Understanding Jet Engines Through the Brayton Cycle

JAR66 Module 15. JET ENGINES.
CONTENTS
15.0 INTRODUCTION
15.1 FUNDAMENTALS 3
15.2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE (B1) 15
15.3 AIR INTAKES 30
15.4 COMPRESSORS 44
15.5 COMBUSTION SECTION 58
15.6 TURBINE SECTION 65
15.7 EXHAUST 74
15.8 BEARINGS AND SEALS (B1) 83
15.9 LUBRICANTS AND FUELS 91
15.10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS 95
15.11 FUEL SYSTEMS 106
15.12 AIR SYSTEMS 119
15.13 STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS 128
15.14 ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS 138
15.15 POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (B1) 150
15.16 TURBOPROPELLER ENGINES 153
15.17 TURBOSHAFT ENGINES 163
15.18 AUXILIARY POWER UNITS 177
15.19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION 188
15.20 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 206
15.21 ENGINE MONITORING & GROUND OPERATION 211
15.22 ENGINE STORAGE & PRESERVATION (B1) 226
Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 1

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 2

MODULE 15. GAS TURBINE ENGINE
15.1 FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
The conquest of air by powered flight was ever the aim of man, and a great step
forward was made by the Wright Brothers at Kittyhawk, America by their historic
flight in 1903. Since this early date, aircraft have developed steadily and, in 1939,
aircraft speeds of 464 mph were achieved by production aircraft. Aircraft could climb
56 000 feet and fly distances up to 7 000 miles non stop. At this time, international
records in speed, altitude and endurance had all been set by Great Britain.
In attempts to improve aircraft performance, engines were increased in both size

and power output, with various configurations being tried (e.g. various in-line and
radial engines with from 7 to 36 cylinders per engine). Superchargers with coolers,
water-methanol injection systems and many aids to performance were introduced.
However, piston engines and propeller combinations suffered a loss in performance
at high forward speeds and high altitudes; clearly a new type of aircraft propulsion
unit was needed if aircraft performance was to advance even more; thus the jet
engine (gas turbine) was born.
It is generally acknowledged that, in Great Britain, Sir Frank Whittle of the Royal Air
Force designed and developed the first British gas turbine engine that was suitable
for aircraft propulsion. Sir Frank was born in 1907 and he entered the Royal Air
Force as an apprentice. As an apprentice he gained a cadetship to Cranwell College
and, whilst there, he become interested in the prospect of jet propulsion for aircraft.
He produced design drawings for a gas turbine engine and his first engine ran on
static tests in 1937. In 1941 the Whittle gas turbine engine powered the Gloster
E28/39 aircraft and many of the present-day Rolls-Royce Aero engines are
developments of Sir Frank's design. Aero gas turbine engines have been the
foundation, which has made modern high performance aircraft possible.
PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION
SIR ISAAC NEWTON
Jet propulsion is a practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's third law of motion
which states "For every force acting on a body, there is an equal and opposite
reaction".
A fireman's hose is an example where reaction is felt. When a powerful jet of water
is ejected from a hose, the hose tends to react and move away from the water jet
and, so great is the reaction, that sometimes two men are needed to hold the hose
and direct the water jet.

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HERO'S ENGINE (Fig 1)
The earliest known example of jet reaction occurred during the use of a toy called
'Hero's engine'. In 120 BC this toy showed how the momentum of steam issuing
from a number of jet outlets could impart an opposite reaction to the jets themselves,
and in doing so cause the engine to revolve. When this principle is applied to aircraft
propulsion, the 'body' upon which the force acts is the atmosphere. Air is introduced
into the intake duct of the gas turbine engine and then a force is applied to cause the
air to accelerate within the engine.
The force which accelerates the air reacts in the opposite direction on the engine
and moves the engine away from the accelerating column of air in the same manner
as the fireman's hose moved away from the water jet.
Hero’s Engine
Figure 1.1
JET REACTION
Jet reaction is an internal phenomenon and it is not, as sometimes assumed, the

result of the jet efflux impinging upon the atmosphere. The jet engine is designed to
accelerate a stream of air to an exceptionally high velocity and to obtain useful thrust
from the reaction. There are many ways of increasing the velocity of the air but, in
all cases, the resultant reaction is the propulsive thrust exerted on the engine. The
thrust obtained is proportional to the mass of air passing through the engine and to
the velocity increase of the mass of air flow, i.e. momentum = mass × velocity.
Thus, the same amount of propulsive thrust can be obtained by either:
• Accelerating a large mass through a small increase in velocity.

Or:
• Accelerating a small mass through a large increase in velocity

Jet Reaction
Figure 1.2
FUNDAMENTALS
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the relative
positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an object to a certain
height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of the gravitational force. This
energy, waiting to be released is called potential energy. The amount of this energy
a system possesses is equal to the work done on the system previously.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height. Electrically
charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because of their position
within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical potential energy that is
released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy, (see below), when detonated.
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of
that object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the mass and speed of
the object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy = ½mv2
(Where ‘m’ is the mass of the object and ‘v’ is its speed in feet or metres per second)
All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but the total
energy must remain the same.

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NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
The full details of Newton’s Laws of Motion were covered in Module 2 (Physics), but
as a reminder, they are listed below:
FIRST LAW
This law states that a body at rest tends to stay at rest and a body in motion tends to
remain in uniform motion, (straight line), unless acted upon by some outside force.
SECOND LAW
This law states that the acceleration produced in a mass by the addition of a given
force is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass.
It can be demonstrated by the formula: FORCE = MASS X ACCELERATION
THIRD LAW
This law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite re-action.
BRAYTON CYCLE
A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing through the engine
has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or kinetic energy), of the air is
increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased,
followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic
energy in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke piston
engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in both cases,
although the process is continuous in a gas turbine. Also, the combustion in a piston
engine occurs at a constant volume, whilst in a gas turbine engine it occurs at a
constant pressure.

The cycle, upon which the engine functions, in its simplest form, is the Brayton cycle,
which is represented by the pressure/volume diagram, shown below.
The Brayton Cycle

Figure 1.3
The points A,B,C and D on the previous graph show the action of the pressure and
volume of the charge during the cycle.
A B: Compression from atmospheric at ‘A’ to maximum at ‘B’.
B C: Combustion with heat being added.
C D: Expansion through the turbine and jet pipe.
During the C D part of the cycle, some of the energy in the expanding gasses
is turned into mechanical power by the turbine; the remainder on its discharge to
atmosphere, provides the propulsive force. Later in the notes, turbo-propeller
engines will be covered which reverse the above statement. With these engines, the
turbine(s) remove the majority of the power from the exhaust, to drive the propeller,
leaving little residual thrust.

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PHYSICS TERMINOLOGY
The relationship between force, work, power, energy, velocity and acceleration
were covered during Module 2 (Physics). The next section will be a revision of those
physics notes.
FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. The units of force are the
Newton, (Metric) and the Pound, (Imperial). The Newton is the force required to
accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) at 1 metre per second, per second, (m/s2).
WORK
Work is the application of force to a body and the displacement of that body in the
direction of the force. It can be demonstrated by the simple formula shown below:
Work (W) = Force (F) x Distance (D)
The Metric system unit is the Joule, (One Joule being a force of 1N acting
through 1m). One Joule therefore being 1Nm. (Newton-Metre), the Imperial
measurement being the foot-pound (ft-lb.).
POWER
The rate of doing work. It is the work done per unit time and could be shown as the
formula:
Power = Work done

Time to do the work
Work can be expressed in a number of units such as foot-pounds per second,

Horsepower and Watts. The foot pounds per second are self explanatory, but the
Horsepower is defined as 550 ft-lb. per second or 33,000ft-lb/min. The Watt is equal
to 1/746 hp, therefore, 746Watts equals 1hp.
ENERGY
The term energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. As mentioned earlier,
there are two forms of energy, potential and kinetic. Whilst there are many different
types of energy, they are ALL either potential or kinetic.
VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when describing
how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar quantity, whilst

the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object. The full definition of
velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over time, and the direction
of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how the aircraft, which flies the irregular path from
‘A’ to ‘B’ in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph in an
East-Northeast direction.
Velocity/Speed Diagram
Figure 1.4
ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton’s Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred to a
linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation is
increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.

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CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
TURBOJET ENGINE
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has three
major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine. A shaft
connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating unit. These
engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single centrifugal(Double
Entry)compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of engine can still be found in
certain special installations but generally, they have been superseded by engines
with axial compressors and multiple stage turbines. The advantages and
disadvantages of the two types of compressor will be discussed in depth later in this
module
Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine Engine

Figure 1.5

SINGLE-SPOOL AXIAL FLOW TURBO-JET
The illustration below shows the inner workings of a single-spool axial flow turbo-jet,
the next engine in the development of gas turbines. It will be noticed that it has, in
this example, 17 compressor stages and 3 turbine stages.
Single Spool Axial Flow Turbojet

Figure 1.6
TWIN-SPOOL TURBO-JET
A low-pressure section consisting of a compressor and a turbine assembly and a

high-pressure section, also consisting of a compressor and turbine. This type of
construction allows the two sections to run at different and more efficient rotational
speeds.
BY-PASS ENGINE
Some engines of this twin spool construction can also be found with a by-pass duct,
which passes some of the air from the rear of the first compressor around the
combustion and turbine sections of the engine. The by-passed air joins the exhaust
from the turbine section, which helps to improve the propulsive efficiency of the
engine, to produce better specific fuel consumption and to make it a little quieter.
A large number of this type of engine are still in service, although high by-pass
engines which are covered later, have generally superseded them. An engine of the
twin-spool, low by-pass type is shown below which, with re-heat (afterburner) can be
found installed on Concorde.

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Twin Spool By-Pass Turbojet
Figure 1.7
TURBO-FAN ENGINE
A turbo-fan engine is an advanced development of both the conventional propeller

and the by-pass principle previously mentioned. The turbofan accelerates a smaller
mass of air than a propeller but it does accelerate a much larger mass of air than
earlier pure turbojet or low by-pass engine designs. The turbo-fan engine, illustrated
overleaf, has a large fan in front of the intermediate compressor, and is in effect, a
low-pressure compressor. Basically, the engine is of a triple-spool construction,
which means that there are three compressors and three turbines, the Low pressure
(LP), Intermediate pressure (IP) and High pressure (HP) units, mounted on their
respective spools.
As with the twin-spool set-up, the three main rotating parts of this engine all rotate at
their optimum speeds, giving an even greater thrust and efficiency than the two spool
designs. The high mass of air that passes only through the fan gives the engine a
very high by-pass ratio.
Triple Spool Turbo-Fan

Figure 1.8
Turbo-fan engines in a range of sizes, are installed in aircraft varying from small
business-jets to the largest transport aircraft including the Boeing 777 and the Airbus
A340.

TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE
Turbo-shaft engines are different from the previous types of engine mentioned.
These all produce power through a driveshaft, which is used to drive gearboxes
when they are installed on helicopters. (Turbo-propeller engines will be covered
later). Many engines of this type are modifications of turbo-propeller and turbo-fan
engine designs.
The primary purpose of this design of engine is to produce shaft horsepower. This is
often obtained by the addition of an extra, ‘power’ turbine, or free power turbine,
which extracts power from the exhaust gasses and, is connected via a reduction
gearbox, to an output shaft.
On some designs of turbo-shaft engines,(Direct Coupled) the output shaft does not
have a separate power turbine, but is simply connected to the engine’s own
turbine(s). This means that the output shaft will be rotating whenever the engine is
rotating.
Whilst both type of turbo-shaft engines have been used most successfully to power
helicopters, the ‘free-turbine’ design is the more widely used. This is due to the fact
that the engine can be started whist the rotors are held stationary by a rotor brake
mechanism. This allows ground runs and other work to be carried out with the
engines running, but with the rotors, which can be dangerous to personnel on the
ground, stationary.
The illustration below shows a twin-spool turbo-shaft engine with a two-stage free
‘power’ turbine, which, in this design, drives a shaft through the engine, leaving the
drive connection on the ‘front’ of the engine.
Twin-Spool Turbo-Shaft (With Free-Power Turbine)

Figure 1.9

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The final design that will be considered is the turbo-propeller engine, often called
the turbo-prop. This design is very similar to the turbo-shaft engine, except the
output shaft is usually driven through a reduction gearbox and connected to a
propeller, as shown below.
Twin-Spool Axial Flow Turbo-Propeller

Figure 1.10

15.2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE (level B1 only)
METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES
The thrust forces or gas loads can be calculated for the engine, or for any flow
section of the engine, provided that the areas, pressures, velocities and mass flow
are known for both the inlet and outlet of the particular flow section.
The distribution of thrust forces shown in the figure can be calculated by considering
each component in turn and applying some simple calculations. The thrust produced
by the engine is mainly the product of the mass of air passing through the engine
and the velocity increase imparted to it (i.e. Newton’s Second Law of Motion),
however the pressure difference between the inlet to and the outlet from the
particular flow section will have an effect on the overall thrust of the engine and must
be included in the calculation.
To calculate the resultant thrust for a particular flow section it is necessary to
calculate the total thrust at both inlet and outlet, the resultant thrust being the
difference between the two values obtained.
Calculation of the thrust is achieved using the following formula:
Wv J
Thrust = ( A × P ) +
g
Where A = Area of flow section in sq. in.
P = Pressure in lb. per sq. in.
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
VJ = Velocity of flow in feet per sec.
g = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.

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CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE
When applying the above method to calculate the individual thrust loads on the
various components it is assumed that the engine is static. The effect of aircraft
forward speed on the engine thrust will be dealt with later. In the following
calculations ‘g’ is taken to be 32 for convenience.
Compressor casing
To obtain the thrust on the compressor casing, it is necessary to calculate the

conditions at the inlet to the compressor and the conditions at the outlet from the
compressor. Since the pressure and the velocity at the inlet to the compressor are
zero, it is only necessary to consider the force at the outlet from the compressor.
Therefore, given that the compressor –
OUTLET Area (A) = 182 sq. in.
Pressure (P) = 94 lb. per sq. in. (gauge)
Velocity (vj) = 406 ft. per sec.
Mass flow (W) = 153 lb. per sec.
The thrust
Wv v
= ( A × P) + −0
g
153 × 406
= (182 × 94 ) + −0
32
= 19,049lb. of thrust in a forward direction.
COMPRESSOR

International Standard Atmosphere
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ENGINE THRUST ON THE TEST BENCH
The thrust of the turbo-jet engine on the test bench differs somewhat from that during
flight. Modern test facilities are available to simulate atmospheric conditions at high
altitudes thus providing a means of assessing some of the performance capability of
a turbo-jet engine in flight without the engine ever leaving the ground. This is
important as the changes in ambient temperature and pressure encountered at high
altitudes considerably influence the thrust of the engine.
Considering the formula for thrust under “choked” nozzle conditions:
Wv J
Thrust = ( P − P0 )A +
g
It can be seen that the thrust can be further affected by a change in the mass flow
rate of air through the engine and by a change in jet velocity. An increase in mass
airflow may be obtained by using water injection and increases in jet velocity by
using after-burning.
As previously mentioned, changes in ambient pressure and temperature
considerably influence the thrust of the engine. This is because of the way they
affect the air density and hence the mass of air entering the engine for a given
engine rotational speed. To enable the performance of similar engines to be
compared when operating under different climatic conditions, or at different altitudes,
correction factors must be applied to the calculations to return the observed values
to those, which would be found under I.S.A. conditions. For example, the thrust
correction for a turbo-jet engine is:
30
Thrust (lb.) (corrected) = thrust (lb.) (observed) x
PO
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (in Hg) (observed)

30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
The observed performance of the turbo-propeller engine is also corrected to I.S.A.

conditions, but due to the rating being in s.h.p. and not in pounds of thrust the factors
are different. For example, the correction for s.h.p. is:
30 273 +15
S.h.p. (corrected) = s.h.p. (observed) × ×
PO 273 + TO
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure (in Hg) (observed)

T0 = atmospheric temperature in deg. C (observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
273 + 15 = I.S.A. standard sea level temperature in deg. K
273 + T0 = Atmospheric temperature in deg. K
In practice there is always a certain amount of jet thrust in the total output of the
turbo-propeller engine and this must be added to the s.h.p. The correction for jet
thrust is the same as that specified earlier.

To distinguish between these two aspects of the power output, it is usual to refer to
them as s.h.p. and thrust horsepower (t.h.p.). The total equivalent horsepower is
denoted by t.e.h.p. (sometimes e.h.p.) and is the s.h.p. plus the s.h.p. equivalent to
the net jet thrust. For estimation purposes it is taken that, under sea level static
conditions, one s.h.p. is equivalent to approximately 2.6 lb. of jet thrust. Therefore:
jet thrust lb .
t.e.h.p. = s.h.p. +
2.6
The ratio of jet thrust to shaft power is influenced by many factors. For instance, the
higher the aircraft operating speed the larger may be the required proportion of total
output in the form of jet thrust. Alternatively, an extra turbine stage may be required
if more than a certain proportion of the total power is to be provided at the shaft. In
general, turbo-propeller aircraft provide one pound of thrust for every 3.5 h.p. to 5
h.p.
Comparison between thrust and horse-power

Because the turbo-jet engine is rated in thrust and the turbo-propeller engine in
s.h.p., no direct comparison between the two can be made without a power
conversion factor. However, since the turbo-propeller engine receives its thrust
mainly from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the horse-power
developed by the engine to thrust or the thrust developed by the turbo-jet engine to
t.h.p.; that is, by converting work to force or force to work. For this purpose, it is
necessary to take into account the speed of the aircraft.
FV
The t.h.p. is expressed as 550 ft . per sec
Where F = lb. of thrust
V = aircraft speed (ft. per sec)
Since one horsepower is equal to 550ft.lb. per sec. and 550 ft. per sec. is equivalent
to 375 miles per hour, it can be seen from the above formula that one lb. of thrust
equals one t.h.p. at 375 m.p.h. It is also common to quote the speed in knots
(nautical miles per hour); one knot is equal to 1.1515 m.p.h. or one pound of thrust is
equal to one t.h.p. at 325 knots.
Thus if a turbo-jet engine produces 5,000 lb. of net thrust at an aircraft speed of 600
5,000 × 600
m.p.h. the t.h.p. would be = 8,000
375
However, if the same thrust was being produced by a turbo-propeller engine with a
propeller efficiency of 55 percent at the same flight speed of 600 m.p.h., then the
t.h.p. would be:
100
8,000 × = 14 ,545
55
Thus at 600 m.p.h. one lb. of thrust is the equivalent of about 3 t.h.p.
ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT

Since reference will be made to gross thrust, momentum drag and net thrust, it will
be helpful to define these terms:

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Gross or total thrust is the product of the mass of air passing through the engine and
the jet velocity at the propelling nozzle, expressed as:
Wv J
( P − P0 )A +
g
The momentum drag is the drag due to the momentum of the air passing into the
WV
engine relative to the aircraft velocity, expressed as g
where:
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V = Velocity of aircraft in feet per sec.
G = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the difference
between the gross thrust and the momentum drag.
From the definitions and formulae stated earlier under flight conditions, the net thrust
of the engine, simplifying, can be expressed as:
 WV J
 ⇐Momentum Thrust = g
WV wv J 
Momentum Drag = ⇒
⇐ Gross Thrust = ( P − Po ) A + 
g g ⇐Pr essure Thrust = ( P − PO ) A


All pressures are total pressures except P, which is static pressure at the propelling
nozzle
W = Mass of air passing through engine (lb. Per sec.)

VJ = Jet velocity at propelling nozzle (ft. per sec)
P = Static pressure across propelling nozzle (lb. Per sq. in)
PO = Atmospheric pressure (lb. Per sq. in)
A = Propelling nozzle area (sq. in)
V = Aircraft speed (ft. per sec.)
G = Gravitational constant 32.2
The balance of forces and expression for thrust and momentum drag
Effect of forward speed

Since reference will be made to ‘ram ratio’ and Mach number, these terms are
defined as follows:

Ram ratio is the ratio of the total air pressure at the engine compressor entry to the
static air pressure at the air intake entry.
Mach number is an additional means of measuring speed and is defined as the ratio
of the speed of a body to the local speed of sound. Mach 1.0 therefore represents a
speed equal to the local speed of sound.
From the thrust equation, it is apparent that if the jet velocity remains constant,
independent of aircraft speed, then as the aircraft speed increases the thrust would
decrease in direct proportion. However, due to the ‘ram ratio’ effect from the aircraft
forward speed, extra air is taken into the engine so that the mass airflow and also the
jet velocity increase with aircraft speed. The effect of this tends to offset the extra
intake momentum drag due to the forward speed so that the resultant loss of net
thrust is partially recovered as the aircraft speed increases. A typical curve
illustrating this point is shown in the figure.

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Obviously, the ‘ram ratio’ effect, or the return obtained in terms of pressure rise at
entry to the compressor in exchange for the unavoidable intake drag, is of
considerable importance to the turbo-jet engine, especially at high speeds. Above
speeds of Mach 1.0, as a result of the formation of shock waves at the air intake, this
rate of pressure rise will rapidly decrease unless a suitably designed air intake is
provided; an efficient air intake is necessary to obtain maximum benefit from the ram
ratio effect.

As aircraft speeds increase into the supersonic region, the ram air temperature rises
rapidly consistent with the basic gas laws. This temperature rise affects the
compressor delivery air temperature proportionally and, in consequence, to maintain
the required thrust, the engine must be subjected to higher turbine entry
temperatures. Since the maximum permissible turbine entry temperature is
determined by the temperature limitations of the turbine assembly, the choice of
turbine materials and the design of blades and stators to permit cooling are very
important.
With an increase in forward speed, the increased mass airflow due to the ‘ram ratio’
effect must be matched by the fuel flow and the result is an increase in fuel
consumption. Because the net thrust tends to decrease with forward speed, the end
result is an increase in specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.), as shown by the curves for
a typical turbo-jet engine in the figure.
At high forward speeds at low altitudes, the ‘ram ratio’ effect causes very high
stresses on the engine and, to prevent over-stressing, the fuel flow is automatically
reduced to limit the engine speed and airflow.
Effect of afterburning on engine thrust
At take-off conditions, the momentum drag of the airflow through the engine is
negligible, so that the gross thrust can be considered to be equal to the net thrust. If
after-burning is selected, an increase in take-off thrust in the order of 30 percent is
possible with the pure jet engine and considerably more with the by-pass engine.
This augmentation of basic thrust is of greater advantage for certain specific
operating requirements.
Under flight conditions, however, this advantage is even greater, since the
momentum drag is the same with or without after-burning and, due to the ram effect,
better utilisation is made of every pound of air flowing through the engine.
Effect of altitude
With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure and temperature are reduced. This
affects the engine in two inter-related ways:-
The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into the
engine for a given engine speed. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall. The fuel
control system adjusts the fuel pump output to match the reduced mass airflow, so
maintaining a constant engine speed.
The fall in air temperature increases the density of the air, so that the mass of air
entering the compressor for a given engine speed is greater. This causes the mass
airflow to reduce at a lower rate and so compensates to some extent for the loss of
thrust due to the fall in atmospheric pressure. At altitudes above 36,089 feet and up
to 65,617 feet, however, the temperature remains constant, and the thrust or s.h.p. is
affected by pressure only.
Graphs showing the typical effect of altitude on thrust, s.h.p. and fuel consumption
are illustrated.

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Effect of temperature
On a cold day the density of the air increases so that the mass of air entering the
compressor for a given engine speed is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p. is higher.
The denser air does, however, increase the power required to drive the compressor
or compressors; thus the engine will require more fuel to maintain the same engine
speed or will run at a reduced engine speed if no increase in fuel is available.
On a hot day the density of the air decreases, thus reducing the mass of air entering
the compressor and, consequently, the thrust of the engine for a given r.p.m.
Because less power will be required to drive the compressor, the fuel control system
reduces the fuel flow to maintain a constant engine rotational speed or turbine entry
temperature, as appropriate; however, because of the decrease in air density, the
thrust will be lower. At a temperature of 45°C, depending on the type of engine, a
thrust loss of up to 20 percent may be experienced. This means that some sort of
thrust augmentation, such as water injection, may be required.
The fuel control system, controls the fuel flow so that the maximum fuel supply is
held practically constant at low air temperature conditions, whereupon the engine
speed falls but, because of the increased mass airflow as a result of the increase in
air density, the thrust remains the same. For example, the combined acceleration
and speed control fuel system schedules fuel flow to maintain a constant engine
r.p.m., hence thrust increases as air temperature decreases until, at a predetermined
compressor delivery pressure, the fuel flow is automatically controlled to maintain a
constant compressor delivery pressure and, therefore, thrust, illustrates this for a
twin-spool engine where the controlled engine r.p.m. is high-pressure compressor
speed and the compressor delivery pressure is expressed as P3. It will also be
apparent from this graph that the low pressure compressor speed is always less than
its limiting maximum and that the difference in the two speeds is reduced by a
decrease in ambient air temperature. To prevent the LP compressor overspeeding,
fuel flow is also controlled by an LP governor which, in this case, takes a passive
role.

.
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY
Performance of the jet engine is not only concerned with the thrust produced, but
also with the efficient conversion of the heat energy of the fuel into kinetic energy, as
represented by the jet velocity, and the best use of this velocity to propel the aircraft
forward, i.e. the efficiency of the propulsive system.
The efficiency of conversion of fuel energy to kinetic energy is termed thermal or
internal efficiency and, like all heat engines, is controlled by the cycle pressure ratio
and combustion temperature. Unfortunately this temperature is limited by the
thermal and mechanical stresses that can be tolerated by the turbine. The
development of new materials and techniques to minimise these limitations is
continually being pursued.
The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed the
propulsive or external efficiency and this is affected by the amount of kinetic energy
wasted by the propelling mechanism. Waste energy dissipated in the jet wake,
which represents a loss, can be expressed as
W(vJ - V)2 where (vJ - V)

2g
is the waste velocity. It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range
the pure jet stream wastes considerably more energy than a propeller system and
consequently is less efficient over this range. However, this factor changes as
aircraft speed increases, because although the jet stream continues to issue at a
high velocity from the engine, its velocity relative to the surrounding atmosphere is
reduced and, in consequence, the waste energy loss is reduced.

FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP
Primary engine design considerations, particularly for commercial transport duty, are
those of low specific fuel consumption and weight. Considerable improvement has
been achieved by use of the by-pass principle and by advanced mechanical and
aerodynamic features and the use of improved materials. With the trend towards
higher by-pass ratios, in the range of 15:1, the triple-spool and contra-rotating rear
fan engines allow the pressure and by-pass ratios to be achieved with short rotors,
using fewer compressor stages, resulting in a lighter and more compact engine.
S.f.c. is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the overall
efficiency of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high
pressures which in practice also means high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure
turbo-jet engine this high temperature would result in a high jet velocity and
consequently lower the propulsive efficiency. However, by using the by-pass
principle, high thermal and propulsive efficiencies can be effectively combined by by-
passing a proportion of the LP compressor or fan delivery air to lower the mean jet
temperature and velocity. With advanced technology engines of high by-pass and
overall pressure ratios, a further pronounced improvement in s.f.c. is obtained.
The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they deal with the total airflow,
whereas the turbines of by-pass engines deal only with part of the flow; thus the H.P.
compressor, combustion chambers and turbines, can be scaled down. The
increased power per lb. of air at the turbines, to take advantage of their full capacity,
is obtained by the increase in pressure ratio and turbine entry temperature. It is
clear that the by-pass engine is lighter, because not only has the diameter of the
high pressure rotating assemblies been reduced, but also the engine is shorter for a
given power output. With a low by-pass ratio engine, the weight reduction compared
with a pure jet engine is in the order of 20 per cent for the same air mass flow.
With a high by-pass ratio engine of the triple-spool configuration, a further significant
improvement in specific weight is obtained. This is derived mainly from advanced
mechanical and aerodynamic design, which in addition to permitting a significant
reduction in the total number of parts, enables rotating assemblies to be more
effectively matched and to work closer to optimum conditions, thus minimising the
number of compressor and turbine stages for a given duty. The use of higher
strength lightweight materials is also a contributory factor.
For a given mass flow, less thrust is produced by the by-pass engine due to the
lower exit velocity. Thus, to obtain the same thrust, the by-pass engine must be
scaled to pass a larger total mass airflow than the pure turbo-jet engine. The weight
of the engine, however, is still less because of the reduced size of the H.P. section of
the engine. Therefore, in addition to the reduced specific fuel consumption, an
improvement in the power-to-weight ratio is obtained.
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
When comparing engine performance, one of the most important considerations is

how efficiently the power is produced. The amount of fuel consumed to produce a
given horsepower lbs. thrust is known as “specific fuel consumption” or SFC. A
typical aircraft fuel system measures the volume of fuel consumed. This is displayed
in pounds per hour or PPH. To calculate fuel flow, specific fuel consumption found
on the customer data sheet, is multiplied by the horsepower lbs. thrust produced.
.
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION – DEFINITION
SFC = SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION defined as LBS (fuel) per HP/lbs. thrust
per hour
FLAT RATING
“Flat rating” is used by aircraft manufacturers when they select an engine that has a
capability greater than the requirements of the aircraft. They then limit the power
output of the engine. There are three distinct benefits derived from flat rating. One
is the engine will have the ability to make take-off power at lower turbine
temperatures over a wide range of outside air temperatures and pressure altitudes.
Performance at altitude will be greatly enhanced. These two benefits result in the
third benefit, longer engine life.
PERFORMANCE RATINGS
In the chart, performance ratings are compared on –1 through –12 engines. Notice
the modifiers on the –1, -5, -6, -8 and –10 engines. These temperatures represent
the effects of flat rating engines. Each engine will make take-off power below their
turbine temperature limits to the ambient temperatures indicated. Engines that are
not flat rated, such as the –3 or –11, would be unable to make take-off power below
their turbine temperature limits when operating in conditions above 59°F outside air
temperatures.
PERFORMANCE RATINGS (example from a turbo-prop).

INTENTIONALLY LAFT BLANK

.
15.3 AIR INTAKES
COMPRESSOR AIR INLET DUCTS
The main requirement of an intake is that, under all operating conditions, delivery of
the air to the engines is achieved with the minimum loss of energy occurring through
the inlet duct. To enable the compressor to operate satisfactorily, the air must reach
the compressor at a uniform speed/pressure(maximum 0.5 mach) distributed evenly
across the whole inlet area.
Although there are no exact figures, it is normally taken that the speed range
between Mach 0.8 and Mach 1.2 is termed the transonic range whilst that between
Mach 1.2 and Mach 2.5 is the supersonic range
The ideal air intake for a turbo-jet engine fitted to an aircraft flying at sub-sonic or low
supersonic speeds, is a short, pitot-type circular intake. This type of intake makes
the fullest use of ‘ram-effect’ on the air due to the forward speed, and suffers the
minimum loss of ram pressure with changes of aircraft altitude. It will deliver air to
the compressor inlet face at approximately Mach 0.5.
The pitot-type intake can be used for engines that are mounted in pods either
attached to wing pylons or fuselage stub wings. Some installations require that the
intakes deviate from the ideal circular form to meet structural and aerodynamic
requirements.
At sonic speeds, the efficiency of this type of intake begins to fall, because of the
formation of a shock wave at the intake lip. This is when the characteristics of the
airflow changes and the formation and control of shock waves has to be considered.
Supersonic intake design will be covered later in this chapter.
Each inlet configuration has been designed to achieve the same result, the delivery
of the maximum mass of air to the front compressor face. This is sometimes known
as ‘ram recovery’ or ‘total pressure recovery’.

PITOT TYPE INTAKES
Intakes in their simplest form, the circular pitot intake, allow the air to enter the
engine in a straight line and sub-sonic. It can be seen in the illustration overleaf that
the intake duct is a diverging duct, and hence, it both slows the airflow into the
engine, (allowing flight to high sub-sonic speeds without choking the engine), and
forces the slowing air to increase in pressure, again increasing the overall efficiency.
Pitot Type Intake

Figure 3.1

.
DIVIDED INTAKE DUCTS
Some single engine aircraft have a pitot type of intake, but due to the long intake
duct and the loss of space in the front of the aircraft, many more have a divided type
of intake on each side of the fuselage. The disadvantage of this type of intake is that
during any yawing manoeuvre, a loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of the
intake, causing an uneven distribution of airflow into the compressor. The Vantage
business jet shown below has divided intakes, located at high mid-fuselage, which
could suffer from this effect.
Divided Air Intake

Figure 3.2

CURVED INTAKE DUCTS
There are a few aircraft, notably three-engine types, which have the centre (number
2) engine, fitted with a complex, “S shaped” curved intake duct. This duct has quite
high losses compared with a simple pitot type of intake. The designer accepts these
losses against the advantage of having the engine within the fuselage shape with
little extra drag. In one notable case, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 / MD-11 series,
the complete engine assembly is located about a quarter of the way up the vertical
stabiliser
The three-engine layout mentioned is also used in a selection of smaller business-jet

aircraft, as well as the wide-body aircraft. The intake duct for the centre engine of
this type of aircraft is in a form of a large ‘S’ shape and this has two penalties. Firstly
the air has inertia, meaning it has to be forced to follow the curves of the duct,
resulting in losses not suffered by the number 1 and 3 engines. Secondly, the air
cannot be made to interface accurately with the front face of the compressor,
resulting in uneven airflow. The illustration of a Dassault Falcon business jet below
shows the complex, centre (No.2) engine intake system, compared with the Nos. 1 &
3 engines.
Falcon Jet Centre Intake Layout

Figure 3.3

.
SUPERSONIC PITOT TYPE INTAKE
At higher supersonic speeds, the pitot type of air intake is unsuitable due to the
severity of the shockwave that forms and progressively reduces the intake efficiency
as speed increases. A more suitable intake for these higher speeds is known as the
external/internal compression intake. This type of intake produces a series of mild
shock waves without excessively reducing the intake efficiency.
Supersonic Pitot Type Air Intake

Figure 3.4

SUPERSONIC AIR INTAKE WITH RAMPS
As aircraft speeds increase still further the intake compression ratio also increases.
At high Mach numbers, say over M=1.5, it is necessary to have an air intake that has
a variable throat area and spill valves fitted to accommodate and control the
changing mass of air.
The airflow velocities encountered in the higher speed range of the aircraft are much
higher than the engine can efficiently use. The air velocity must therefore, be
decreased between the intake and the engine air inlet. The angle of a variable throat
area intake automatically varies with aircraft speed. It positions the shock wave to
decrease the air velocity at the engine inlet and maintains maximum pressure
recovery within the inlet duct.
The basic principle of these intakes is that the first part of the intake, being a
converging duct, slows the supersonic air to Mach 1. Beyond this point the duct
diverges, slowing the sub-sonic air to about Mach 0.5 by the time it reaches the face
of the compressor. The cross section of a supersonic intake shows the layout,
especially the moveable ramps.
Supersonic Intake with Ramps

Figure 3.5
Continued development enables the same effect to be achieved by careful design of

the intake and ducting. This, coupled with auxiliary air doors to permit extra air to be
taken in under certain engine operating conditions, allows the airflow to be controlled
without the use of variable geometry intakes.

.
TURBO-PROPELLER AIR INTAKES
The intake ducts used on turbo-propeller engine installations can have several
different configurations. The main reason for this is that some turbo-propeller
designs have their output shafts running through the centre of the intake. Others,
however, have a reduction gearbox installed on the front of the engine, which leaves
the output shaft offset to one side and space for a clear, pitot type of intake.
Examples of both of these types are illustrated below.
Turbo-Propeller Air Intakes

Figure 3.6

BELLMOUTH AIR INTAKE
Finally, one form of intake that may be seen on slow moving aircraft, especially
helicopters, is the bellmouth type of intake. These intakes are converging in shape
and are fitted on to aircraft that fly below ram- recovery speed. This type of inlet
produces a large amount of drag, but this disadvantage is overcome by their high
degree of aerodynamic efficiency. The illustration below shows a typical bellmouth
intake fitted to a Rolls Royce Gnome 1200.
Bellmouth Air Intake

Figure 3.7
This type of intake is also fitted to the front of gas turbine engines under test.
Because this type of intake has very little duct losses, the performance figures taken
under test usually assume zero duct losses.

.
AIR INTAKE ICE PROTECTION
Icing of the engine and the leading edge of the intake duct can occur during flight
through super-cooled clouds or during ground operations in freezing fog. Protection
against ice formation may be required since icing of these regions can considerably
restrict the airflow through the engine, causing a loss in performance and possible
malfunction of the engine itself. Additionally, damage may be caused by ice breaking
away and being ingested into the engine or striking the acoustic material that lines
the intake duct.
To prevent ice forming upon the vital parts of the engine and its nacelle, a system
must be developed that will apply heat to the intake lip and essential parts of the
compressor front face. The system must be reliable, easy to maintain, present no
excessive weight penalty and cause no serious loss in engine performance when in
operation. The parts of the engine installation that may require protection are:
• Intake Lip
• Centre nose cone
• Sensor probes
• Guide vanes
• Intake struts
Not all of the previously mentioned parts of all installations will require specific
protection. For example, the nose cone of the ALF 502 engine has hot oil circulating
inside it, whereas the nose cone of the Rolls-Royce Tay has a special coating that
resists the build-up of ice and has no heating.
As a general rule, turbo-jet engines, which have a ready source of hot, bleed air, use
the hot air systems, whist the turbo-propeller engines normally use electrical power,
(although bleed air may be used for some specific tasks).
Although there are exceptions, in general:
The hot air systems are generally used to prevent ice forming and are known as
anti-icing systems.
The electrical power systems are used to break up ice that has formed on the
surfaces and are known as de-icing systems.

THE HOT AIR SYSTEM
The hot air systems provide surface heating of the engine and powerplant, (and the
airframe), where ice is likely to form. Rotor blades rarely require protection due to the
high centrifugal forces present.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the high-pressure
compressor stages. It is ducted through pressure regulator and shut-off valves
to the parts of the engine requiring protection. Once used, the spent air can be
ducted into the intake duct or, on some designs, overboard. The illustration shows a
typical hot-air anti-icing system protecting the intake lip, nose cone and intake guide
vanes.
Hot Air System

Figure 3.8

.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The electrical system of ice protection is generally used on turbo-propeller engine

installations. One reason for this system being used is the additional protection
required on the propellers. As a general statement, protection on turbo-propeller
installations is applied to the intake cowling, the propeller blades and spinner. It may
also be required to protect the intake of the oil cooler.
Electrical heating pads are bonded to the outer skin of the cowlings. They consist of
strip conductors sandwiched between either layers of neoprene or glass cloth
impregnated with epoxy resin. Due to the eroding effects of rain and hail, protection
is required on the leading edges and consists of special polyurethane-based paint.
When in operation, some parts of the pads are heated continuously and some are
heated cyclically. The continuously heated parts keep the actual leading edge free of
ice whilst the cyclic heating breaks the formed ice off, using the assistance of the
airflow. The illustration below shows where the elements might be located on an
intake.
Electrical Heating Elements

Figure 3.9

CYCLIC TIMING
Whilst the electrical loads are provided by the aircraft electrical generating systems,
to prevent excessive loads being placed upon the generators, (or the generators
needing to be too large and heavy), the loading is cycled between the engine intake
and the propeller blades & spinner. A typical cycle example is shown below.
ELECTRICAL HEATING CYCLE

Figure 3.10
The cyclic timing of the intermittently heated elements is arranged, firstly, to

ensure that the engine can accept the amount of ice that collects during the
‘heat-off’ period. Secondly, it ensures that the ‘heat-on’ period is long enough
to give adequate ice shedding. This ensures a clean, ice free, surface, without
“run back” forming behind the protected surfaces.
Some systems cater for the fact that ice build-up can be at different rates depending
on circumstances. To cater for this, there are sometimes ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ cycles,
selectable from the cockpit, and used depending on the outside air temperature
(OAT) and any precipitation in the air.

.
MIXED SYSTEMS
On some aircraft, because of limitations at the design stage, the engine/powerplant

assembly is either anti-iced or de-iced by a mixture of hot air, oil and electrical
services. The example below is shown as using all three systems, although this
design introduces complexity that could cause difficulty in service over time. Some
engines may be found using any of the above three systems, to prevent ice
accretion.
Mixed Ice Removal System

Figure 3.11


.
15.4 COMPRESSORS
The compressor section of the turbo-jet engine has many functions. Its primary
purpose is to supply air in sufficient quantity to satisfy the requirements of the
combustion process. Specifically to fulfil its purpose, the compressor must increase
the pressure of the mass of air received from the air inlet duct and then to discharge
it to the burners in the combustion chambers, in the mass and pressures required.
Compressors may be identified by the direction of the airflow through them. The two
basic types have a centrifugal flow or an axial flow. Some engines may use both
types on one compressor assembly.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
These compressors receive the air at their centre and accelerate it outwards by
centrifugal force. The air is then expelled into a divergent duct, called a diffuser,
where velocity is exchanged for energy.
A complete centrifugal compressor assembly consists of an impeller rotor, a

diffuser and a manifold. The impeller can be single or double sided and can be
installed in either one or two-stage assemblies. Whilst this type of compressor can
generate a high mass-flow from a small diameter engine, it cannot take advantage of
ram effect due to the tortuous route that the airflow has to follow through the
compressor.
Whilst compression ratios in the vicinity of 5:1 were the norm on earlier designs, it is
now possible to produce centrifugal compressors with compression ratios of 15:1,
which are quite competitive with axial compressors. It is very rare to find more than
two stages of compression, due to the huge losses caused by the continued re-
direction of the airflow through the stages, the added weight of the impellers and the
power required from the turbine to drive the compression stages.

The illustrations below show a single stage, dual-sided compressor and a two-stage,
single sided centrifugal compressor.
Single Stage Dual Sided Compressor Two Single Sided Compressors
Figure 4.1

.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
The axial flow compressor has two main components, a rotor and stator. The rotor
has blades attached to a spindle or drum, which impels the air rearwards in the same
manner as a propeller. The stator blades act as diffusers at each stage, partially
converting high velocity to pressure.
A set of rotor and stator blades constitutes a pressure stage, each stage being
capable
of producing a pressure rise of about 1.25:1. The number of these stages is dictated
by
the amount of air and the pressure rise that is required. A normal maximum number
of stages to be found is between 16 and 18.From the front to the rear of an axial
compressor, the space between the rotor shaft and the stator casing becomes
smaller. This is necessary to maintain a near constant axial velocity of the air as the
density increases with compression. This is shown in the illustration below.
Axial compressor
Figure 4.2

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR AXIAL COMPRESSOR

High pressure rise per stage High ram effect efficiency
Good efficiency over wide speed range High peak pressures
Simplicity of manufacture, low cost Small frontal area
Low weight
Low power for starting
Damage tolerant
DISADVANTAGES
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR AXIAL COMPRESSOR

Large frontal area Complex manufacture
Limited to two stages Relative high weight
High starting power
Low pressure rise/stage

.
COMBINED COMPRESSORS
There are a number of gas turbines that use both types of compressor by having an
axial compressor, followed immediately by a centrifugal compressor. The
aerodynamic advantages of this arrangement are too complex to discuss at this
stage but, suffice to say that this layout can generally be found on turbo-shaft
engines, which power helicopters. The example, illustrated below, is of the Lycoming
T-55 engine that powers the Chinook helicopter. It can be seen that it has seven
axial stages followed by a single centrifugal stage.
Combined Axial/Centrifugal Compressors

Figure 4.3

OPERATING PRINCIPLES
CENTRIFUGAL
The impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and the air is continuously
induced into the centre of the impeller. Centrifugal action causes it to flow outwards
along the vanes to the tip, which causes it to accelerate and the pressure to rise.
Once it leaves the impeller it passes through the diffuser section, which is divergent,
causing the pressure to rise again. This demonstrates how this arrangement has half
the compression occurring in the impeller and half in the diffuser.
This type of compressor works best at high rotational speeds. It is normal for a
centrifugal compressor to have impeller tip speeds of around 1,600 ft per second,
(well over Mach1). This is one of the reasons why centrifugal compressors generate
a high level of noise when operating.
AXIAL
The rotor is rotated at high speed by the turbine, continuously drawing air into the
front of the compressor. After each rotor stage, which has caused the pressure to
rise, the air passes through a stator stage, which diffuses, (decelerates), the air and
causes the pressure to rise yet again. This process continues throughout the number
of stages of the compressor, each stage comprising a rotor and a stator, each stage
achieving a compression ratio of approximately 1.25:1
The stators have a second duty, which is to straighten out the ‘swirl’ which is the
result of axial compression. As the air leaves each rotor stage with increased
velocity, it also has a rotary motion that, if not corrected, will reduce the efficiency of
each progressive stage. The stator turns the air in the reverse direction, resulting in
the airflow flowing axially through each stage.
When axial compressors are required to produce a high level of compression, it

becomes very difficult to control the air throughout all of the stages. This is due to the
variables that any aircraft can meet. These include the speed of the compressor, due
to throttle demand from the flight deck; the speed of the aircraft, especially in the
climb or descent and the density of the air or altitude at which the aircraft is
operating.

.
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
CENTRIFUGAL
The centrifugal compressors are usually mounted on ball or roller bearings and are
driven by the turbine stage(s). The connecting shaft may be manufactured in two
parts, to allow engine disassembly, whilst having a self-aligning coupling to join the
parts together.
The discs are forged with the vanes straight for ease of manufacture. Normally a
separate set of rotating guide vanes, which cannot be easily forged, are attached to
the front of the impeller. These draw the air into the impeller unit.
Diffuser assemblies are often part of the compressor case, with integrally cast vanes
to act as both diverging ducts and to direct the airflow into the elbows and the
combustion chambers.
AXIAL
The Axial compressor consists of firstly, the rotating rotor, made up from the main
shaft supported by ball and roller bearings and either separate discs or a drum
assembly, to which are affixed the blades of differing sizes. Secondly, the casing
assembly, in a number of pieces (to allow splitting, for access to the rotors), contains
all of the stator vanes attached to the inside face of the case. The case also provides
part of the strength of the complete engine and, on some designs, has attachments
or mounting points built into the case design.
The vanes are affixed to the rotor discs and stator case(s) by a variety of methods,
all giving positive retention against centrifugal force, (rotors) and rotation, (stators).
The rotor blades are of aerofoil section and are twisted, much the same as a
propeller, to give an even thrust along their length. This is shown by the different
stagger angles between the root and tip of the blades. The roots of the blades are
formed into a shape that matches the recesses in the rotor disc and they only have
to be retained on the disc by plates that restrict fore and aft movement. This can be
seen in the illustration overleaf.

Blade Details
Figure 4.4
1. STATOR VANES
Stator vanes are also of aerofoil section and are located in slots around the
compressor casing. There is no chance for the blades to move fore and aft due to
the retention of the grooves, but there is a tendency for the blades to slide radially
around the grooves. This tendency is caused by the air loads, generated by the
blades straightening the airflow after each rotor stage.
This movement is prevented by retaining set screws, which hold a number of blades
in place, preventing any movement by the others. This is shown in Figure 4.5, where
a retaining ring, held by the screw, holds the blades in place.
Stator Blade Retention

Figure 4.5
.
FAN BALANCING
The fan consists of the single front stage of the compressor. Normally, it is the low-
pressure (LP) compressor and is part of a twin or triple-spool engine. It will usually
consist of a small number of blades that can be removed, often individually, if they
become damaged in service. The engine shown below, a Rolls Royce Tay, has a
wide chord fan which can be both repaired, (by blade replacement) and balanced in
situ.
Fan blades may be manufactured from Titanium, sometimes as a skin with a

honeycomb core, although some have been manufactured from composite materials.
Titanium is used normally because of the bird strike requirements that dictate very
strong blades on the first stage of the engine.
Rolls Royce Tay Fan

Figure 4.6

The need for the engine to be precisely balanced because of its high rotational
speed, means that the replacement of individual blades must be undertaken with
care. In most cases, the blades will have been pre-weighed by the manufacturer and
the value engraved upon the blade. The blades will be divided into weight “groups”
so that, providing the replacement blade is of the same “group” as the one removed,
there should be no need to balance the assembly.
In some cases, due to the engine having built-in vibration sensors, it will be possible
to carry out balancing ground-runs. This will allow the engineer, following the
maintenance manual, to add or remove small balance weights, at specific points
around the fan assembly, until the assembly is in perfect balance.
Shown below is the fan assembly of the Tay engine, showing the use of weights to
give a balanced assembly.
Tay Fan Assembly

Figure 4.7

.
STALL AND SURGE
Each stage of a multi-stage compressor possesses certain airflow characteristics

that are dissimilar from those of its neighbour thus; to design a workable and efficient
compressor, each stage must be matched to the next stage. This matching is fairly
simple when the engine is running on a test bed, it is much more difficult when
speed, altitude, temperature, etc. are included, such as when the aircraft is operating
normally.
In extreme conditions, the airflow through the compressor can become disturbed and
vibration can be set-up. This stalling of the blades can either be positive or
negative, depending whether the fault is at the intake, (front), or at the high
compression, (rear), end of the engine.
If the engine demands a pressure rise from the compressor greater than the blades
can sustain, surge will occur. This is an instantaneous breakdown of flow through
the engine and high-pressure air in the combustion system is expelled forwards
through the compressor,T.G.T. would rise and may be accompanied with a loud
bang, resulting in a loss of thrust. To overcome this problem, engines have a
declared ‘safety margin’ to ensure the area of instability is avoided. This is shown
graphically below.
Surge Margin Diagram

Figure 4.8

To control these disturbances, which occur most often on single shaft engines with
high compression ratios, a variety of methods are used on different engines. This
control can take the form of variable inlet guide vanes for the first stage and
variable stator vanes for other stages. As the compressor slows from its optimum,
the blades change their angle of attack to vary the airflow on to the rotor blades, so
that they do not stall and remain at their optimum angle of attack.
BLEED BANDS/VALVES
In addition, an interstage bleed may be fitted to the compressor casing, usually

located at the higher compression stages, permitting excessive pressure to be bled
overboard. This avoids the choking which may occur during rapid acceleration. Due
to the loss of performance during normal operations, bleed valves will usually only be
opened during starting and acceleration. The operation of these air bleed systems
can either be actuated by hydraulic, pneumatic or electronic methods
VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES (VIGVS)
The number of stages that have variable incidence vanes depends on the design of
the engine. Some may only have the first stage inlet guide vanes moveable, whilst
others can have four or more stages that are variable. The illustration below shows
an engine with variable inlet guide vanes and three variable stator vanes.
Guide Vanes and Stator Vanes

Figure 4.9

.
OVERFUELLING SURGE
All engines have to be over fuelled by a small margin to cause them to accelerate. If
the over fuelling is above the correct figure, due perhaps to a badly adjusted fuel
control unit, then the inertia of the rotating parts of the engine will resist acceleration.
The excessive fuel will cause choking at the turbine; this will cause a slowing of the
compressor air velocity, resulting in a progressive stall through the engine from the
front. The resulting reversal of the airflow is a surge.
TWIN SPOOL AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
Relief from surging troubles can be obtained from the devices described earlier. A
better solution is the twin-spool axial flow compressor, part of the twin spool engine
type described earlier. The compressor has two sections, each section is completely
independent from the other and driven by its own turbine assembly, each mounted
on its own co-axial shaft. The LP compressor is driven by the aft, LP turbine and the
HP compressor is driven by the forward, HP turbine. Each shaft assembly will be
rotating at its optimum speed.
Whether the engine is at high or low altitude or whether it is moving through the air at
high or low speeds, the two spools will be matched to the external atmosphere
parameters and aircraft performance.
At idle, for example, the HP system is doing most of the work whilst the LP spool
runs slower, this makes its angle of attack of the airflow on to the first stage much
better and, due to the faster moving HP spool, there is less chance of ‘choking’.
Equally, at higher altitudes, when the LP spool rotates faster, due to the reduced air
density, the greater mass airflow to the HP section restores some of the losses that a
single spool engine would suffer at this altitude.

