Mathematics MCA11

Karnataka State Open University
Study Material for MCA
Mathematics - Code - MCA 11
by
K.S. Srinivasa
Retd. Principal &
Professor of Mathematics
Bangalore
Published by
Sharada Vikas Trust (R)
Bangalore
MCA 11 MATHEMATICS
Syllabus
1. Complex Trigonometry
Revision of Plane Trigonometry - trigonometric ratios, expressions for relation between allied angles and trigonometrical
ratios. Addition formulae for trigonometrical ratios and simple problems. Complex numbers and functions, definition,
properties, De Moivre's Theorem (without proof), Roots of a complex number, expansions of sin (nθ), cos (nθ) in
powers of sin θ & cos θ, addition formulae for any number of angles, simple problems.
2. Matrix Theory :
Review of the fundamentals. Solution of linear equations by Cramers' Rule and by Matrix method, Eigen values and
Eigen vectors, Cayley Hamilton's Theorem, Diagonalization of matrices, simple problems.
3. Algebraic Structures
Definition of a group, properties of groups, sub groups, permutation groups, simple problems, scalars & vectors, algebra
of vectors, scalar & vector products, scalar triple product, simple problems.
4. Differential Calculus
Limits, continuity and differentiability (definition only), standard derivatives, rules for differentiation, derivatives of
function of a function and parametric functions, problems. Successive differentiation, nth derivative of standard functions,
statement of Leibnitz's Theorem, problems, polar forms, angle between the radius vector and the tangent to a polar
curve, (no derivation) angle between curves, pedal equation, simple problems, indeterminate forms, L' Hospital's rule,
partial derivatives, definition and simple problems.
5. Integral Calculus
Introduction, standard integrals, integration by substitution and by parts, integration of rational, irrational and trigonometric
functions, definite integrals, properties (no proof), simple problems, reduction formulae and simple problems.
6. Differential Equations of first order

Introduction, solution by separation of variables, homogeneous equations, reducible to homogeneous linear equation,
Bernoulli's equation, exact differential equations and simple problems.
Text Books
1. Elementary Engineering Mathematics by Dr. B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publications
2. Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.S. Grewal, Khanna Publications
Reference Books
1. Differential Calculus by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
2. Integral Calculus by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
3. Modern Abstract Algebra by Shanti Narayan, Publishers S. Chand & Co.
CONTENTS
Page Nos.
1. Complex Trigonometry 01
2. Matrix Theory 27
3. Algebraic Structures 47
4. Differential Calculus 69
5. Integral Calculus 101
6. Differential Equations 123

COMPLEX TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometric ratios of acute angles
A
Consider a right-angled triangle ABC, right angled at C. Let A BC = è . The side AC
opposite to angle θ is called ‘opposite side’. The side BC is called ‘adjacent side’. The
side AB is hypotenuse.
opposite side AC
The ratio ie is defined as ‘sine of θ ’ & written as sinθ.
hypotenuse AB
adjacent side BC
The ratio ie is defined as ‘cosine of θ ’ & written as cosθ.
hypotenuse AB
opposite side AC
The ratio ie is defined as ‘tangent of θ ’ & written as tanθ. θ 90º
adjacent side BC B C
sin è
It can be seen by the above definition that = tanè
cos è
1 AB
The reciprocal of sinθ ie ie is defined as ‘cosecant of θ ’ and written as cosecθ.
sin è AC
1 AB
The reciprocal of cosθ ie ie is defined as ‘secant of θ ’ and written as secθ.
cos è BC
BC
The Reciprocal of tanθ ie is defined as ‘cotangent of θ ’ and written as cotθ.
AC
Identities:- (1) sin2θ + cos2θ = 1

(2) sec2θ = 1 + tan2θ
(3) cosec2θ = 1 + cot2θ
Proof:- From the right angled triangle ABC

AC2 + BC2 = AB2
AC 2 BC 2
divide by AB 2 , we have + =1 ie sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
AB 2 AB 2
AC 2 AB 2
divide by BC 2 , we have +1 = ie tan2θ + 1 = sec2θ
BC 2 BC 2
BC 2 AB 2
divide by AC 2 , then 1+ = ie 1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
AC 2 AC 2
Trigonometric ratios of 30° & 60°

Consider an equilateral triangle of side 2 units AB = BC = AC = 2. Draw AD ⊥ r to BC , then BD = DC = 1. Then in the
triangle ABD, A DB = 90°, A BD = 60° & B AD = 30° , further AD2 = AB2 – BD2 = 4 – 1 = 3, ∴ AD = 3
2 KSOU Complex Trigonometry
In the triangle ABD A

AD 3
take A BD sin 60° = = 30º
AB 2
BD 1
cos 60° = =
AB 2
2 2
3
AD 3
tan60° = =
BD 1
2 1
also cosec 60° = , sec 60° = 2 & cot 60° = 60º 90º
3 3 B D C
1 1
BD 1
take B AD sin 30° = =
AB 2
AD 3
cos 30° = =
AB 2
BD 1
tan30° = =
AD 3
2
also cosec 30° = 2, sec 30° = & cot 30° = 3
3
From the above results, it can seen that sin60º = cos30º, cos60º = sin30º and tan60º = cot30º.
Trigonometric ratios of 45º
Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC where AC B = 90°

A
AB C = 45° = B AC
Let AC = BC = 1 unit then AB = 2 units
2
AC 1 1
\ sin 45° = =
AB 2
BC 1
cos 45° = = B C
AB 2 1
AC 1
tan45° = = =1
BC 1
also, cosec45° = 2 , sec 45° = 2 and cot 45° = 1
Note :- Trigonometric ratios of 30º, 45º and 60º are called ‘Standard Trigonometric’ ratios which are always useful,
hence these values have to be always remembered.
Trigonometric ratios of any angle (from 0º to 360º)
Let XOX' & YOY' be co-ordinate axes where O is the origin. Consider a circle of radius r with centre O. Let P be any point
on the cirlce whose co-ordinates are (x, y).
Draw PM perpendicular to OX.

MCA 11 - Mathematics SVT 3
Then OM = x & PM = y Y
Let MO P = è
y x y
sin è = , cos è = , tanè =
r r x (–, +) (+, +) P (x, y)
r r x y
also cosecè = , sec è = , cot è =
y x y X' θ x
O M X
When MO P, satisfy 0º < θ < 90º the print P will be in first quadrant
of the circle, when it satisfy 90º < θ < 180º, P will in second quadrant, (–, –) (+, –)
when 180º < θ < 270º, P will be in third quadrant & finally when 270º
< θ < 360º the point P will be in fourth quadrant, because of these
positions, signs of the Trigonometric ratios changes.
Y'
In the I quadrant both x & y are +ve and r is always +ve.
Therefore sinθ, cosθ & tanθ are +ve, their reciprocals are also +ve.
In the II quadrant x is –ve, y is +ve
Therefore sinθ & cosecθ are +ve cosθ, tanθ, secθ & cotθ are –ve.
In the III quadrant both x & y are –ve
Therefore, tanθ & cotθ are +ve and sinθ, cosθ, cosecθ & secθ are –ve.
In the IV quadrant x is +ve & y is –ve
Therefore, cosθ & secθ are +ve and sinθ, tanθ, cosecθ & cotθ are –ve.
Note :- The signs of the trigonometric ratios can be easily remembered with the help of the following diagram
Sine is +ve All are +ve

S A
in short
T C
tan is +ve cos is +ve
Trigonometric ratios of angles 0º, 90º, 180º, 270º and 360º P

(can be called border angles). y
θ x
O M
Let MO P be an angle whose measure is very close to zero (as in fig. 1)
As θ → 0, y → 0, x → r
0
\ sin 0° = =0
r
fig.1
P
r
cos 0° = =1
r
0 y
tan0° = =0
r
θ
O xM
If MO P, is very close to 90º as in fig. 2.
As θ → 90°, x → 0, y → r
r
\ sin 90° = =1
r fig.2
0
cos 90° = =0
r
r
tan90° = =∞
0 P
y
θ
If θ is very close to 180º as in fig. 3 x
M O
As θ → 180°, x → −r , y → 0
0
\ sin 180° = =0
r
−r
cos 180° = = −1 fig.3
r
0
tan180° = =0
r
If θ is very close to 270º as in fig. 4

M θ
As θ → 270° , x → 0, y → −r x O
−r
\ sin 270° = = −1 y
r
r
0
cos 270° = =0
r P fig.4
−r
tan270° = = −∞
0
If θ is very close to 360º as in fig. 5
When θ → 360° , x → r , y → 0
θ x M
0
\ sin 360° = =0 y
r
r
r P
cos 360° = =1
r
0
tan360° = =0
r fig.5
Thus we have the following

sin 0° = 0, cos 0° = 1, tan0° = 0
sin 90° = 1, cos 90° = 0, tan90° = ∞
sin180° = 0, cos 180° = −1, tan180° = 0
sin 270° = −1, cos 270° = 0, tan270° = −∞
sin 360° = 0, cos 360° = 1, tan360° = 0
Note :- From the above derivations it can be seen that the values of sinθ & cosθ always be between –1 & 1. Whereas the
value of tan θ will be between −∞ & ∞ and hence the graphs of the trigonometric functions
y = sin x, y = cos x & y = tan x are as follows.
y = sin x
x
O 90° 180° 270° 360°
fig.6
y = cos x
x
O 90° 180° 270° 360°
fig.7
y = tanx
x
O 90° 180° 270° 360°
fig.8
Rules for allied angles

sin(90° − θ ) = cos θ sin(270° − θ ) = − cos θ
cos(90° − θ ) = sinθ cos( 270° − θ ) = − sinθ
tan(90° − θ ) = cotθ tan(270° − θ ) = cotθ
sin(90° + θ ) = cos θ sin(270° + θ ) = − cos θ
cos(90° + θ ) = − sinθ cos( 270° + θ ) = sinθ
tan(90° + θ ) = − cotθ tan(270° + θ ) = − cotθ
sin(180° − θ ) = sinθ sin(360° − θ ) = − sinθ
cos(180° − θ ) = − cos θ cos(360° − θ ) = cosθ
tan(180° − θ ) = − tanθ tan(360° − θ ) = − tanθ
sin(180° + θ ) = − sinθ sin(360° +θ ) = sinθ
cos(180° + θ ) = − cos θ cos(360° +θ ) = cos θ
tan(180° + θ ) = tanθ tan(360° +θ ) = tanθ
Using the Trigonometric ratios of standard angles 30°, 45° & 60° and using the above rules for allied angles, we can
find the trigonometric ratios of other angles as follows.
3
Eg.1 sin120° = sin(90° + 30° ) = cos 30° =
2
3
or sin120° = sin(180° − 60° ) = sin 60° =
2
3
Eg.2 cos150° = cos(90° + 60° ) = − sin 60° = −
2
3
or cos150° = cos(180° − 30° ) = − cos 30° = −
2
1
Eg.3 sin 315° = sin(360° − 45° ) = − sin 45° = −
2
1
or sin 315° = sin(270° + 45° ) = − cos 45° = −
2
B
Radian Measure r r
Consider a circle of radius r with centre O. Let AB be a arc such that arc AB = r.
1 radian
Measure of the AO B is called a 'radian' denoted as 1C. O r A
To prove that radian is a Constant angle
Consider a circle of radius r with centre O. Let arc AB = r so that AO B is 1 radian.
Let C be a point on the circle such that AO C = 90°.
Since the angle subtended at the centre of a circle is proportional to the corresponding arc.
AO B arc AB C
=
AO C arc AC B
1 radian r 2
= = r
r
90° 1
(2πr ) π
4
O r A
 1 1 
Q AC = 4 Circumference = 4 ( 2πr ) 
 
∴ π radians = 180°
ie π = 180° imp. result.
π π π π
= 90°, = 45°, = 60°, = 30°.
2 4 3 6
Using the relation π = 180° measurement of an angle in degrees can be converted to radians and vice-versa.
Eg. (1) Qn. : Convert 40° to radians
π 2π
Solution : 40° = 40 × = radius
180 9
2π
Eg. (2) Qn. : Convert radians in to degrees
3
2π 180
Solution : × = 120°
3 π
Some Problems
1. Show that
(1 + cot A) 2 + (1 − cot A) 2 = 2 cosec2 A
Solution : LHS = 1 + cot 2 A + 2 cot A + 1 + cot 2 A − 2 cot A
= 2 + 2 cot 2 A
= 2(1 + cot2 A)
= 2 cosec2 A = RHS.
2. Show that
1 + sin A 1 − sin A
− = 4 sec A tan A
1 − sin A 1 + sin A
(1 + sin A) 2 − (1 − sin A) 2
Solution : LHS = (taking LCM)
(1 − sin A)(1 + sin A)
(1 + sin 2 A + 2 sin A) − (1 + sin 2 A − 2 sin A)

=
1 − sin 2 A
1 + sin 2 A + 2 sin A − 1 − sin 2 A + 2 sin A

=
cos 2 A
4 sin A 1 sin A
= =4 ⋅
cos A
2
cos A cos A
= 4 sec A⋅ tan A = RHS
a 2 −1
3. If sec A + tan A = a, then prove that = sin A
a2 +1
a 2 −1 sec 2 A + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A − 1

Solution : LHS = =
a +1
2
sec 2 A + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A + 1
sec 2 A − 1 + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A

=
sec 2 A + tan2 A + 1 + 2 sec A tan A
2 tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A

= (using the identity)
2 sec 2 A + 2 sec A tan A
2 tan A( tan A + sec A)
=
2 sec A(sec A + tan A)
tan A sin A cos A

= = × = sin A = RHS
sec A cos A 1
4 sinθ + cos θ
4. If sinθ = , find the value of
5 tanθ − cotθ
4
Solution : If sinθ = then opposite side is 4 hypotenusis 5.
5
3 4
∴ adjacent side = 25 − 16 = 9 = 3 ∴ cos θ = & tanθ =
5 3
4 3 7
+
sinθ + cos θ 12
∴ = 5 5 = 5 =
tanθ − cotθ 4
−
3 7 5
3 4 12
3 π 5 cos θ + 8 tanθ
5. If tanθ = − , < θ < π find
4 2 8 secθ − 3 cosecθ
Solution : Since θ lies in II Quadrant sine is +ve cosine & tangant are –ve.
3 4
∴ sinθ = and cos θ = −
5 5
 −4  −3
5  + 8 
5 cos θ + 8 tanθ
= 
5   4 
∴
8 secθ − 3 cosecθ  5 5
8 −  − 3 
 4 3
− 4 − 6 10 2
= = =
− 10 − 5 15 3
6. Prove that
tan(180° + θ ) sec(180° − θ ) cosec(90° + θ )
= sec 2 θ
sec(360° − θ ) cot(90° + θ ) sin(90° − θ )
tanθ ( − secθ ) secθ

