 50 + 3.76875
Ia = 53. 76875 A
Ia Ra = 53.76875 × 0.04 = 2.15075 V
Generated emf= 300 + 1.5 + 2.15075
= 303.65075 volts

Q5) A 4 pole DC Generator having wave wound

armature has 51 slots, each with 25 conductors. Find
emf generated in the machine when driven at 1500
rpm with 67 mwb flux / pole.
P=4
A=2
Z = 25 × 51
N = 1500 rpm
 = 6.7 × 10–3 wb
E=?
E= ×
E= ×
E = 427.125 volts.

Q6) A short shunt compound generator supplies a

current of 50 amperes at 200 volts. The resistance of
the shunt field is 50 ohms, of series winding is 0.025
 ohms, and of armature 0.05 ohm. Iron and friction
losses amount to 1 kW. Find: a) e.m.f. generated, b)
The copper losses, c) The b.h.p. of the prime mover,
d) The commercial efficiency.
Load current = 50 A
Vt = 200 volts
Rsn = 50 __
Rs = 0.025 __
Ra = 0.05 __
Iron and friction loss = 1 kW
a) Emf generated = ?
b) Cu loss = ?
c) Output of prime mover
d) Commercial efficiency
a) Ish = 200 / 50 = 4 A
Ia = 50 + 4 = 54 A
Ia Ra = 54 × 0.05 = 2.7 volts
Voltage drop across series winding = 50 × 0.025 = 1.25 volts
Emf generated = 200 + 2.7 + 1.25
= 203.95 volts
b) Cu loss:
Armature Cu loss = Ia2 Ra = 542 × 0.05 = 145 Watt
Shunt Cu loss = V. Ish = 200 × 4 = 800 Watt
Total = 800 + 145 = 945 Watt
c) Stray losses = 1000 watt
Total loss = 1000 + 945 = 1945 Watt
Output = 200 × 50 = 10000
Output of Prime mover = 10000 + 1945
= 11945 Watt
d) c = × 100%
 c = × 100%
c = 83.717%

Q7) A four pole generator, having wave wound armature

winding has 51 slots, each slot containing in the
machine when driven at 1500 rpm. Assuring the flux
/ pole to be 70 mwb.
P=4
A=2
Z = 51 × 20
E=?
N = 1500 rpm
 = 7 × 10–3 wb.
E= ×
E=
E = 357 volts.