INTENTIALLY LEFT BLANK

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COMBUSTION SECTION
The combustion section houses the process by which the energy contained within
the air/fuel mixture is released. The primary function of the combustion section is to
burn the air/fuel mixture adding heat energy to the air. To carry this out efficiently it
must:
Provide the means for proper mixing of the air and fuel to assure good combustion.
Burn this mixture efficiently.
Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature that the turbine blades can
withstand under operating conditions.
Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.
Combustion sections are located between the compressor-diffuser and the turbine
section. They are usually located co-axially with the compressor and the turbine.
All combustion chambers contain the following elements:
• An outer casing
• A perforated inner liner
• A fuel injection system (This topic will be covered later)
• Means of ignition (This topic will also be covered later)
• A fuel drainage system

COMBUSTION CHAMBER AIRFLOW
To ensure that the components of the combustion chamber and the turbine
assembly are not overheated, the airpaths are divided into primary and secondary.
Around 20% of the total air is fed to the fuel nozzles for combustion. The remaining,
secondary airflow forms a cooling air blanket around the liner, centres the flame and,
finally, mixes with the primary airflow, so that the total airflow to the turbine is at an
acceptable temperature. The illustration below shows how the total compressor
output is divided into sections for different purposes.
Apportioning the Airflow

Figure 5.1
An additional purpose of the combustion system, which has become more and more
important recently, is total and complete combustion. The very low air pollution levels
required before certification can be granted, will not allow the smoke trails that were
typical of older generation aircraft.
There are currently three basic types of combustion chambers, with variations within
these types being in detail only:
• The Multiple Combustion Chamber

• The Tubo-Annular Combustion Chamber
• The Annular Combustion Chamber

.
MULTIPLE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
The multiple chamber layout is found on centrifugal compressor engines, such as the
Roll-Royce Dart turbo-propeller engine and also early axial compressor designs. The
chambers are disposed around the engine and the compressor delivery air is
directed, by ducts, into each individual chamber. Whilst the airflow enters the
chamber at high velocity, swirl vanes and baffles slow the combustion air to a speed
at which the flame can safely exist.
If any problem exists with a single chamber, such as overheating and bulging of the
outer case, it can be changed easily with the engine remaining in situ.
Each chamber has an inner flame tube surrounded by an air casing. All of the flame
tubes are interconnected to both equalise the air pressure throughout the
combustion system and to allow the combustion to propagate around all of the flame
tubes during engine starting. Fuel manifolds carry fuel to the burners and a complex
drain system ensures that all the chambers are emptied to a collector tank, after
shut-down or a “wet start”. All these features can be seen in the illustrations below.
Combustion chamber
Figure 5.2

Multiple Combustion Chambers
Figure 5.3

.
TUBO - ANNULAR/CAN ANNULAR
The Tubo-annular (Can-Annular) combustion chamber is a mixture between the

multiple combustion chamber and the annular combustion chamber layout. A
number of flame tubes are installed inside a common air casing. The airflow through
this chamber is similar to the multiple chamber system described earlier.
Pratt & Whitney and Rolls Royce produced many designs based on this principle.
This arrangement combines the ease of overhaul and testing of the multiple system
with the compactness of the annular system. As with the previous designs, there are
normally two igniters, in opposing chambers to initiate ignition at engine start. A
cutaway illustration of a typical Tubo-annular combustion is shown below.
Tubo – Annular/Can Annular

Figure 5.4

ANNULAR
Finally there is the Annular Combustion Chamber which consists of a flame tube
(commonly referred to as a combustion liner) circular in construction which is
contained within an inner and outer casing. This design is in common use today in
both small and large engines. They are the most efficient design, both from a
standpoint of thermal efficiency and weight.
They are also shorter than comparable engines. For the same power output, the
length of an annular chamber is 75% that of a Tubo-annular system of the same
diameter.
The smaller amount of surface area requires less cooling air and is also the most
efficient use of space. However, this type of combustor must be removed as a single
unit for repair or replacement, requiring a complete separation of the engine at major
flanges. (This is a much more complex operation than that required for the single
chamber design).
Another advantage of this type of design is the elimination of combustion

propagation problems from chamber to chamber.
This type of design can be found in two totally different forms. They can be found
with a straight-through flow or with a reverse flow.
STRAIGHT-THROUGH FLOW
The straight-through flow annular combustor takes in air at the front and discharges
it at the rear. The annular combustor consists of an outer housing with a perforated
inner liner, sometimes called a ‘basket’. Both of these parts encircle the engine.
Multiple fuel burners project into the basket, together with Ignitor(s). Both the primary
and secondary airflow’s behave the same way as they do in the other combustor
designs. Because of their efficient fuel burning, annular combustion chamber
engines are one of the most efficient designs in the world, which also produce the
cleanest, least polluting exhaust possible.
REVERSE FLOW
The reverse flow combustor serves the same function as the through flow unit, but it
differs by the air, from the compressor, flowing around the chamber and entering
from the rear. This results in the combustion gasses flowing in the opposite direction
to the normal flow through the engine.
Note: Sir Frank Whittle used this form of combustion chamber on his earliest jet
engine designs.

.
The reverse flow form of design also allows the turbine wheels to be located inside
the combustor, allowing for a shorter overall length, a lighter engine and pre-heating
of the compressor discharge air. These advantages offset some of the losses
resulting from the reversal of the airflow. Illustrated below are a through flow
combustor and a reverse flow combustor.
Straight Through Flow and Reverse Flow Combustors

Figure 5.5

TURBINE SECTION
The turbine section has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor, the
accessories and, in the case of turbo-propeller/Tubo-shaft engines, providing shaft
power to the propeller or rotor. It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases
released from the combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and
temperature.
Very high stresses are involved in this process and, for efficient operation; the
turbine blade tips may have a velocity of over 1,500 feet per second. The continuous
flow of gas to which the turbine is subjected may have an entry temperature of
between 8500C and 1,7000C and may reach a flow velocity of more than 2,500 feet
per second in parts of the turbine.
To provide the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several stages, each
employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of rotating blades.
The number of stages depends upon the relationship between the power required
from the gas flow, the rotational speed at which it must be produced and the
diameter of the turbine permitted.
The number of main shafts, and therefore the number of turbine stages, depends
upon the type of engine. High compression ratio engines will often be twin-spool
engines with low-pressure and high-pressure sections, containing their own
compressor and turbine stages. On high by-pass ratio engines it is normal for there
to be three shafts with again, their own compressor and turbine assemblies.
There are numerous design compromises in the turbine section of an engine. These
will involve such variables as mean blade speed, centrifugal stresses, blade
thickness/strength and others. The design turbine inlet temperature will dictate its
thermal efficiency, the higher the temperature, the more efficient it is. By-pass
engines will have a better propulsive efficiency and, thus can have a smaller turbine
for a given thrust.

.
6.1 TURBINE BLADES
Turbine blades are aerofoil shaped components designed to extract the maximum
amount of energy from the flow of hot gasses. The blades may be either forged or
cast depending on the alloy from which they are manufactured. Early blades were
made from steel forgings whilst one of the current material in use is cast nickel
based alloy. The blades today are usually precision-cast and finish-ground to the
precise shape.
A modern development is the manufacture of non-metallic blades using a reinforced

ceramic material. The ability of these materials to operate satisfactorily at higher
temperatures allows the engine designer to plan for higher turbine inlet temperatures
and hence greater thrust.
Ceramic coatings applied to nozzle guide vanes also allow them to tolerate higher
temperatures, whilst the development of metals which have solidified either with the
crystal structure aligned with the main stresses, directional solidification, or as a
single crystal, all help to resist ‘creep’. This will be covered later.
Blades are classified as impulse, reaction or a combination impulse-reaction type.
6.1.1 IMPULSE
In the impulse type, the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the nozzle
guide vanes. Because of their convergent shape, they will increase the velocity of
the exhaust gasses whilst decreasing their pressure. The gas is then directed on to
the blades, which experience an impulse force caused by the impact of the gas on
the blades.
6.1.2 IMPULSE/REACTION
Normally, turbine engines do not use pure impulse or pure reaction type blades, but
incorporate a design using an impulse-reaction combination. With this combination
blade the workload can be evenly distributed along the length of the blade. Also, the
axial velocity and the pressure drop across the blade, from root to tip are also
considered uniform. A typical impulse-reaction turbine blade is illustrated on the
below, and it can be seen how the root end is of impulse design and the outer
section is of reaction design.
6.1.3 REACTION
Reaction turbines produce their turning force by an aerodynamic action. The turbine
nozzle guide vanes are shaped in such a way that they only aim the gas in
the correct direction, not increase its velocity. The gases pass between the
blades of the turbine, which do form a converging passage, this increases the
velocity of the gases. As the gasses flow over the aerofoil shaped blades. A force
reaction in the direction of the plane of rotation causes the turbine to spin.

Turbine Blade Sections
Figure 6.1

.
BLADE ATTACHMENTS
The turbine blades are fitted into the turbine wheel (disc) with a form of fastening that
allows them to be loose when the engine is cold but to be firmly attached when at
their operating temperature. The most common form of attachment is the fir tree root.
These blades are retained within their housings by a variety of methods, the most
common being either, peening, welding, lock tabs or riveting.
The turbine blades may be either open or shrouded at their outer ends and either or
both types of blade may be used in a single engine. Normally, open-ended blades
are used on the high-speed wheels, whilst the shrouded blades are found in wheels
having slower rotational speeds.
Shrouded blades form a band around the perimeter of the wheel, which helps to
reduce blade vibration. The extra weight of the shrouded tip is offset by the blades
being both thinner and more efficient. The illustrations below shows a series of
shrouded blades, which are attached to the disc using fir tree roots, (left) and a
series of open tip blades, also using fir tree roots.
Shrouded and Open Tip Blades

Figure 6.2

6.2 GUIDE VANES
The stator element of the turbine is known by a variety of different names, such as
turbine nozzle vanes, nozzle diaphragm, turbine guide vanes and, probably the most
common name, nozzle guide vanes. They are located directly aft of the combustion
chamber(s) and immediately forward of the first stage turbine wheel. If the engine
has more than one turbine stage, there will be a set of stationary nozzle guide vanes
ahead of each stage.
These nozzles have two functions:
Firstly, after the combustion chamber has introduced the heat energy into the mass
airflow and delivered it evenly to the turbine nozzles, it becomes the job of the
nozzles to prepare the mass airflow for driving the turbine rotor.
The vanes of the nozzles are set at such an angle that they form a number of small
nozzles, discharging the gas at extremely high speed. The nozzles convert a varying
portion of the heat and pressure energy into velocity energy. This energy is
converted into mechanical energy through the rotor blades.
Secondly, the nozzles’ purpose is to deflect the gasses to a specific angle in the
direction of turbine wheel rotation to ensure that the gasses strike the turbine blades
at the optimum angle.
Construction usually consists of an inner shroud and an outer shroud between which
are attached the guide vanes. The number and size of the vanes vary with different
engine designs, as does the method of attachment and mounting. They all have to
make allowance for the expansion that takes place when the engine is operating,
which can take the form of loose fitting vanes or expansion slots in the continuous
shroud.
The illustration (overleaf) shows two methods of attaching the vanes to the shrouds,
loose fitting, (top), and welded, (lower). The loose vanes will become tight within their
shrouds when they get to their operating temperature. The welded installations will
probably have the inner and/or the outer shroud ring cut into segments, allowing
expansion as it heats up in use.

.
Nozzle Vane Assemblies
Figure 6.3
STRESS AND CREEP
The blades, when at their normal operating temperature, will be glowing red-hot and
carrying large centrifugal forces due to their high rotational speeds. A small turbine
blade weighing 60gm may exert a load of over 2000kg at maximum engine speed. It
must also withstand the high bending loads applied by the gasses to produce the
many thousands of turbine (shaft) horsepower necessary to drive the compressor,
the accessories and, in some cases, the propeller/rotor assembly also.
The blades are also subject to fatigue, both mechanical and thermal, plus corrosion
and erosion. Apart from being manufactured from quite exotic materials, to be proof
against the above demands, the blades have to be made by forming and machining
using current manufacturing methods.
Following from the above, it can be seen that for a particular blade material and an
acceptable safe life there must be an associated maximum permissible turbine entry
(inlet) temperature. This maximum T.I.T. also limits the amount of power that the
engine can produce. Metallurgists are constantly searching for better materials as
well as better blade cooling, to raise the engine T.I.T. and, hence the power.

Over a period of operational time, the turbine blades slowly grow in length. This
phenomenon is known as “Creep” and there is a finite, useful life limit before failure
of the blade occurs.
The creep, which occurs throughout the life of the blades, can be divided into three
phases:
The initial, fast, primary creep occurs when the blade is first in service.
Over a much longer period of time, the secondary creep occurs, although
the amount of this creep will be less, overall, than the primary creep.
Finally, towards the end of the blade’s life, the tertiary creep shows an accelerating
increase of extension over time, which finishes up at the point of fracture.
Blades in service are not permitted to reach the tertiary creep zone. Most blades will
be given a finite life, occurring towards the end of the secondary creep zone. It will
however, be seen that overspeeding, frequent temperature and RPM changes,
careless handling of the engine caused by mishandling of the engine controls, can
quickly erode the safety margins between the retirement life and the point of fracture.
The illustration below left, shows how the blade creeps during service. The chart is
NOT drawn to scale, it simply represents the phases the blade goes through. The
second chart, on the right, shows how the introduction of better materials has
resulted in turbine blades with much better creep characteristics and hence much
longer finite lives.
Creep Characteristics
Figure 6.4

.
To reduce the heating effect on the turbine blades, and hence the creep that results,
many blades have some form of cooling applied to them. This allows the blades to
operate at temperatures above the critical temperatures for the metal alloy used in
the construction of the blade.
BLADE COOLING
There are a number of methods used to cool the turbine blades, some of the most
popular are listed below:
Internal airflow cooling – Air flows through the hollow blades and vanes exhausting
into the gas flow.
Surface film cooling – Air flows from small exit ports in the leading and/or trailing
edges of the blades or vanes to form a heat barrier on the surfaces.
Combination convection and surface cooling.

It should be pointed out that the term “cooling air” does NOT infer that the air is cold
or even cool. Air used to cool turbine components, which can be operating at
temperatures of around 10000C, can be cooled by air, tapped from the higher
compression stages at around 3000C+.
The two illustrations below show, on the left, an example of internal blade cooling,
and on the right, an example of internal and surface blade cooling.

Turbine Blade Cooling
Figure 6.5

.
15.7 EXHAUST
The exhaust section of a turbo-jet engine is made up of several components, each of

which has its own function. These components also have one common purpose;
they must direct the flow of gasses rearwards in such a manner as to prevent
turbulence and at the same time, impart a high final, (exit) velocity to the gases on
turbo-jets, less so on turbo-propeller engines.
The exhaust section is located directly behind the turbine section, and ends when
the gases are ejected at the rear. The individual parts of the exhaust include the
exhaust cone, the tailpipe and the exhaust/jet nozzle.
EXHAUST CONE ASSEMBLY
The exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer shell or duct, an inner cone and a
number of radial hollow struts or fins. The outer shell/duct is manufactured from heat
resistant steel and attaches to the turbine case flange.
The duct is slightly divergent, due to the inner cone profile, even if the outer duct
appears to be convergent. This slows the gas flow, slightly decreasing the velocity
and increasing the pressure.
The radial struts serve two purposes, firstly to support the inner cone and, secondly,
to straighten out the airflow which leaves the turbine with some ‘swirl’. The illustration
below shows the main components of an exhaust cone assembly.
Exhaust Cone Assembly

Figure 7.1

7.1 TAILPIPE
The tailpipe is used, where necessary, to pipe the exhaust gases out of the airframe.
Its use imposes a penalty on the efficiency of the engine in the form of heat and duct
(friction) losses. These losses result in a measurable loss of final thrust.
In some designs a tailpipe is not required. For example, when the engine is installed
in nacelles or pods, a short tailpipe is all that is required.
7.2 JET NOZZLE
The exhaust or jet nozzle imparts to the exhaust gases the all-important final boost in
velocity. The jet nozzle, like the tailpipe, (when fitted), is not part of the basic
powerplant but part of the airframe.
There are two types of jet nozzle design, the convergent design, for sub-sonic gas
velocities and the convergent-divergent design for supersonic gas velocities. The jet
nozzle openings may be either fixed or variable area, the fixed being the simpler of
the two designs.
Convergent
The convergent nozzle accelerates the airflow, reaching Mach 1 and becoming
“choked” at about the exit of the nozzle. When the gas exits the choked nozzle, it
spreads out and accelerates. Attempting to accelerate the air any faster than Mach 1
would be uneconomic and reduce the engine life, due to the higher temperature. For
faster speeds, a convergent-divergent nozzle is required.
Convergent-Divergent
This design is used mainly on supersonic aircraft, although it may be found on

engines with high-pressure ratios. This type of nozzle is used to recover some of the
otherwise wasted energy, by generating a further increase in gas velocity and,
hence, thrust.
This type of nozzle uses the same principle as supersonic intakes. If the sub-sonic
airflow is accelerated to reach Mach 1 at the narrowest point of the convergence, the
air will then accelerate further, as the duct diverges, to reach a high supersonic
airflow at the exit.

.
The two types of nozzle are illustrated below, with the convergent at left and the
convergent-divergent on the right. A third form, a variable area nozzle will be
covered in the section on afterburning.
Jet Nozzles
Figure 7.2
By-Pass Exhaust System
The modern fan or by-pass engine has two gas streams venting to the atmosphere,
the high temperature gases being discharged by the turbine and the low temperature
gases discharged from the fan section. These gasses may be exhausted separately
or together.
In a low by-pass engine, the flows of cool air and hot air are combined in a mixer unit
that ensures the mixing of the two streams prior to exiting the engine. This mixing
also helps to reduce the exhaust noise.
An example of a low by- pass exhaust is illustrated overleaf.

High by-pass engines usually exhaust the two streams separately. The hot and cold
nozzles are co-axial. A common nozzle may be used to partially mix the hot and cold
gases prior to their ejection.
High By-Pass Exhaust

Figure 7.4
Engine Noise Reduction
Noise is measured in effective perceived noise decibels, (EPNdB), which takes into
account the pitch as well as the sound pressure, (decibels) and also makes
allowance for the duration of an aircraft flyover. The noise produced by different
types of engines is quite marked, as is the effect of the installation of noise
suppressors. This can be seen on the chart below. ENGINE NOISE SUPRESSION
Engine Noise Reduction

Figure 7.5

.
The most significant sources of noise from an engine are the fan/compressor, the
turbine and the exhaust. The noise exhaust is the effect that can be reduced by the
largest amount. It is mostly generated by the shearing action between the jet exhaust
and the outside air, although the eddies in the air can also cause high frequency
noise for small eddies and low frequency for large ones.
A reduction in noise can be achieved if either the mixing rate of the two airflow’s can
be accelerated, or the exhaust velocity, relative to the air can be reduced.
Methods of Noise Suppression
Noise suppression of internal sources is looked at in two ways, engine design and
the use of acoustic panels to absorb noise. As both of these are beyond the
requirements of the syllabus, they will not be covered. It is however, important to be
aware of the fact that the honeycomb noise absorbing panels are fragile and must be
treated carefully. (Illustration overleaf).
The exhaust, being a large generator of noise, can be made quieter by mixing of the
high speed and the low speed air over a shorter distance. This is achieved by
increasing the contact area of the atmosphere with the exhaust stream by using a
propelling nozzle, which incorporates a corrugated or lobe type noise suppressor. A
corrugated type of noise suppressor, as fitted to the Rolls-Royce Tay, is illustrated
below.
The exhaust illustrated shows the corrugations which mix the two streams, hot and
cold, by encouraging the hot stream to expand outwards whilst the cold, (by-pass),
air is drawn inwards. This mixing improves efficiency and reduces the noise emitted
by the engine.
Exhaust Silencer
Figure 7.6

As mentioned earlier, the honeycomb acoustic panels are fairly fragile and, as can
be seen from the illustration of a typical installation below, they line most of the by-
pass ducts and care must be taken, during inspections, that they are checked for
Foreign Object Damage(F.O.D.) or other causes.
Acoustic Panels
Figure 7.7
Thrust Reversal
Modern aircraft brakes are very efficient, especially carbon units but, on wet, icy or
snow covered runways this efficiency may be severely reduced by the loss of
adhesion between the tyres and the runway surface. To ensure continued operation
during inclement weather, an alternative to friction brakes had to be found.
A simple and effective way to achieve this was to reverse the direction of the exhaust
gas stream, thus using engine thrust as a decelerating force. An additional bonus to
this system was that it could be used at all times and can, therefore be used to
shorten landing runs, even when the runways are dry.
On rare occasions, it has been authorised to use thrust reversers in flight but,
normally, they are only active when the aircraft’s landing gear is on the ground and
the weight of the aircraft is on it, or the aircraft is ‘Weight On Wheels’(W.O.W.)

.
An example of the effectiveness of reversers is illustrated below where the landing
run can be reduced by more than 20%.
Landing Run Distances

Figure 7.8
The methods of reversing the flow vary with each engine but basically if the engine is
a turbo-jet, the hot stream is reversed by either clamshell or bucket doors. On a high
by-pass engine, because the by-pass, (cold), thrust is a large part of the total, only
the cold stream is reversed, normally by blocker doors. This method is sometimes
called the translating cowl system.
On propeller powered aircraft, the reverse thrust action is obtained by changing the
pitch of the propeller blades, usually by hydro-mechanical means. This system
moves the blades to a negative angle, but only after touchdown and pilot selection,
producing a flow of air forwards, decelerating the aircraft.
The exhaust flow of jet engines can be directed forwards, (approximately 450) but,
due to the risk of foreign object damage(F.O.D.), many engines are restricted in
reverse, to about 70 or 80% of maximum power. This results in the fact that only a
percentage of the forward engine thrust is available for reversing action.
The illustrations overleaf show three common methods of thrust reverser operation.
All three methods are stowed with little drag but some weight penalty when not
selected and actuated. The clamshell system, a hot stream method, reverses the
airflow ahead of the exhaust nozzle. This method can be seen on Concorde.
The second method, also a hot stream system, has the buckets at the very rear of
the exhaust/jet pipe. It also deflects the stream forwards and can be seen on many
early Boeing small jets such as the 727 and 737 models.

Finally, the translating cowl/cold stream system uses a set of ‘blocker doors to direct
the fan, (cold), airflow through a series of cascade vanes, often uncovered by a
sliding cowling which smoothes the airflow over the vanes during flight.
Thrust Reverser Types

Figure 7.9

.
`
INTENTIALLY LEFT BLANK
Mod 15 GAS TURBINES by COBC 82

15.8 BEARINGS AND SEALS (Level B1 only)
BEARINGS
Introduction
A bearing is any surface that supports or is supported by another surface. Bearings are
designed to produce a minimum of friction and a maximum of wear resistance.
Bearings must reduce the friction of moving parts and also take thrust loads or a
combination of thrust and radial loads. Those which are designed primarily for thrust
loads are called thrust bearings. The two different types of bearings used on gas
turbines are ball and roller.
Ball Bearings
A ball bearing consists of an inner race, an outer race and one or more sets of balls;
and bearings which are designed for dismantling, a ball retainer or cage. The purpose
of the retainer or cage is to prevent the balls touching one another. Ball bearings are
used for radial and thrust loads; a ball bearing specially designed for thrust loads would
have very deep grooves in the races.
Roller Bearings
The bearings are manufactured in various shapes and sizes and can be adapted to
both radial and thrust loads.
The bearing race is a guide or channel along which the rollers travel; the roller is
situated between an inner and outer race, both of which are made of case hardened
steel. When the roller is tapered, it rolls on a cone shaped race inside an outer race.
Straight roller bearings are used only for radial loads and taper roller bearings will
support both radial and thrust loads. Roller bearings will withstand greater radial loads
than ball bearings because of greater contact area.
STRAIGHT ROLLER BEARING

`
Types of Bearings
Bearings are broadly classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction.
Ball bearings employ steel balls which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst roller bearings
utilise cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers, running in suitably shaped raceways.
Both types of bearings are designed for operation under continuous rotary or oscillatory
conditions, but, whilst ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and
axial loads, other types of roller bearings accept mainly radial loads.

Air Sealing
LP, HP and IP air are all used to prevent the hot exhaust gases flowing inward between
the stages of the turbine, by means of a labyrinth seal. It is also used to seal engine
bearing housings to prevent oil leaks (sump areas).

`
The figure represents a typical sump area, although in this case only one bearing is
shown. Sump areas contain as many as five bearing assemblies.
TYPICAL SUMP AREA

As the air pressure is greater than the oil pressure, we can see from the figure that
cooling air is directed into the air cavity of the sump. Oil is also directed into the oil
cavity via the oil jet. For as long as the air pressure is greater than the oil pressure, the
oil will be retained within the oil cavity. The oil seal is so designed to reduce the amount
of air escaping across it. However, a certain amount of air will get into the oil cavity,
which is then vented overboard via the oil cavity air vent orifice.

Air to Air or Air to Oil Sealing
The air at these different pressures must be prevented from mixing. This is achieved by
inserting differential pressure seals at appropriate places within the engine.
These seals are multi-groove types, but commonly known as labyrinth seals.
Labyrinth Seals
Labyrinth seals are constructed of metal non-rotating lands, which are secured to
various parts of the engine case and a series of cylindrical rotating knife-edge steps that
mate with the lands. With this type of seal, there are no contacting parts. A precise
clearance is designed into the seals to control the pressure, as the compressor air
passes over the cascade of knife-edges, the pressure is reduced.

`
The labyrinth seal may be used in conjunction with an abradable coating on the
stationary member as shown in the figure, or with a honeycomb shroud as shown in the
figure.

Carbon Seals
Another method of air sealing is achieved by using a carbon seal arrangement. They
are used on the rotating assembly of a gas turbine and protection of engine drive
components on an accessory gearbox.
Carbon seals are manufactured of a mixture of carbon and graphite powder, bonded
together with a viscous substance, such as coal tar. The carbon seal is fixed and held
against the rotating seal by springs. Both the rotating seal and the carbon seals are
machine ground and precision lapped to a micro finish.
Spring Ring Seal
This type of seal would normally be used around a main bearing assembly within the
engine. It may be used in conjunction with a labyrinth or screw back type of seal. The
location of a spring ring seal is shown in the figure.
Construction and Operation
This type of seal is similar to a large stepped piston ring; it is located on a rotating shaft.
When the shaft is stationary, the seal clamps tightly to the shaft. As the shaft rotates,
the spring ring can expand slightly, under centrifugal force, when it then forms an
effective seal with the adjacent stationary housing.