Solution : LHS = = sec 2 θ
secθ ( − tanθ ) cos θ
7. Prove that
π 
sin(π + θ ) cos(2π − θ ) cot − θ 
2  = sinθ
π   3π 
tan + θ  cot + θ  sin(−θ )
2   2 
( − sinθ ) cos θ tanθ

Solution : LHS =
( − cotθ ( − tanθ )(− sinθ )
= cos θ tanθ
sinθ
= cos θ × = sinθ = RHS
cos θ
Addition Formulae
sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cos( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B
replacing B by –B
sin( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

cos( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A − tan B
tan(A − B ) =
1 + tan A tan B
Using the above formulae we can find the trigonometric ratios of 15°, 75°, 105° etc.
sin 75° = sin(45° + 30°)
= sin 45° cos 30° + cos 45° sin 30°
1 3 1 1 3 +1
= × + × =
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 75° = cos( 45° + 30°)
= cos 45° cos 30° − sin 45° sin 30°
1 3 1 1 3 −1
= × − × =
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin 75° 3 +1
tan75° = =
cos 75° 3 −1
sin15° = sin(45° − 30°)
= sin 45° cos 30° − cos 45° sin 30°

1 3 1 1 3 −1
= × − × =
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 15° = cos( 45° − 30°)
= cos 45° cos 30° + sin 45° sin 30°
1 3 1 1 3 +1
= × + × =
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin15° 3 −1
tan15° = =
cos15° 3 +1
sin105° = sin(60° + 45°)
= sin 60° cos 45° + cos 60° sin 45°
3 1 1 1 3 +1
= × + × =
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 105° = cos(60° + 45°)
= cos 60° sin 45° − sin 60° sin 45°
1 1 3 1 1− 3
= × − × =
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 +1
tan105° =
1− 3
Alternate method
sin15° = sin(90° − 75°) = cos 75°
3 −1
=
2 2
cos 15° = cos(90° − 75°) = sin 75°
3 +1
=
2 2
sin105° = sin(180° − 75°) = sin 75°
3 +1
=
2 2
cos 105° = cos(180° − 75°) = − cos 75°
=
− ( 3 − 1) = 1 − 3
2 2 2 2
To find sin2θ, cos2θ & tan2θ.

sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
put A = θ = B
sin 2θ = sinθ cos θ + cos θ sinθ
= 2 sinθ cos θ
cos( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
put A = B = θ
cos 2θ = cos θ cos θ − sin θ sin θ
= cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
using sin2 θ = 1 − cos 2 θ
cos 2θ = 2 cos 2 θ − 1
also using cos 2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ
cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ
tan A + tan B
tan(A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B
put A = θ = B
tanθ + tanθ
tan2θ =
1 − tanθ tanθ
2 tanθ
=
1 − tan2 θ
To find sin3θ, cos3θ & tan3θ.

sin 3θ = sin(2θ + θ )
= sin 2θ cos θ + cos 2θ sinθ
= 2 sinθ cosθ cosθ + (1 − 2 sin 2 θ ) sinθ
= 2 sinθ (1 − sin 2 θ ) + sinθ − 2 sin3 θ
= 2 sinθ − 2 sin 3 θ + sinθ − 2 sin 3 θ
= 3 sinθ − 4 sin 3 θ
cos 3θ = cos(2θ + θ )
= cos 2θ cos θ − sin 2θ sin θ
= (2 cos 2 θ − 1) cosθ − 2 sin 2 θ cosθ
= 2 cos 3 θ − cosθ − 2(1 − cos 2 θ ) cosθ
= 2 cos 3 θ − cos θ − 2 cos θ + 2 cos 3 θ
= 4 cos 3 θ − 3 cos θ
tan3θ = tan(2θ + θ )
tan2θ + tanθ
=
1 − tan2θ tanθ
2 tanθ
+ tanθ
= 1 − tan2 θ
2 tanθ
1− × tanθ
1 − tan2 θ
2 tanθ + tanθ (1 − tan2 θ )

= 1 − tan2 θ
1 − tan2 θ − 2 tan2 θ
(1 − tan2 θ )
2 tanθ + tanθ − tan3 θ

=
1 − 3 tan2 θ
3 tanθ − tan3 θ
=
1 − 3 tan2 θ
Thus we have,
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
cos 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ = 2 cos 2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ
2 tanθ
tan2θ =
1 − tan2 θ
sin 3θ = 3 sinθ − 4 sin 3 θ
cos 3θ = 4 cos 3 θ − 3 cos θ
3 tanθ − tan3 θ
tan3θ =
1 − 3 tan2 θ
Problems
sin 3 A cos 3 A
1. Show that − =2
sin A cos A
3 sin A − 4 sin 3 A 4 cos 3 A − 3 cos A

Solution : LHS = −
sin A cos A
= 3 − 4 sin 2 A − 4 cos 2 A + 3
= 6 − 4(sin2 A + cos 2 A)
= 6 − 4 = 2 = RHS
2
2. If cos A = find sin2A & cos3A.
3
2 9−4 5
Solution : Given cos A = , sin A = =
3 3 3
5 2 4 5
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A = 2 × × =
3 3 9
cos 3 A = 4 cos 3 A − 3 cos A
8 2 32 32 − 54 − 22
= 4× − 3× = −2 = =
27 3 27 27 27
4 5 − 22
∴ sin 2 A = & cos 3 A =
9 27
3. Prove that
1 + sin 2θ
= tan2 ( 45° + θ )
−
1 sin 2 θ
1 + 2 sinθ cos θ
Solution : LHS =
1 − 2 sinθ cos θ
(cos θ + sinθ ) 2
=
(cos θ − sinθ ) 2
2
 cos θ + sinθ 
=  (dividing Nr & Dr inside the bracket by cos θ )
 cos θ − sinθ 
2
 1 + tanθ 
= 
 1 − tanθ 
= tan(45° + θ ) = RHS
1 − cos θ θ
4. Prove that = tan2 and hence prove that tan15° = 2 − 3
1 + cos θ 2
 θ
1 − 1 − 2 sin 2 
1 - cos θ  2
Solution : = using cos2 A formula
1 + cos θ  θ 
1 +  2 cos 2 − 1
 2 
θ θ
1 − 1 + 2 sin 2 2 sin 2
= 2 = 2 = tan2 θ
θ θ 2
1 + 2 cos 2 − 1 2 cos 2
2 2
1 − cos θ θ
∴ = tan2
1 + cos θ 2
3
1−
put θ = 30°. tan 15° =
2 1 − cos 30°
= 2 = 2− 3
1 + cos 30° 3 2+ 3
1+
2
(2 − 3 )(2 − 3 ) = (2 − 3 ) = (2 − 3 )
2
2
=
(2 + 3 )(2 − 3 ) 4 − 3
θ
∴ tan = 2 − 3
2
Complex Number
Definition : A number of the form x + iy where x ∈ R, y ∈ R & i = − 1 is defined as a Complex Number and usually denoted
as Z. x is called Real part & y is called Imaginary part. x – iy is called Conjugate. Complex number denoted as Z or z . A
complex number can be represented by a point on a plane by taking real part on x-axis & imaginary part on y-axis. The plane
on which complex numbers are represented is called a Complex Plane. For every point in a plane there is a complex number
& for every complex number there is a point in the plane. In a complex x-axis is called Real axis & y-axis Imaginary axis.
Properties
(1) Equality. Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 , z 2 = x2 + iy 2 are said to be equal if x1 = x2 , y1 = y 2
(2) Addition. If z1 = x1 + iy1 , z 2 = x2 + iy 2

z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y 2 )
(3) Subtraction. z1 − z 2 = ( x1 − x2 ) + i ( y1 − y 2 )
(4) Multiplication. z1 z 2 = ( x1 + iy1 )( x2 + iy 2 )
= x1 x2 + ix2 y1 + ix1 y2 + i 2 y1 y2
= x1 x2 − y1 y 2 + i ( x1 y 2 + x2 y1 ) Q i 2 = −1
Note : i = − 1, i 2 = −1, i 3 = −i, i 4 = 1 etc
z1 ( x1 + iy1 )
(5) Division. z = ( x + iy )
2 2 2
multiply numerator & denominator by the conjugate of x2 + iy2 ie x2 – iy2, then
z1 ( x + iy1 )( x2 − iy 2 )
= 1
z 2 ( x2 + iy 2 )( x2 − iy 2 )
x1 x2 + y1 y 2 + i ( x2 y1 − x1 y 2 )
=
x22 + y 22
x1 x2 + y1 y 2 x2 y1 − x1 y 2
= +i
x22 + y 22 x22 + y 22
which is a complex number.
Note :- Product of a complex number with its conjugate is always a positive real number.
ie zz = ( x + iy)( x − iy) = x 2 + y 2 & z + z = 2 x, z − z = 2iy
z+z z−z y
∴ x= & y=
2 2i
Polar form the complex number

z = x + iy is called the Cartesian form.
P (x, y)
Let P(x, y) be any point in the plane which represents a complex number. r
Draw PM ⊥ r to x-axis & join PM. Then OM = x, MP = y. Let M OP = θ & y
θ x
OP = r. O x M
From the triangle OPM,
OM x
cos θ = = ⇒ x = r cos θ
OP y
PM y
sinθ = = ⇒ y = r sinθ
OP r
∴ z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sinθ = r (cosθ + i sinθ )
This form of the complex number is called 'Polar form'. Where r is called Modulus & θ is called argument which are
given by
y
r = x 2 + y 2 & θ = tan−1
x
r is always positive and argument θ varies from 0° to 360°. The value of argument satisfying –π < θ ≤ π is defined
as amplitude which is unique for a complex number.
Thus we have
Mod. z = z = r = x 2 + y 2
y
arg z = tan−1 and amp. z = θ where –π < θ ≤ π
x
x y
while finding the amplitude of a complex number, we have to find θ satisfying ie cos θ = and sinθ =
y x
Examples
2 + 3i
1. Express in the form x + iy
1+ i
2 + 3i ( 2 + 3i )(1 − i ) 2 + 3i − 2i − 3i 2
Solution : = =
1+ i (1 + i )(1 − i ) 1+1
2+i +3 5+i 5 1
= = = +i
2 2 2 2
(1 + i ) 2
2. Express in the form x + iy
3−i
(1 + i ) 2 1 + i 2 + 2i 2i (3 + i )
Solution : = = (using i 2 = −1)
3−i (3 − i ) (3 − i )(3 + i )
6i + 2i 2 − 2 + 6i − 2 6i 1 3i
= = = + =− +
9 +1 10 10 10 5 5
3. Find the modulus and amplitude of 1 + i.
Solution : z = r = x 2 + y 2 = 1 + 1 = 2
x 1 y 1 π
cos θ = = and sinθ = = ∴ θ = 45° =
r 2 r 2 4
π
∴ Modulus is 2 and amplitude is
4
4. Find the modulus & amplitude of − 3 + i
Solution : z = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2
− 3 
cosθ = 
2 5π
 →θ =
1  6
sinθ =
2 
5π
∴ Modulus is 2 & amplitude is
6
5. Find the modulus & amplitude of − 1 − i 3
Solution : z = 1 + 3 = 4 = 2
1 
cosθ = −
2  2π
 →θ = −
3 3
sinθ = −
2 
2π
∴ Modulus is 2 & amplitude is −
3
6. Find the modulus & amplitude of 1 – i.
Solution : z = 1 + 1 = 2
x 1 
cos θ = = 
r 2  π
 →θ = −
y 1  4
sinθ = = −
r 2 
π
∴ Modulus is 2 & amplitude is −
4
1
7. If α + iβ = , then prove that (α 2 + β 2 )(a 2 + b 2 ) = 1
a + ib
1 ( a − ib)
Solution : α + iβ = =
a + ib (a + ib)(a − ib)
a − ib a b
= = −i
a +b
2 2
a +b
2 2
a + b2
2
Equating real and imaginary parts separately

a −b
α= and β =
a +b
2 2
a + b2
2
Squaring and adding
a2 b2 (a 2 + b 2 ) 1
α2 + β2 = + = =
(a 2
+b ) (a
2 2 2
+b 2 2
) (a 2
+b )
2 2 a + b2
2
∴ cross - multiplying
(α 2 + β 2 )(a 2 + b 2 ) = 1
DeMoivre's Theorem
Statement : If n is a +ve or –ve integer, then (cosθ + i sinθ ) n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
If n is a +ve or –ve fraction, one of the values of (cosθ + i sinθ ) n is cos nθ + i sin nθ .
Proof : Case (i) when n is a +ve integer proof by Mathematical Induction.