Q8) A 4 pole wave wound armature of a dc generator

has 122 conductors and runs at 1200 rpm if the
flux / pole is 25 mwb. Calculate the emf generated.
P=4
A=2
Z = 122
N = 1200 rpm
 = 25 × 10–3 wb
E=?
E=
E=
E = 122 volts.
Q9) A short shunt compound generator supplies a load
at 200 volts through a pair of feeders of total
resistance 0.1 Ohms. The load consists of 4 motors
each taking 20 ampere and a lighting load of 20, 60
watt lamps. Armature resistance 0.02 , series field
resistance of .05 , shunt field resistance 50 .
V = 200 Volt
RT = 0.1 __
4 motors = each taking 20 A
20 lamps = each 60 W
Ra = 0.02 __
Rse = 0.05 __
Rsh = 50 __
Load current = ?
Terminal voltage = ?
E.m.f. generated = ?
Solution:
(i) Each motor taking 20 Amp.
So total motor current = 20 × 4
= 80 Amp.
Current taken by one lamp of 60 W
W = VI
I=
I= =
I = 0.3 Amp.
Total current of 20 lamps = 20 × 0.3
= 6 Amps.
Now total current supplied = 80 + 6
= 86 Amp.
(ii) Now current 86 Amp is flowing through the
feeders of having resistance 0.1 __
So voltage drip in feeder = 86 × 0.1
= 8.6 Volt
 Voltage at terminal = Voltage at load + Feeder
drop
= 200 + 8.6
= 208.6 Volt Ans.
(iii) The current 86 Amp flowing through series field
So series voltage drop
Vse = Ise × Rse
Vse = 86 × 0.05
= 4.3 Volt
Voltage across shunt field = voltage at brush
= 208.6 + 4.3
= 212.9 Volts
Shunt field current = Ish =
Ish =
Ish = 4.258 A
Total armature current = Ise + Ish
Ia = 86 + 4.258
Ia = 90.258 Amp.
Armature volt drop = IaRa
= 90.258 × 0.02
= 1.81 Volt
Now E.m.f. generated
E.m.f. = load voltage = feeder drop + series
drop + armature drop
E.m.f. = 200 + 8.6 + 4.3 +1.81
E.m.f. = 214.71 Volts Ans.
Q10) A short shunt compound generator supplies 200
ampere at 220 volts armature resistance 0.02 Ohms,
the iron and friction losses amount to 1600 watt. The
shunt field resistance 44 ohms.
Find: (i) E.m.f. Generated, (ii) Copper losses, (iii)
B.H.P. of engine, (iv) Electrical efficiency, (v)
Commercial efficiency.
I = 200 A
V = 220 V
Ra = 0.02 __
Rse = 0.01 __
Rsh = 44 __
Iron friction loss = 1000 W
(i) E.m.f. generated = ?
(ii) Copper losses = ?
(iii) B.H.P. of engine = ?
(iv) Electrical efficiency = ?
(v) Commercial efficiency = ?
Solution:
Voltage drop in Rse = Vse = IRse
Vse = 200 × 0.01
Vse = 2 Volt
 Vb = 220 + 2
= 222 Volt
Ish = =
Ish = 5.05 A
Ia = I + Ish
Ia = 200 + 5.05
Ia = 205.05 Amp.
 Voltage drop in armature = IaRa
Va = 205.05 × 0.02
Va = 4.1 Volt
 E.m.f. generated = Vb + Va
= 222 + 4.1
= 226.1 Volt Ans.
(c) Electrical power input = V × I
= 220 × 200
= 44000 Watt
(b) Electrical power developed in armature = E.m.f.
× Ia
= 226.1 × 205.05
= 46361.805 Watt
 Copper losses = b – c
= 46360.805 – 44000
= 2361.8 Watt Ans.
Iron friction loss = 1600 W
 Total losses = Current loss + Iron loss
= 2361.8 + 1600
= 3961.8 watt
Mechanical power input = Output + total loss
= 44000 + 3961.8
= 47961.8 Watt
B.H.P. of engine =
=
= 64.29 h.p.
Electrical efficiency = × 100
= 97.3% Ans.
Commercial efficiency = × 100
 = 94.05% Ans.

Q11) A shunt generator delivers 440 A and 220 V and the

resistances of the shunt field and armature are 25
Ohms and 0.025 Ohms respectively, calculate the
generated emf.
I = 440 A
V = 220 V
Rsh = 25 __
Ra = 0.025
e.m.f. = ?
Solution
Ish =
Ish =
Ish = 8.8 A
Ia = I + Ish
Ia = 440 + 8.8
Ia = 448.8 A
e.m.f. = Voltage at Brush + Armature drop
= 220 + IaRa
= 220 + (448.8 × 0.025)
= 220 + 11.22
= 231.22 Volt Ans.

Q12) A shunt generator delivers 430 A and 220V and the

resistances of the Shunt Field and armature are 30
and 0.02 respectively. Calculate the generated emf.
I = 430 A
V = 220 V
Rsh = 30 __
 Ra = 0.02 __
I = 430 A

30 _Ç _ Rsh
G Ra = 0.02 _ Ç_
220 V

e.m.f. = ?
Ish = =
Ish = 7.3 A
Ia = I + Ish
Ia = 430 + 7.3
Ia = 437.3 A
e.m.f. = Voltage at brush + Voltage drop at
armature
= 220 + IaRa
= 220 + (437.3 × 0.02)
= 220 + 8.75
= 228.75 Volt Ans.