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Hydraulic Seal
This type of seal may also be found protecting the bearings on the main rotating
assembly of an engine. It is fitted between the rotating shafts on a twin or triple spool
engine. A hydraulic seal would be used in conjunction with another type of seal, as
shown in the figure.
The seal consists of a circular baffle ring mounted on a rotating shaft; the rim of this ring
sits in the centre of a circular depression in an outer rotating shaft. Oil from the bearing
will fill this depression and be held there by centrifugal force. This oil reservoir will form
a liquid seal with the rim of the rotating baffle ring. Any tendency for the oil to leak
across this seal will be counteracted by air leakage across a back-up seal.
Screw Back Seal
This type of seal will be found close to a bearing. It is mounted on a rotating shaft and
will be backed up by one of the types of seal previously described.
The figure shows the location of a screw back seal.
Screw Back Seal Location
This seal consists of a raised screw thread on a rotating shaft; the thread form is facing
towards the bearing. Any oil from the bearing, which gets onto this threaded section, is
then ‘screwed back’ to the bearing, thus preventing oil loss. Air pressure on the outer
end of this seal will also be screwed towards the bearing and helps to prevent a loss of
oil.

15.9 LUBRICANTS AND FUELS
WARNING
Safety Precautions
Handling of synthetic lubricants requires precautions not needed for conventional

lubricating oils. Synthetic lubricants have a high solvent characteristic, which causes
them to penetrate and dissolve paints, enamels and other materials, including crepe
soles on footwear.
Additionally, if synthetic oils touch or remain on the skin, physical injury can result. It is
essential, then that these lubricants are kept away from the skin, either by the use of
‘barrier creams’ or by wearing protective garments and safety glasses. Any part of the
skin that is affected by a spillage of synthetic oil, should be treated in accordance with
local instructions and the relevant COSHH leaflet. (Containment of Substances Harmful
to Health)
When handling fuels and oils, all normal precautions regarding flammable substances
that were covered earlier, in Module 7, should be followed. This should include correct
storage, carriage and dispensing, together with Earthing and cleanliness at all times.
PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS
Kerosene Fuels
Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering turbojet, turboprop and turboshaft engines.
There are two main types of turbine fuels in use, JET A and JET A-1, which are
kerosene types and JET B which is a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions. In the
United Kingdom these fuels are sometimes referred to as AVTUR, (JET A & JET A-1);
and AVTAG, (JET B). JET B is also known as JP4 in the United States Military.
Finally, there is a high flash point, low freezing point fuel known as JP 5 or AVCAT. Its
use is limited, due to its high flash point making it less liable to ignition in an accident,
but can be used on aircraft carriers and other aircraft carrying sea craft.

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ALL fuels should meet the requirements stated below:
• Ease of flow under all operating conditions (Sometimes called ‘pumpability’).

• Quick starting of the engine under all conditions.
• Have a high calorific (energy) value.
• Must be non-corrosive.
• Combustion by-products should not be harmful to internal engine parts.
• Minimal chance of fire.
• Provide lubrication of the moving parts of the fuel system (pumps etc.).
Pumpability
There are several factors affecting ‘pumpability’; fuel viscosity, solids (wax and gum)
and ice particles (due to water in the fuel). The lowest temperature at which the fuel can
be pumped is known as the “pour point”.
Volatility and Starting
Quick starting of an engine depends on fast ignition and the quality of the fuel. It must
remain volatile, (easily evaporated), at starting temperatures so that the fuel spray from
the burners will readily ignite.
Combustion
Once ignited the fuel must burn completely, giving both the highest energy value and
also producing benign combustion products (Carbon).
Calorific Value
This is the amount of heat released during combustion. Turbine fuels have a slightly
lower calorific value, per unit weight, than piston engine fuels, (Petrol/Gasoline).
However, as turbine fuel is heavier with a higher specific gravity, it releases more heat
per unit volume. Fuel with a high calorific value is most suitable for aviation turbine use.
Non-Corrosive
To reduce corrosion within the fuel system, the fuel must be a good lubricant. As basic
kerosene has little lubricity, additives are used to improve its lubrication properties.
Fire Hazards
Fire is always a risk during handling, often due to spillage, the presence of electrical
sparks, contact with hot engine parts, etc. Gasoline ignites more readily then kerosene,
as it has a lower flash point.

OILS
Lubricating oils, like other petroleum products, are a mixture of various hydro-carbons.
The viscosity basically depends upon the process used to refine the oil and blending
can further control it.
Viscosity and Viscosity Index are the factors that decide the lubricant for a particular
purpose. The desired viscosity of oil for a particular engine is decided by the designer
considering many factors, including:
• Bearing loads and clearances

• Sliding speeds
• Oil pump capacity
• Operating temperatures
• Engine RPM
The specification of an oil indicates the properties it possesses, thus ensuring that it is
able to safely protect, cool, lubricate, etc. the moving parts of the engine. It is essential
then, that the correct oil is always used to top-up or re-fill an engine and oils are NEVER
mixed together.
For the lubrication of the main shafts of jet engines running in contact bearings, low
viscosity oil is required. Early engine designs operated on straight mineral oils, but
these were unsatisfactory when low temperature starting was involved, either on the
ground or when re-lighting in the air. To overcome this problem, and that of the high
contact pressures at the bearings, low viscosity, extreme pressure, (EP), oils were
developed.
When mineral oils reached the end of their useful life, they were replaced with synthetic
oils. These were initially developed from esters of sebacic acid and, as the basic oils
were unsuitable for carrying the bearing loads in the engines, other, more complex
esters were added to assist the load carrying and to raise the viscosity. This ‘first
generation’ synthetic oil became AeroShell 750, (service designation OX-38), and was
produced by most petroleum companies under different names.
What is known as ‘second generation’ oils came about because of the by-pass and
turbo-fan engines, which, due to the insulating effect of the by-pass air, caused the oil
temperatures to rise. This meant that a new oil, which could operate at higher
temperatures and resist oxidation had to be developed. These are known as Type 2
lubricants. Their specification includes anti-oxidants, load carrying additives, corrosion
inhibitors, metal deactivators and foam inhibitors. A typical example might be AeroShell
500.
There are ‘third generation’ oils developed for use during supersonic operation, both
with the military and in the Olympus engines on Concorde. These have resistance to
very high oil temperatures, in the range of 2600 to 3150C, and, whilst still being
developed from ester based oils, they have poorer properties both at low temperatures
and for lubricity. An example might be AeroShell 555.

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In summary, oil has a range of characteristics for different applications, it can be derived
from three main sources and can contain a wide range of additives to change its
properties.
Characteristics:
• Ability to wet the surface to be lubricated

• Viscosity that maintains film lubrication
• High viscosity index
• Low rate of evaporation at high temperature
• Prevents formation of gum and sludge
• Must remain stable in use
Sources:
• Mineral
• Synthetics
• Vegetable (rarely used on aircraft)
Additives
• Extreme pressure
• Anti-corrosion
• Viscosity improvers
• Pour point depressants
• Anti-foaming
• Anti-oxidants
Fuel Additives
Additives to the basic fuel specification are pre-mixed by the supplier of the fuel. All the
engineer can do is to be aware that certain fuels, with specific additives, are only to be
used where specified by the engine manufacturer.
For example, anti-icing agents are added to fuels to limit the freezing of entrained water,
without recourse to fuel heating, at low temperatures. Also, the addition of anti-
microbiological agents to the fuel helps to kill the microbes, fungi and bacteria, which
form slime or, occasionally, a matted waste in the fuel tanks and pipework.
Occasionally, an additive has not been added during refinement, meaning the engineer
has to add the applicable agent, in the correct quantity, during refuelling. A popular
brand of a combined anti-icing and anti-microbiological mixture is called PRIST. It is
designed to be added during servicing. However, the engineer must determine the type
and amount, after consultation with the maintenance manual, the operator’s manual or
the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
Alternatively, many gas turbine engine manufacturers approve an anti-biological

compound called “Biobor”, as an additive to the aircraft fuel supply.

15.10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
The gas turbine engine lubrication systems are required to provide lubrication and
cooling for all gears, bearings and splines. They must also be capable of collecting
foreign matter, which, if left in a bearing housing or gearbox, can cause rapid failure. In
addition, the oil must protect the lubricated components that are manufactured from
non-corrosion resistant materials.
With turbo-propeller engines, there are somewhat different requirements to any other
types of gas turbine. This is due to the additional lubrication of the heavily loaded
propeller reduction gears and the need for a high-pressure oil supply to operate the
propeller pitch control mechanism.
Most gas turbines use a self-contained recirculatory lubrication system, in which the oil
is distributed around the engine and returned to the oil tank by pumps. There are a few
engines that use a system known as the total loss or expendable system in which the
oil is dumped overboard after the engine has been lubricated.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
There are two basic types of recirculatory system. They are known as the pressure
relief valve system and the full flow system. The major difference being in the control of
the oil flow to the bearings.
Because, in both designs, the oil temperature and oil pressure are critical to the safe
running of the engine, provisions are made to display both parameters in the cockpit.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM
In this system, the oil flow to the bearings is controlled simply by limiting the pressure in
the feed line to a given design value. This is achieved by the use of a spring-loaded
valve, which allows the oil to be directly returned from the pressure pump outlet to either
the oil tank or the pressure pump inlet, when the design pressure is exceeded.
A limitation of this system is that when the engine is at idle, the oil is being pumped
around the engine due to the valve being off its seat. Once the engine speed increases
however, the bearing chamber air pressure increases, slowing down the flow of oil. To
overcome this problem on some engines, the rising pressure is fed to the back of the oil
pressure relief valve, which effectively increases the oil pressure in the feed line.

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The basic components that could make up this type of engine lubrication system
would be:
• The pressure pump, which draws oil from the tank, through a strainer, to the
pressure filter.
• The pressure relief valve, which maintains a constant delivery pressure.
• A second pressure relief valve, is sometimes fitted, set well above system pressure.
This opens if the system becomes blocked.
• The filter by-pass valve, which opens if the filter becomes blocked.
• The scavenge pumps which return the oil to the tank via the oil cooler.
Illustrated below is a typical pressure relief valve type oil system, installed in a turbo-
propeller engine.
Typical Pressure Relief Valve System

Figure 10.1

FULL FLOW OIL SYSTEM
Although the pressure relief valve system operates satisfactorily for engines that have a
low bearing chamber pressure that does not unduly increase with engine speed. It
becomes an undesirable system for engines that have high chamber pressures. For
example, a chamber pressure of 90 psi. requires a relief valve set at 130 psi. This calls
for large pumps, with the associated difficulty in matching the oil flow at lower speeds.
The full flow system achieves the desired oil flow rates throughout the complete engine
speed range. To achieve this, the pressure relief valve is dispensed with and the pump
output directly supplies the oil feed jets.
The example below shows a turbo-fan engine in which the size of the pressure pump is
dictated by the flow at maximum engine speed. Using this method allows smaller
pressure and scavenge pumps, due to there being no continuous loss of oil spilling back
to the tank, that occurs at high engine speeds, with the other system.
Typical Full Flow Oil System

Figure 10.2

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To prevent high oil pressure from damaging filters or coolers, relief valves are fitted to
by-pass these units. They will normally only open during a cold start or in the event of a
blockage of the internal parts.
A differential switch gives advanced warning of a potential filter blockage by sensing the
difference between inlet and outlet pressures.
TOTAL LOSS (Expendable) SYSTEM
For engines that run for short periods, such as booster and lift engines, the total loss oil
system is sometimes used. This system is simple and incurs a low weight penalty
because it does not require an oil cooler, scavenge pump or filters. On some engines oil
is delivered in a continuous flow to the bearings via a plunger-type pump driven by the
compressor. Some pumps are driven by fuel pressure and, when opening the HP cock
during starting, it directs a shot of oil to top and bottom, (front and rear), bearings. The
oil is then either ejected into the exhaust or retained and either drained or dumped
overboard.
The basic oil system illustrated below, is typical of many gas turbine engines, and
contains all of the components mentioned earlier.
Basic Oil System

Figure 10.3
The previous system is actually from a turbo-propeller engine, hence the additional oil
supply to both the reduction gearbox and the torque meter system. Other items of note
are:

• The measurement of the oil temperature immediately after leaving the tank,
• The location of the oil pressure transmitter at the furthest point from the pressure
pump.
• The stack pipe, (stand pipe), which reserves some oil for propeller feathering, even if
the lubricating oil is totally lost due to a leak.
• The ‘thread type’ oil filters, which protect the bearings from the finest pieces of swarf.
• A de-aerator tray that removes air bubbles from the returned oil.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
10.1 OIL TANKS
The oil tank is usually mounted on the engine but is normally a separate unit, although it
can be an integral part of an external gearbox. It normally contains a number of items,
such as draining and filling facilities, methods of checking the oil quantity via a dipstick
and sight glass, provision to remove air bubbles from the returned oil and, on some non-
commercial aircraft, facilities to allow agile and inverted flight.
10.2 PUMPS
The pumps can be divided into two groups. The pressure pump takes the oil from the
tank and pushes it throughout the engine to the bearings, gears and accessories. The
scavenge pumps collect the oil after it has served its purpose and return it to the tank,
possibly via a cooler and de-aerator tray.
The simple gear type pump is the commonest in use for both of the above purposes.
The oil is drawn into the low-pressure inlet and passed around the outer chamber and
out into the system, as can be seen in the illustration over-leaf.
10.3 FILTERS
Solid contaminants pumped through an aircraft engine lubricating system can clog the
oil passages and damage the bearings. Provisions must be made to remove as much of
these as possible.
This is achieved by one of two methods, full-flow filtration and by-pass filtration.
All of the oil circulating through the system passes through a full-flow unit, whilst
only part of the oil is filtered during each circulation in a by-pass system,
although all of the oil is filtered eventually. By-pass filters can be much finer
because if they clog, the oil can continue to flow around the filter, retaining the
essential lubrication.
10.4 RELIEF VALVES

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Almost all pumps used in aircraft engines produce an excess of oil pressure, which
must be controlled. Pressure relief valves, which can be a simple spring loaded plate or
valve, remain closed until the oil pressure rises excessively. The valve will then open
and spill a percentage of the oil back to the tank, lowering the pressure to the relief
valve spring value.
Many relief valves have an adjusting screw, which can be unlocked and turned, to
change the value at which the valve opens.
10.5 OIL PRESSURE GAUGE
Pressure is measured at crucial points around the system, depending on the design of
the engine. Normally, the system pressure, if measured at a single point, will be sensed
far from the pump, so that any system leaks are detected as well as any failure of the
supply itself. A simple transducer will be connected to the system, which will send a
signal to a gauge unit on the instrument panel.
Often a pressure switch will be located at the same place as the transducer, this will
illuminate a warning light or caption as a back-up to the gauge unit, if the system
pressure falls below a pre-determined figure.
10.6 OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE
The oil temperature is usually measured at the inlet to the pressure pump, (hence its
name, Oil Inlet Temperature, (OIT.). This ensures that if there is a rise in temperature
due to a low oil quantity or a blocked oil cooler it will be detected rapidly.

The illustrations below show examples of some of the components mentioned earlier.
Each component on each engine will have been designed for its specific purpose and
will therefore, be different from similar components fitted to other engines.
OIL TANK ASSEMBLY OIL PUMP
OIL FILTER RELIEF VALVE
Oil System Components

Figure 10.4

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10.7 OIL COOLER
All engines transfer heat to the oil by friction, churning and windage within a bearing
chamber or gearbox. To remove this heat an oil cooler is fitted, normally in the return
line, to transfer the heat from the oil to either the atmosphere and/or the fuel system.
It is possible to find, on either type of cooler, a temperature sensitive valve that will be
set into the inlet. This valve will by-pass the cooler when the oil is still at ambient
temperature, i.e. at starting, and it will open as the oil temperature rises.
10.8 MAGNETIC PLUGS
These items are also known as Chip Detectors and are fitted into the scavenge,
(return),line to collect ferric debris from each bearing chamber. They are basically
permanent magnets inserted in the oil flow and are retained in self-sealing valve
housings.
Upon examination, they can provide a warning of impending failure without having to
remove and inspect filters and without having to carry out other troubleshooting
operations on the system. They are usually removed and inspected during scheduled
maintenance inspections for condition monitoring purposes.
Oil Cooler (Left) And Magnetic Plug

Figure 10.5

OIL SYSTEM MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
The maintenance of gas turbine engine lubrication systems consists mainly of adjusting,
removing and replacing various components.
OIL CHANGE
The first action should always to ensure that the type of oil in the engine is identified by
reference to the maintenance manual. There are many different makes of synthetic oil,
both type 1 and type 2, and great care must be taken to ensure that the oil put into the
engine is of the correct specification.
Oil is usually supplied in quart containers and care must be taken to ensure that both
the container and the replenishing point of the engine are clean. If bulk replenishing rigs
are used, the correct filtration must be serviceable, usually 10 micron or smaller is
normal.
If the engine is being drained and re-filled with different oil, it may be drained from the
oil tank, the accessory gearbox sump, the main oil filter and other low points of the oil
system. The engine will be flushed first, by refilling the engine with flushing oil and then
motoring it over using only the starter motor. Once this has been accomplished, the
flushing oil should be drained and the engine refilled with the new oil.
Another important consideration when servicing the oil system is to ensure that
servicing is accomplished within a short time after shutdown. This is normally called for
by the engine manufacturers to assist in drain down, during an oil change, with the hot
and thin oil. It is also to prevent over filling because oil will, over time, drain into the
engine causing the tank to show a lower level than the correct value. The manufacturer
will often say, for example, oil levels must be checked between 15 and 30 minutes after
shut down.
Another consideration is the recording of replenishments. A careful record of all oil put
into the engine must be kept in the technical log and, whilst a small, regular
consumption is acceptable, a slowly increasing quantity required for replenishment
requires investigation.

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OIL FILTER MAINTENANCE
Depending upon the aircraft manufacturer’s published instructions, filters may be

replaced at a published life or, on occasions, if the design of the filter is different, it may
be cleaned either by flushing or by ultrasonic cleaning. The latter vibrates the filter at
very high frequency, in a solvent, which effectively shakes all the particles out of the
filter, leaving it clean and ready for re-installation.
An example of one of these ultrasonic cleaners is shown below.
Ultrasonic Filter Cleaner

Figure 10.6
SCAVENGE SYSTEM
The scavenge systems remove oil from the bearings and gearboxes, by scavenge
pump suction, and returns it to the oil tank.
The systems will normally contain scavenge filters, usually a coarse metallic grid, to
remove any metallic particles returning to the tank from bearings, gearboxes, etc. In
critical sub-systems, magnetic chip detectors may also be fitted in the return scavenge
lines, to collect ferrous particles.
These ‘plugs’ will be removed and inspected at regular intervals in accordance with the
engine manufacturer’s manuals. Some chip detectors, in addition to being magnetic,
can have electrical contacts in them, which will give a flight deck warning if particles of
metal are attracted to the magnet, giving the crew the option to close down the affected
engine.


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15.11 FUEL SYSTEMS
The functions of the engine fuel system are to provide the engine with fuel in a form
suitable for combustion and to control the flow to the required quantity necessary for
easy starting, acceleration and stable running, at all engine operating conditions. To do
this, one or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the fuel spray nozzles,
which inject it into the combustion chambers in an atomised spray.
Because the flow rate must vary according to the amount of air passing through the
engine, to maintain a constant selected engine speed or pressure ratio, the
controlling devices, whether mechanical or electronic, are fully automatic. This is
excepting the engine power selection from the flight deck, which is achieved via a
manual throttle or power lever.
A fuel shut-off valve or ‘cock’, lever is also normally used to stop the engine. In some
cases, these two levers, power and shut-off, are combined into one lever with both
functions, (usually protected against accidental closure by a ‘gate’).
There will also be protection devices fitted that prevent excess compressor delivery
pressure, (choking) and rotating assembly overspeeding.
With turbo-propeller engines, changes in propeller speed and pitch have to be taken
into consideration, as they affect the power output of the engine. Usually, the throttle
lever and propeller control unit will have to be inter-connected, thus the correct
relationship between the fuel and air flow is maintained at all engine speeds. This
arrangement also gives the pilot the advantage of single lever control. Although the
propeller will control the speed of the complete assembly, an additional governor in the
fuel system acts as a back-up Overspeed protection.
MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
The control of the power or thrust of a gas turbine engine is achieved by the quantity of
fuel injected into the combustion system. When a higher thrust is required, the
throttle/power lever is advanced and the pressure to the fuel spray nozzles increases
giving a greater fuel flow. This has the effect of increasing the gas temperature, which,
in turn, accelerates the gases through the turbine assembly, giving higher engine
speeds and a greater airflow. The result of all this is to produce more engine thrust.
Another variable which has to be taken into consideration by any fuel control device, is
the change of air density due to altitude, air temperature and aircraft speed. All of
these influence the density of the air, and hence the mass air flow, entering the intake of
the engine.
If these variables were not taken into consideration, the fuel would not be reduced in
proportion to the falling air density, as the aircraft climbed. The result would be a steep
rise in the exhaust temperature and the risk of overheating or possibly destruction of the
turbine assembly.
Many engines are fitted with an electronic system of control and this generally involves
the use of integrated circuits, (ICs), to measure and translate changing engine

conditions to automatically adjust the fuel pump output. Some helicopters also have
electronic engine control which, in this case, have an additional free-turbine and hence
rotor speed control.
FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS
Typical high pressure fuel control systems for both turbo-propeller and turbo-jet
engines, consist of basically the following components:
• HP fuel pump
• Throttle control
• Fuel spray nozzles
• Sensing devices for flow and pressure
The usual method of varying the fuel flow to the spray nozzles is by adjusting the output
of the HP fuel pump, which is signalled through a servo system in response to some or
all of the following inputs:
 Throttle movement.
 Air temperature and pressure.
 Rapid acceleration and deceleration.
 Signals of engine speed, exhaust gas temperature and compressor delivery
pressure.
Simple Fuel System

Figure 11.1

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11.1 PRESSURE CONTROLS (Turbo-prop engine)
The pressure control system shown below contains just the components mentioned
previously. The fuel pump (top left) output, is controlled by the spill valve in the fuel/flow
control unit (right) and the engine speed governor, (left centre). These valves vary the
servo pressure and hence correct the pump output.
Changes to the aircraft speed, altitude or the outside air temperature, (OAT), will result
in the changes being sensed by the bellows units in the Fuel Control Unit, FCU, (right)
and therefore, further alterations to the servo pressure, altering the pump output to the
correct amount.
Turbo-Propeller Fuel System

Figure 11.2
From the above diagram, the basic operations are:
 Movement of the throttle lever.

 Aircraft climbing and descending.
 Aircraft moving faster or slower.
 Opening and closing of the High Pressure Cock, (HPC).

All of the first three operations occur during each flight and involve signals being sent to
the fuel pump. The last operation occurs on the ground at the start and finish of each
flight or period of engine running.
The throttle valve moves as the pilot moves his throttle lever. This causes changes in
the differential pressure around the valve and signals the pump to increase or decrease
its output to match the demand.
Any change in either outside ambient or intake pressure will result in more or less air
entering the engine. This will require a change in fuel flow to match it. The bellows, in
the capsule assembly, will expand or contract, depending on circumstances, again
altering the fuel pump output to match the airflow.
Finally, to stop the engine, a separate lever is normally operated. The HP cock, cuts off
the fuel to the burners. However, the mechanical fuel pump continues to run as the
engine ‘winds down’, so the fuel still being pumped has to be recirculated back to the LP
side of the supply.
11.2 PRESSURE CONTROLS (turbo-jet engine)
Whilst the propeller controls the speed of the engine on a turbo-propeller installation,
the acceleration and deceleration of a turbo-jet is in direct proportion to the change of
fuel flow. These fuel control units control both the amount of fuel being fed to the
burners and the rate at which the fuel is increased and decreased.
The rate is very important because if the fuel is increased at too fast a rate, the engine
can quickly overheat and burn out, before it has time to accelerate and draw in sufficient
air to mix with the extra fuel. During throttle closing, however, if the fuel flow is
decreased too quickly, the combustion flame can ‘blow out’ due to there being too little
fuel for the mass of air still coming through the engine.
Otherwise, the detection of throttle opening, the changes in atmospheric pressure and
airspeed are catered for by much the same way as the previous example.
11.3 FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM
A flow control system is generally more compact than a pressure control system and it
is not sensitive to the flow effect of variations downstream of the throttle. The fuel pump
delivery pressure is related to engine speed, thus, at low engine speeds pump delivery
pressure is quite low. The fuel pump output is controlled to give a constant pressure
difference across the throttle valve at constant air intake conditions.
Various devices are also used to adjust the fuel flow for intake pressure variations,
idling and acceleration control, gas temperature and compressor delivery pressure
control.

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11.4 COMBINED ACCELLERATION AND SPEED CONRTOL (CASC)
This is a mechanical system without small restrictors or spill valves. It is also an all-
speed governor system and, therefore, needs no separate governor unit for controlling
the maximum RPM The controlling mechanism is contained in one unit, normally
referred to as the fuel flow regulator, FFR.
An HP fuel pump is used, with the pump servo piston being operated by HP fuel on
one side and main nozzle (servo) pressure on the other side.
The fuel flow regulator, shown below, contains inputs from the HP fuel supply, (HP
pump), and air pressure tappings from P2.6 and P3. In addition, the drive shaft is driven
from the accessory gearbox, running at a speed that is proportional to engine speed.
The outputs are the primary and main flows leading to the spray nozzles.
Combined Acceleration And Speed Control Unit

Figure 11.3

11.5 FUEL FLOW REGULATOR
The fuel flow regulator, driven by the engine, has two centrifugal governors, (speed
control and pressure drop control) and two sliding valves, which also rotate.
The first valve, known as the variable metering sleeve, has a triangular orifice known
as a variable metering orifice, VMO. This sleeve is moved by the capsule assembly.
The governor sleeve, sliding over the VMO sleeve, is moved by the speed control
governor and the stirrup arm, both of which are controlled by the throttle lever in the
cockpit.
The other, pressure drop valve, is also controlled by a governor and forms a piston. It
has a triangular, variable orifice and a rectangular, fixed-area orifice. Primary fuel flow
comes from the fixed area orifice and, on its own, will provide a satisfactory fuel flow for
idling at all altitudes. The triangular, variable orifice allocates the amount of extra fuel to
the Main fuel flow in proportion to throttle opening, HP fuel pressure, engine RPM and
VMO pressure.
11.6 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONRTOL
Some engines utilise a system of electronic control to monitor engine performance and
make necessary control inputs to maintain certain engine parameters within pre-
determined limits. The main areas of control are engine shaft speeds, (N1, N2 and N3),
and exhaust gas temperature, EGT, which are continuously monitored during engine
operation. Some types of electronic control function only as a limiter, that is, if the shaft
speeds or the EGT approach dangerous levels, an input is made to the fuel flow
regulator, FFR, to reduce the fuel flow thus maintaining shaft speed or EGT at safe
levels.
Supervisory systems, such as those mentioned previously, may contain a limiter

function but, basically, by using aircraft generated data, the system enables a more
appropriate thrust setting to be selected quickly and accurately by the pilot. The control
system then makes small control adjustments to maintain engine thrust consistent with
that pre-set by the pilot, regardless of changing atmospheric conditions.
Full Authority Digital Engine Control, (FADEC), takes over virtually all of the steady
state and transient control intelligence and replaces most of the hydro-mechanical and
pneumatic elements of the fuel system. The fuel system is thus reduced to a pump and
control valve, an independent shut-off cock and a minimum of additional features
necessary to keep the engine safe in the event of extensive electronic failure.