When n = 1,
(cosθ + i sinθ )1 = cos θ + i sinθ = cos 1.θ + i sin1.θ
∴ result is true for n = 1.
Let us assume that the result is true for n = m
ie (cosθ + i sinθ ) m = cos mθ + i sin mθ
multiply both sides by cos θ + i sin θ
(cosθ + i sinθ ) m (cosθ + i sinθ ) = (cos mθ + i sin mθ )(cos θ + i sinθ )
ie (cosθ + i sinθ ) m+1

= cos mθ cos θ + i sin mθ cos θ + i cos mθ sin θ − sin mθ sin θ
= cos mθ cos θ − sin mθ sinθ + i[sin mθ cos θ + cos mθ sinθ ]
= cos(m + 1)θ + i sin(m + 1)θ
∴ the result is true for n = m + 1. Thus if the result is true for n = m then it is true for n = m + 1.
ie If it is true for one integer it is true for next integer, hence by Induction the result is true for all +ve integers.
p
Case (ii) When n = where p & q are +ve integers.
q
q
 p p 
Consider  cos θ + i sin θ 
 q q 
p p
= cos ⋅ qθ + i sin ⋅ qθ = cos qθ + i sin pθ = (cosθ + i sinθ ) p
q q
q
 p p 
ie (cosθ + i sinθ ) p =  cos θ + i sin θ 
 q q 
p
p p
taking qth roots on both sides. One of the values of (cosθ + i sinθ ) q
= cos θ + i sin θ
q q
Case (iii) when n is –ve integer or –ve fraction. Let n = –m where m is a +ve integer or +ve fraction
(cosθ + i sinθ ) n = (cosθ + i sinθ ) − m
1 1
= =
(cos θ + i sinθ ) m
cos mθ + i sin mθ
(cos mθ − i sin mθ ) cos mθ − i sin mθ

= =
(cos mθ + i sin mθ )(cos mθ − i sin mθ ) cos 2 mθ + sin 2 mθ
cos mθ − i sin mθ
= = cos( −m)θ + i sin(− m)θ = cos nθ + i sin nθ .
1
Important Results
1
(i) = cosθ − i sinθ
If x = cos θ + i sin θ then
x
1 1
∴ x + = 2 cos θ and x − = 2i sinθ .
x x
(ii) If x = cos θ + i sin θ

x n = (cosθ + i sinθ ) n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
1 1
= cosθ − i sinθ & n = (cos θ − i sinθ ) n
x x
= cos nθ − i sin nθ
1 1
∴ xn + = 2 cos nθ & x n − = 2i sin nθ
xn xn
Note :- For convenience cos θ + i sin θ can be written as cisθ .
Roots of a complex number

Let z = x + iy, express the complex number in the polar form.
ie z = r (cosθ + i sinθ )
= r [cos( 2kπ + θ ) + i sin(2kπ + θ )] where k ∈ I
z
1
n
=r
1
n
[cos(2kπ + θ ) + i sin(2kπ + θ )] 1
n
1  2 kπ + θ ( 2kπ + θ ) 
= r n cos + i sin 
 n n 
where k = 0, 1, 2, ......... n – 1. Let us denote the nth roots of the complex number by z0, z1, z2, ..............zn – 1
Then,
1  θ θ 1 θ
for k = 0, z 0 = r n cos + i sin  = r n cis
 n n n
1  2π + θ 2π + θ  1 2π + θ
k = 1, z1 = r n cos + i sin  = r n cis
 n n  n
1  4π + θ 4π + θ  1 4π + θ
k = 2, z 2 = r n cos + i sin  = r n cis
 n n  n
1  2( n − 1)π + θ 2( n − 1)π + θ  1 2( n − 1)π + θ

k = n − 1, z n −1 = r n cos + i sin  = r cis
n
 n n  n
the above n values gives nth roots of z = x + iy
1
Note :- If k = n, n + 1, n + 2 etc. The values will repeat. Hence these will be only n values of z n which are distinct.
Using the polar form of the complex number we can plot the nth roots of the complex in the following way.
1
z2
Draw a circle of radius r whose centre is O. Mark a point on the circle and take
n
θ z1
OA as intial line. Take a point B such that A OB = . Then B represent z0. Take a C
n
2π + θ z0
point C such that AOC = then C represent z1, like this all the nth roots can B
n
be represented. This diagram is called 'Argand Diagram'. O θ /n A
1
r n
Problems :
cos 5θ − i sin 5θ ) 2 (cos 7θ + i sin 7θ ) −3 zn
(1) Simplify
(cos 4θ − i sin 4θ ) (cosθ + i sinθ )
9 5
Solution : G.E. (given expression)

(cos θ + i sinθ ) −10 (cos θ + i sinθ ) − 21
=
(cos θ + i sinθ ) −36 (cosθ + i sinθ ) 5
= (cosθ + i sinθ ) −10 − 21+36−5 = (cosθ + i sinθ ) 0 = 1
(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ) −5 (cos 3θ − i sin 3θ ) −3

( 2) Simplify
(cos 4θ − i sin 4θ ) 4 (cosθ + i sinθ ) 10
(cosθ + i sinθ ) −10 (cos θ + i sinθ ) 9

Solution : G.E. =
(cos θ + i sinθ ) −16 (cosθ + i sinθ )10
= (cosθ + i sinθ ) −10 + 9+16−10 = (cosθ + i sinθ ) 5 = cos 5θ + i sin 5θ
1 1
(3) If 2 cos θ = x + & 2 cos φ = y +
x y
Show that
1 xm yn
(i) x m y m + = 2 cos(mθ + nφ ) & (ii) + = 2 cos( mθ − nφ )
xm y m yn xm
1 x2 +1
Solution : 2 cos θ = x + =
x x
∴ x 2 + 1 = 2 cosθ ⋅ x ie x 2 − 2 cosθ x + 1 = 0
2 cos θ ± 4 cos 2 θ − 4 2 cosθ ± (−4)(1 − cos 2 θ )

⇒x= =
2 2
2 cos θ ± − 4 sin 2 θ 2 cos θ ± 2i sinθ

= = = cos θ ± i sinθ
2 2
1
∴ If x = cos θ + i sinθ , then = cos θ − i sinθ
x
1 1
Similarly if 2 cos φ = y + , y = cos φ + i sin φ & = cos φ − i sin φ
y y
(i) x m = (cosθ + i sinθ ) m = cos mθ + i sin mθ
y n = (cosφ + i sinφ ) n = cos nφ + i sin nφ
x m y n = (cos mθ + i sin mθ )(cos nφ + i sin nφ )

= cos(mθ + nφ ) + i sin(mθ + nφ ) (1)
1
= 2 cos(mθ + nφ ) − i sin(mθ + nφ ) (2)
x yn m
adding (1) & (2)

1
xm yn + = 2 cos( mθ + nφ )
xm yn
(ii) x m = cos mθ + i sin mθ

1
= cos nφ = i sin nφ
yn
xm yn
∴ = cos( mθ − nφ ) + i sin(mθ − nφ ) & = cos(mθ − nφ ) − i sin(mθ − nφ )
yn xm
adding
xm yn
n
+ = 2 cos(mθ − nφ )
y xm
(4) Prove that

m b
cos tan−1 
m m m
( a + ib) n
+ ( a − ib) n
= 2( a 2 + b 2 ) 2n
n a
b
Solution : Let a + ib = r (cos θ + i sinθ ) where r = a 2 + b 2 & θ = tan−1
a
 m m 
= r n (cos θ + i sinθ )
m m m m
∴ ( a + ib) =r cos n θ + i sin n θ  (1)
n n n
 
a − ib = r (cosθ − i sinθ )
 m m 
cos n θ − i sin n θ 
m m
( a − ib) n
=r n
(2)
 
adding (1) & (2)
m  m 
= r n 2 cos θ 
m m
( a + ib) n
+ ( a − ib) n
 n 
m
=  a 2 + b 2 
2n m b
tan−1
m m
∴ ( a + ib) n
+ ( a − ib) n
2 cos
  n a
b b
Q r = a 2 + b 2 & tanθ = ⇒ θ = tan−1
a a
∴ ( a + ib)
m
n
+ ( a − ib)
m
n
(
= 2 a2 + b2 )m
2n m b
2 cos tan−1 
 n a
(5) Find the cube roots if 1 + i and represent them on Argand diagram.
Solution : Let z = 1 + i = r (cos θ + i sinθ ) say

r cos θ = 1, r sinθ = 1
Squaring & adding r 2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ ) = 1 + 1
r2 = 2 ⇒ r = 2
1 
cos θ = 
2  π
 →θ =
1  4
sinθ =

2 
 π π
∴ z = 2  cos + i sin 
 4 4
  π  π 
= 2 cos 2kπ +  + i sin 2kπ +  for k ∈ I
  4   4 
 π
∴ z = 1 + i = 2 cis 2kπ + 
 4
( 2)
1
1 1 1   8kπ + π  3
8kπ + π
= (1 + i ) = cis 
3 1
z 3 3
= 2 6 cis for k = 0, 1, 2
  4  12
1 π 1
when k = 0, z 0 = 2 6 cis = 2 6 cis15°
12
1 9π 1 3π 1
k = 1, z1 = 2 6 cis = 2 6 cis = 2 6 cis135°
12 4
1 17π 1 17π 1
k = 2, z 2 = 2 6 cis k = 2, z 2 = 2 6 cis = 2 6 cis255°
12 12
To represent them on Argand diagram.
1
Draw a circle of radius 2 6
with centre O. Let OA be the initial line. C
Take a point B on the circle such that A OB = 15°, take a point C on the circle
B
such that A OC = 135° & take a point D on the circle such that A OD = 255° then 135°
the points B, C, D represent z0, z1, z2. 15° A
255° O 1
2 6
1
1 3 
4
(6) Find all the values of  − i & find their continued product.
2 2 
1 3
Solution : Let z = −i = r (cosθ + i sinθ ) D
2 2
1 3
∴ r cosθ = , r sinθ = −
2 2
Squaring & adding
1 3 4
r2 = + = =1
4 4 4
1 
cosθ = 
2 π
 →θ = −
3  3
sinθ = −
2 
  π  π 
∴ z = 1cos −  + i sin − 
  3  3 
 π
z = cis 2kπ −  for k ∈ I
 3
1
1 3 
1 1
  π    6kπ − π 
4 4 4
=  −i = cis 2kπ −  = cis

1
z 4
2 
 2    3    3 
6kπ − π
= cis for k = 0, 1, 2, 3
12
 π   5π 
for k = 0, z 0 = cis −  k = 1, z1 = cis 
 12   12 
 11π   17π 
k = 2, z 2 = cis  k = 3, z 3 = cis 
 12   12 
Their continued product
 π   5π   11π   17π 
= ci s − cis cis cis 
 12   12   12   12 
 π 5π 11π 17π   32π  8π
= cis − + + +  = cis  = cis
 12 12 12 12   12  3
 2π  2π 2π 2π 1 3
= cis 2π +  = cis = cos + i sin = − +i
 3  3 3 3 2 2
Expansion of sin (nθ ) and cos (nθ ) in powers of sinθ & cosθ
Consider (cosθ + i sinθ ) n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
Expand (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) n

Using Binomial Theorem
( x + a) n = x n + nC1 x n −1a + nC2 x n − 2 a 2 + ........ + nCn a n
Equating real and imaginary parts separately we get the expressions of cos nθ & sin nθ
Eg. (1) Express cos 5θ + i sin 5θ in powers of sin θ & cos θ .

Solution : cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = (cosθ + i sinθ ) 5
= cos5 θ + 5C1 cos 4 θ ⋅ i sinθ + 5C2 cos3 θ (i sinθ ) 2 + 5C3 cos 2 θ (i sinθ ) 3 + 5C4 cosθ (i sinθ ) 4 + 5C5 (i sinθ ) 5
= cos 5 θ + 5i cos 4 θ sinθ − 10 cos 3 θ sin 2 θ − 10i cos 2 θ sin 3 θ + 5 cos θ sin 4 θ + i sin 5 θ
= cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin 2 θ + 5 cosθ sin4 θ + i[5 cos 4 θ sinθ − 10 cos 2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ ]
Equating real & imaginary parts separately

cos 5θ = cos 5 θ − 10 cos 3 θ sin 2 θ + 5 cos θ sin 4 θ and
sin 5θ = 5 cos 4 θ sinθ − 10 cos 2 θ sin 3 θ + sin 5 θ
Eq. (2) Express cos 6θ & sin 6θ in powers of cos θ + i sinθ
Solution : cos 6θ + i sin 6θ = (cosθ + i sinθ ) 6
= cos 6 θ + 6C1 cos5 θ (i sinθ ) + 6C2 cos 4 θ (i sinθ ) 2 + 6C3 cos3 θ (i sinθ ) 3 + 6C4 cos 2 θ (i sinθ ) 4
+ 6C5 cosθ (i sinθ ) 5 + 6C6 (i sinθ ) 6
= cos 6 θ + 6i cos 5 θ sinθ − 15 cos 4 θ sin 2 θ − 20i cos 3 θ sin 3 θ + 15 cos 2 θ sin 4 θ + 6i cos θ sin 5 θ − sin 6 θ
= cos6 θ − 15 cos 4 θ sin 2 θ + 15 cos 2 θ sin4 θ − sin6 θ + i[6 cos5 θ sinθ − 20 cos3 θ sin3 θ + 6 cosθ sin5 θ ]
cos 6θ = cos 6 θ − 15 cos 4 θ sin2 θ + 15 cos 2 θ sin4 θ − sin6 θ and

sin 6θ = 6 cos 5 θ sinθ − 20 cos 3 θ sin 3 θ + 6 cos θ sin 5 θ
Addtion formulae for any number of angles

We have,
cisθ 1cisθ 2 cisθ 3 .........cisθ n = cis(θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ............. + θ n )
Now cisθ1cisθ 2 cisθ 3 .........cisθ n
= cos θ1 (1 + i tanθ1 ) cos θ 2 (1 + i tanθ 2 )......... cos θ n (1 + i tanθ n )
= cos θ1 cos θ 2 ......... cos θ n (1 + i tanθ 1 )(1 + i tanθ 2 )..............(1 + i tanθ n )
ie cis(θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ............ + θ n )
= cosθ1 cosθ 2 cosθ 3 .......... cosθ n (1 + iS1 + i 2 S 2 + i 3 S3 + ..............)
where S1 = ∑ tanθ 1
S 2 = ∑ tanθ1 tanθ 2
S 3 = ∑ tan θ1 tan θ 2 tan θ 3

.........................................
∴ cis(è1 + è 2 + ............ + è n )
= cos θ 1 cos θ 2 .......... cos θ n (1 + iS1 − S 2 − iS 3 + S 4 ..............)

= cos θ 1 cos θ 2 .......... cos θ n (1 − S 2 + S 4 ..............) + i cos θ 1 cos θ 2 .......... cos θ n ( S1 − S 3 ............)

cos(θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ............. + θ n ) = cos θ1 cos θ 2 .......... cos θ n (1 − S 2 + S 4 .......)
and
sin(θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ............. + θ n ) = cos θ1 cos θ 2 .......... cos θ n ( S1 − S 3 .......)
S1 − S 3 .................
∴ tan(è1 + è 2 + è3 + ............. + è n ) =
1 − S 2 + S 4 .................
Exercise
1. Find the continued product of fourth roots of unity.
2. If 'ω ' is the cube root of unity, then find the value of (4 − 3ω − 3ω 2 )3.
8
 sin(π / 8) + i cos(π / 8) 
3. Find the value of  
 sin(π / 8) − i cos(π / 8) 
4. Write the conjugate of the multiplicative inverse of the complex number (sinθ + i cos θ ).
5. If z = x + iy then what does z + 1 = 1 represents?
6. Simplify (sin 2 x + i cos 2 x) 2 using De Moivre's Theorem.