Q13) Two Shunt generators are operating in parallel have

each Ra 0.02 ohm and field resistance is 50 each.
The combined load current is 2500A, if generated
emf’s of the machine are 560V and 550V
respectively, calculate the Bus Bar Voltage and
output of each machine.
Ra = 0.02 __ each
Rsh = 50 __ each
IL = 2500 A
e.m.f. = E1 = 560 V
 e.m.f. = E2 = 550 V
Bus-bar voltage = V = ?
Output in K.W. = ?
Solution:
Let V = Bus-bar voltage
I1 = Current output machine 1
I2 = Current output machine 2
 I1 + I2 = 2500
(A)
Ish = =
Ish =
Bus-bar voltage + Voltage drop in armature = e.m.f.
generated
V + (I1 + ) 0.02 = 560 (1)
V + (I2 + ) 0.02 = 550 (2)
Subtract equation (2) from equation (1)
0.02 I1 – 0.02 I2 = 10
– = 10
– = 10
I1 – I2 = 500
(B)
We know that
I1 + I2 = 2500
(A)
By adding equation (A) and (B), we have
I1 – I2 = 500
I1 + I2 = 2500
2I1 = 3000
I1 =
I1 = 1500 A
 I1 + I2 = 2500
1500 + I2 = 2500
I2 = 1000 A
Put value of I1 in equation (1)
V + (I1 + ) 0.02 = 560
V + (1500 + ) 0.02 = 560
V + 30 + = 560
V + 30 + 0.0004 V = 560
V + 0.0004 V = 560 – 30
(1 + 0.0004) V = 530
1.0004 V = 530
V=
V = 529.78
V = 530 Volt (approx.)
Bus-bar voltage = V = 530 Volt Ans.
K.W. Output of machine 1 =
=
= 53 × 15
= 795 K.W.
K.W. Output of machine 2 =
=
= 530 K.W. Ans.

Q14) A short shunt compound generator supplies 200

amperes at 220 volts, armature resistance 0.02 ohms,
the Iron and Friction losses amount to 1600 watts,
the shunt field resistance is 44 Ohms. Calculate (i)
electrical Efficiency (ii) EMF generated (iii) B.H.P of
engine.
I = 200 A
 V = 220 V
Ra = 0.02 __
Rse = 0.01 __
Rsh = 44 __
Iron friction losses = 1600 W
Electrical efficiency = ?
e.m.f. generated = ?
B.H.P. of engine = ?

Solution:
Voltage drop in series winding = I × Rse
= 200 × 0.01 = 2 Volt
 Vb = 220 + 2
Vb = 222 Volt
Ish = =
Ish = 5.05 A
 Ia = I + Ish
Ia = 200 + 5.05
Ia = 205.05 A
Voltage drop in Armature = IaRa
Va = 205.05 × 0.02
Va = 4.1 Volt
 E.m.f. generates = Vb + Va
E.m.f. = 222 + 4.1
E.m.f. = 226.1 Volt
(c) Electrical power output = V × I
= 220 × 200
= 44000 watts
(b) Electrical power developed in armature = E.m.f. × Ia
 = 226.1 × 205.05
= 46361.805 watts
 Copper losses = b – c
= 46361.805 – 44000
= 2361.8 watts
Iron and friction losses = 1600 watts
= 2361.8 + 1600
= 3961.8 watts
Mechanical power input = Output + Total loss
= 44000 + 3961.8
= 47961.8 watts
B.H.P. of Engine =
=
= 64.29 h.p.
Electrical efficiency = × 100
= 97.3% Ans.

Q1) A 100 volt shunt motor is taking a current of 220

Amp armature resistance 0.015 ohm, shunt field
resistance 20 ohms. Calculate back e.m.f.
V = 100 volts.
I2 = 220 Axp
Ra = 0.015 __
Rsh = 20 __
Back emf = ?
Ish =
Ish = 5 A
Ia = 220 – 5 = 215 A
Back emf = V – Ia Ra
 = 100 – 215 (0.015)
Back emf = 96.775 volts.