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As an example, the Rolls Royce RB211 engine FADEC system shown below,
demonstrates how the computer known as the Control Amplifier, has inputs of engine
temperature and shaft speeds and control output to the differential pressure
regulator.
At high power settings, when there is a risk of shaft Overspeed or excess temperatures,
the pressure regulator returns excess fuel to the pump inlet. The fuel flow regulator acts
as a hydro-mechanical control, with inputs from the high-speed compressor, the gas
path pressures and the power lever position.
Typical FADEC System

Figure 11.4
SYSTEM LAYOUTS
Engine fuel systems vary in detail, but generally they contain similar components which
do the same jobs. It can be seen from the two illustrations below, showing typical turbo-
propeller and turbo-jet installations, that components like HP pumps; throttle unit/fuel
flow regulators; shaft governors and HP shut-off cocks are common to both installations.
It will also be seen that the sensors measuring such items as intake temperature;
internal pressures; exhaust gas temperature and shaft speeds are, again, common to
both designs.

Engine Fuel System Layouts
Figure 11.5

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There are a number of components, fitted to gas turbine engines, which require either
some limited maintenance or adjustment during their installed lives. The short
explanation and illustrations that follow will cover the most common of these.
ENGINE DRIVEN FUEL PUMP (EDP)
This pump delivers more fuel as the engine speeds up. It is designed to deliver a
continuous supply of fuel to the fuel control at a quantity in excess of the engine needs.
After metering the required amount of fuel to the combustor, the fuel control unit returns
the surplus fuel to the pump inlet.
Main pumps can be either spur gear types, (positive displacement – output  speed),
or plunger types which have their output dependent on a servo signal from the throttle
position as well as the engine speed. The pump illustrated below is a single unit,
variable stroke, plunger type. The output of this type of pump can vary from about 100
to 2000 gallons per hour, at 2000 psi. depending on demand.
Variable Output Fuel Pump

Figure 11.6

FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES
The three major types of atomising fuel spray nozzles are Simplex, Duplex and
Airspray. These are the final component in the engine fuel system and the engine
performance depends upon their correct operation.
Their task is to either atomise or to vaporise the fuel to ensure its rapid burning. The
difficulties involved in this process can be appreciated when the velocity of the
compressor outlet air and the short burning length available is considered.
The basic simplex burner imparts swirl to the fuel and then, after straightening out the
swirl, it atomises the fuel from when it can be ignited to produce energy. This type of
burner was first used on early jet engines and contained a chamber that induced the
swirl to the fuel. Its main limitation was that the pressure required to achieve very high
flows was difficult to achieve with the pumps available in those days.
A cutaway of a simplex burner, together with a typical spray pattern is illustrated below.
Simplex nozzle
Figure 11.7
The duplex spray nozzle, (overleaf), requires a primary and a main fuel manifold and
has two independent orifices, one much smaller than the other. The smaller orifice
handles the lower flows, whilst the larger orifice deals with the higher flows as the fuel
pressure increases. A pressurising valve or flow divider may be employed to apportion
the fuel to each manifold, depending on the demand.

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Duplex burner
Figure 11.8
In this system, the duplex nozzles are able to give effective atomising over a wider flow
range than the simplex nozzle for the same fuel pressure. These nozzles are also more
effective in atomising the fuel at the low flows required at high altitudes.
The Airspray nozzle (right) carries a proportion of the primary combustion air with the
injected fuel. By aerating the spray, the local fuel rich concentrations, produced by the
other types of spray nozzle, are avoided. This gives a reduction in both carbon
formation and exhaust smoke.
Another advantage of this type of nozzle is that the low pressures required for
atomisation of the fuel permits the use of the comparatively lighter gear-type pump.
Airspray Nozzle
Figure 11.9

OVER-SPEED PROTECTION
Some engines require additional protection against overspeeding, other than the normal
fuel control unit with engine speed input. A device similar to that illustrated (right) might
be found on some engines, in this case the Rolls Royce Tay Turbo-fan engine, to limit
the rotational speed of the LP fan. It achieves this, in a potential overspeeding condition,
by directly restricting the fuel flow to the burners, via the metering plunger, which is lifted
by the centrifugal governor.
Overspeed RPM Governor

Figure 11.10
Other components found within some engine fuel systems would include Filters, which
remove any foreign particles not removed by earlier filtration and, fuel heaters, which
ensure any ice crystals entrained in the fuel are melted before they can block any filters.

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15.12 AIR SYSTEMS
A definition of the engine internal air system is “Those airflow’s which do not directly
contribute to the engine thrust”. The system has several important functions to
perform for the safe and efficient operation of the engine. These functions include
internal engine and accessory unit cooling, bearing chamber sealing, prevention of hot
gas ingestion into the turbine disc cavities, control of bearing axial loads, control of
turbine blade tip clearance and engine anti-icing.
The internal air system also supplies air for aircraft services. Up to one fifth of the total
engine core mass airflow may be used for these functions.
An increasing amount of work is done on the air, as it progresses through the

compressor, to raise its pressure and temperature. To reduce performance losses, the
air is taken as early as possible from the compressor, relative to the requirement of
each particular function. The cooling air is usually expelled overboard, once it is of no
further use. It may, however, be fed into the main gas stream, at the highest possible
pressure, where a small performance recovery is achieved.
COOLING AIR
At the design stage of a gas turbine engine, it must be designed to ensure that certain
parts of the engine, and in some instances certain accessories, do not absorb heat to
the extent that it is detrimental to their safe operation. The principal areas that require
air-cooling are the combustor and turbine.
Some internal airflow is used to control the temperature of the compressor shafts and
discs by either cooling or heating them. This ensures an even temperature distribution
and therefore improves engine efficiency by controlling thermal growth and thus
maintaining minimum blade tip and seal clearances. The illustration below shows how
the L.P, HP intermediate and HP air are used to cool the various internal parts of a twin-
spool by-pass engine.
Cooling Airflow’s
Figure 12.1

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TURBINE COOLING
A high thermal efficiency depends on a high turbine inlet temperature, which is limited
by the turbine and nozzle guide vane materials. Continuous cooling of these
components allows their environmental operating temperature to exceed the melting
point of the material, without affecting the blade and vane integrity.
Heat conduction from the turbine blades to the turbine disc requires the discs to be
cooled also and thus prevent thermal fatigue and uncontrolled expansion and
contraction rates.
The life of turbine blades and vanes depends not only upon their form, but also on the
method of cooling used therefore, the flow design of the internal passages is very
important. There have been numerous methods of cooling used over the history of gas
turbines. Single pass internal cooling was the most basic method used in the early
designs, whilst later designs have multi-pass internal cooling with external air film
cooling as well. Examples of three turbine blade design, from different eras, are
illustrated below.
Turbine Blade Cooling

Figure 12.2

It will be noticed that the later blades use both LP and HP cooling air to control the
operating temperature of the blades. These differing air supplies are taken from
tappings at different places along the compressor stage.
BEARING CHAMBER COOLING
Air cooling of the engine bearing chambers is not normally necessary since the
lubrication system is adequate for cooling purposes. The bearings are also normally
located in the cooler regions of the engine.
ACCESSORY COOLING
A considerable amount of heat is produced by some of the engine accessories; the

electrical generators for example. Separate cooling sub-systems may be necessary for
some components like these when the aircraft is on the ground, which may use engine
bleed air or atmospheric air, which is ducted from outside the cowling.
Whilst the bleed air is supplied from a pressure tapping, external air must be induced to
pass through the cooling system ducting. This is achieved by using compressor delivery
air passing through nozzles in the outlet duct, creating a low-pressure area.
This induces a flow though the cooling system from the inlet louvers to the outlet duct,
as shown below.
Accessory Cooling
Figure 12.3

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SEALING AIR
Seals are used to prevent oil leakage from the engine bearing chambers, to control
cooling airflow’s and to prevent ingress of the mainstream gas into the turbine disc
cavities. Various sealing methods are used on gas turbine engines. The choice of which
method is dependent upon the surrounding atmosphere and pressure, resistance to
wear, heat generation, weight, space available, ease of manufacture and ease of
installation and removal.
The typical turbine assembly illustrating hypothetical cooling and sealing arrangements
below, shows the usage of most of the common methods of sealing, which will be
described later.
Sealing Air Examples

Figure 12.4

LABRYNTH SEALS
This type of seal is widely used to retain oil in bearing chambers and as a metering
device to control internal airflow’s.
The seal comprises a finned rotating member with a static bore, which is lined with
either a soft abradable material or a high temperature honeycomb structure. On initial
running the fins lightly cut small grooves into the static bore material, leaving a minimal
clearance. This clearance varies throughout the flight cycle, depending on the thermal
growth of the parts and the natural flexing of the rotating members.
Across each seal fin there is a pressure drop resulting in a restricted flow of sealing air
from one side of the seal to the other. When used for bearing chamber sealing, it
prevents oil leakage by allowing air to flow from the outside to the inside of the
chamber, which also induces a positive pressure to assist the oil return system. The
illustrations below show two different uses of labyrinth seals, an oil and air seal and a
simple airflow control seal.
Labyrinth Seals
Figure 12.5
RING SEALS
A ring seal comprises a metal ring housed in a close fitting groove in the static housing.
The clearance between the ring and the shaft is smaller than with a labyrinth seal, due
to the ring being able to move in the groove, when it contacts with the shaft.
Ring seals are used for bearing chamber

sealing, except in the hot areas where oil
degradation due to heat would lead to ring seizure within its housing.

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Ring Type Oil Seal

Figure 12.6
HYDRAULIC SEALS
This method of sealing is often used between two rotating members to seal a bearing
chamber. Unlike the labyrinth and ring seals, it does not allow a controlled flow of air to
traverse across the sea.
These seals are formed by a seal fin immersed in an annulus of oil, which has been
created by centrifugal force. Any difference in air pressure inside and outside of the
bearing chamber is compensated by a difference in oil level either side of the fin.
CARBON SEALS
Carbon seals consist of a static ring of carbon, which constantly rubs against a collar on
a rotating shaft. Several springs are used to maintain contact between the carbon and
the collar. This type of seal relies upon a high degree of contact and does not allow oil
or air leakage across it. The heat caused by friction is dissipated by the oil system.

BRUSH SEALS
These seals comprise a static ring of fine wire bristles. They are in continuous contact
with a rotating shaft, rubbing against a hard ceramic coating. This type of seal has the
advantage of withstanding radial rubs without increasing leakage.
Carbon (Left) And Ceramic Seals

Figure 12.7
Aircraft Services
To provide a wide range of air services, such as cabin pressurisation/air conditioning,

airframe/engine anti-icing, cross starting and, finally pressurisation of water and
hydraulic tanks, substantial quantities of air are required from the compressor. It is
desirable to bleed the air as early as possible from the compressor to minimise the loss
on engine performance.
However, during some phases of the flight cycle, such as a low engine speed during the
descent and approach, it may be necessary to switch the bleed source from an earlier
to a later stage tapping. This allows the higher pressure and temperatures, required for
the services, to be maintained. As an example, the Rolls Royce Tay engine has
tappings at the 7th and 12th stages of the HP compressor and the changeover from one
to the other occurs automatically when the engine speed falls below, or rises above
80%.
The bleed air, tapped from the compressor of the engine, is distributed to numerous
services. The diagram below shows the air distribution on a typical twin-engined, 100-
seat airliner. Of note are the additional inputs from the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and
the ground supply unit, as well as the two power plants.

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Pneumatic Services
Figure 12.8
The more complex system diagram overleaf only shows how the two tappings from the
engine, at stages 7 and 12 are fed into the common manifold. From there it is used to
anti-ice the intakes, pressurise the cabin, anti-ice the wing and tail, pressurise the
hydraulic and water tanks, as well as cross-starting the other engine in flight, if required.
It will also be seen that the Shut-off and Temperature Modulating Valve is the valve that
switches between the bleed air stages 7 and 12, depending on the engine speed.

Typical Pneumatic System
Figure 12.9
It will also be seen from the illustration on the previous page, that there are a number of
shut-off valves used to activate and de-activate the various engine bleed air supply
systems. The crew activates all these shut-off valves, from the flight deck, when
required.
Due to the large demand for bleed air from some systems, inhibitions are applied at
certain times such as take-off, to prevent a reduction in power, due to excessive
demand, at critical times. There are also overpressure valves and temperature sensors,
within the bleed air supply, that protect both the ducts and the services that they supply.

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15.13 STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Two main systems are required to ensure that a gas turbine engine will start
satisfactorily. Firstly, provision must be made for the compressor and turbine to be
rotated up to a speed at which adequate air passes into the combustion system to mix
with the fuel from the fuel spray nozzles. Secondly, provision must be made for ignition
of the air/fuel mixture in the combustion system.
During normal engine starting, the two systems must operate simultaneously. It must
also be possible to motor the engine over without ignition for maintenance checks and
to blow out residual fuel after a failed start. In addition, it must be possible to operate the
ignition system for relighting the engine during flight.
The functioning of both systems is co-ordinated during a starting cycle and their
operation is automatically controlled after the initiation of the cycle by an electrical
circuit. A typical sequence might be as follows:
 Start button pressed

 Ignition ‘ON’
 HP Fuel ‘ON’
 Light-Up
 Self Sustaining
 Starter Circuit ‘OFF’
 Idle RPM
Methods of Starting
The starting procedure for all jet engines is basically the same, but can be achieved by
various methods. The type and power source for the starter varies with engine and
aircraft requirements. The power sources can be electrical, gas, air or hydraulic and
each method has its merits.
The requirements for a military aircraft, for example, are totally different to those for a
commercial airliner. The starter motor must, however, always produce a high torque
and then transmit this torque to the engine in a smooth manner to accelerate it to self-
sustaining speed.

13.1.1 ELECTRIC STARTING
The electric starter is usually a direct current, (D.C.), electric motor coupled to the
engine through a reduction gear and ratchet mechanism, or clutch, which will
automatically disengage once the engine is self-sustaining.
The electrical supply voltage can be progressively increased by the removal of

resistances in the circuit as the engine increases in speed. The ignition system is also
actuated and supplied at the same time as the start is initiated.
Once the engine is running, the starter supply is cancelled by the drop in supply current
or by the action of a timer mechanism. Either way, the starter slows down and the clutch
or ratchet mechanism ensures that the engine can accelerate free from the starter drive
shaft.
The diagram below shows a simplified electric starter circuit. It contains most of the
components found in many starter circuits such as master switch, start button and main
starter relay. Overspeed relays usually disconnect the starter motor electrically, once
the amount of current being drawn falls below a value which can only be reached if the
engine is self-sustaining.
Electric Starting Circuit

Figure 13.1

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13.1.2 AIR STARTING
Air starting is used on most commercial and some military jet engines. It ahs many
advantages over other starting systems and is comparatively light, simple and
economical to operate.
An air starter motor transmits power through a reduction gear and clutch to the starter
output shaft, which is connected to the engine. A typical air starter is a basic air turbine
that rotates at high RPM when HP air is passed through it from the on board Auxiliary
Power Unit, (APU), a cross-feed from a running engine, or an external air supply.
The air supply, from whichever source, is controlled by an electrically operated control
and pressure-reducing valve that is opened when an engine start is selected. It is
automatically closed at a pre-determined starter speed. The clutch automatically
disengages as the engine accelerates up to idling RPM and the rotation of the starter
ceases.
The illustration below shows a typical air starting system, with a cut-away of the actual
starter motor showing its rotor.
Starter system(left)and starter motor

Figure 13.2

13.1.3 IMPINGEMENT AIR STARTERS
Some turbo-jet engines are not fitted with starter motors, but use air impingement onto
the turbine blades as a means of rotating the engine. The air is obtained from an
external source, or a running engine, and is directed on to the turbine blades.
13.1.4 GAS TURBINE STARTERS
On a few turbo-jet engines, a small self-contained gas turbine is used to start the
engine. It is completely independent of the aircraft systems, excluding the electric
starter. Once the small engine has started, its exhaust is directed, through nozzle guide
vanes on to the turbine of the main engine, which will rotate through its own starting
cycle, until it reaches self-sustaining speed.
13.1.5 HYDRAULIC STARTING
This form of starting is found, on occasions, fitted on to small gas turbine engines. In
most applications, one of the engine mounted hydraulic pumps is utilised and is known
as a combined pump/starter. This unit is coupled to the engine through the accessory
gearbox and a reduction gearing. The hydraulic power, which will drive the unit in its
‘starter mode’ can come from external sources or on-board accumulators.
Once the starter has powered the gas turbine engine to self-sustaining speed, the unit
changes from being a starter and becomes a normal hydraulic pump. In this form it acts
as a normal pump throughout the remainder of the flight.

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13.2 HIGH ENERGY IGNITION SYSTEMS
High-energy (HE) ignition is used for starting all jet engines and, excluding APU’s, all
have dual systems fitted. Each system has an ignition unit connected to its own Ignitor
plug, the two plugs being fitted in different positions, (or Combustors), in the engine.
Each HE ignition unit receives a low voltage supply, controlled by the starting system
circuit, from the aircraft’s electrical system. The electrical energy is stored in the unit
until, at a pre-determined value, the energy is dissipated as a high voltage, high current
discharge across the plug.
These ignition units are rated in ‘Joules’. Each Joule is equal to one Watt/ Second, with
a value of 12 Joules being typical for a high output and 3 to 6 Joules for a low output. A
high output would be required for re-lighting at altitude and certain ground starts, whilst
a low output would only be required during continuous operation in icing or wet weather,
giving longer Ignitor and ignition unit life.
To be able to operate at both levels, combined systems, giving high and low level
outputs are most popular. Such a system would consist of one unit emitting a high
output to one Ignitor plug and a second unit giving a low output to a second Ignitor plug.
Some Ignitor units have been manufactured which contain both high and low outputs,
which means that two igniters can be operating at either level depending on the
conditions and the relevant cockpit selection.
A typical, simple ignition system is illustrated below and shows how the inputs are
modified, through several stages, to give a high voltage, direct current to the HT
terminal of the Ignitor.

LETHAL WARNING
The electrical energy stored in the HE ignition unit, (HEIU), is potentially lethal. Before
handling the component, the associated circuit breaker should be tripped or the relevant
fuse removed. Allow at least one minute to elapse, after isolating the unit, before
touching the unit itself, the HT lead or the Ignitor plug.
Typical Ignition System

Figure 13.3
The Ignitor plugs operate in the same way as sparking plugs, except that they are only
required to start the engines, they are then switched off until the next start. There are
two basic types of Ignitor plug, the air gap type and the surface discharge type. The air
gap type require a potential difference in the region of 20,000 volts, whist the surface
discharge type only requires a voltage in the region of 2,000 volts.
As igniters are used for both low-tension D.C. systems and high- tension A.C. systems
and are NOT interchangeable, care must be taken to use the correct item, as
recommended by the manufacturer, in their overhaul/maintenance manuals.
The normal spark rate of a typical ignition system is between 60 and 100 sparks per
minute. Periodic replacement of the Ignitor plug is necessary due to the progressive
erosion of the electrodes caused by each discharge.

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The two illustrations below show one unit of a dual ignition system (left) and a surface
discharge Ignitor (right).
Ignition System(Left)And Ignitor Plug

Figure 13.4
RELIGHTING
The jet engine requires the facility for relighting should the flame in the combustion
chamber become extinguished during flight. This ‘relighting’ can only be safely
accomplished if the aircraft is at the correct speed and below a certain altitude. The
chart, (below) illustrates the relighting envelope for a specific aircraft. If the aircraft is too
slow or too fast, or if it is above about 25,000 feet, there is little chance for the engine to
relight. Within this envelope the airflow will rotate the compressor at a speed
satisfactory for relighting.

Relighting Envelope
Figure 13.5

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MAINTENANCE SAFETY
It has already been mentioned that the HEIUs can deliver a fatal shock if they are
handled whilst still live. It is also possible to be shocked if either the Ignitor leads or the
igniters themselves are handled before 1 minute has elapsed after removing all power
from the system.
DO NOT depend on just the starter master switch being placed into the ‘OFF’ position
as it is possible someone may switch it to ‘ON’ whilst you are working some way from
the cockpit, on aft mounted engines for example. At least pull AND LABEL AS ‘INOP’,
any circuit breakers applicable to the HEIUs. Also, disconnect the Low-Tension
connectors on the Ignitor box itself to be doubly sure.
Exercise great care when handling some types of ignition transformer units if they are
damaged. They can contain radioactive material on their air gap points.
Some Ignitor plugs are manufactured from exotic materials, which require special
disposal arrangements. Check to see whether the items you are removing for disposal
at life expiry are of this type.


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15.14 ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS
All engine parameters require monitoring and, therefore, instrumentation is provided to

inform the pilot of the correct functioning of the various engine systems and to warn of
any impending failure.
Should any of the automatic controls fitted to the engine fail, the engine can be
manually controlled, by the pilot, who can select the required thrust setting by
monitoring the instruments to maintain the engine within the relevant operating
limitations.
The multitude of dials and gauges on the instrument panels may be replaced by one or
more cathode ray tubes, (CRTs), to display engine parameters. These screens are
often integrated into a complete set of flight and engine instrumentation displays.
As an example, the first illustration below shows a typical analogue engine parameter
display for a twin engined aircraft. There are displays for the following engine
parameters:
RPM
T.G.T.
E.P.R.
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL PRESSURE
VIBRATION
FUEL TEMPERATURE
FUEL QUANTITY
FUEL FLOW
Engine Indications
Figure 14.1

Whilst this display is from a typical twin-jet aircraft, the addition of one or two further
engines would complicate the display by adding at least 12 more instruments to the
display. Electronic indicating systems, however, consolidate engine indications, system
monitoring and crew alerting functions on to one or more CRTs mounted on the
instrument panel.
The following illustrations show two forms of engine instrumentation. One form
duplicates the analogue instruments so that they display the readings much as the older
analogue instruments would have done. This example displays the following
parameters:
E.P.R.
ENGINE SPEED (N1)
E.G.T.
OIL PRESSURE
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL QUANTITY
VIBRATION
ENGINE SPEED (N2)
ENGINE SPEED (N3)
FUEL FLOW
CRT Analogue Displays

Figure 14.2

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The other example,( below)displays its parameters in the form of ‘ribbons’ or ‘tapes’,
which climb up the display as the quantities being represented increase. On this display
the parameters shown are as follows:
E.P.R.
T.G.T.
ENGINE SPEED (N1)
ENGINE SPEED (N2)
FUEL FLOW
OIL PRESSURE
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL QUANTITY
VIBRATION
FUEL TEMPERATURE
FUEL USED
Tape Displays
Figure 14.3

TURBINE GAS TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
The temperature of the exhaust gasses is always indicated, thus ensuring that the
temperature of the turbine assembly can be checked at any specific operating condition.
In addition, an automatic gas temperature control system can be fitted to some gas
turbine engines, to ensure that the maximum gas temperature is not exceeded.
The turbine gas temperature, (T.G.T.), can sometimes be referred to as exhaust gas
temperature, (E.G.T.), or jet pipe temperature, (J.P.T.). It is a critical variable of engine
operation and it is essential to provide an indication of this temperature.
Ideally, turbine entry temperature, (T.E.T.), should be measured; however, because of

the high temperatures involved, this is not practical. As the temperature drop across the
turbine varies in a known manner, the temperature at the outlet from the turbine is
usually measured by suitably positioned thermocouples. The temperature can also be
measured at an intermediate stage of the turbine assembly.
The thermocouple probes use to transmit the temperature signal to the indicator consist
of wires of dissimilar metals that are joined together inside a metal guard tube. Transfer
holes in the tube allow the exhaust gasses to flow across the junction. These wires are
usually nickel-chromium and nickel-aluminium alloys. The probes are connected in
parallel and their output is transmitted to a milli-voltmeter calibrated to read in degrees
centigrade, (0C). For fine adjustments, there usually is a trimmer resistor in the circuit.
A basic system diagram is illustrated below, showing just a single temperature probe.
Basic Thermocouple System

Figure 14.4

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ENGINE THRUST INDICATION
The thrust of an engine is normally shown on an instrument system that will be one of
two types. The first type measures the turbine discharge or jet-pipe pressure and the
second, known as an engine pressure ratio, (E.P.R.) gauge, measures the ratio of two
(normally) or three parameters. (The straight jet pipe pressure measurement system is
rarely used these days, due to the E.P.R. system being much more accurate).
When E.P.R. is measured, the ratio is usually that of jet-pipe pressure to compressor
inlet pressure. On a fan engine, the ratio can be either between an integrated turbine
discharge/fan outlet pressure to compressor inlet pressure or, as on the Rolls Royce
Tay fan engine, between the by-pass duct pressure, (fan outlet), and the compressor
inlet pressure.
In each of the above examples, it will be necessary to have a correction figure for the
current ambient conditions. This figure will form a standard against which the jet pipe or
duct pressures can be compared. This comparison is normally carried out automatically.
To measure the compressor inlet pressure a pitot type tube is normally used. The
pressure that is read by this is either connected directly to the indicator or to a pressure
transmitter that is electrically connected to the transmitter. Measurements taken in the
fan duct, or the jet-pipe itself, are also taken by probes that have to be very sturdy to
stand the air and temperature loads exerted on them.
The display shown to the pilot can be in either analogue or digital form. It will simply be
a ratio above 1.0 and normally below 2.0. The ratio for take-off on a specific day, can be
obtained from either the flight manual or, on modern aircraft, from the flight
management system, (FMS), computer. This ratio will be aimed for when the pilot
moves the throttle levers forwards prior to taking off.