7. Find the real values of x and y which satisfy the equation (2 x − y ) + i(3 x + 2 y + 1) = 0.
8. Find the real values of x and y which satisfy the equation ( 2 + i ) x + (i − 3) y − 4 = 0.
9. If ' n' is any integer, find i − n + i − n +1 + i − n + 2 + i − n + 3.
10. What is the multiplicative inverse of i101 ?
11. If 'ω ' in the cube root of '1', find the value of (1 + ω ) 3 − (1 + ω 2 ) 3 .
2 4 2 4
12. Simplify + + + .
i i 2 i3 i 4
 3π 3π 
13. Express 2 cos + i sin  in the Cartesian form.
 4 4 
−1
 π π
14. Find the real part of 1 + cos + i sin  .
 5 5
a + ib a 2 + b2
15. If x + iy = , prove that ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 = 2 .
c + id c + d2
n
1+ i 
16. Find the least positive integer ' n' for which   = 1.
1− i 
17. If z = x + iy and z + 6 = 2 z + 3 , show that x 2 + y 2 = 9.
18. If z = a + ib and z − 2 = 2 z − 1 , show that a 2 + b 2 = 1.
 z −1  π
19. If z = x + iy be such that amp   = , show that x + y − 2 y = 1.
2 2
 z + 1  4
20. Express 1 − i in the polar form.
3 −i
21. Express in the polar form.
2
2
2+i
22. Find the modulus and amplitude of   .
 3−i 
(sinθ + i cosθ )3
23. Simplify
(cosα + i sinα ) 2
(cos 7θ + i sin 7θ ) − 2 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ) 4

24. Simplify
(cosθ + i sinθ ) − 4
25. If ω is a cube root of unity, show that (1 − ω + ω 2 )(1 − ω 2 + ω 4 )(1 − ω 4 + ω 8 )(1 − ω 8 + ω 16 ) = 16.
1
26. If x = cis θ , then find x 5 + .
x5
27. If i 2 = −1, then find i 2 + i 4 + i 6 + L + (2n) terms.
x− y α − β 
28. If x = cis α and y = cis β , prove that = i tan 
x+ y  2 
nπ
29. If α & β are the roots of x 2 − 2 x + 4 = 0, then prove that α n + β n = 2 n +1 cos .
3
30. Prove the following
i) (1 + i )3 + (1 − i )3 = −4 ( ) (
6
ii) 1 − i 2 + 1 + 2 ) = 46.
6
1 1
31. If Z = cos θ + i sinθ , show that Z n + n
= 2 cos nθ and Z n − = 2i sin nθ .
Z Zn
32. If x = cis α , y = cis β , prove that
1 1
i) xy + = 2 cos(α + β ) ii) xy − = 2i sin(α + β ).
xy xy
33. If x = cis α , y = cis β , prove that

1 1
i) x 2 y 3 + 2 3
= 2 cos(2α + 3β ) ii) x 2 y 3 − 2 3
= 2i sin( 2α + 3β ).
x y x y
x 2n − 1
34. If x = cis θ , prove that = i tannθ .
x 2n + 1
35. Prove that (1 + cosθ + i sinθ ) 8 + (1 + cosθ − i sin θ )8 = 29 ⋅ cos(4θ ) ⋅ cos8 (θ / 2).
36. If cos α + 2 cos β + 3 cos γ = 0 = sinα + 2 sin β + 3 sin γ , prove that
i) cos 3α + 8 cos 3β + 27 cos 3γ = 18 cos(α + β + γ ) ii) sin 3α + 8 sin 3β + 27 sin 3γ = 18 sin(α + β + γ ).
1 1 1
37. If 2 cos α = x + , 2 cos β = y + and 2 cos γ = z + , prove that
x y z
1 1
i) xyz + = 2 cos(α + β + γ ) ii) xyz − = 2i sin(α + β + γ ).
xyz xyz
38. [
Show that (a + ib) 2n − (a − ib) 2n = 2i(a 2 + b 2 ) n ⋅ sin 2n ⋅ tan−1 (b / a) ]
n
1 + sinθ + i cos θ   nπ   nπ 
39. Prove that   = cos − nθ  + i sin − nθ 
1 + sinθ − i cos θ   2   2 
7
1 − cos θ − i sinθ  θ 
40. Prove that   = i tan7   ⋅ cis 7θ .
1 + cos θ − i sinθ  2
n
1 + i tanα  1 + i tanα
41. Prove that   = .
1 − i tanα  1 − i tanα
42. If Z r = cis (π / 3r ); r = 1, 2, 3L prove that Z1 ⋅ Z 2 ⋅ Z 3 LL∞ = i.
43. Find the cube roots of − 1 + i 3.

44. Find all the values of (1 + i) 2 / 3.
45. Find all the values of (1 − i) 2 / 3.
46. Find the fourth roots of 1 + i 3 and represent them in the Argand diagram.
47. Solve x 7 − x = 0.
48. Solve x 5 + 1 = 0.
49. Express sin 7θ & cos 7θ in powers of sinθ & cos θ .
50. Express cos 8θ & sin 8θ in powers of cos θ & sinθ .
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MATRIX THEORY
Review of the fundamentals

A rectangular array of mn elements arranged in m rows & n columns is called a 'Matrix' of a order m × n matrices are denoted
by capital letters of The English Alphabet.
Examples
 a1 b1 
 
Matrix of order 3 × 2 is  a2 b2 
a b 
 3 3
 a1 a 2 a3 
 
 b1 b2 b3 
Matrix of order 4 × 3 is 
 c1 c2 c3 
d d 2 d 3 
 1
a1 b1 c1 
 
Matrix of order 3 × 3 is a 2 b2 c2 
a3 b3 c3 
Note :- Elements of Matrices are written in rows and columns with in the bracket ( ) or [ ].
Types of Matrices
(1) Equivalent Matrices : Two matrices are said to be equivalent if the order is the same.
(2) Equal Matrices : Two matrices are said to be equal if the corresponding elements are equal.
(3) Rectangular & Square Matrices : A matrix of order m × n is said to be rectangular if m ≠ n, square if m = n.
(4) Row Matrix : A matrix having only one row is called Row Matrix.
(5) Column Matrix : A matrix having only one column is called Column Matrix.
(6) Null Matrix or Zero Matrix : A matrix in which all the elements are zeros is called Null Matrix or Zero Matrix
denoted as O. [English alphabet O not zero where as elements are zeros]
(7) Diagonal Matrix : A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all elements except the elements in the principal
diagonal are zeros.
 2 0 0
 4 0  
Example    0 1 0 
 0 6  0 0 4
 
are diagonal matrices of order 2 & 3.
(8) Scalar Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the elements in the principal diagonal are same.
28 KSOU Matrix Theory
8 0 0
4 0   
Example   0 8 0
0 4   0 0 8 
 
are Scalar Matrices of order 2 & 3.
(9) Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the elements in the principal diagonal is 1 is
called Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix denoted by I.
1 0 0 0
 
1 0  0 1 0 0
Example :  , 
0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 

are unit matrices of order 2 & 4.
(10) Transpose of a Matrix : If A is any matrix then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows & columns of A is
called 'Transpose of A and it is written as A' or AT.
a b
a e
Example : If A = c d  then A′ is
c
b f 
e f   d
A is of order 3 × 2 but A' is of order 2 × 3.
Matrix addition
Two matrices can be added or subtracted if their orders are same.
 a1 b1 c1  c d1 e1 
Example : If A =   & B =  1 
 a2 b2 c2   c2 d2 e2 
 a +c b1 + d1 c1 + e1 
A + B =  1 1 
 a2 + c2 b2 + d 2 c2 + e2 
 a −c b1 − d1 c1 − e1 
A − B =  1 1 
 a2 − c2 b2 − d 2 c2 − e2 
Matrix Multiplication
If A is a matrix of order m × p and B is matrix of order p × n, then the product AB is defined and its order is m × n. (ie. for AB
to be defined number of columns of A must be same as number of rows of B)
α 1 β1 
a b1 c1   
Example : Let A =  1  & B = α 2 β2 
 a2 b2 c2  α β 3 
 3
 a1α1 + b1α 2 + c1α 3 a1 β1 + b1 β 2 + c1 β 3 

then AB =  
 a 2α1 + b2α 2 + c2α 3 a 2 β1 + b2 β 2 + c2 β 3 
which is of order 2 × 2.
Note :- If A is multiplied by A then AA is denoted as A2, AAA.... as A3 etc.

Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix

If A is a matrix of any order and K is a scalar (a constant), then KA represent a matrix in which every element of A is multiplied
by K.
 a1 b1 c1   Ka1 Kb1 Kc1 

   
Example : If A =  a2 b2 c2  then KA =  Ka2 Kb2 Kc2 
a c3   Ka Kc3 
 3 b3  3 Kb3
Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

Let A be a matrix of order n × n an element in ith row and jth column can be denoted as aij. Hence a matrix of order n × n can
be denoted as (aij) or [aij] where i = 1, 2, .......n, j = 1, 2, .......n
A matrix of order n × n is said to be Symmetric if aij = aji and Skew Symmetric if aij = –aji or A is symmetric if A = AT
or A = A', skew symmetric if A = –AT or A = –A' also A + A' is symmetric & A – A' is skew symmetric.
Note :- In a skew symmetric matrix the elements in principal diagonal are all zeros.
2 3 5 
Example : A = 3 7 6 is symmetric where A = A′
5 6 8
 0 − 2 7
 
B= 2 0 6  is skew symmetric where B = − B′
 − 7 − 6 0
 
Determinant
A determinant is defined as a mapping (function) from the set of square matrices to the set of real numbers.
If A is a square matrix its determinant is denoted as A .
 a1 b1 c1  a1 b1 c1
Example : Let A = a2 b2 
c2  then det. A or A = a2 b2 c2
 a3 b3 c3  a3 b3 c3
Minors and Co-factors

Let A = ( aij ) i = 1, 2, 3 j = 1, 2, 3
 a11 a12 a13 

 
ie A =  a21 a22 a23 
a a33 
 31 a32
a11 a12 a13

A = a 21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a 22 a 23
Consider
a32 a33 which is a determinant formed by leaning all the elements of row and column in which all lies. This
determinant is called Minor of a11. Thus we can form nine minors. In general if A is matrix of order n × n then minor of aij is
obtained by leaning all the elements in the row and column in which aij lies in A . The order of this minor is n – 1where as the
order of given determinant is n if this minor is multiplied by (–1)i + j then it is called Co-factors of aij.
 a11 a12 a13 

 
Example : Let A =  a21 a22 a23 
a a33 
 31 a32
a 22 a 23
Minor of a11 =
a32 a33
a22 a23 a 22 a 23
Co - factor of a11 = ( −1)1+1 =
a32 a33 a32 a33
a12 a13
Minor of a 21 is
a32 a33
a12 a13 a12 a13

Co - factor of a21 is ( −1) 2 +1 =−
a32 a33 a32 a33
Value of a determinant
Consider a matrix A of order n × n. Consider all the elements of any row or column and multiply each element by its corresponding
co-factor. Then the algebraic sum of the product is the value of the determinant.
a1 b1
Example : Let A =
a2 b2
Co-factor of a1 is b2
Co-factor of b1 is –a2
∴ A = a1b2 − b1a2
a1 b1 c1
Let A = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
b2 c2 b2 c2
Co - factor of a1 is ( −1)1+1 =
b3 c3 b3 c3
a2 c2 a2 c2
Co - factor of b1 is ( −1)1+ 2 =−
a3 c3 a3 c3
a2 b2 a2 b2
Co - factor of c1 is ( −1)1+ 3 =
a3 b3 a3 b3
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
∴ A = a1 − b1 + c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
= a1 (b2 c3 − b3c2 ) − b1 (a 2 c3 − a3c 2 ) + c1 ( a 2b3 − a3b2 )
= a1b2 c3 − a1b3c2 ) − a 2 b1c3 − a3b1c2 + a 2 b3 c1 − a3b2 c1

Properties of determinants
(1) If the elements of any two rows or columns are interchanged then value of the determinant changes only in sign.
(2) If the elements of two rows or columns are identical then the value of the determinant is zero.
(3) If all the elements of any row or column is multipled by a constant K, then the value of the determinant is multipled
by K.
(4) If all the elements of any row or column are written as sum of two elements then the determinant can be written as
sum of two determinants.
(5) If all the elements of any row or column are multiplied by a constant and added to the corresponding elements of
any other row or column then the value of the determinant donot alter.
Adjoint of a Matrix
 a1 b1 c1 
 
Let A =  a2 b2 c2 
a c3 
 3 b3
Let us denoted the co-factors of a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2, a3, b3, c3 as A1, B1, C1, A2, B2, C2, A3, B3, C3 transpose of matrix of
co-factors is called Adjoint of the Matrix.
 A1 B1 C1 
 
Matrix of Co - factors =  A2 B2 C2 
A C3 
 3 B3
 A1 A2 A3 
 
Adjoint of A =  B1 B2 B3 
C C C3 
 1 2
Theorem A. adj. A = A I = adj. A. A
 a1 b1 c1  A1 A2 A3 
  
A. adj. A =  a2 b2 c2  B1 B2 B3 
a c3  C1 C 2 C3 
 3 b3
 a1 A1 + b1B1 + c1C1 a1 A2 + b1 B2 + c1C 2 a1 A3 + b1 B3 + c1C3 

= a2 A1 + b2 B1 + c2C1 a2 A2 + b2 B2 + c2C2 a2 A3 + b2 B3 + c2C3 
 a3 A1 + b3 B1 + c3C1 a3 A2 + b3 B2 + c3C 2 a3 A3 + b3 B3 + c3C3 
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
Now a1 A1 + b1 B1 + c1C1 = a1 − b1 + c1 =∆ The value of the det. A.
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
Similarly a 2 A2 + b2 B2 + c 2C 2 = ∆
a3 A3 + b3 B3 + c3C3 = ∆
b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1
a1 A2 + b1 B2 + c1C 2 = −a1 + b1 − c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
= −a1 (b1c3 − b3 c1 ) + b1 (a1c3 − a3c1 ) − c1 ( a1b3 − a3b1 )

= − a1b1c3 + a1b3 c1 + a1b1c3 − a3b1c1 − a1b3 c1 + a3b1c1 = 0
Similarly the other five elements of A adj.A is zero.
∆ 0 0 
 
∴ A. adj. A =  0 ∆ 0  where ∆ = A
 0 0 ∆
 
1 0 0
 
= ∆ 0 1 0  = ∆.I
0 0 1
 
∴ A. adj. A = A ⋅ I = adj. A
Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix A is said to be singular if A = 0 and non-singular if A ≠ 0.
Inverse of a Matrix
Two non-singular matrices A & B of the same order is said to be inverse of each other if AB = I = BA. Inverse of A is denoted
as A–1. Inverse of B is denoted as B–1 and further (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.
To find the inverse of A
A.adj. A = A ⋅ I
multiply by A −1 , AA −1.adj. A = A A −1
adj. A
ie adj. A = A A −1 ⇒ A −1 =
A
 1 4 − 2
 