Q2) A shunt motor running at 600 r.p.m. takes 80

amperes at 250 volts. Armature resistance, 0.1 ohm,
shunts field resistance 50 ohms. Iron and friction
losses 2188 watts: Find (i) Total torque (ii) Copper
losses (iii) Commercial efficiency.
N = 600 rpm
I2 = 80 A
V = 250 volts
Ra = 0.1 __
Rsh = 50 __
Iron & friction losses = 2188 watt
Ish =
Ish = 5 A
Ia = 80 – 5
Ia = 75 A
Eb = V – Ia Ra = 250 – 75 × 0.1
= 242.5 volts
a) Torque
Ta =
Ta = × = 4.8245 N/m.
b) Cu loss
Armature Cu loss = Ia2 Ra = (75)2 × 0.1 = 562.5 watt
Shunt Cu loss = V. Ish = 250 × 5 = 1250 watt
Total Cu loss = 562.5 + 1250 = 1812.5 watt
c) Commercial efficiency
Iron and friction loss = 2188 watts.
Total loss = 2188 + 1812.5 = 4000.5 watt
 c = × 100%
c = × 100% = 83.333%

Q3) A shunt motor, armature resistance 0.2 __, shunt

field resistance 55 __ is tahj 50 A at 220 volts. Find
back emf.
IL = 50 A
V = 220 volts
Ra = 0.2 __
Rsh = 55 __
Eb = ?
Ish =
Ish = 4 A
Ia = 50 – 4 = 46 A
E b = V – I a Ra
Eb = 220 – 46 (0.2) = 210.8 volts

Q4) A shunt motor takes 25 A from a 240V main. Its

efficiency is 85%, find the output in horse power
and total copper losses, when the field resistance is
150 (ohms) and armature resistance is 0.4
(Ohms).
I = 25 A
V = 240 V
Rsh = 150 __
Ra = 0.4 __
(Efficiency)  = 85%
Output in hp = ?
Total copper losses = ?
Solution:
Ish = =
Ish = 1.6A
For armature current
Ia = I – Ish
Ia = 25 – 1.6
Ia= = 23.4 A
Now for copper losses
Shunt copper loss = Ish2 × Rsh
= (1.6)2 × 150
= 384 W
Armature copper loss Ia2 × Ra
= (23.4)2 × 0.4
= 219.1 W
 Total copper losses = Shunt Cu loss + Armature
Cu loss
= 384 + 219.1
= 603.1 Watt Ans.
Output in h.p.
Input = V × I
= 240 × 25
= 6000 watt
Efficiency = x =
 Output = x × input
= × 6000
= 85 × 60
= 5100 watt
= 6.8 h.p. Ans.
Q5) A shunt motor takes 30A from a 230 mains, its
efficiency is 80%, find the output in horse power
and copper losses when the field resistance is 160
and armature resistance is 0.4.
I = 30 A
V = 230 V
Rsh = 160 __
Ra = 0.4 __
Efficiency  = 80%
Total copper loss = ?
Output in hp = ?
Solution:
Ish = =
Ish =
Ish = 1.43 A
Ia = I – Ish
Ia = 30 – 1.43
Ia = 28.57 A
Shunt copper loss = Ish2 × Rsh
= (1.43)2 × 160
= 327.18 watt
Armature copper loss = Ia2 × Ra
= (28.57)2 × 0.4
= 326.5 watt
Total copper loss = Shunt loss + Armature Loss
= 327.18 + 326.5
= 653.68 watt
Output in h.p.
Input = V × I
 = 230 × 30
= 6800 watt
Efficiency =  =
Output =  × Input
= × 6900
= 80 × 69
= 5520 watt
= 7.4 h.p. Ans.