TORQUE INDICATION
Engine torque is used to indicate the power that is developed by a turbo-propeller

engine and its indicator is known as a torquemeter. The engine torque, or turning
moment is proportional to the horse-power and is transmitted through the propeller
reduction gear.
A basic torquemeter system is shown in the illustration overleaf. In this system, the
axial thrust produced by the helical gears is opposed by the oil pressure acting on the
pistons. This pressure which is required to resist the axial thrust is transmitted to the
indicator.
In addition to providing an indication of engine power, the torquemeter system may also
be used to automatically actuate the propeller feathering system, if the power fails at a
critical time. It can also actuate a water injection system when hot or high.
Another method of measuring torque is to measure the ‘twist’ on the main drive shaft, in
the reduction gear-box, whilst the engine is producing high power. A phonic wheel is
installed at each end of the shaft, each wheel having a sensor pick-up. When the shaft
is rotating without carrying power, the two phonic wheel outputs are in synchronisation.
When the shaft is carrying high torque, it twists, putting the outputs out-of-phase. This
phase difference is measured electronically and displayed as torque, usually in
foot/pounds.
OIL PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
It is essential for correct and safe operation of the engine that accurate indication is
obtained of both the temperature and the pressure of the oil in the system.
OIL TEMPERATURE
This is sensed by a detector fitted in the oil system. On dry-sump engines, (those with
separate oil tanks), the temperature sensor is often located in a special fitting between
the oil tank and the pump. On wet-sump engines, (those whose oil is contained within
the lower section of the engine itself, together with the pumps etc.), it is usually installed
inside the oil screen immediately after the pump.
Early systems measure the oil temperature mechanically, by measuring the pressure of
a gas sealed inside a bulb located in the oil stream. The pressure of the gas varies in
proportion to its temperature and is displayed on the flight deck as oil temperature.
On modern systems, an electrical temperature sensitive element is fitted. A change in

temperature causes a change in the resistance value and, consequently, a
corresponding change in the current flow at the indicator. The indicator pointer is
deflected by an amount equivalent to the temperature change. This is displayed on the
gauge in degrees centigrade.

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OIL PRESSURE
Oil pressure is usually measured at the outlet of the engine driven pump and is
indicated on the instrument panel. It will give warning of impending engine failure
caused by a depleted oil supply, pump failure, damaged bearings or a ruptured oil
supply line, all of which will be indicated by a fluctuation or fall in oil pressure.
Again, early designs used a Bourdon Tube mechanism that measures the difference
between the oil pressure and the ambient air pressure. The rising oil pressure tends to
straighten the flattened and curved tube in the gauge. This mechanical movement was
transmitted to the needle, which displayed the oil pressure in pounds per square inch.
Modern designs use electrical systems to indicate to the flight deck. Simple systems
use a ‘flag’ method that simply indicates if the pressure is high, normal or low. Normally
though, the pressure sensed by a transducer in the oil supply line is transmitted,
through wires, to the cockpit gauge, with display changes being in proportion to the oil
pressure changes. The display may be in pounds per square inch or bars.
In addition to a pressure gauge operated by a transmitter, an oil low-pressure warning

switch may be provided to indicate that a minimum pressure is available for continued
safe running of the engine. This switch can be set to operate a warning ‘caption’ on the
instrument panel and/or an audible warning for the crew.
This type of warning allows the crew to immediately shut an engine down in flight,
allowing the fault to be found later, instead of the engine continuing to run dry and being
damaged, perhaps permanently.

FUEL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The temperature and pressure of the low-pressure fuel supply are electrically
transmitted to their respective indicators. These show if the low-pressure system is
providing an adequate supply of fuel without cavitation and at a temperature to suit the
operating conditions.
Basically, a low fuel pressure could indicate the failure of a booster pump or other flow
problems. The gauge may also be supported by a warning light, (caption), or even an
audio warning. There are nearly always two booster pumps fitted in each tank that cater
for the pump failure situation.
A low fuel temperature indication might require the flight crew to actuate the fuel heating
facility to prevent the filter becoming clogged by ice crystals. This heat is fed through a
heat exchanger and can come from air, bled from the engine or oil from the lubrication
system.
On some engines, a fuel differential pressure switch, fitted to the low-pressure fuel
filter, senses the pressure differential across the filter element. The switch is connected
to a warning caption or an audio warning to indicate a partial filter blockage, with the risk
of fuel starvation.
FUEL FLOW
Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly between
engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of the satisfactory
operation of the engine and the amount of fuel being consumed during the flight.
It is also useful to sum the fuel flow, over time, to give a ‘total fuel used’ figure for each
engine, (or for the aircraft), so that the amount used at differing times of the flight, such
as climb, cruise, etc., can be logged.
A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is usually some form of turbine
or impeller, fitted in the low-pressure fuel system and an indicator. The indicator shows
the rate of fuel flow, in whichever units the aircraft tanks are calibrated, (gallons,
pounds, kilograms or U.S. gallons per hour).
The transmitter measures the fuel flow electrically and an associated electronic unit
gives a signal to the indicator, proportional to the fuel flow.

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ENGINE SPEED
All powered aircraft have a display that shows the engine speed. On multiple spool
engines, the high-pressure spool speed is always shown and, in most cases the
intermediate, (if fitted), and the low-pressure spool speeds are also displayed.
The engine speed indication is usually electrically transmitted from a small

generator, driven by the engine, to an indicator, which displays the actual
revolutions per minute, (RPM) or a percentage of maximum engine speed.
Whilst the engine speed is sometimes used to assess the engine thrust, it does
not give an absolute and accurate figure, due to the atmospheric circumstances
of the day. (Pressure and temperature), which can change the thrust available
at a specific time.
Engine Speed Indicator And Transmitter

Figure 14.5
The engine speed transmitter is a simple 3-phase generator in which the frequency
of the output is read by the indicator and displayed either as RPM or as a
percentage between 0% and 100%.

Where there is no provision for driving a generator, a speed probe in conjunction
with a phonic wheel may be used, (right). This will induce an electric current that is
amplified and then transmitted to an indicator. This method can be used to
provide an indication of RPM without the need for a separately driven generator,
with its associated drives; thus reducing the number of components and moving
parts in the engine.
Phonic Wheel System

Figure 14.6
Some speed probe/phonic wheel assemblies have the additional facility of being able to
illuminate a light on the flight deck when the relevant shaft begins to turn. This is used to
assist the pilot by telling him when to open the HP fuel cock during the start cycle. It is
only in operation during the starting cycle.

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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION
A turbo-jet engine has an extremely low vibration level, especially when compared to
reciprocating engines, even fully balanced ones. Because of this, a vibration change or
the appearance of a new vibration due to an impending or partial failure, may pass
without being noticed. Many engines are therefore fitted with vibration indicators that
continually monitor the vibration level(s) of the engine. The cockpit indicator is usually a
milliammeter that receives signals through an amplifier from engine mounted
transmitters.
A vibration transmitter is mounted on the engine casing and electrically connected to the
amplifier and the indicator. The vibration sensing element is usually an electro-magnetic
transducer that converts the rate of vibration into electrical signals which cause the
indicator to show the amplitude of the vibrations being sensed, usually in inches per
second, (I.P.S.).
Because of the rarity of an excessive engine vibration reading, there will be a warning
light/caption or audio warning to warn the flight crew that there is an abnormal reading
on the indicator, enabling them to shut the engine down and so reduce the risk of
damage.
On advanced, three-spool engines, there is an additional facility that allows the

vibrations from the three spools to be differentiated and, therefore, each spool can be
monitored separately. It is also possible for the flight crew to select a specific area such
as the accessory gearbox, for vibration monitoring.


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15.15 POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (level B1 only)
The maximum power output of a gas turbine engine depends to a large extent upon the
density, or mass, of air passing through the engine. There is, therefore, a reduction in
thrust, (or shaft horsepower on turbo-propeller engines), as the atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude and/or the ambient air temperature increases.
Under these conditions of low power, the power output can be either restored or
boosted for take-off, depending on the engine design, by cooling the intake airflow with
water or water-methanol mixture. When methanol is added to the water, it gives both
anti-freezing properties and also provides an additional source of fuel.
The graphs below show how a gas-turbine engine can have its thrust restored when the
ambient temperature reaches high levels, (left) and how a turbo-propeller engine can
have its power either restored or boosted at higher temperatures.
Power restored (left )and restored/boosted

Figure 15.1

INTAKE INJECTION
Coolant is normally injected directly into the compressor inlet, although some have it
injected into the combustion chambers themselves. This is more efficient because it
gives both a more even distribution and a greater quantity of the liquid into the engine.
When water/water methanol mixture is sprayed into the compressor inlet, the
temperature of the compressor inlet air is reduced and consequently the air density and,
therefore, the thrust are increased. If water only was injected, it would reduce the
turbine inlet temperature. With the addition of methanol, however, the turbine inlet
temperature is restored by the burning of the methanol in the combustion chamber.
Thus, the power is restored without having to adjust the fuel flow.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER INJECTION
The injection of coolant into the combustion chamber inlet increases the mass flow
through the turbine, relative to that through the compressor. The pressure and
temperature drop across the turbine is thus reduced, which results in an increased jet
pipe pressure, giving additional thrust. The fuel system is now able to schedule more
fuel than before the water was injected, giving even more thrust. If water methanol is
injected, there is no need for extra fuel to be scheduled as the burning methanol
provides the extra power.
CARE MUST BE TAKEN WHEN REPLENISHING THESE SYSTEMS –
WATER/METHANOL IN A WATER SYSTEM CAN DESTROY AN ENGINE.

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15.16 TURBO-PROPELLER ENGINES
Whenever a gas turbine is used to power a propeller, by whatever means, it us normally

referred to as a turbopropeller engine. Other terms used are turboprop and, rarely,
propjet. The exhaust gasses from the basic part of the turbojet, often called the gas
generator, are used to rotate an additional turbine that drives the propeller through a
speed-reducing gearbox.
In some turbo-props, additional turbine stages are incorporated into the existing turbine
assembly that rotates the compressor. The additional power that is removed from the
gas stream achieves two things; firstly it reduces the thrust from the exhaust of the
engine and, secondly, the energy removed from the exhaust is used to drive the
propeller reduction gearing, directly from the compressor drive shaft. Engines of this
type are known as direct-drive turbopropeller engines.
More common these days are free-turbine turbopropeller engines. This design has the
additional turbine stage independent of the compressor drive turbines, which is free to
rotate by itself in the engine exhaust gas stream. The shaft on which the free turbine is
mounted drives the propeller through the propeller reduction gearbox.
The simplified illustrations below show (top) a turboprop with the propeller driven
directly from the compressor shaft through reduction gears and (bottom) a turboprop
with the propeller driven by a free turbine, also through reduction gearing.
Direct Coupled(Upper)And Free Turbine Turbo-Prop

Figure 16.1

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Another configuration of the free turbine turbopropeller engine has a rather

unconventional rear-to-front air and gas flow direction. This configuration provides
greater flexibility in the design of nacelle installations. The space behind the engine,
which is normally occupied by the exhaust jet pipe, can be used for wheel wells, fuel
tanks or a baggage compartment.
Another advantage of this ‘reverse design’ type of engine is the ease of hot end
replacement, which occurs when the turbine of the engine, (which is the most thermally
stressed part), has to be replaced partway through the overhaul life of the engine. This
often requires an engine change and even, occasionally, an overhaul at the factory.
With this design, the turbine is at the front of the engine and can be accessed by simply
removing both the propeller and the front engine casing. The engine remains fitted in
the airframe.
A typical engine of this type is the Pratt and Whitney PT6. A cutaway of one model of
this engine is shown below, where it can also be seen that the compressor is one of the
axial/centrifugal types popular with these small turboprop/turboshaft engines.
Reverse flow turbo-prop engine

Figure 16.2
This type of engine will also be found installed in helicopters, marine craft and other
installations, where it is known as a turboshaft engine. This will be covered in the next
section.

REDUCTION GEARBOXES
Due to the fact that propellers are most efficient at relatively slow rotational speeds, they
will usually be found rotating at a speed of between 1,500 to 2,500 RPM, the shafts of
turbopropeller engines can be rotating at many times more than this. As an example,
the PT6 engine mentioned above has a power turbine rotational speed of about 30,000
RPM, whilst the propeller rotates at only 1,700 RPM
This means that the shaft speed must be reduced by a factor of about 1:0.057. This is
achieved by the use of an epicyclic gearbox which ‘steps down’ the speed of the power
shaft in two stages. This reduction will be explained later.
The illustration below shows where the reduction gearbox, which will be described later,
is located relative to the other parts of a typical turbopropeller engine.
Reduction Gearbox
Figure 16.3
The location of the gearbox at the front, immediately behind the propeller, is by far the
most common location and the explanation which follows will cover a single stage
reduction between an input shaft to an output propeller shaft

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The high-speed pinion rotates at the same speed as the LP (or power turbine), shaft
and meshes with the large planet wheels. The large and small planet wheels are on
common shafts and, hence, rotate together, they are also all mounted on the planet
carrier which is rigidly fixed to the propeller shaft.
The annulus, or ring, gear is the only fixed item in the whole assembly, hence the small
planet gears, which mesh with it, pull themselves around as they rotate.
Epicyclic reduction gears

Figure 16.4

INTEGRATED CONTROLS
A motor car has a simple accelerator to increase and decrease the speed of its engine,
a turbojet has a single throttle lever to carry out the same operations. The turbopropeller
engine, however, requires either a single lever with two different but integrated controls,
or two levers that have to be operated separately to control different functions.
The reasons for this is that the propeller has to be given instructions separate to the
engine itself. For example, the engine might need to be run on the ground with nil thrust
at some times and producing power at others. Normally this involves the lever
controlling the speed of the propeller, or that of the free-turbine and it usually governs
the pitch angle of the propeller blades.
In a free-turbine engine such as the PT6 mentioned earlier, the engine acts as a gas
generator furnishing high velocity gasses to drive the free turbine. It is normally
controlled by a power control lever and a propeller control lever. In addition a third, start
control lever, (also sometimes known as the fuel condition lever), is used to select a
‘high’ or ‘low’ speed range for engine operations and to cut off fuel to shut the engine
down.
The power control lever modulates engine output from maximum take-off power to full
reverse power. It also controls the propeller blade angle when in reverse and in what is
known as the “Beta” range, (approach and landing).
The propeller control lever is in control of the propeller control unit, (P.C.U.), above
“Beta”, which is generally the normal flight regime. Here it operates as a normal single
lever ‘throttle’, when the thrust being produced is a function of lever angle and the
propeller RPM is governed to a specific speed, again for each lever angle.
The illustrations overleaf show how complex the three different lever positions are and,
also how difficult it is for the flight crew to know which lever has to be in which position
at different times.

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Power lever angles

Figure 16.5
Some engines can have a different control layout when installed in different airframes.
For example, the Pratt and Whitney 120 series engines can be installed with single or
double lever control depending whether they are installed into the Fokker 50 or the ATR
72 aircraft. The illustration, (below)shows the ATR72 layout, which has power levers,
(left) and condition levers, (right).
Pedestal Levers
Figure 16.6

It can be seen that whilst the condition levers control the fuel shut-off and feathering
controls, they also set the engine to automatic engine power and a maximum 100%
override position.
The power levers are used to change the engine thrust when taxiing, select ground and
flight idle, actuate reverse thrust and the automatic thrust position.
Finally, the installation of the early Rolls Royce Dart engine in the 1950s airframe
design, the Fokker 27, has basically a single lever operation. The illustration below
shows how the central pair of levers control ‘RPM’, e.g. propeller pitch angle and fuel
control, whilst the outer pair of levers, (H.P.C.), have no input to the power of the
engines, purely fuel shut-off and propeller feathering operations.
Single Lever Controls

Figure 16.7

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OVERSPEED PROTECTION
A propeller that overspeeds, even by the small amount of, say 5 or 10% increases the
centrifugal forces on the hub by a huge amount. This could cause the blades to
separate from the hub with catastrophic results to the aircraft.
A gas turbine engine has its own fuel control system, which maintains the engine within
its operating speed range. With a turbopropeller engine it is normally the propeller which
acts as a governor by increasing or decreasing its pitch angle to add or remove the
loading on the rotating parts of the engine.
If a turbopropeller overspeeds, it is usually due to the fact that the propeller controls
have allowed the pitch angle of the propeller to decrease, so that the reduction of load
on the engine has caused it to Overspeed. This reduction of pitch is as a result of
aerodynamic and centrifugal forces acting on the rotating propeller which will be
covered later.
If the reduction of the propeller pitch has been caused by failure of the propeller control
unit, there may be a back-up method, built in to the control system, to drive the propeller
back to a coarser angle, thereby slowing it down to a safe value. These back-up
systems usually involve the use of centrifugal governors which sense the slightest
Overspeed.
If the propeller control system is damaged or it cannot drive the propeller to a safe,
coarser, blade angle, the fuel control of the engine reduces the flow of fuel to the
engine, effectively acting as if the pilot had retarded the throttle. This should bring the
hub loading within a safe value.

As an example, the system shown is that fitted to the Pratt & Whitney 124 engines on
the ATR72 aircraft, which has a combined hydraulic/pneumatic Overspeed protection. If
the propeller overspeeds above 102.5% NP, (NP = propeller speed), The flyweights
move outwards, opening the pilot valve and allowing metered oil pressure to drive the
propeller towards coarse.
In the event that the above system fails to operate, (propeller continues to accelerate),
the air bleed orifice opens at a slightly higher NP. This bleed biases the fuel control
system, (H.M.U.) to decrease the fuel flow, reducing the engine speed.
Propeller Control Unit

Figure 16.8

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Whilst the system previously described is rather complex, the engine is of a modern,
’free power turbine’ design and has to have sophisticated protective measures fitted. By
comparison, the Overspeed protection installed on the Rolls Royce Dart, a ‘direct
coupled’ drive engine designed in the 1940s, is a relatively simple system.
The pump case pressure is fed with fuel from radial tappings in the rotating pump
assembly. If the engine overspeeds, the fuel is ‘centrifuged’ into the pump case at a
higher pressure. This pressure is fed to a diaphragm in the Overspeed governor, which
spills the servo pressure and reduces the fuel supply to the engine. This limits the
engine, which normally has a governed maximum of 15,000 RPM, to an Overspeed
maximum of 16,400 RPM The illustration below shows the basic system showing how
spilling the servo pressure reduces the pump output.
Overspeed protection
Figure 16.9
Apart from the protection mechanisms already mentioned, which have to react
extremely fast to prevent accidents, there are a number of flight deck indications which
may be in place of, or in addition to the automatic systems.
The simplest is the ‘red line’ on the tachometer, (revolution counter), or power,
(percentage), instrument, which must not be exceeded at any time. If the aircraft has an
electronic flight warning system, (F.W.S.) however, then warning lights, captions and
audio warnings may be used to get the attention of the flight crew.

15.17 TURBO-SHAFT ENGINES
Gas turbine that delivers power through a shaft to operate something other than a
propeller is referred to as a turboshaft engine. These are widely used in such industrial
applications as electrical power generating plants and surface transportation systems.
In most cases, the output shaft, (power take-off), is driven by its own power turbine
which extracts about two thirds of the total output power from the gas generator.
In aviation, turboshaft engines are used, to power many modern helicopters of all sizes,
from under 1 tonne up to a Russian giant of 100 tonnes maximum weight. To produce
the power required for the previously mentioned helicopter applications, the turboshaft
engine have been designed to produce from as little as 400 shaft horse power, (S.H.P.),
up to 11,500 S.H.P. from each engine.
An illustration of how efficient modern turboshaft engines are, can be seen from the
weight of the two, (extreme), cases mentioned. The Allison 250 produces the 400
S.H.P. mentioned with a total weight of just 158 lbs. (72 kg.), whilst one giant Lotarev D-
136 engine, which produces that huge 11,500 S.H.P., weighs 2,300 lbs. (1,050 kg.),
more than the weight of the smaller helicopter.
APPLICATIONS
In many installations, possibly reflecting the greater emphasis on safety at times such
as over-water and over hostile lands, etc. they are installed in pairs, threes and in on
extreme case in two pairs to make a total of four engines on one craft. Because of the
need to drive the rotor systems, consisting of many different types of gearbox, the
turboshaft engine has to be able to drive from a variety of different places.

`
This illustration, taken from the Rolls Royce Gem brochure, shows how the designer
could offer a power take-off from the front, back and side of the basic engine, to suit
different aircraft designs. It can be seen that the engines could also be joined together
by a combining gearbox to double the power output.
R.R. Gem Installations

Figure 17.1

A few actual examples of turboshaft installations show how the engines can be located
ahead or behind of the main transmission gearbox. The Westland Lynx has two Rolls
Royce Gem engines mounted aft of the gearbox driving through couplings at the front
face of the engines. It can be seen from the illustration below how the engine/gearbox
unit is quite compact.
Turboshaft Installation(1)
Figure 17.2

`
Another twin-engined installation is that which can be found fitted to numerous Sikorsky
and Westland helicopters. These are fitted ahead of the main gearbox, so that the
output shaft and coupling projects from the rear of each engine. The location of all of the
previously mentioned layouts permits very easy maintenance and engine changes due
to the unobstructed access to the engines. The illustration is of the S-61N model which
has two 1,400 S.H.P. turboshaft engines.
Figure 17.3
DE-RATING
A common method of being able to maintain normal flight in the event of losing one of a
pair of engines is de-rating. The engines might be advertised as having, say, 1000
S.H.P. each but, in the event of a single failure the second, good engine, can be called
upon to produce 1,500 S.H.P. for a limited time. This system of rating also allows the
engines to be operated in ‘Hot and High’ situations without power loss.
ARRANGEMENTS
Finally, there are a few other installations on helicopters, using turboshaft engines, that
show the flexibility in the way these engines can be mounted to suit the designer’s
needs. The little Hughes 500 series, (upper illustration), has a small 400+ S.H.P.
engine, installed at an angle, driving upwards at 450 to the main gearbox.
The large E.H. 101 helicopter, however, has not only three engines, each of 2,000
S.H.P., installed above the decking and all feeding into the main gearbox, but the
Auxiliary Power Unit is installed up there as well, (lower illustration).

Figure 17.4

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One major difference between turbopropeller and turboshaft engines is their operating
regime. Whilst turbopropeller engines are called upon to vary their speed as the pilot
varies the throttle position, turboshaft engines, as a general rule, operate at a constant
speed. This is because helicopter rotors have to operate at an almost constant speed
so that the engines, especially the non-free turbine designs, also have to remain at the
same speed also.
The free turbine designs will also remain at a constant speed for most of the flight, only
altering slightly up or down as the demand for climb or descent are initiated, requiring a
little more or a little less lift from the rotors.
DRIVE SYSTEMS
Because of the way that both the engines themselves and their attached main gearbox
are normally mounted to the airframe, there has to be a small amount of permitted
movement between the components. This poses problems when they have to be
connected together, with the need for both accurate alignment and the ability to transmit
many thousands of brake horsepower. To this end there will be found between the
engines and their respective gearboxes, some form of flexible drive couplings with a
short, (rigid) drive shaft between them. This arrangement allows the two components to
move small amounts, independently of each other.
One of the most common couplings is the ‘Thomas Coupling’ that consists of a number
of thin, steel laminations which are attached to the engine output flange and either the
gearbox flange or the drive shaft flange. They are attached at different radial points, e.g.
at three places, 1200 apart and displaced 600 from the opposite flange.

In some cases, including the illustration below, there is an additional outer structural
sleeve, which is part of the actual mechanical connection between the engine and the
gearbox. This also will have a mechanism to allow slight, controlled movement between
the two components. It will be seen that, in the example shown, the drive shaft has a
Thomas Coupling on the left-hand connection and a rigid flange-to-flange connection on
the right. The outer support tube, however, is rigidly mounted on the left and flexibly
mounted on the right.
Coupling shaft
Figure 17.5

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When there are two engines installed, driving into a common main gearbox, there are
two main design choices. The engines can be connected direct to the gearbox at two
separate points, with the drives being connected within the gearbox casing, through
their respective freewheels. Alternately, the engines can drive into a combiner or
coupling gearbox, separate from the main gearbox with two input connections and one,
larger, output connection to the main gear box.
These boxes allow the main box to remain smaller, with the added advantage that either
can be changed for fault rectification or at overhaul without disturbing the other.
As mentioned previously, there are a number of combining gearboxes used on many

twin engined helicopters.
The first example,(below), called in this case a coupling gearbox, has the inputs
low on the left hand side and the single
output in the centre right of the box.
Coupling gearbox
Figure 17.6
This box also contains mechanisms to allow separate connection and dis-
connection of each input drive. Also, it has drives to a number of accessories
such as pumps and generators. It also has its own self-contained oil system, with pump,
filter etc.

The second example, seen below, is installed in one of the larger, 15 seat Sikorsky
helicopters. It is also connected to the main gearbox via a short drive shaft, again
allowing for movement between the components.
Transmission Details
Figure 17.7
Because the engines in this class rotate at extremely high rates and the outputs need to
be considerably less, a ‘train’ of reduction gears needs to be built into the system. (As
an example, the Garrett TPE 331-11 has a gas generator shaft speed of 41,730 RPM,
whilst its output shaft rotates at only 1,600 RPM).

`
In some installations the reduction gearing is installed in the front of the engine itself, so
that its shaft output is already at a useable rotational speed. The Gem engine
mentioned earlier has the option of being built without a reduction gear installed; output
is the same as the gas generator, 27,000 RPM or with the reduction gears installed with
a 4.5:1 ratio, giving an output of about 6,000 RPM
The illustration below is of the, (optional), reduction gearbox fitted to the front of the
R.R. Gem turboshaft engine. This will take the 27,000 RPM and, through the two-stage
epicyclic gear train, reduce it to around 6,000 RPM At this speed, it can be directly
connected to the main rotor gearbox, which will reduce it further to around 250 – 300
R.R.P.M. (Rotor RPM). This reduction mechanism allows the engine to be installed
directly in a number of different situations such as powering marine craft, power-
generating stations and pumping stations. This use of turbo shaft engines is very
common and even engines as large as the Rolls Royce RB211 are used for such
purposes, providing all the power for complete oil exploration and production platforms.
Reduction gearbox
Figure 17.8

CONTROL SYSTEMS
The controls of turboshaft engines are, generally, the same as turbopropeller engines.
There has to be some form of fuel shut-off, to permit starting and closing down of the
engine and there has to be some form of speed control, often called the ‘speed select
lever’.
The fuel shut-off is simply a high-pressure fuel cock that is opened at start-up of the
engine and closed to stop the engine at the end of the flight. The speed selector might
have a number of positions, including ‘ground idle’, ‘flight idle’ and ‘flight’ positions.
Sometimes these points are indicated, by feel, using detents in the quadrant.
Because of the need for rotors, (and electrical generators, pumping units, etc.), to be
driven at more or less constant speeds, there is often a governing mechanism, either
mechanical or electronic which is engaged when the speed select levers are placed into
the ‘flight’ or ‘constant speed’ position. Normally the pilot does not have to touch the
control again until he retards the speed selector to the ‘ground idle’ position.
Once the speed select levers have been advanced to their normal operating position,
the engines will be maintained at their governed speed regardless of the load being
applied by their governor or fuel computer. This will simply increase the fuel flow when
there is an application of load, (up to the maximum limits of speed and temperature),
and reduce the flow under low demand circumstances.