Example : Find the inverse of  − 2 − 5 4 
 1 −2 1 
 
 1 4 − 2
 
Let A =  − 2 − 5 4 
 1 −2 1 
 
 −5 4 −2 4 −2 −5
 − 
 −2 1 1 1 1 −2
 4 −2 1 −2 1 4 
Matrix of Co - factors = − − 
 −2 1 1 1 1 −2 
 4 −2 1 −2 1 4 
 − 
 − 5 4 −2 4 − 2 − 5 
 (−5 + 8) − (−2 − 4) (4 + 5) 

=  − (4 − 4) (1 + 2) − (−2 − 4)
(16 − 10) − (4 − 4) (−5 + 8) 
3 6 9 
= 0 3 6
6 0 3
3 0 6 
∴ adj.A = 6 3 0
9 6 3
1 4 −2
A = − 2 − 5 4 = 1( −5 + 8) − 4( −2 − 4) − 2( 4 + 5) = 3 + 24 − 18 = 9
1 −2 1
 3 0 6  39 0 6
9
−1 1 1   
A = adj.A =  6 3 0  =  6 9 3
9 0
A 9  9 6 3 
 9 6 3  9 9 9
 13 0 2
3
−1
 
A =  23 1
3 0
 2 1 
1 3 3
Solutions of Linear equations
Cramer's Rule
To solve the equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a 2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d 3
a1 b1 c1
Consider ∆ = a2 b2 c2
(1)
a3 b3 c3
first evaluate & if it is not zero then multiply both sides of (1) by x.
a1 b1 c1 a1 x b1 c1
∆x = x a2 b2 c 2 = a 2 x b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 x b3 c3
multiply the elements of columns 2 & 3 by y & z and add to elements of column 1.
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z b1 c1
then ∆x = a2 x + b2 y + c2 z b2 c2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z b3 c3
d1 b1 c1
= d2 b2 c2 = ∆1 (say) (2)
d3 b3 c3
multiply both sides of (1) by y
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 y c1
∆y = y a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 y c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 y c3
multiply the elements of columns 1 & 3 by x & z and add to the elements of column 2.
a1 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z c1 a1 d1 c1
= a2 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z c2 = a2 d2 c2 = ∆ 2 (say) (3)
a3 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z c3 a3 d3 c3
multiply both sides of (1) by z
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 z
∆z = z a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2 z
a3 b3 c 3 a3 b3 c3 z
multiply the elements of columns 1 & 2 by x & y and add to the elements of column 3.
a1 b1 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z
= a2 b2 a 2 x + b2 y + c2 z
a3 b3 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z
a1 b1 d1
= a2 b2 d 2 = ∆ 3 (say) (4)
a3 b3 d3
∆1
then x = from (2)
∆
∆2
y= from (3)
∆
∆3
z= from (4)
∆
Note :- Verification of values of x, y, z can be done by substituting in the given equations.
Example - 1
Solve 2 x + y − z = 3
x + y + z =1
x − 2 y − 3y = 4
2 1 -1
Let ∆ = 1 1 1
(1)
1 −2 −3
= 2( −3 + 2) − 1( −3 − 1) − 1( −2 − 1) = −2 + 4 + 3 = 5
multiply both sides of (1) by x

2 1 -1 2x 1 -1
then ∆x = x 1 1 1 = x 1 1
1 −2 −3 x −2 −3
multiply the elements of columns 2 & 3 by y and z and add to the elements of column 1.
2x + y − z 1 -1
∆x = x + y + z 1 1
x − 2 y − 3y − 2 − 3
3 1 -1
=1 1 1 = 3( −3 + 2) − 1( −3 − 4) − 1( −2 − 4) = −3 + 7 + 6 = 10
4 −2 −3
10 10
∴ x= = =2
∆ 5
multiply both sides of (1) by y
2 3 -1 2 y -1
∆y = y 1 1 1 == 1 y 1
1 4 −3 1 − 2y − 3
multiply the elements of column 1 by x & 3 by z and to the corresponding elements of column 2.
2 2 x + y − z -1
then ∆y = 1 x + y + z 1
1 x − 2 y − 3z − 3
2 3 -1
= 1 1 1 = 2( −3 − 4) − 3( −3 − 1) − 1( 4 − 1) = −14 + 12 − 3 = −5
1 4 −3
−5 −5
∴ y= = = −1
∆ 5
multiply both sides of (1) by z
2 3 -1 2 3 -z
∆z = z 1 1 1 = 1 1 z
1 4 − 3 1 4 − 3z
multiply the elements of column 1 by x & column 2 by y and to the corresponding elements of column 3.
2 1 2x + y − z
then ∆z = 1 1 x+ y+z
1 − 2 x − 2 y − 3z
2 1 3
= 1 1 1 = 2( 4 + 2) − 1( 4 − 1) + 3( −2 − 1) = 12 − 3 − 9 = 0
1 −2 4
0 0
∴ z= = =0
∆ 5
Thus solution is x = 2, y = –1 & z = 0 which can be verified by substituting in the given equations.
Example - 2
Solve 4 x + y = 7
3 y + 4z = 5
5x + 3z = 2
4 1 0
∆ = 5 3 4 = 4(9 − 0) − 1(0 − 20) + 0(0 − 15) = 36 + 20 = 56
2 0 3
7 1 0
∆1 = 5 3 4 = 7(9 − 0) − 1(15 − 8) + 0(0 − 6) = 63 − 7 = 56
2 0 3
4 7 0
∆ 2 = 0 5 4 = 4(15 − 8) − 7(0 − 20) + 0(0 − 25) = 28 + 140 = 168
5 2 3
4 1 7
∆ 3 = 0 3 5 = 4(6 − 0) − 1(0 − 25) + 7(0 − 15) = 24 + 25 − 105 = −56
5 0 2
∆1 56
∴ x= = =1
∆ 56
∆ 2 168
y= = =3
∆ 56
∆ 3 − 56
z= = = −1
∆ 56
Solution of Linear equations by Matrix Method

Given a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a 2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d 3
 a1 b1 c1  x  d1 
     
Consider A =  a 2 b2 c2  X =  y  & B =  d2 
a c3  z  d 
 3 b3    3
then given equations can be written in Matrix form as AX = B. If A ≠ 0 solution exists multiply both sides by A–1
A−1 ( AX ) = A−1 B
A −1 AX = A −1 B
ie IX = A −1 B
∴ X = A−1B
Example
Solve 3 x − y + 2 z = 13
2x + y − z = 3
x + 3 y − 5z = −8
 3 −1 2  x  13 
     
Let A =  2 1 − 1  X =  y , B =  3 
 1 3 − 5 z   − 8
     
then given equations can be written as AX = B
∴ X = A−1B (1)
To find A–1
3 −1 2
A = 2 1 − 1 = 3( −5 + 3) + 1( −10 + 1) + 2(6 − 1) = −6 − 9 + 10 = −5
1 3 −5
 1 −1 2 −1 2 1 
 − 
 3 −5 1 −5 1 3 
 −1 2 3 2 3 −1 
Matrix of Co - factors = − − 
 3 −5 1 −5 1 3 
 −1 2 3 2 3 −1 
 − 
 1 − 1 2 −1 2 1 
 (−5 + 3) − (−10 + 1) (6 − 1)  − 2 9 5 

= − (5 − 6) (−15 − 2) − (9 + 1) =  1 − 17 − 10
 
 1 − 2 − (−3 − 4) (3 + 2)   − 1 − 7 5 
− 2 1 − 1 − 2 1 − 1
  1 1 
adj.A =  9 − 17 7  ∴ A −1 = adj. A = −  9 − 17 7 
 5 − 10 5  A 5 
   5 − 10 5 
Using this in (1)
− 2 1 − 1 13   − 26 3 8   − 15   3 
1   1  1   
X = −  9 − 17 7  3  = −  117 − 51 − 56  = −  10  =  − 2 
5   5  5   
 5 − 10 5  − 8   65 − 30 − 40   −5   1 
∴ x = 3, y = –2, z = 1 is the solution
Verification : Consider the first equation

3x − y + 2 z = 9 + 2 + 2 = 13
Characteristic equation, Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors

Let A & I be square matrices of same order and λ a scalar then A − λI = 0 is called Characteristic equation and the roots of
this equation ie values of λ are called Eigen Values or Characteristic roots. The matrix X satisfying AX = λX is called Eigen
Vector.
Example - 1
1 4
Find the eigen roots and eigen vectors of the matrix  
 2 3
1 4  1 4 1 0
Let A =   Characteristic equation is  2 3  − λ  0 1  = 0
 2 3    
1− λ 4
ie =0 ⇒ (1 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 8 = 0
4 3− λ
⇒ 3 − 3λ − λ + λ2 − 8 = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 4λ − 5 = 0
⇒ (λ − 5)(λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, 5
∴ Eigen roots are –1 & 5.
To find eigen vector X, corresponding to –1,

AX = –1
 1 4  x   − x 
ie     =  
 2 3  y   − y 
 x + 4y  − x
⇒   =  
 2x + 3 y   − y 
x + 4 y = −x ix = −4 y x y
⇒ ⇒ ⇒∴ =
2x + 3y = − y ie x = −2 y −2 1
∴ Eigen vector corresponding to eigen value –1 is (–2, 1)
To find the eigen vector corresponding to 5.

 1 4   x1   x1   x + 4 x2   5 x1 
ie     = 5  ⇒  1  =  
 2 3  2   2 
x x  2 x1 + 3 x2   5 x2 
⇒ x1 + 4 x2 = 5 x1  x1 x2
 ie x1 = x2 ie =
2 x1 + 3 x2 = 5 x2  1 1
∴ Eigen vector is (1, 1)

∴ Eigen vector corresponding to eigen root 5 is (1, 1)
Example - 2
 6 −2 2 
 
Find the eigen roots and eigen vectors of the matrix  − 2 3 − 1
 2 −1 3 
 
 6 −2 2  6−λ −2 2
 
Let A =  − 2 3 − 1 Characteristic equation is − 2 3 − λ − 1 = 0
 2 −1 3  −1 3 − λ
  2
[ ]
ie (6 − λ ) (3 − λ ) 2 − 1 + 2[− 2(3 − λ ) + 2]+ 2[2 − 2(3 − λ )] = 0
ie (6 − λ )[9 + λ2
]
− 6λ − 1 + 2[− 6 + 2λ + 2]+ 2[2 − 6 + 2λ )] = 0
ie (6 − λ )(λ2 − 6λ + 8) + 2(2λ − 4) + 2(2λ − 4) = 0

ie 6λ2 − 36λ + 48 − λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ + 4λ − 8 + 4λ − 8 = 0
ie − λ3 + 12λ2 − 36λ + 32 = 0 ie λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 = 0
which is the characteristic equation, by inspection 2 is a root
∴ dividing λ3 − 12λ2 + 36λ − 32 by λ − 2, we have
(λ - 2)(λ2 − 10λ + 16) = 0

ie (λ − 2)(λ − 2λ )(λ − 8) = 0 ∴ λ = 2, 2, 8
To find eigen vector or λ = 2

Consider AX = 2X
 6 − 2 2  x1   x1   x1 
      
ie  − 2 3 − 1 x2  = 2 x2  where X =  x2 
 2 − 1 3  x  x  x 
  3   3  3
⇒ 6 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 2 x1 ⇒ 4 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
−2 x1 + 3 x2 − x3 = 2 x2 −2 x1 + x2 − x3 = 0
2 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 2 x3 2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
the above three equations represent one equation 2x1 – x2 + x3 = 0.

x1 x2 x1 x2 x3
Let x3 = 0, then 2 x1 = x2 ie = ie = =
1 2 1 2 0
∴ Eigen Vector is (1, 2, 0)
To find the eigen vector for λ = 8
Consider AX = 8X
 6 − 2 2  x1   8 x1 
    
ie  − 2 3 − 1 x2  =  8 x2 
 2 − 1 3  x   8 x 
  3   3 
ie 6 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 8 x1 ie − 2 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
− 2 x1 + 3 x2 − x3 = 8 x2 − 2 x1 − 5 x2 − x3 = 0
2 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 8 x3 2 x1 − x2 − 5 x3 = 0
ie x1 + x2 − x3 = 0 (1)
2 x1 + 5 x2 + x3 = 0 (2)
2 x1 − x2 − 5 x3 = 0 (3)
adding (1) & (2) we get 3x1 + 6 x2 = 0
x1 x
ie x1 + 2 x2 = 0 ie x1 = −2 x2 ∴ = 2 = K (Say)
−2 1
then x1 = −2 K , x2 = K
subsitituting in (1)
− 2 K + K − x3 = 0 ⇒ x3 = − K
∴ x1 = −2 K , x2 = K & x3 = − K
∴ Eigen vector is (−2, 1, − 1) or (2, − 1, 1)
∴ Eigen roots are 2, 2, 8
& Eigen vectors are (1, 2, 0) & ( 2, − 1, 1)
Properties of Eigen values

(1) The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is the sum of the elements of the principal diagonal.
(2) The product of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to the value of its determinant.
1
(3) If λ is an eigen value of A then is the eigen value of A–1.
λ
Cayley - Hamilton Theorem

Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
a b a −λ b
Let A =   Characteristic equation is =0
c d c d −λ
which on simplification becomes a quadric equation in λ in the form λ2 + a1λ + a2 = 0 where a1, a2 are constants.
Cayley Hamilton Theorem states that A2 + a1 A + a2 I = 0 where I is a unit matrix of order 2 & 0 is a null matrix of order 2.
 a1 b1 c1 
 
If A =  a2 b2 c2 
a c3 
 3 b3
a1 − λ b1 c1
then characteristic equation is a 2 b2 − λ c 2 =0
a3 b3 c3 − λ
which on simplification becomes − λ3 + a1λ2 + a2 λ + a3 = 0 which is a cubic equation.
Then as per Cayley Hamilton Theorem − A3 + a1 A 2 + a2 A + a3 I = 0 where I is a unit matrix of order 3 & 0 is a null
matrix of order 3.
In general if A is a square matrix of order n then characteristic equation will be of the form
(−1) n λn + aλn −1 + a2 λn − z + ........ + an I = 0

and by Cayley Hamilton Theorem
(−1) n A n + aA n −1 + a2 A n − z + ........ + an I = 0
where I is a unit matrix of order n & 0 is a null matrix of order n.
Note :- If we put λ = 0 in the characteristic equation then an = A
∴ If an = 0, matrix A is singular & a n ≠ 0 the matrix A is non-singular & hence inverse exists and we can find the
inverse of A using Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
Example - 1
a b
Let A =  
c d
a −λ b
Characteristic equation is =0
c d −λ
ie λ2 + a1λ + a2 = 0 where a1, a2 are constants.
By Cayley Hamilton Theorem
A2 + a1 A + a2 I = 0
multiply both sides by A–1
then A2 A−1 + a1 AA−1 + a2 A−1 = 0
ie A + a1 I + a2 A−1 = 0
∴ a2 A−1 = −( A + a1I )
1
∴ A −1 = − ( A + a1 I )
a2
Example - 2
The characteristic equation of a matrix A of order 2 is λ2 − 5λ + 10 = 0 find A .
Solution : put λ = 0 in C.E. then the constant 10 is A .
Example - 3
 2 − 1
Find the inverse of  − 3 4  using Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
 
 2 − 1 2−λ −1
Solution : Let A =   C.E. is =0
−3 4  −3 4−λ
ie ( 2 − λ )(4 − λ ) − 3 = 0 ie 8 − 4λ − 2λ + λ2 − 3 = 0
ie λ2 − 6λ + 5 = 0
by Cayley Hamilton Theorem
A 2 − 6 A + 5I = 0
multiply both sides by A–1
A − 6 I + 5 A −1 = 0
∴ 5 A−1 = − A + 6I
 2 − 1 1 0 − 2 + 6 1 + 0  4 1 
= −  + 6  =  = 
 − 3 4  0 1   3 + 0 − 4 + 6   3 2 
1 4 1
∴ A −1 =  
5  3 2
Diagonalisation of Matrices
If A is a square matrix of order n where all the eigen values are linearly independent then a matrix P can be found such that
P–1AP is a Diagonal Matrix.
Let A be a square matrix of order 3 and let λ1, λ2, λ3 be the eigen values, corresponding to these. Let X1, X2, X3 be three
vectors where
 x1   y1   z1 
  
X 1 =  x2 , X 2 =  y 2 , X 3 =  z 2 

 x3   y3   z3 
 x1 y1 z1  λ1 0 0
Let P =  x2 y2 z 2  Then P AP =  0 λ2
 −1
0 
 x3 y3 z3   0 0 λ3 
Example - 1
 1 − 2
Let A =  
− 5 4 
1− λ −2
C.E. is = 0 ⇒ (1 − λ )( 4 − λ ) − 10 = 0
−5 4−λ
ie λ2 − 5λ − 6 = 0 ⇒ (λ + 1)(λ − 6) = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, 6 are eigen values

For λ = −1, let AX = − X
 1 − 2  x1   − x1 
ie    =  
− 5 4   x 2  − x 2 
x1 − 2 x2 = − x1  x1 x2 1
ie  ⇒ x1 = x2 ∴ = ....eigen vector is  
− 5 x1 + 4 x2 = − x2  1 1 1
For λ = 6, AX = 6 X
 1 − 2  x1   6 x1 
ie    =  
 − 5 4  x2   6 x2 
x1 − 2 x2 = − x1 
 ⇒ 5 x1 = −2 x2
− 5 x1 + 4 x2 = − x2 
x1 x  − 2
ie = 2 ∴ eigen vector is  
−2 5 5
1 − 2 1  5 2
Let P =   Then P −1 =  
1 5  7 − 1 1 
1  5 2  1 − 2 1 − 2
∴ P −1 AP =    
7 − 1 1  − 5 4  1 5 
1  5 − 10 − 10 + 8 1 − 2 1  − 5 − 2  1 − 2
= − 1 − 5 2 + 4  1 5  = − 6 6  1 5 
7   7  
1  − 5 − 2 10 − 10  1 − 7 0  − 1 0
=  =   = 
7 − 6 + 6 12 + 30 7  0 42  0 6
1 − 2  1 − 2
Thus P =   diagonalize the matrix  
1 5  − 5 4 
Example - 2
 1 1 3
 
Let A =  1 5 1 
 3 1 1
 
1− λ 1 3
Characteristic equation is 1 5−λ 1 =0
3 1 1− λ
ie (1 − λ )[(5 − λ )(1 − λ ) − 1]− 1[1 − λ − 3]+ 3[1 − 3(5 − λ )] = 0
ie (1 − λ )(λ2 − 6λ + 4) − (−λ − 2) + 3(−14 + 3λ ) = 0

ie λ2 − 6λ + 4 − λ3 + 6λ2 − 4λ + λ + 2 − 42 + 9λ = 0
ie − λ3 + 7λ2 − 36 = 0 ie λ3 − 7λ2 + 36 = 0
by inspection –2 is a root ∴ λ + 2 is a factor. ∴ equation becomes
(λ + 2)(λ2 − 9λ + 18) = 0
ie (λ + 2)(λ − 3(λ − 6) = 0 ∴ λ = −2, 3, 6

ie characteristic roots are –2, 3, 6.
To find the eigen vector for λ = –2 Consider AX 1 = −2X 1
 x1 
where X 1 =  x2 
 x3 
 1 1 3  x1   − 2 x1 
    
ie  1 5 1  x2  =  − 2 x2 
 3 1 1  x   − 2 x 
  3   3
ie x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = −2 x1 ie 3 x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = 0 (1)
x1 + 5 x2 + x3 = −2 x2 x1 + 7 x2 + x3 = 0 (2)
3 x1 + x2 + x3 = −2 x3 3 x1 + x2 + 3 x3 = 0 (3)
(1) & (3) are same.
Put x2 = 0 in (1) or (2), then x1 + x3 = 0
− 1
∴ eigen vector X 1 =  0 
x x
ie x1 = − x3 ⇒ 1 = 3
−1 1
 1 
Let X2 be the eigen vector for λ = 3.
ie AX 2 = 3 X 2
 1 1 3  y1   3 y1   y1 
    
ie  1 5 1  y 2  =  3 y 2  where X 2 =  y 2 
 3 1 1  y   3 y   y3 
  3   3 
ie y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y1 ie −2 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 0 (1)
y1 + 5 y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y 2 y1 + 2 y 2 + y3 = 0 (2)
3 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 3 y3 3 y1 + y 2 − 2 y3 = 0 (3)
Let us eliminate y1 from (1) & (2)

(1) × 1 is − 2 y1 + y 2 + 3 y3 = 0
(2) × 2 is 2 y1 + 4 y2 + 2 y3 = 0
adding 5 y 2 + 5 y3 = 0
y 2 y3
⇒ y 2 + y3 = 0 ie y 2 = − y3 ⇒ = (4)
−1 1
Let us eliminate y2 from (2) & (3)
( 2) × 1 is y1 + 2 y 2 + y3 = 0
(3) × 2 is 6 y1 + 2 y 2 − 4 y3 = 0
subtracting − 5 y 2 + 5 y3 = 0
y1 y3
⇒ 5 y1 = 5 y3 ⇒ y1 = y3 ∴ = (5)
1 1
1
∴ X 2 = − 1
y y y
From (4) & (5) 1 = 2 = 3
1 −1 1
 1 
Next, let X3 be the eigen vector for λ = 6
ie AX 3 = 6 X 3
 1 1 3  z1   6 z1   z1 
    
ie  1 5 1  z 2  =  6 z 2  where X 3 =  z 2 
 3 1 1  z   6 z   z3 
  3   3 
ie z1 + z 2 + 3 z 3 = 6 z1 ie −5 z1 + z 2 + 3 z 3 = 0 (1)
z1 + 5 z 2 + z 3 = 6 z 2 z1 − z 2 + z 3 = 0 (2)
3 z1 + z 2 + z 3 = 6 z 3 3 z1 + z 2 − 5 z 3 = 0 (3)
adding (1) & (2), − 4 z1 + 4 z 3 = 0

z1 z 3
ie z1 = z 3 ∴ = (4)
1 1
Let us eliminate z3 from (2) & (3)
(2) × 5 is 5 z1 − 5 z 2 + 5 z3 = 0
(3) × 1 is 3z1 + z 2 + −5 y3 = 0
adding 8 z1 − 4 z 2 = 0
z1 z 2
ie 2 z1 = z 2 ⇒ = (5)
1 2
1
∴ X 3 = 2
z z z
From (4) & (5), 1 = 2 = 3
1 2 1
1
− 1 1 1  − 2 0 0
Let P =  0 − 1 2 Then P AP =  0 3 0
−1
 1 1 1  0 0 6
− 1 1 1  1 1 3
∴ P =  0 − 1 2 diagonalize 1 5 1
 1 1 1  3 1 1
Exercise
1 2 3
1. Evaluate − 1 2 3 .
2 3 1
a −b b−c c−a
2. Evaluate b − c c − a a − b .
c −a a−b b−c
1 2 3
3. Evaluate 2 3 4 .
3 4 4
2 0 4
4. If 6 x 5 = 0, then find x.
−1 − 3 1
1 p −q
5. Evaluate − p 1 r .
q −r 1
 2 0
6. Find the adjoint of  .
 2 3
 1 2 3
 
.
7 If A =  2 3 4  find the co - factor of 1.
 3 4 2
 
 2 1 5
8. If A =   find AA′ & A′A.
0 3 7
 secθ tanθ 
9. Find the inverse of  .
 tanθ secθ 
 2 3 4 1 − 2 3
10. If A =   and B =   find 5 A − 3B and 6 B − 7 A.
 −1 0 5   0 4 2
 4 − 2 5  2 0 4
11. If 3 A + B =   and 2 B + A =   find A and B.
 3 7 6  −1 2 3
1 + x x  x y  − 4 5 
12. If  + =  find x and y.
 5 x   7 − y   12 4 x 
5 6 7 
13. If A =   verify that (A ′)′ = A.
 8 9 10 
 2 4 
 − 3 4 5  
14. If A =   and B =  − 4 3  find A + B′ and A′ − B.
 6 − 2 1  3 − 2
 
3 4
15. If A =   prove that A 2 − 10 A + I = 0.
 5 7 
6 5
16. Find the inverse of  .
 3 2
1 2
17. Find the characteristic equation of  .
0 4
 2 3
18. Find the eigen values of  .
0 4
19. Solve 2 x + z = −1, 2 y + x = 5, z − y = −2 by Cramer' s Rule.
20. Solve 5 x − y + 4 z = 5
2x + 3 y + 5z = 2
7 x − 2 y + 6z = 5
by matrix method.
 2 − 1
21. Find the characteristic roots of  .
0 1 
 1 0 − 1
 
22. Find the characteristic roots of  1 2 1 .
2 2 3 
 
1 2
23. Verify Cayley - Hamilton Theorem for the matrix  .
3 4
2 0 
24. Verify Cayley - Hamilton Theorem for the matrix  .
 1 − 1
 1 2
25. Find the eigen vectors for the matrix  .
2 1
 6 −2 2 
 
26. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors for the matrix  − 2 3 − 1.
 2 −1 3 
 
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 21
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
Abreviations used
N : represent set of natural numbers.
Z or I : represent set of +ve and –ve integers including zero.
Z+ : represent non-negative integers ie. +ve integers including zero.
Q : represent set of rational numbers.
R : represent set of real numbers.
C : represent set of complex numbers.
Zn = {0, 1, 2, 3, .............. n – 1} ie. Zn represent set of integers modulo n.
Q+ : represent set of +ve rational numbers.
z - {o} : represent set of integers except 0.
Q - {o} : represent set of rational numbers except zero.
R - {o} : set of real numbers except zero.
A set in general is denoted by S.
∀ : for all
∈ : belongs to
Binary Operation
If S is a non-empty set then a mapping (function) from S × S to S is defined as Binary Operation (in short B.O.) and denoted
by ∗ (read as star). ie. : S × S → S (Star maps S cross S to S)
Another Definition
If S is non-empty set then ∗ (star) is said to be a Binary operation if ∀ a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S.
Examples
(1) on N + and × (ie addition & multiplication) are B.O.
2 + 3 = 5∈ N 2×3 = 6∈ N
(2) on Z, +, – & × are B.O.
4 + 5 ∈ Z , 3 − 4 = 1∈ Z , 4 − 3 = 1 ∈ Z , 5 × 6 = 30 ∈ Z
a
(3) On Q & R +, – & × are B.O. but ÷ is not a B.O. on Q & R Q for 0, ∉ Q & R but on Q - {o} & R - {o} ÷ is a B.O.
0
(4) on C, + and × are B.O.
( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy 2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y 2 ) ∈ C
( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy 2 ) = ( x1 x2 − y1 y 2 ) + i ( x1 y 2 + x2 y1 ) ∈ C
48 KSOU Algebraic Structures
Definitions
(1) A non-empty set S with one or more binary operations is called an 'Algebraic Structure'.
(N, +), (Z, +, ×), (Q, +, ×) are all algebraic structures.
(2) Closure Law : A set S is said to be closed under a B.O. ∗ if ∀ a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S.
(3) Associative Law : A B.O. ∗ is said to be associative on S if ∀ a, b, c ∈ S

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
(4) Commutative Law : A B.O. ∗ is said to be commutative on S if ∀ a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b = b ∗ a.
(5) Identity Law : An element e ∈ S satisfying

a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a. ∀ a ∈ S is called an identity element for the B.O. ∗ on S.
Examples
(i) + and × (addition and multiplication) are associative and commutative on N, Z, Q & R.
(ii) B.O. – (subtraction) is not associative & commutative.
(iii) 1 is an identity for B.O. × on N but + has no identity on N. Where as O is an identity on Z, Q and R for the B.O. +.
1 0 
(iv) If S is a set of 2 × 2 matrices and B.O. is matrix multiplication then I =   is an identity element.
0 1 
Group
A non-empty set G together with a B.O. ∗ ie (G, ∗) is said to form a group if the following axioms are satisfied.
G1. Closure Law : ∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G
G2. Associative Law : ∀ a, b, c ∈ G, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
G3. Identity Law : There exists an element e ∈ G such that ∀ a ∈ G, a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a.
G4. Inverse : ∀ a ∈ G, there exists an element b such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a. This b is called inverse of a and usually denoted
as a–1
ie. a ∗ a–1 = e = a–1 ∗ a.
In addition to the above four axions if ∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a. Then (G, ∗) is called an 'abelian group' or 'commutative
group'.
Note (1) If for (G, ∗) only G1 is satisfied it is called a 'groupoid'.
(2) If for (G, ∗) G1 & G2 are satisfied it is called a 'semi-group'.
(3) If for (G, ∗) G1, G2 & G3 are satisfied it is called 'Monoid'.
Examples
(i) (N, +) is a groupoid and semigroup.
(ii) (N, ×) is a groupoid, semigroup and Monoid (identity for × is 1)
(iii) (Z, +) is a group (identity is O and a–1 = –a) ie. a + (–a) = 0 = –a + a.
Note :- Every group is a monoid but the converse is not true, (Z, +) is a group and also a monoid but (N, ×) is a monoid but
not a group.
Properties of Groups
1. Cancellation laws are valid in a group
ie if (G , ∗) is a group then ∀ a, b, c ∈ G ,
(i) a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c (left cancellation law)
(ii ) b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c ( right cancellation law)
Proof :- a ∗ b = a ∗ c, as a ∈ G, a −1 ∈ G
∴ a −1 ∗ (a ∗ b) = a −1 ∗ (a ∗ c)
ie (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ b = (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ c
ie e ∗ b = e ∗ c where e is the identity.
⇒b=c
Similarly by considering
(b ∗ a) ∗ a −1 = (c ∗ a) ∗ a −1
we get b = c
2. In a group G, the equations a ∗ x = b and y ∗ a = b have unique solutions, ∀a, b ∈ G.