`
The illustration below shows the lever quadrant from a Sikorsky S-76. It can be seen
that whilst the fuel levers, (outboard), have additional positions of ‘D/R’(Dry Run) and
‘PRIME’ peculiar to the Allison 250 engine, the power levers simply have ‘OFF’, ‘IDLE’
and ‘FLY’ positions.
Lever Quadrant
Figure 17.9

The complete diagrammatic representation of the S-76 engine control system below,
shows the pilot’s control inputs to the engines. They are simply the Off-Idle-Fly speed
lever which control the gas generator, (N1), part of the engine, and the collective, (lift),
lever which simply increases the fuel flow to the gas generator part of the engine when
more lift is demanded. The ‘beeper’ is simply a fine trimming switch that allows the pilot
to adjust the rotor/engine speeds to an exact figure.
System Diagram
Figure 17.2

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15.18 AUXILIARY POWER UNITS (APU’s)
The Auxiliary Power Unit, (A.P.U.), is fitted in many aircraft to provide a supply of
electrical, pneumatic and sometimes, hydraulic power when the aircraft is on the
ground, parked, without the engines running. The A.P.U. can, in some circumstances,
be used to provide limited services usually electrical power, in flight, during an
emergency such as an engine failure on a twin-jet. The A.P.U. engine provides shaft
power for electrical generation and hydraulic power, (if applicable), and bleed air for
pneumatic supplies.
Pneumatic power is supplied for starting aircraft main engines, aircraft cabin air
conditioning and pressurisation, air for A.P.U. oil cooler A.P.U. enclosure and fuel
heating, (in some cases).
Electrical power can be provided independently of, or together with pneumatic power
and, with some installations, the A.P.U. generators can provide power throughout the
flight, in the case of a main generator having failed. (In this case, there may be a limit on
the maximum altitude that the aircraft may fly).
Note: Electrical power has priority at all times
For the majority of the notes that follow, reference will be made to the Allied Signal
GTCP 36-150, which is a typical, medium sized A.P.U. fitted to a range of aircraft in the
100+ seat category.
DESCRIPTION
The basic A.P.U. consists of three main sections; power section, gearbox assembly and
the controls and accessories. Operation of the engine is controlled by four systems;
fuel, engine lubrication, electrical and pneumatic.
The rotating group of the power section consists of a single-stage centrifugal

compressor with a single stage turbine, both mounted on a single shaft, which is
mounted on ball and roller bearings.
The gearbox is attached to the inlet housing and converts the power section input,
which is high speed / low torque to an output of low speed / high torque suitable for the
accessories fitted to the gearbox. These include an alternator, fuel control unit, cooling
fan and starter motor.

`
An Electronic Control Unit, (E.C.U.), provides a fully automatic control system, including
starting sequencing, normal speed control and Overspeed protection. Other protective
shutdown circuits, monitored by the E.C.U., include the following:
 Over Temperature
 Low Oil Pressure
 Over Current
 Loss of Thermocouple
 Loss of Speed Signal
 Hot Oil Temperature.
All are inhibited in flight except fire, loss of speed signal and too long start time.
CONSTUCTION
The construction of the power unit is simple and conventional. The simplified diagram
below shows the gearbox / engine assembly with single stage compressor and turbines,
fuel injection, single Ignitor and a drive to the accessory gearbox.
A.P.U Construction
Figure 18.1

INSTALLATION
The A.P.U. is usually mounted in a non-pressurised area aft of the rear pressure
bulkhead. Space available and the aircraft centre of gravity considerations usually
dictate the exact mounting, which is why the Boeing 727 and the Bae ATP have the
A.P.U. installed in the wing root and the Fokker 27 / 50 aircraft have it installed in the
rear of the starboard engine nacelle.
The illustration below shows a typical rear fuselage installation of an A.P.U. in an

Embraer EMB 120.
A.P.U Installation
Figure 18.2

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BASIC OPERATING CYCLE
The block diagram below shows the major sections of the A.P.U. in question and they
are: The compressor, combustor, turbine and gearbox. The operating cycle, similar to a
normal jet engine, consists of the compressor, when driven, drawing large volumes of
ambient air and delivering it under pressure to the combustor. Fuel and ignition are
added in the combustor and the resultant added energy delivers high velocity hot
gasses to the turbine section. The turbine captures most of the energy of these high
velocity gasses and converts it to the mechanical energy to drive both the compressor
and the gearbox. The gearbox drives the required fuel and oil system components, as
well as providing a means for mounting the airframe furnished components, such as
generator; alternator, (a.c. generator); etc.
A.P.U Major Sections

Figure 18.3

A.P.U. operation is usually fully automatic from start to shut down, thus the flight
compartment controls are kept to a minimum. Operational control is through an A.P.U.
control panel like the one illustrated on the below.
Included on this panel are a three position rotary switch, an ‘available’ light and a ‘fault’
indicator. A more complex and powerful A.P.U., from a much larger aircraft, might,
additionally, have an RPM percentage indicator as well as gauges showing E.G.T. and
duct pressure. It might also have warning caption lights for ‘fire’, ‘low oil pressure’,
‘starting’,etc.
A.P.U. Control Panel

Figure 18.4
The selector switch functions are as follows;
OFF Shuts down the A.P.U.

START Arms the start circuit, sprung loaded to the RUN/ON position
ON Normal position during running. Opens inlet doors prior to start.

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BLEED AIR CONTROL
The A.P.U. provides the required bleed air for aircraft use when this air is not available
from the main engines.
Bleed air can be taken from the A.P.U. after the unit has accelerated to its normal
operating speed and has stabilised for a period of time. Providing the ground/flight
system is in the ‘ground’ position and the ‘bleed’ push switch on the control panel is
pushed, air will be supplied to whichever services is selected.
The panel illustrated is from the Fokker 100 airliner. It shows both the ‘APU BLEED’
push switch, which selects the A.P.U. supply to the services required and the bleed
manifold pressure on the display.
Bleed Air Control Panel

Figure 18.5
The push switch will show one of three indications:
BLANK System selected and operating

OFF (White) System switched off
FAULT (Amber) A fault has occurred and the A.P.U. has shut itself down.

There is a similar system for using the electrical generating unit. There is usually a
similar push-button switch on the electrical supply panel with ON (Blank) - OFF (White)
– FAULT (Amber) selections. Pushing the button whilst the A.P.U. is running will supply
any of the aircraft electrical services both on the ground and in flight. It is fairly common
for the ac. Generator, fitted to the A.P.U., to be identical to that fitted to the engines.
This ensures that the A.P.U. generator can take over the generating work for either of
the engine-driven generators in the event of a total failure.
MAINTENENCE
There is little line maintenance carried out on the A.P.U., apart from a daily check of the
oil level, (with a replenishment if required); the ‘filter by-pass’ indicators and an overall
check for signs of damage or distress. The only other maintenance that might be carried
out on a unit, whilst still installed in the aircraft, could include an oil and oil filter change
or a check of the magnetic drain plug, looking for signs of metallic debris.
There are a large number of Line Replaceable Units, (LRU), that can be replaced,
mostly in situ, if a fault indicator has shown that they require replacement. Whilst the
purpose of some units shown have not been mentioned in this chapter, the
thermocouple, ignition unit, the electronic control unit, fuel control unit, etc should be
self-explanatory.

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Line Replaceable Units

Figure 18.6

PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
Because the A.P.U. operates automatically once it has stabilised at its normal 100%
running speed, which can be around 60,000 RPM, there is little if anything that an
engineer needs to do with regards to checking the condition of the unit.
As everything is under the control of the Electronic Control Unit, (E.C.U.), all faults come
through this unit, which then either notifies the flight deck crew, (if it is an in- flight
notifiable fault), or keeps it in its internal memory for later interrogation.
The E.C.U. can be regarded as the ‘brain’ of the control system and will usually be
found in an avionics bay or some similar location with conditioned air. It receives its
input signals from a speed sensor and a thermocouple, both located in the A.P.U.
These allow the E.C.U. to control the actuation of the start, ignition, fuel, pneumatic and
protective shutdown circuits.
The unit also provides electronic control of all the parameters required to start,
accelerate, and safely operate the A.P.U. during ‘start’, ‘acceleration’, ‘idle’ and ‘load’
conditions.
Different A.P.U.s have different methods and parameters when giving warnings. In fact,
in some cases, the unit will close itself down if the risk is high and, it will have a different
close down schedule depending whether the aircraft is in flight or on the ground.
For example, in the GTCP 36-150, a low oil pressure will be an alert if the aircraft is in
flight and a shutdown if the aircraft is on the ground.
Finally, the E.C.U. has a set of three ‘doll’s eye’ indicators which will indicate to the
engineer what fault occurred, no matter if this was an airborne alert or an on ground
shutdown. The code for the trouble shooting of the faults is shown in the table below.

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BITE NUMBER DECODED BITE INFORMATION

1 2 3
   RESET
  O OVERSPEED
 O  OVERTEMPERATURE
 O O LOW OIL PRESSURE
O   OVERCURRENT
O  O LOSS OF THERMOCOUPLE
O O  LOSS OF SPEED SIGNAL
O O O HOT OIL TEMPERATURE
BITE Code Information

Figure 18.7
To summarise, if a fault is not considered immediately threatening to both the aircraft

and its passengers, the E.C.U. will generate an alert to the flight deck crew and leave
the decision up to them, whether to shut the unit down or to leave it running. This allows
them to continue with the unit output, (electrical power), during flight, if there is a more
urgent need for the output than for the continued health of the A.P.U.
If the aircraft is on the ramp, and the A.P.U. is producing both an air supply and
electrical power, any fault will result in the unit shutting itself down and indicating
what the fault is, via the doll’s eyes. This is because, at times, the aircraft is not manned
by either flight deck crew or ground crew, so the decision to shut the unit down is left to
the E.C.U.
In the case of a fire, not only does the A.P.U. shut itself down, but it can fire its own fire
extinguisher bottle, after all the vent doors have been closed, as well. The unit will then
sound an alert outside of the aircraft to attract the attention of the ground engineers.


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15.19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION
When a gas turbine engine is installed in an aircraft it usually requires a number of

accessories to be attached to it. It also requires a number of connections, some of them
‘quick release’ type, to connect the engine to the many aircraft systems. The engine, jet
pipe, accessories and, in some installations, a thrust reverser, must be suitably cowled.
An intake with minimum losses must also form part of the powerplant installation.
The powerplant location and aircraft configuration are of an integrated design the form
of which will be dependant upon the duties the aircraft has to perform. Turbo-jet engine
installations can be in the form of pods that are attached to the wings by pylons or pods
attached to the sides of the rear fuselage by short stub wings. They can also have a
combination of rear fuselage and tail mounted power plants. Combinations of the
preceding layouts can also be found on some aircraft.
Turbo-propeller engines are normally limited to installation on the wings or the nose of
the aircraft, whilst turbo-shaft engines, almost exclusively installed in helicopters, can be
found buried within the fuselage, installed above the cabin structure and, on some
larger machines in pods, external to the fuselage structure.
The following illustration shows some typical installations, both of turbojet, turbo-
propeller and turboshaft powered aircraft.
Powerplant Installations
Figure 19.1

ENGINE MOUNTINGS
The position of the powerplant must not affect the efficiency of the air intake and the
exhaust gasses must be discharged clear of the airframe and its control surfaces. All
installations must produce the lowest drag possible. Installations are always numbered
from left to right when viewed from the rear of the aircraft.
The engine is mounted in the aircraft in a manner that allows the thrust forces
developed by the engine, (or propeller), to be transmitted to the aircraft main structure,
in addition to supporting the engine weight and carrying any flight loads.
Because of the wide variations in the temperature of the engine casings, the engine is
mounted so that the casings can expand freely in all directions. Turbojet engines are
usually either side mounted or underslung as illustrated previously and below, whilst
turbopropeller engines are usually mounted on a tubular framework, often called the
engine mounting.
Engine Mountings
Figure 19.2

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JET PIPE
The jet pipe is usually attached to the rear of the engine and supported by the engine
mountings. On longer jet pipes, rollers on each side of the pipe, run in rails attached to
the sides of the jet pipe bay.
ACCESSORIES
An aircraft powerplant installation generally includes a number of accessories that are

either electrically operated, mechanically driven or driven by high pressure air.
Electrically operated accessories might include actuators, amplifiers, control valves and
solenoids.
Mechanically driven units however, might include generators, constant speed drive
units, hydraulic pumps, oil pumps, fuel pumps, engine speed signalling components,
measuring and governing units.
Air driven accessories are generally driven through bleed air tapped from the engine
compressor. They can include the air starter, using the other engine(s) or the A.P.U.,
and possibly the thrust reverser and water injection pump. The air conditioning and
pressurisation air will also be taken from compressor tappings in most cases. The total
air drawn from the compressor must be a small percentage of the total airflow to avoid
loss of power and higher fuel consumption

FIREWALLS
The firewalls are the metal dividing partitions that are made of fireproof material, often
stainless steel, and which divide the complete engine bay into smaller compartments.
These smaller compartments are usually to assist both in fire detection and
extinguishing. In the majority of installations, each bay will have its own detection
system and fire-extinguishing bottle.
The other very important purpose of the firewalls, (or fireproof bulkheads), is to restrict
the spread of fire to the bay in which it originated, making extinguishing the fire much
easier. The firewalls might divide the bay into different areas where a fire is most likely
to occur, such as ones containing heat and combustible materials or fluids.
A typical division of an engine bay might be:

Engine power section – includes burners, turbine and jet pipe.
Engine compressor and accessory section
Or
Complete powerplant compartments, in which NO isolation exists between the other two
sections mentioned earlier. A twin engined example is shown below.
Single Engine Bay Firewalls

Figure 19.3

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COWLINGS
Access to an engine mounted in the wing or fuselage is by hinged doors; on pod and
turbopropeller installations, the main cowlings are hinged. Access for minor servicing is
by small detachable or hinged panels with most fasteners being of the ‘quick- release’
type.
A turbopropeller engine, or a turbojet engine mounted in a pod, is usually far more

accessible than a ‘buried’ engine because of the larger area of hinged cowling that can
be provided. The illustrations below, show the clear access to the engine afforded by
the ‘petal cowlings’ (left) of a turbopropeller installation, and, (right), the ‘clamshell
doors’ fitted to a turbofan engined airliner.
Engine Cowlings
Figure 19.4
The method of holding the large cowlings securely closed, usually involve ‘over- centre’
fasteners.(figure 22.5) These fasteners will have a hook-and-clasp system allowing the
fastener parts to be hooked together, whilst the cowling is almost closed, and then
allowing the two parts to be pulled snugly together by a form of lever. The lever will also
be covered by a small access panel.

Depending on the size of the cowling, there can be any number of primary, over
centre latches, backed up by other types of fastener, normally always quick
acting.
Cowling doors can be manufactured from either aluminium alloy, Glass Reinforced
Plastic, G.R.P., in a honeycomb formation or even Carbon Reinforced Plastic, C.R.P.
Cowling Fastener
Figure 19.5

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ACOUSTIC PANELS
Whilst great steps have been taken to silence the exhaust noise by air-mixing and other
methods, there are still lower levels of noise to be suppressed. Increasing the size and
slowing the fan has lowered the noise from the front of the engine, leaving the highest
amount of noise, now being produced by the engine, coming from the internal rotating
assemblies especially the turbine. To reduce the noise from these assemblies, optimum
use of acoustically absorbent linings is made.
Noise absorbing ‘lining’ material converts acoustic energy into heat. The absorbent
linings, shown in the illustration below, normally consist of a porous skin supported by a
honeycomb backing, to provide the required separation between the ‘facesheet’ and the
solid engine duct.
The acoustic properties of the skin and the liner depth are carefully matched to the
characteristics of the noise, for optimum suppression. The disadvantages of this method
of suppression are the slight increase in weight and skin friction and, hence, a slight
increase in fuel consumption. This method does, however, provide a very powerful
suppression technique.
Various materials can be used to produce acoustic linings for jet engines. They fall
mainly within two categories, lightweight composite materials are used in the lower
temperature regions, and fibrous metallic materials are used in the higher temperature
regions. The noise absorbing material consists of a perforate metal or composite facing
skin, supported by a honeycomb structure on a solid backing skin which is bonded to
the parent metal of the duct or casing.

Acoustic Cowling Materials
Figure 19.6

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ENGINE MOUNTINGS
Earlier in this chapter, the mounting/suspension of the power units was mentioned. The
critical part of the assembly is the mounting itself, which has to transfer all the forces,
including both the thrust as well as aerodynamic loads from the engine to the airframe
itself. The mount also has to isolate the airframe from any vibrations produced by the
engine or its accessories.
Many of these mountings are made of stainless steel and can be located in different
patterns around the engine, depending on the designer’s need to manage all of the
forces encountered. Some mounts that are not required to carry high loadings can be
manufactured from certain hard rubber compounds, which can be formed into circular
toroidal form or as flat blocks that work in shear.
The first example, illustrated below, is the mounting of the Rolls Royce Tay engine,
which has two metallic vibration isolators and one thrust trunnion to carry all the loads
from the engine to the airframe, via the two strong crane beams which are attached to
two of the fuselage frames. The vibration isolators are of the stainless steel type, (called
Met-L-Flex by the manufacturer), and are shown in the detail drawing.
The trunnion has two sets of Met-L-Flex mounts inside that have to carry, in this
example, 14,000 pounds of thrust.
Engine Mountings(1)
Figure 19.7

Mountings that are for lighter, less powerful engines, can be manufactured from other
materials including the most common, rubber and other elastomers. In the following
example, which is the installation of the 1,400 S.H.P. CT-58 engine on the top decking
of the Sikorsky S-61N helicopter, the mountings are elastomeric and both support the
front of the engine and limit the vibration that travels down from the engine to the cabin
beneath. As they are only used to support the front of the engine, they are unlikely to be
subjected to much heat generated by the aft end of the unit.
Engine Mountings(2)
Figure 19.8

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Finally, the P&W 124 engine mountings are again elastomeric and are, in some cases,
in shear and others in compression. The mounting frame, to which these are attached,
is shown in the introduction to this topic as the tubular example.
Engine Mountings(3)
Figure 19.9

CONNECTION OF SERVICES
The basic engine has many self-contained systems within its configuration. These can
include fuel, oil, electrical, fire warning, controls, HP air, etc. However, the actual
powerplant installation has to be connected to the airframe interface, (pylon, stub-wing,
etc.), via many different forms of connection.
Due to the pressures of time and economics, the airframe and engine manufacturers
have to make the removal of the engine, especially the disconnection procedure, as
simple as possible. To this end, many powerplants have all of their system and service
connections in one place, so that they can all be dis-connected and re-attached at one
time. To avoid, as much as possible, the loss of vital fluids from some systems when the
engine is being disconnected, (not to mention the ingress of air back into those
systems), some form of quick-release and/or self-sealing couplings are required.
QUICK DISCONNECT SHELF
The example below shows the quick disconnect shelf where most of the services of the
Lycoming T-55 are joined to the ‘aircraft systems’. Notice that, in this example, there are
a number of quick release couplings allowing systems such as the hydraulic fluid lines,
to be dis-connected without loss of oil and ingress of air or dirt.
Quick disconnect couplings

Figure 19.10

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Another operation to assist in engine changes is the “handing” of the ancillary

equipment and connections. This means that an engine installed on the port stub-
wing would have a different layout than one installed on the starboard stub-wing. For
example, on a popular turbo-fan engine, it has its hydraulic pumps etc., located on the
right hand side of the engine. This means that when installed on the aircraft port side, its
connecting hoses are all short, between the fuselage and the engine. When installed on
the starboard side, however, there has to be a complete gallery of rigid pipes, fitted to
the engine, to connect the pumps to the aircraft systems.
BREAK POINTS
The mechanical controls to the engine, Throttle, Fuel Control (H.P.C.) and, if applicable,
Propeller Controls, will all have ‘break points’, where the simple removal of a bolt or pin
will separate the engine parts from the aircraft control runs.
The simple removal of a pin or bolt has a further advantage during some disassembling
operations. If the relevant system is reconnected again, without other disturbance, it
should not require re-rigging.
The illustration below shows how a simple turbopropeller engine has the three
connections of its major controls; throttle, H.P. cock and fuel trimmer all grouped
together at one point to ease disconnection and/or engine removal.
Engine Control Disconnects

Figure 19.11
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
There is a wide range of electrically powered components on the average gas turbine
engine, all of which have to be connected to the aircraft’s own electrical and instrument
systems. This can include indications of the R.P.M., fuel flow, T.G.T., vibration, as well
as a filter blockage warning, ignition leads and other systems. All of these connections
are normally made using ‘multi-pin’ connectors, which not only connect 30, or more,
different pairs of wires, but also keep the connections free from oil, moisture and dirt by
being sealed inside the plug.
A simple, four-pin connector is illustrated below to show how a plug and receptacle fit
together. It should be clear that a keyway and groove always ensure that the plug is
connected correctly. This is especially important when angled plugs are used to ensure
that cable looms, which approach the connectors at a particular angle, are not put under
any strain, which might tend to break the wires in the looms.
Electrical Connections
Figure 19.12

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LIFTING POINTS
As mentioned earlier, the engines on commercial aircraft today are designed for the
simplest and quickest removal and re-installation. To this end, the engines will often be
found with built-in lugs and other attachment points that will allow a crane, of suitable
lifting capacity, to lift the engine from the airframe attachments to a suitable support
frame or transportation trolley. If some form of lifting sling is used between the crane
hook and the engine attachments, it must be checked both for serviceability and that its
inspection due date, marked on it, has not been exceeded.
If the engine is to be lifted using a purpose built sling, care must be taken to check the
relevant manuals because some lifting slings have more than one attachment point for
the crane. This is to allow the engine to remain in balance, (the C of G of the engine
under the crane hook, when lifting), in different configurations. For example, if the
engine can be lifted with or without the thrust reverser or nose cowling fitted, the centre
of gravity will be in a different position for each and will, therefore, require a different
lifting point on the sling. The same applies with turbopropeller engines that must be
removable both with and without the propeller being fitted.
The engine hoisting sling shown below, from the Rolls Royce Tay engine series, has pin
attachments to connect it to the engine and a range of lifting lug positions on the top,
which allow a variety of engine configurations to be lifted.
Engine Lifting Sling

Figure 19.13

DRAINS
Drains are installed on gas turbine engines of all types, to relieve the collection of
different fluids from either within the engine itself or from one or more of its external
units. The drains will run into collector tanks, which will be either drained during
maintenance or will be self-emptying whilst the engine is operating.
Drains can be found from the fuel and hydraulic systems mainly; although, in most
circumstances, the drains are only put to use in situations when something out of the
ordinary has occurred.
For instance, if the engine has been turned over to start it, but it has not ‘lit up’ the start
must be terminated after a specific time to avoid overheating the starter motor. This
means that a quantity of fuel has been spraying into the engine without igniting and,
therefore, a second start cannot be initiated until the fuel from the first start has drained
down to a collector tank.
With the hydraulic pumps that are fitted to the accessory gearbox on the engine, there is
a slight risk that if a seal failed, the hydraulic oil might mix with the gearbox/engine oils.
To avoid this, a space is left between the two components and this space is drained to
the outside of the engine cowling. A drip of any oil from this drain indicates that one or
other of the seals has failed and deeper investigation is required. Drains of this type are
often referred to as ’witness drains’ in that they bear witness to a fault.
As a general rule, if drains are directed outside the engine cowlings, they indicate that
the leaking fluid is from somewhere it should not be leaking from. If, however, the fluid is
directed to a collector, or holding, tank then the fluid is intended, at some time, to be
there. (Such as the ‘wet start’ described earlier).
The illustration overleaf, from the Rolls Royce Tay engine again, it can be seen that any
leaks from the hydraulic pumps, air starter, internal gearbox, front bearing and I.D.G.
will show beneath the engine and alert the engineers of the fault. Leakage from the H.P.
shut off valve and various fuel and air control units is directed to the drain tank which
returns the fuel back to the L.P. pump.

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Focker 100 drains system

Figure 19.14


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15.20 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
DETECTION SYSTEMS
Because of the complexity of many modern aircraft, there has to be a reliable fire
detection system, installed in the engine nacelles/cowlings. This will indicate to the flight
crew both that there is a confirmed overheat/fire in the engine nacelle or bay and that
the overheat/fire has been dealt with and the danger is passed.
N.B. The reason for using the terminology overheat/fire is that is the vast majority of
‘fire’ warnings are not actually fires, with combustion taking place, but are what are
generally known as ‘hot gas leaks’. These warnings often follow the failure of bleed air
ducts, jet pipe connections, etc.
There are three major different types of detection equipment, Thermal switch fire
detection, Thermocouple fire detection and Continuous loop fire detection systems.
THERMAL SWITCH
The thermal switch system is sometimes known as the ‘spot detection’ system and
consists of a number of separate detectors, which are located in the most likely
positions within the nacelles where fire may occur. The detectors are all in parallel,
allowing any one detector to give the warning to the flight deck.
The simple detector shown below will expand longitudinally, pulling the contacts
together and setting off the alarm. As soon as the heat has been removed, (either by
shutting down the engine or discharging the extinguisher bottle), the detector shortens
again, allowing the spring wires to separate the contacts, cutting off the fire warning.
Thermal Switch
Figure 20.1

THERMOCOUPLES
The thermocouple system operates on the rate of temperature rise principle, rather than
operating when a specific temperature is reached, such as with the spot detectors. The
detection is actuated by a number of thermocouple ‘hot junctions’ in likely locations for
fires. The thermocouples are in pairs, (a detector and a reference unit), but they will only
detect fire, not a general bay overheat. This is because the detector has to have a
temperature difference between it and the reference unit, which does not occur with a
bay overheat situation but will with a direct fire source. The thermocouples themselves
are manufactured exactly the same way as those units that measure the temperature of
the jet pipe or turbine gasses. They consist of two metals, usually ‘Alumel’ and
‘Chromel’, which will generate a small current when heated, the current proportional to
the temperature.
CONTINUOUS LOOP (Resistance/Capacitance)
The third, and most common, system for the detection of overheat/fire in engine bays
and similar locations, is the Continuous Loop fire detection system. This system is often
also known as the ‘firewire’ detection system. This system allows a more complete
coverage of a fire hazard area than any type of spot detection systems. This system
works on the same basic principle as the spot detectors, except that in place of
individual detectors, a continuous-loop will detect an overheat or fire anywhere along
the length of the tube.
The firewire consists of an Inconel outer tube with a central Nickel wire. Separating the
inner from the outer is a eutectic salt, which changes resistance with the application of
heat, an increase in temperature causing a decrease in resistance. This allows the
measurement of both resistance and capacitance. On the latest installations loops are
are normally run throughout the engine bay(s) in pairs. The result of this is that to get a
100% confirmed fire warning, there needs to be a correct change in both the resistance
and capacitance in both firewire loops at the same time.
This system has the advantage that it will continue to operate, even if one of the
firewires is completely broken. (Although the break will be detected during the firewire
test carried out pre-flight).
Overleaf, is illustrated both the construction detail of the inside of a fire wire and a
typical firewire installation as fitted to the Pratt & Whitney 124 engine on the ATR-72
aircraft.