Proof :- a ∗ x = b
Operating on both sides by a–1
a −1 ∗ (a ∗ x) = a −1 ∗ b
ie (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ x = a −1 ∗ b
ie e ∗ x = a −1 ∗ b
∴ x = a −1 ∗ b
To prove that the solution is unique, let x1 & x2 be two solutions of a ∗ x = b.

ie a ∗ x1 = b & a ∗ x2 = b
⇒ a ∗ x1 = a ∗ x2
Operating on both sides by a–1
We get a −1 ∗ (a ∗ x1 ) = a −1 ∗ (a ∗ x2 )
ie (a −1 ∗ a ) ∗ x1 = (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ x2
ie e ∗ x1 = e ∗ x2
⇒ x1 = x2
∴ solution is unique.
3. In a group the identity element and inverse of an element are unique.
Proof :- To prove identity is unique. If possible let e1 & e2 are two identities then
∀a ∈ G, a ∗ e1 = a = e1 ∗ a (1)
& a ∗ e2 = a = e2 ∗ a (2)
From LHS of (1), a ∗ e1 = a = e2 ∗ a (using (2))
ie a ∗ e1 = e2 ∗ a = a ∗ e2 (using LHS of (2))
by left cancellation, e1 = e2 . Thus the identity is unique.
To prove that inverse of an element is unique.

Let a ∈ G , if possible let b & c are inverses of a ie b −1 = a and c −1 = a
Now, a ∗ b = e & a ∗ c = e
where e is the identity of the group
∴ a ∗b = a ∗c
by left cancellation law b = c. Thus inverse of an element is unique.
4. ( )
In a group G, a −1
−1
= a ∀a ∈ G
Proof :- As a–1 is the inverse of a
We have a ∗ a −1 = e = a −1 ∗ a
it can be easily seen from above relation that inverse of a–1 is a ie a −1( ) −1
=a.
Note :- If b & c are elements of G, such that b ∗ c = e = c ∗ b then each is the inverse of the other.
5. In a group (G , ∗)
∀a, b ∈ G, (a ∗ b) −1 = b −1 ∗ a −1
Proof :- Consider (a ∗ b) ∗ (b −1 ∗ a −1 )
= a ∗ (b ∗ b −1 ) ∗ a −1 = a ∗ e ∗ a −1 = a ∗ a −1 = e
∴ (a ∗ b) −1 = b −1 ∗ a −1
6. A group of order 3 is abelian.
Proof :- Order of group means the number of elements in a group. If a group G has n elements. The order of G is n, which
is denoted as O(G) = n.
If n is finite it is called finite group and n is Infinite then it is called Infinite group.
Let G = { e, a, b} be a group with a binary operation ∗.

e is the identity by definition of identity it commutes with every element Q a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a
So we have to prove that a ∗ b = b ∗ a
Let a ∗ b = a ⇒ (a −1 ∗ a) ∗ b = a −1 ∗ a ⇒ e ∗ b = e ⇒ b = e
which is not possible.
Let a ∗ b = b
⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ b −1 = b ∗ b −1 ⇒ a ∗ e = e ⇒ a = e
which is not possible.
a ∗ b cannote be equal to a or b ∴ a ∗ b = e
Similarly we can prove that
b∗a = e
∴ a ∗ b = b ∗ a ∴ (G, ∗) is abelian.
Subgroups
A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to form a subgroup with respect to the same binary operation ∗ if ( H , ∗) is a
group.
Eg. (1) (z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +)
(2) H = { 0, 2, 4} is a subgroup of G = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with B.O. + mod 6 ie ⊕ 6
(3) H = { −1, 1} is a subgroup of G = {1, − 1, i, − i} with respect to the B.O. multiplication.
Theorem
A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if ∀a, b ∈ H , ab −1 ∈ H .
Proof :- case (i) Let H be a subgroup of G then H is a group

∴ ∀a, b ∈ G, b −1 ∈ G (inverse axion) & ab −1 ∈ G (closure law)
∴ condition is satisfied.
case (ii) Let H be a non-empty subset of G with the property ∀a, b ∈ H , ab −1 ∈ H .
We have to prove that H is a subgroup.
Let a ∈ H , a, a −1 ∈ H ⇒ aa −1 = e ∈ H & e, a ∈ H ⇒ ea −1 ∈ H ie a −1 ∈ H
Since all elements of H are elements of G, associative property is satisfied.
Let b ∈ H , b −1 ∈ H & for a ∈ H , a b −1 ( ) −1

ie ab ∈ H ie closure property is satisfied.
Hence H is a group and hence a subgroup.
Permutation group
Let S = { a1 , a 2 , a3 , .......... a n }
Then a one-one and onto mapping or function from S onto itself is called a Permutation.
 a1 a2 a3 .......... a n 
Permutation is denoted as  
 f ( a1 ) f (a 2 ) f ( a3 ) .......... f ( a n ) 
There will be n ! ie ∠n permutations the set of permutations is denoted by Sn.
Let f , g ∈ S n . There is a composite mapping for f & g denoted as f o g , this can be taken as binary operation. Then the
set Sn with binary operation 'O' (ie composite mapping) will form a group. For convenience f o g is denoted as gf.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let f =   & g =   ∈ S 4 the B.O. composite function is given by
3 1 4 2 2 3 4 1
1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
f o g =   o   =  
 3 1 4 2   2 3 4 1  ? ? ? ?
to fill up the second row, following is the procedure.
in g : g (1) = 2, g ( 2) = 3, g (3) = 4, g ( 4) = 1
& in f : f (1) = 3, f ( 2) = 1, f (3) = 4, f ( 4) = 2
Now f o g (1) = f [ g (1)] = f ( 2) = 1
f o g ( 2) = f [ g ( 2)] = f (3) = 4
f o g (3) = f [ g (3)] = f ( 4) = 2
f o g ( 4) = f [ g (4)] = f (1) = 3
1 2 3 4 
∴ f o g =  
1 4 2 3 
for convenience f o g is written as gf
1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
ie f o g =   o   =  
3 1 4 2  2 3 4 1  1 4 2 3 
 1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
& gf =     =  
 2 3 4 1   3 1 4 2  1 4 2 3 
the composite function is also called product function.
Eg. (1) Let S = {1, 2}

1 2   1 2 
then S 2 =  ,  
1 2   2 1 
Let B.O. be product permutation
1 2   1 2   1 2 
then     =  
1 2   2 1   2 1 
1 2   1 2  1 2
  = 
1 2  1 2  1 2 
1 2   1 2  1 2
  = 
2 1   2 1  1 2 
1 2 
closure law is satisfied, associative law can be easily verified. inverse e =  
1 2 
−1
1 2  1 2 
  =  
 1 2  1 2 
−1
1 2 1 2
  =  
2 1  2 1 
∴ S2 forms a group.
Eg. (2) Let S = {1, 2, 3}
1 2 3  1 2 3   1 2 3  1 2 3 1 2 3  1 2 3 
S 3 =            
1 2 3  1 3 2   3 2 1  2 3 1 3 1 2  3 2 1 
Let us denote the elements as f1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , f 5 & f 6 respectively.
ie S 3 = {f1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , f 5 , f 6 }
The following is the multiplication table. f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6

f1 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
f2 f2 f1 f4 f3 f6 f5
f3 f3 f5 f1 f6 f2 f4
f4 f4 f6 f2 f5 f1 f3
f5 f5 f3 f6 f1 f4 f2
f6 f6 f4 f5 f2 f3 f1
It can be seen from the table that closure law is satisfied.

For associative law
Consider ( f 3 f 4 ) f 5 = f 6 f 5 = f 3
f 3 ( f 4 f 5 ) = f 3 f1 = f 3
∴ ( f 3 f 4 ) f 5 = f 3 ( f 4 f 5 ) hence associative law is satisfied.
identity e = f1
f1−1 = f1 , f 2−1 = f 2 f 3−1 = f 3 , f 4−1 = f 5 f 5−1 = f 4 & f 6−1 = f 6

inverse of all elements exists.
∴ S3 forms a group, but it is not an abelian group
Q f 3 f 4 = f 6 but f 4 f 3 = f 2 ∴ f 3 f 4 ≠ f 4 f 3 .
Examples
(1) Show that the set R - {o} with B.O. × forms a group.
Solution : For any elements a, b ∈ R - {o}. a ∗ b ∈ R - {o}
2, 3 ∈ R - {o}, 2 × 3 = 6 ∈ R - {o}
∴ closure law is satisfied.
For any three elements a, b, c ∈ R - {o}
(a × b)× c = a × (b × c)
(–3 × 4) × 5 = –12 × 5 = –60.
–3 × (4 × 5) = –3 × 20 = –60.
∴ associative law is satisfied.
Identity element is 1,
ie. ∀ a ∈ R - {o}, a × 1 = a = 1 × a.
Let a ∈ R - {o} then there exists
1 1 1
∈ R - { o} such that a × = 1 = × a
a a a
∴ inverse exists for all elements R - {o}.
∴ (R - {o}, ×) forms an abelian group.
(2) Show that ( Z 5 , ⊕ 5 ) forms an abelian group.
Solution : Let us construct table for ( Z 5 , ⊕ 5 )
⊕5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
From the above table it can be easily seen that closure law is satisfied.
2 ⊕ 5 (3 ⊕ 5 4) = 2 ⊕ 5 2 = 4
( 2 ⊕ 5 3) ⊕ 5 4 = 0 ⊕ 5 4 = 4
ie 2 ⊕ 5 (3 ⊕ 5 4) = ( 2 ⊕ 5 3) ⊕ 5 4
∴ associative law can be versified.

identity element is 0.
inverse of 0 is 0
inverse of 1 is 4
inverse of 2 is 3
inverse of 3 is 2
inverse of 4 is 1
∴ ( Z 5 , ⊕ 5 ) form a group, further it can be seen from the table that for any two element a, b ∈ Z5
a ⊕5 b = b ⊕5 a
∴ ( Z 5 , ⊕ 5 ) is an abelian group.
(3) Show that G = {1, 2, 3, 4} with B.O. multiplication mod 5 ie ⊗ 5 is an abelian group.
Solution : The following in the relevant table for elements
⊗5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
From the above table it can be seen that closure law is satisfied.
( 2 ⊗5 3) ⊗5 4 = 1 ⊗5 4 = 4
2 ⊗5 (3 ⊗5 4) = 2 ⊗5 2 = 4
∴ associate law is satisfied.
identity is 1.
inverse of 1 is 1
inverse of 2 is 3
inverse of 3 is 2
inverse of 4 is 4
∴ (G , ⊗5 ) forms a group and it can be seen from the table that it forms an abelian group.
4. If R is the set of real numbers and ∗ is a binary operation defined on R as x ∗ y = 1 + xy, ∀ x, y ∈ R.

Show that ∗ is commutative but not associative.
Commutative property a ∗ b = b ∗ a, ∀ a, b ∈ R
x ∗ y = 1 + xy
y ∗ x = 1 + yx ∴ x∗ y = y∗ x
Associative property ( x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ ( y ∗ z )
LHS = (1 + xy ) ∗ z = P ∗ z = 1 + pz = 1 + (1 + xy ) z = 1 + z + xyz
RHS = x ∗ (1 + yz ) = x ∗ Q = 1 + xQ = 1 + x(1 + yz ) = 1 + x + xyz
∴ LHS ≠ RHS ∴ ∗ is not a associative
5. Show that set of integers with a ∗ b = a − b where a, b ∈ I is not a group

a ∗ b = a − b ∈ I ∴ closure axiom is satisfied
( a ∗ b) ∗ c ≠ a ∗ (b ∗ c), a ∗ b = a − b ∈ I , ∀ a, b ∈ I .
LHS = ( a − b) ∗ c = a − b − c
RHS = a ∗ (b − c ) = a − b + c ∴ associative axiom is not satisfied
∴ ( I , ∗) is not a group.
When one of the axiom is not satisfied, it is not a group. Hence, we need not have to check the rest of the axioms.
ab
6. In a group (G , ∗), a ∗ b = . Find the identity element, inverse of 4 and solve 4 ∗ x = 5
2
To find e : a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a
ae
a∗e = = a ∴ e = 2 i.e. identity element is 2.
2
a ∗ a −1 = e = a −1 ∗ a
aa −1 4
a ∗ a −1 = 2 ⇒ = 2 ∴ a −1 =
2 a
4
4 −1 = = 1. ∴ inverse of 4 is 1.
4
4x 10 5
4∗ x = 5 ⇒ = 5 ∴x = =
2 4 2
7. Prove that G = {cosθ + i sinθ θ is real} is an abelian group under multiplication
G = {cosθ + i sinθ θ is real}

Let x, y, z be any three elements of G.
Take x = cos α + i sin α , y = cos β + i sin β , z = cos γ + i sin γ .
where α , β , γ are real numbers.
i) xy = (cos α + i sin α )(cos β + i sin β ) = cos(α + β ) + i sin(α + β ) ∈ G Q (α + β ) is real
∴ Closure axiom is satisfied
ii) (xy ) z = [(cos α + i sin α )(cos β + i sin β )](cos γ + i sin γ )
= {cos( α + β ) + i sin(α + β )}(cos γ + i sin γ )
= cos{(α + β ) + γ } + i sin{(α + β ) + γ }
= cos{α + ( β + γ )} + i sin{α + ( β + γ )}
= x (yz) Q multiplication is associative on R ∴ Associative axiom is satisfied.
iii) 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 ∈ G is the identity element
iv) (cos θ + i sinθ )(cosθ − i sinθ ) = 1 ⇒ cos θ − i sinθ is the multiplicative inverse of cos θ + i sinθ .
v) xy = (cos θ + i sin α )(cos β + i sin β )

= cos(α + β ) + i sin(α + β )
= cos( β + α ) + i sin(β + α ) Q is commutative on R
= yx
∴ Commutative law is satisfied.
So all the axioms are satisfied. Hence, G is an abelian group under multiplication.
8. Show that the cube roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication
We know that the cube roots of unity are 1, ω and ω 2 . Let G = {1, ω , ω 2 }
. 1 ω ω2
1 1 ω ω2 here ω 3 = 1
ω ω ω2 1 & ω 4 = ω 3 ⋅ ω = ω.
ω2 ω2 1 ω
i) All the entries in the table are the same as the elements of the set. This means the closure law is satisfied.
ii) Consider 1⋅ (ω ⋅ ω 2 ) = 1⋅1 = 1
(1⋅ ω ) ⋅ ω 2 = ω ⋅ ω 2 = 1
∴ 1⋅ (ω ⋅ ω 2 ) = (1⋅ ω ) ⋅ ω 2 . Associative law is satisfied.
iii) The row heading 1 is the same as the topmost row.