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Firewire Installation
Figure 20.2
CONTINUOUS LOOP (Gas )
Another type of continuous loop fire detection system is the pressure-type. This tube
contains a sealed gas filled tube containing an element that absorbs gas at a low
temperature and releases it as the temperature rises. The tube is connected to a
pressure switch that will close when the gas pressure in the tube reaches a pre-
determined value. This pressure increase can result from either a localised sharp rise in
temperature, (Fire), or a gentler rise in temperature over a longer length of tube,
(Overheat).

CONTROLS AND INDICATIONS
The flight deck part of the fire detection and warning system can vary from aircraft to
aircraft. As a general rule the display panel shown below could be taken as a typical
example of a ‘fire’ panel on a modern aircraft applicable to the main engines. The push
buttons labelled ‘LOOP’ are for warning and the isolation of faulty warning loops, whilst
the ‘AGENT 1/2’ lights indicates whether the extinguisher bottles have been discharged.
Fire Detection and Extinguishing Panel

Figure 20.3
NOTE: Many A.P.U. installations have a fully automatic fire detection,

extinguishing and engine shutdown system.
Because of the vital importance of the warning, all cockpit fire alerts will have the
highest priority within the cockpit alerting system, being a warning more than a caution.
They will also have aural alerts and flashing lights indicating both the relevant fire
extinguisher handle and the correct fuel shut-off lever.
As an example, a fire detected within an engine cowling would probably have the
following effects:
 A bell, ‘chime’ or other audible alert.

 A flashing ‘attention getting’ light usually coloured red.
 A ‘FIRE’ caption on the master warning panel.
 A light in the fire extinguisher operating handle/button.
 A light in the relevant fuel shut-off or H.P. cock lever.
Once the fire has been detected and the correct engine identified, from maybe two,
three or four, the pilot will discharge the first, (of two), pressurised fire bottles containing
an extinguishant into the relevant engine bay.
The chemical extinguishing fluid will be directed through pipes to spray nozzles in the
bay, which will give the quickest spread of the chemical throughout the bay, smothering
the fire. If the fire persists after the first bottle has been discharged, the pilot has the
option of firing the second bottle into the same bay, which normally is sufficient to put
the worst fire out.

`

15.21 ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATION
PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND ENGINE RUN-UP
Firstly, it is essential that before any ground running is commenced, reference is made
to the safety precautions and aircraft handling and storage notes that can be found
within Module 7. These notes will cover flight line safety with specific mention of fuelling,
towing, parking, noise, marshalling, etc. They will also cover such topics as chocking,
taxiing, securing, de-icing and work during other inclement weather situations.
Before ground running an aircraft, reference must also be made to the current Ground
Handling Procedures Manual. This will list not only all of the rules that must be followed,
it will also give the references that are used to ensure the safety of all concerned both
directly and indirectly with the ground run.
Other topics may need to be consulted in this manual. They are the aircraft noise
limitations, the procedure to be followed in the event of a fire breaking out, where the
ground power units are to be placed and the ground support equipment that will be
required for the ground run.
The aircraft is parked with brakes applied and chocks in place; all personnel are in their
correct places both inside and outside the aircraft and all equipment is in place, such as
power unit and warning signs. It is now time to consider what is the object of the ground
run, why is it taking place and what it is hoped to achieve.

`
INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUT
The power output, as was mentioned earlier, is normally measured in E.P.R., (Turbo-jet)
or Torque, (Turbo-propeller) aircraft. The ratios or units that these indicating systems
use can be used to indicate the power of the aircraft engines ‘on-the-day’ and to
indicate any loss of performance since the last engine run, (Provided the weather and
all other circumstances are similar). These systems also show when any power
boosting system, fitted to the aircraft, is operated and whether it is working to full
capacity.
When the engine run is being carried out, it will normally be necessary for other
parameters to be noted, at specific times, at certain engine powers and when called for
by the ground running schedule itself. These figures could include the following
parameters:
 T.G.T.
 Oil Temperature
 Oil Pressure
 R.P.M.
 Fuel Flow
 E.P.R./Torque
 Bleed Air Temp.
 Bleed Air Press
 Vibration Level
Ground running is normally made much easier, especially when a complex, large and
modern jet airliner is concerned, by the use of a ground running booklet. This has both
the running procedure itself and also places for marking specific data or ‘tick boxes’ to
confirm certain operations were carried out during the run.
To give an idea of what might be found in a booklet for ground running, the ATR-72
engine run-up guide contains the following information:
General details of safety areas, control operations, adjustments & emergencies:
 Engine control theory.

 Aircraft preparation.
 Propeller control theory.
 Engine starting procedure.
 Failure codes produced by the engine computers.
 Engine parameters and limits.
 Engine stopping procedure.
And, of course,
 Operational tests during engine running.
The booklet also includes sets of Diagrams, (safe zones, etc.); Tables, (limits) and
Graphs, (performance calculations).

TREND MONITORING/ANALYSIS
There is a much stronger reliance these days on trends, than there used to be. Years
ago, if an engine started to use a little more fuel or oil, if it got progressively rougher
when running or if it ran a little hotter than its companion engines, then little interest was
shown until either the engine became too bad too use or, in the worst case, it failed
completely. Today we monitor trends in a number of different ways and they can loosely
be divided into three groups:
1. Those which monitor the condition of the oil-washed components such as gearboxes
and bearings.
2. Techniques such as vibration analysis and non-destructive testing, (N.D.T.), that can
be applied to both the air and oil washed components of the engine. (The N.D.T.
inspection procedure is a complex and specialised technique that will be covered
later).
3. Those, which enable the air-washed components such as blades, guide vanes and
combustion chambers to be inspected.
With oil washed components any mechanical wear from contact surfaces, such as
gears and bearings, will produce debris which will be carried within the oil circulating
around the engine. Analysis of debris in the oil system can provide a very useful
method of assessing any trends in the wear from the internal engine components. This
analysis can involve a number of different methods, including:
 Magnetic detector plug debris analysis

 Oil filter debris analysis
 Spectrometric Oil Analysis Programme (SOAP).
MAGNETIC CHIP DETECTORS
The magnetic chip detectors, (M.C.D.), are small permanent magnets placed in the oil
scavenge/return line to collect ferrous debris from the oil. At specific intervals, the plugs
are removed and either visually inspected ‘on site’ or returned to a specialist
department. The particles are examined, by a skilled and experienced technician using
a microscope, and the debris particles identified as being from ball bearings, roller
bearings, gearbox teeth, propeller mechanisms, etc.
From these inspections, the decision as to whether to reject the component or just to
increase the frequency of sampling depends on the trend of the particle build-up. A slow
and steady build-up can best be monitored by an increase in inspection frequency,
whilst a sharp increase between one inspection and the next could require the
immediate removal of the offending gearbox or engine.

`
OIL FILTERS
The analysis of debris collected in the oil system filters, both pressure and scavenge,
forms a useful technique to complement the M.C.D. method. The debris are carefully
washed off the filter and collected for thorough examination. Particles of some metals
will require further careful checking, whilst some metal debris might be considered quite
normal.
The particles obtained from the filters will be catalogued for comparison with other, later,
debris collections although, the frequency of filter inspection is less than for M.C.D.s.
The information obtained provides a back up for establishing and confirming trends
within the components.
S.O.A.P
The spectrometric oil analysis programme removes a sample of oil from the engine oil
system. This will contain microscopic traces of all the metals that are washed by the oil.
Chemical analysis of the sample particles enables the wear rate to be evaluated and
quantified. In a typical oil system, traces of the following metals might be found:
 Aluminium
 Iron
 Chromium
 Silver
 Copper
 Tin
 Magnesium
 Lead
VIBRATION
Vibration analysis is part of the on-condition maintenance policy that checks on the
condition of rotating assemblies. The requirement is that defects can be detected
sufficiently early to permit rectification before secondary and more serious damage
occurs. Analysis of engine vibration signatures is an important tool for the detection of
early failure in mechanical components.
A vibration monitoring system consists of a sensor, which converts the mechanical

vibration of the machine to which it is attached, into electrical signals that are in
proportion to the magnitude of the vibrations. In addition, there are amplifiers with their
associated wiring, to produce some form of cockpit display. This display can be
analogue, digital or even simply in the form of warning lights.
There will be a vibration limit set by the engine manufacturer, which will be the level to
which the flight deck displays have their warning/caution limits set.

On some engines there is more than one limit, which might be both a caution and a
warning. The caution would allow the pilot to close the engine down before little or no
damage has occurred, whereas the warning would possibly indicate a serious failure
within the engine itself.
Analogue and digital displays allow the crew to record readings for each engine, in
flight, which can be later compared with previous flights to identify any increase in the
levels of vibration.
Other forms of sensor can be found on some aircraft. One is the dual sensor that
consists of two separate but integral units that permit the pilot to switch between them if
one fails for any reason. Another useful variation is the ‘wide’ and ‘narrow’ band
measurement, which means the reading can either be taken from over the whole range
of vibrations emanating from the engine, or from one or two major rotating assemblies
such as the N1 and N2 spools.
The illustrations below show two sensors that are mounted vertically and horizontally.
Also shown is a typical linear (tape) display from a twinjet airliner which is showing both
N1 and N2 vibration for both engines. The port engine has its vibration ‘in limits’ while
the starboard engine has exceeded the caution limit on both spools.
Vibration sensors and display

Figure 21.1

`
VISUAL/OPTICALINSPECTIONS
The examination of air washed components can be divided into two different
inspections, unaided visual inspection and optical inspection. These will allow the
engineer to inspect the internal parts of the engine, at various times, enabling any
deterioration to be detected early, allowing the rectification to start before any damage
has gone too far.
VISUAL
Inspection with the naked eye can detect obvious damage in the front stages of the
compressor and the rear stages of the turbine. With twin and triple spool engines, the
amount of the rotating parts that can be inspected visually is proportionally less.
Such inspections will detect cracks or other damage only when the operator is
extremely vigilant. Jet pipe and turbine inspections cannot be carried out immediately
after engine shutdown because of the heat. Visual inspection however is still extremely
important for monitoring the condition of engines.
OPTICAL
Optical inspection of the inside of a gas turbine engine, including the hot end, is best
carried out using a remotely illuminated optical probe, sometimes known as a
borescope. These probes can be obtained in a variety of lengths, diameters and, for
difficult places, in a flexible form.
On earlier engines, the inspection probes had to be inserted into already existing holes
in the engine casing. These might be igniter or thermocouple installation holes, which
would have the item removed to allow use of the holes by the borescope. The limitation
of this system was that the parts of the engine that were visible to the inserted probes
were very limited.
Most modern engines however, have purpose-built inspection holes fitted in the casing
at the correct places, thus allowing complete inspection of all of the air washed parts of
the engine from the first stage of the compressor to the final stage of the turbine.
However, with rigid borescopes it can still sometimes be difficult to orientate the probe
to give the desired view. With modern probe sets, there will be a fibre-optic probe, which
is flexible. This can be either fed directly in to the engine or via a purpose built guide
tube, which will turn the flexible probe to the exact position for viewing.

Several borescope sets have, in addition to the range of probes mentioned earlier, a low
light CCTV camera mounted on to the eyepiece of the probe. This means that more
than one person can watch the inspection at the same time. Also, the viewing can be
recorded on video both for a permanent record and to allow trend monitoring by
comparison of wear, damage and discoloration with earlier recordings.
The illustration below of the Rolls Royce Tay 650 engine shows the borescope and
visual inspection access to the inner parts of the engine. It will be seen that almost all of
the internal parts of the engine can be inspected by the mixed use of both rigid probes,
(solid lines), and flexible probes, (dotted lines).
Engine Inspection Locations

Figure 21.2

`
The illustration below shows a flexible borescope being used to inspect the first stage of
a turbine assembly via ports on the fan duct and in the combustion chamber.
Boroscope Inspection
Figure 21.3

INSPECTION CRITERIA, TOLERANCES AND DATA
Modern engines have exceptionally high serviceability ratings and it is not unusual to
find some engines with 20,000 or 30,000 running hours in one position, on the same
aircraft. Because of this, there is little to do with respect to ‘inspecting’ the engine on a
routine, day-to-day basis.
As a general rule, aircraft in service have a daily inspection, often overnight, between
cease flying on one day and the early departure on the next. During the day, if the
aircraft is not an inter-continental flyer, there will be pre-departure inspections, prior to
the aircraft departing on its next flight leg. Finally, at specified intervals, such as every
so many days, an ‘A’ check would be carried out.
All of these checks require an inspection of the engine. This is usually little more than a
look into the intake for Foreign Object Damage(F.O.D.); a check of the jet pipe for signs
of turbine damage; a check of the engine, gearbox and I.D.G. oil levels and, finally, a
look around the engine cowlings, for any signs of damage and oil or fuel leaks.
It is more likely that any ‘inspection’ of the engine will be involved after the aircraft
captain has reported a fault/ defect. Trouble shooting an engine will often involve
checking some part of the engine’s operation against figures produced by the
manufacturer and published in the maintenance manuals.
As an example, the following checks, etc. are typical of those which might be
encountered whilst carrying out trouble-shooting on a reportedly defective engine:
POWER – The power of a gas turbine engine in service is never measured in pounds
thrust, as it is on the test bed at the manufacturers. As mentioned earlier, the
measurement of the power of a gas turbine engine in service is usually as engine
pressure ratio, (E.P.R.).
This E.P.R. might be checked against reference figures to prove whether the engine is
producing full power whist at maximum revolutions. (If the engine is being run in any
conditions other than at sea level and at a temperature of 150C. then adjustments to the
figures will have to be made).
TORQUE – Torque is the measure of power being produced by a turbopropeller or

turboshaft engine. The torque pressure produced by the engine at maximum power will
be noted on a certificate from the manufacturers.
Ground runs will confirm, again with adjustments for airfield height and outside air
temperature, O.A.T., whether the engine is producing the torque, (shaft horsepower),
that it should be, at full throttle.
T.G.T. – The reading of the T.G.T. on the cockpit gauge can give an indication of the
health of that engine. If the engine has some problem internally, it is possible that more
fuel may have to be burnt in the combustors to make-up the shortfall in power. This
increased fuel flow will show as a higher than normal T.G.T. reading.

`
The T.G.T. figures during start-up, maximum power and other engine situations, are
published in the aircraft’s flight manual. The pilot (and any engineer ground running the
engines) must strictly follow these limitations, as well as reporting when the figures are
NOT in accordance with the limits.
REVERSER OPERATION – It is possible that the crew may report that one reverser is
slower in operation than its companion(s). Testing the operation of these units will
involve timing their operation, both deploying and stowing, either during an engine run
or using some external power source to drive the reversers. If not within the published
time limits, rectification will be necessary.
R.P.M./% – A number of different values of R.P.M. are published in the engine manuals,
including the idle and maximum values. On many engines however, this will be
represented not as R.P.M. but as a percentage of maximum engine speed, (100%).
It may be necessary, at times, to convert from percentage to R.P.M., so the maximum

100% value will be published in the manuals to facilitate this. Some other settings that
may require checking are flight idle, reverse thrust (less than 100%), and cruise power.
ACCELERATION TIMES – It is vital that the engines accelerate both as quickly as

possible, in case the pilot needs to ‘go around’ after being unable to land, and equally,
so that there is no asymmetric thrust, which might cause an unwanted turning moment.
To achieve these requirements, it is normal for the engines to be subjected to what are
known as ‘slam checks’ at intervals, or whenever the crew reports any problems. The
slam is the rapid movement of the throttle from idle to maximum, whilst timing how long
the engine takes to ‘catch-up’ to maximum power. Adjustments will be made if the
engine is too slow, too fast or if it does not match the timing of the other one(s).
ACCESSORIES – Many of the components fitted on to the engine, such as pumps,

generators, measuring devices, etc., have to meet ‘installed performance figures’,
meaning for instance, that a fuel pump must have a specific output at a certain engine
speed. These figures are again published in the engine maintenance manuals.

COMPRESSOR WASHING/CLEANING
The atmosphere near the ground is filled with small particles of dirt, oil, soot, salt (near
the sea) and other foreign matter. A very large volume of air is drawn into the
compressor, with centrifugal force throwing the particles outwards so that they build up
a coating on the engine casing, the guide vanes and the compressor blades.
An accumulation of dirt on the compressor blades reduces the aerodynamic efficiency

of the compressor itself, which results in a loss of engine performance. This
deterioration in performance due to the build-up of dirt on the blades is the same as an
aircraft wing under icing conditions. Unsatisfactory acceleration and high exhaust gas
temperatures can be the result of this build-up.
Gas path erosion occurs from the ingestion of sand, dirt, dust and other fine airborne
particles. This erosion can occur in both the compressor and the turbine sections of the
engine. The accumulative effect of continuous ingestion of these abrasive particles can
result in the erosion of the surface coatings, and even further into the base metal of the
fan, the compressor blades and vanes.
Two common methods for removing dirt, salt and corrosive deposits are fluid (liquid)
wash and an abrasive grit blast.
FLUID CLEANING
The fluid cleaning procedure is easily accomplished by first spraying an emulsion

surface cleaner and then applying a rinse solution to the compressor. This is carried out
whilst the engine is either being motored over by the starter or during low speed
operation.
Note: It cannot be overstressed that the wash procedure must be performed in strict
accordance with the instructions laid down in the manufacturer’s manual.
Usually, when the water wash is performed solely to remove salt deposits, the
compressor wash is known as ‘desalination’. If the solution wash is performed solely to
remove baked on deposits to improve engine performance, the wash may be known as
a ‘performance recovery wash’.
Motoring washing is carried out at whatever speed the starter will rotate the engine up
to, typically between 15% to 25%, with the cleaning mixture injected at high pressure.
Running washing is carried out around ground idle, again typically 60% with a lower
water pressure.
The use of washing, on a regular basis, can vastly extend the life of an engine,
especially when the engine is given regular performance ground runs, measured
against standard figures.

`
ABRASIVE GRIT PROCESS
A second, more vigorous method of compressor cleaning is to inject abrasive grit into
the engine at selected power settings. The grit used may be ground walnut shells or
apricot pits. The type and amount of material and the procedure to be used is
prescribed by the engine manufacturer.
Whilst the intervals between operations is much longer, the abrasive effect on some
parts of the engine and the fact the grit is burned up in the turbine, (giving no cleaning),
means that this process is not carried out as often as washing.
Sometimes there is a ‘rule-of-thumb’, which says that if the deposit on the compressors
is still wet, then a liquid wash is all that is required. However, if the deposit has
hardened then abrasive grit is required.
Whether the material used for cleaning the compressor is liquid or solid, there
will be a correct procedure and most likely apparatus for delivering the cleaning
medium to the front of the compressor safely.

FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (F.O.D.)
F.O.D. is the term used whenever such items as stones, grit, nuts, bolts; in fact anything
which can be found around the aircraft movements area, are sucked into the intakes of
a running jet engine. The damage that occurs is always expensive; it just depends on
whether it is a case of minor damage to a single compressor blade or the total
destruction of the engine. Any signs of damage in the intake area must always be
assumed to indicate further, worst, damage to the engine.
On most aircraft the front stage(s) of the engine can be seen with little effort, however,
certain aircraft, such as the DC-10/MD-11series and the Boeing 727 both have ‘buried’
centre engines. These will require great care when inspecting the engines for signs of
damage, due to the fact that an engineer would be invisible to others who might start
the engine. There must be others involved as safety-men and the flight deck must be
‘placarded’ with DO NOT START signs.
The damage that the compressor blades have received must be classified in
accordance with the manual, which will dictate whether it is a case of a single blade
replacement, a fan stage replacement or a total engine change.
If the damage received by the blade is slight, (as defined by the repair manual), then the
damage can be ‘dressed out’ using a selection of fine abrasive tools. These change any
sharp edged damage into a smooth curved hollow, which will not cause later failures
due to cracking.
The examples of blade damage, illustrated below, show some extreme cases of how a
blade can be damaged and, below that, how the damage can be blended or scalloped,
if the damage is classified as slight.

`
Blade Damage Examples

Figure 30.1
Foreign object damage can also be caused by poor workmanship and husbandry by
maintenance engineers. When working either in the engine intakes or in the vicinity of
them, great care must be taken not to drop any ‘hardware’ such as nuts and bolts, or
even larger items such as tools.
Whilst it is the responsibility of “someone else” to sweep the ramp, taxiways and other
aircraft movement areas, everyone who works around aircraft should acquire the habit
of:
IF YOU SEE SOMETHING ON THE GROUND THAT SHOULD NOT BE THERE…
…PICK IT UP!


`
15.22 ENGINE STORAGE AND PRESERVATION (Level B1 only)

(ref; Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and procedures. CAAIP Leaflet 7-4)
INTRODUCTION
Under normal operating conditions the interior parts of an engine are protected against
corrosion by the continuous application of lubricating oil and oil mist, the operating
temperatures of which, are sufficient to dispel any moisture which may tend to form,
particularly during the wide temperature change which take place during engine shut
down and start up. After shut down the residual oil film gives protection for a short
period of time which varies, depending on the local environmental conditions. When the
engine is not in regular service, parts which have been exposed to the bi-products of
combustion and internal parts in contact with acidic oil, are prone to corrosion. If
engines are expected to be out of use for an extended period of time, they should be
ground run periodically or, some form of anti-corrosive protection or treatment must be
applied internally and externally to prevent deterioration.
The type of engine protection applied depends on how long it is expected to be out of
service, if it is installed in the aircraft and if it can be turned.
The procedures adopted and the level of protection applied will very from one
manufacturer to another. In all cases, the approved Maintenance Manual procedure
should be complied with.
INSTALLED TURBINE ENGINES:- which are not going to be run for periods up to
seven days normally do not require protection apart from the installation of external
blanking covers to air intakes, exhausts and any other openings. This provides
protection against the ingress of dust, rain, sand, snow etc.
STORAGE PROCEDURES
Leaflet 7-4 of CAAIP

PREPARING FOR STORAGE AND DISPATCH
The preparation of the engine/module for storage and/or despatch is of major

importance, since storage and transportation calls for special treatment to preserve and
protect the engine from deterioration and damage. To resist corrosion during storage,
the fuel system is inhibited by special oil and all apertures are sealed off. The internal of
the engine and engine components such as fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps, air starter
motors, etc. are also protected by inhibiting oils or powders. External surfaces are
usually protected by paper impregnated with inhibiting powder or oil and the engine is
enclosed in a re-usable bag or plastic sheeting into which a specific amount of
desiccant silica-gel is inserted. If transportation by tail or sea is involved, the inhibited
or bagged engine is usually packed in a wooden crate or metal case.

PRESERVATION AND DEPRESERVATION
Preservation: is the procedure recommended as the minimum necessary

to protect a power plant against: -
• liquid or debris (FOD) entering the power plant
• Corrosion
• Atmospheric conditions during periods of storage and inactivity.
Depreservation: Is the procedure recommended to restore a preserved

engine back to an operational state.
NOTE: For the purpose of this procedure, “operational state” is defined as:
“A power plant that can be started”. (On or Off the aircraft.)
PERIODS OF STORAGE (Installed engines) can be divided into two catagories:
1. Short Term Storage – from 7 days up to 1 month.

2. Long Term Storage – from 1 month up to 6 months.

Understanding Jet Engines Through the Brayton Cycle

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JAR66 Module 15. JET ENGINES.

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 1

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 2

In attempts to improve aircraft performance, engines were increased in both size

PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 3

Jet reaction is an internal phenomenon and it is not, as sometimes assumed, the

• Accelerating a large mass through a small increase in velocity.

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 4

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 5

It can be demonstrated by the formula: FORCE = MASS X ACCELERATION

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 6

The Brayton Cycle

A B: Compression from atmospheric at ‘A’ to maximum at ‘B’.

B C: Combustion with heat being added.

C D: Expansion through the turbine and jet pipe.

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 7

Power = Work done

Work can be expressed in a number of units such as foot-pounds per second,

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 8

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 9

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine Engine

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 10

Single Spool Axial Flow Turbojet

A low-pressure section consisting of a compressor and a turbine assembly and a

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 11

A turbo-fan engine is an advanced development of both the conventional propeller

Triple Spool Turbo-Fan

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 12

Twin-Spool Turbo-Shaft (With Free-Power Turbine)

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 13

Twin-Spool Axial Flow Turbo-Propeller

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 14

METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 15

To obtain the thrust on the compressor casing, it is necessary to calculate the

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 16

Considering the formula for thrust under “choked” nozzle conditions:

Where P0 = atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (in Hg) (observed)

The observed performance of the turbo-propeller engine is also corrected to I.S.A.

Where P0 = atmospheric pressure (in Hg) (observed)

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 18

Comparison between thrust and horse-power

ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 19

W = Mass of air passing through engine (lb. Per sec.)

Effect of forward speed

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 20

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 21

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 22

Effect of afterburning on engine thrust

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 23

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 24

W(vJ - V)2 where (vJ - V)

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 26

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

When comparing engine performance, one of the most important considerations is

PERFORMANCE RATINGS (example from a turbo-prop).

Mod 15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 28

Mod15 Gas Turbine Engines by COBC 29

COMPRESSOR AIR INLET DUCTS