∴ 1 is the identity element.
iv) Inverse of 1 is 1, inverse of ω is ω2 and inverse of ω2 is ω.

Every element has a inverse.
v) The table is symmetrical about the principal diagonal

∴ commutative law holds good.
So G is an abelian group under multiplication.
 1 0   −1 0  1 0   −1 0 
9. Show that the four matrices  ,  ,   and   form an abelian group under matrix
 0 1   0 1   0 − 1  0 − 1
multiplication.
1 0  −1 0 1 0   −1 0 
Take   = I ,   = A,   = B,   = C ; G = {1, A, B, C}
0 1  0 1   0 − 1  0 − 1
IA = AI = A, IB = BI = B, IC = CI = C
 −1 0  1 0   −1 + 0 0 + 0   −1 0 
AB =     =   =   = C
 0 1   0 − 1  0 + 0 0 − 1   0 − 1
Similarly, it can be shown that BA = C , AC = CA = B, BC = CB = A, A ⋅ A = I etc.
The composition table is . I A B C

I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I
i) The entries in the table are the same as the elements of the set G. ∴ Closure law is satisfied.
ii) A( BC ) = A( A) = I ; ( AB)C = (C )C = I ∴ Associative law is satisfied.
iii) I is the identity element.
iv) Inverses of I , A, B are respectively I , A, B, C. ∴ G is a group under matrix multiplication
∴ (G , ⋅) is a group.
v) Since the entries on either side of the leading diagonal are symmetric, (G, ⋅) is an abelian group.
10. If every element of a group G has its own inverse, show that G is abelian
Given a −1 = a, ∀ a, b ∈ G (1)
we know that, ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab) −1 = b −1a −1 (2)
from (1), a −1 = a, b −1 = b and (ab) −1 = ab. Using these in (2), ab = ba, ∀ a, b ∈ G

∴ the commutative law is satisfied, so G is abelian.
11. In a group (G, ⋅) if (ab) 2 = a 2b 2 , ∀ a, b ∈ G. Prove that (G, ⋅) is abelian and conversely.
(ab) 2 = (ab)(ab) = (aa)(bb)

⇒ a[b( ab)] = a[ a (bb)] using L.C.L.
⇒ b( ab) = a (bb) ⇒ (ba)b = ( ab)b using RCL ⇒ ba = ab ∴ it is abelian
Conversely
If ab = ba pre operating by a we get, a ( ab) = a (ba ) ⇒ ( a ⋅ a )b = ( ab) a
post operating by b we get [(a ⋅ a ) ⋅ b] = [(ab) a ]b
⇒ (a ⋅ a)(b ⋅ b) = (ab)(ab) ⇒ a 2b 2 = (ab) 2
12. { }
Given Q0, the set of non zero rational numbers is a multiplicative group and H = 2 n n ∈ Z , show that H is a subgroup
of Q0 under multiplication.
{ } {
H = 2 n n ∈ Z = ...2 −2 , 2 −1 , 2 0, 21..... }
i) 2 m , 2 n ∈ H , 2 m ⋅ 2 n = 2 m + n ∈ H ∴ closure law is satisfied
ii) (2 m ⋅ 2 n )2 r = 2 m ⋅ (2 n ⋅ 2 r ), ∀ m, n, r ∈ z ie (2 m+ n )2 r = 2 m (2 n + r )
2 ( m+ n) + r = 2 m + ( n + r ) i.e. 2 m + n + r = 2 m + n + r ∴ Associative law is satisfied.

iii) 20 is the identity element
iv) ∀2 m ; there exist 2 − m such that 2 m ⋅ 2 − m = 20 ∴ Inverse of 2 m is 2 − m.

∴ H is a group under multiplication and H ⊂ Q0 ie H is a subgroup of Q0 under multiplication.
Exercise
1. If N = {1, 2, 3, ....}, which of the following are binary operation of N.
a
(1) a ∗ b = a + 2b ( 2) a ∗ b = 3a − 4b (5) a ∗ b =
b
2. Which of the following operations on the given set are binary
(1) on I, the set of integers, a ∗ b = 3a − 4b
(2) on R, a * b = a 2 − b 2
(3) on R, a ∗ b = ab
3. If ∗ is given by a ∗ b = a b , show that ∗ is not a binary operation of Z.

4. Why the set of rationals does not form a group w.r.t. multiplication ?
5. If x, y, z are any three elements of a group G, find (xyz)–1.
6. (
In a group G, ∀ a, b ∈ G, find a −1b −1 )−1
.
7. If the binary operation ∗ on the set Z is defined by a ∗ b = a + b + 5, find the identity element.
8. In the group of non zero integers mod 5. Find the multiplicative inverse of 4.
1 2 3   1 2 3
9. If f =   and g =   are permutations in S 3 , find f o g .
1 2 3   2 3 1
10. If S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} w.r.t. multiplication (mod 7), solve the equation 3x = 5 in S.
11. Show that S = {1, 2, 3} under multiplication (mod 4) is not a group.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
12. If f =   and g =   find gf .
3 4 1 2  2 3 1 4
ab
13. The binary operation ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = , on set of rational numbers, show that ∗ is associative.
7
ab
14. If ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = , on the set of real numbers, show that ∗ is both commutative and associative.
2
15. If ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = a 2 + b 2 , show that ∗ is associative.
16. On the set of real numbers, R, a ∗ b = a + b − 1, ∀ a, b ∈ R. Show that ∗ is associative.
17. On the set of real numbers, R, ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = 2a − 3b + ab, examine whether ∗ is commutative and associative.
18. In the set of rationals except 1, binary operation ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = a + b − ab. Find the identity and inverse of 2.
ab
19. On the set of positive rational numbers Q + , a ∗ b = , ∀ a, b ∈ Q + . Find the identity element and the inverse of 8.
4
20. In a group of integers, an operation ∗ is defined by a ∗ b = a + b − 1. Find the identity element.
Vectors and Scalars

Vector : A physical quantity which has both direction and magnitude is called a 'Vector'.
B
Eg. Velocity, acceleration, force, weight etc.
Scalar : A physical quantity which has only magnitude and no direction is called a 'Scalar'. A
Eg. speed, volume, mass, density, temperature etc.
Vectors are represented by directed line segments. Let AB be the line segment. Vector from A to B is denoted by AB and
vector from B to A is denoted by BA. AB can also be represented by a. The length of AB is magnitude of the vector denoted
as AB or a or simply a. For AB, A is the initial point and B the terminal point.
Scalar multiplication of a vector

Let λ be a scalar and a a vector then λ a represents a vector whose magnitude is λ times the magnitude of a and the direction
is same as that of a if λ is positive but opposite to that of a if λ is negative. If λ = 0 it represents a null vector denoted by
'0' ie a null vector is a vector of magnitude zero but its direction is arbitrary.
A vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector and a unit vector in the direction of a is written as
a a
or or a (read as a cap)
a a
Like and unlike vectors

Vectors having same direction are called 'like vectors' and those having the opposite direction are called 'unlike vectors'.
Co-initial vectors : Vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.
Coplanar vectors : Vectors in the same plane are called 'coplanar vectors'.
Parallel vectors : Vectors having same direction but different initial

C
points are called 'parallel vectors'.
Triangle Law for addition of vectors

Let AB & BC represents two vectors then AC represents b
AB + BC ie a + b
A B
Parallelogram Law a
Let OA = a & OB = b
Complete the parallelogram OACB.
then OA + AC = OC by triangle law
B C
but AC = OB (parallel vectors)
∴ OC = OA + OB = a + b
b
Note : - AB = OB − OA
& BA = OA − OB
O A
a
Properties
(i) Vector addition is commutative ie a + b = b + a.
(ii) ( )( )
Vector addition is associative ie a + b + c = a + b + c.
(iii) Set of vectors V, with binary operation vector addition will form a 'Group'. The identity being 0 (null vector) and
inverse of a is − a.
Position vectors
Y
(i) Let P be a point in a plane where O is the origin and OX & OY are co-
ordinate axes. OP is called position vectors of P.
Draw PQ ⊥ r to OX , then OQ = x & QP = y

P (x, y)
j
Let i & j represents unit vectors in the direction of OX & OY.
Then OQ = xi, QP = yj y
x X
∴ OP = OQ + QP = xi + yj O i Q
OP = x 2 + y 2
Note :- A plane vector is an ordered pair of real numbers and the distance between O & P is the magnitude of OP.
(ii) Let P be a point in three dimensional space where OX, OY & OZ are co-ordinate axes. Let (x, y, z) be the co-ordinates of
P. Draw PQ ⊥ r to the plane XOY & QA & QB parallel to OY & OX respectives to meet OX at A & OY at B.
Let i, j & k be unit vectors in the direction of OX, OY & OZ Z
Then OA = xi, OB = yj , QP = zk
OQ = OA + OB (by parallelog ram law)

k P (x, y, z)
= xi + yj
j B
OP = OQ + QP (by triang le law) O Y
i
= xi + yj + zk
A
OP = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 Q
This position vector OP of the point P is usually

denoted by r ie OP = r X
xi + yj + zk
unit vecto r in the direction of OP is given by
x2 + y2 + z2
Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) & P( x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) be any two points in 3-space Z

to find PQ, from the triangle OPQ
Q ( x 2 , y 2, z 2 )
OP + PQ = OQ
∴ PQ = OQ − OP = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k − x1i − y1 j − z1k P ( x1 , y1, z1 )
= ( x2 − x1 )i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k
O Y
and unit vector in the direction of
( x2 − x1 )i + ( y 2 − y1 ) j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k
PQ is
( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
Scalar product of two vectors X
If a = a1i + a 2 j + a3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k are two non-zero vectors, then a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a3b3 is defined as 'scalar product'
of two vectors a & b, denoted as a ⋅ b also known as 'dot product'.
Vector product of two vectors
If a = a1i + a 2 j + a3 k, b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k are two non-zero vectors, then a vector
( a 2 b3 − a3b2 )i + ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) j + ( a1b2 − a 2 b1 ) k
i j k
ie a1 a2 a3 is defined as ' vector product' of two vector a & b, denoted as a × b also known as cross product.
b1 b2 b3
i j k
ie a × b = a1 a2 a3 = ∑ (a 2b3 − a3b2 ) i
b1 b2 b3
Geometrical Meaning of a ⋅ b and a × b

B
Let OA = a & OB = b and let AO B = θ
b
then a ⋅ b = ab cosθ
θ
where a = a & b = b O A
a
when θ = 0°, a ⋅ b = ab cos 0° = ab
when θ = 90°, a ⋅ b = ab cos 90° = 0
hence two vectors are said to be 'orthogonal' if a ⋅b = 0.
Let ON represent a line which is ⊥ r to both OA & OB. ie ON is ⊥ r to the plane OAB. Let n represent a unit vector in
the direction of ON.
Then ab sin θ n is a × b and − ab sin θ n is b × a if θ = 0°, then sinθ = 0
∴ a × b or − b × a is a null vector, hence two vectors are said to be parallel or coincident if a × b = 0 (null vector)
Note :- N
B
n
b a × b = ab sinθn represent anti - clockwise rotation.
θ
O A
a
B
b b × a = − ab sin θn represent clockwise rotation.
O θ A
a
− n
also for unit vectors i, j & k

i × j = k, k × i = j , j × k = i & j × i = −k, i × k = − j , k × j = −i.
Projection of b upon a
B
Let OA = a , OB = b & A OB = θ . Draw BD ⊥ r to OA then OD is the projection of b upon a.
b
a ⋅b
Since a ⋅ b = ab cos θ , cos θ =
ab θ
O A
a D
OD OD
from the ∆le OBD cos θ = =
OB b
a ⋅b
∴ OD = b cos θ = b ⋅
ab
a
= ⋅ b = a ⋅ b
a
further area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are OA & OB is given by
BD
OA ⋅ BD = ab sinθ Q = sinθ but a × b = ab sinθ .
OB
∴ Area of parallelogram whose co-terminus edges are a & b is given by a × b
1
and therefore area of ∆le OAB = a×b .
2
1
Also area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are d1 & d 2 is d1 × d 2
2
Scalar Triple Product
Let a = a1i + a 2 j + a3 k, b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k & c = c1i + c2 j + c3 k
Then a ⋅ (b × c ) or ( a × b) ⋅ c is called 'Scalar Triple Product'

both on computation gives a1b2 c3 − a1b3c1 + a 2 b3 c1 − a 2 b1c3 + a3b1c2 − a3b2 c1
a1 a2 a3
which is b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Thus a ⋅ (b × c ) or (a × b) ⋅ c
which is 'Scalar Triple Product' which is usually denoted as [ a b c ] also called 'Box-Product'.
Geometrical Meaning of [ abc]

N
Consider a parallelopiped whose co-terminus edges are
OA, OB , OC ie a, b, c
Area of parallelogram OBDC is b × c A

P
Let OP be the projection of OA ie a upon ON which is ⊥ r to a

c
the plane OBDC. C D
∴ OP =
b×c
⋅a =
( )
a ⋅ b×c O
b B
b×c b×c
Volume of parallelopiped = area of parallelogram × OP
= b×c
( )
a⋅ b×c
b×c
( )
= a ⋅ b×c = [ abc ]
∴ Volume of parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are given by a, b, c is
a1 a2 a3
[ a b c ] = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
If [ abc ] =0 then the vectors a, b & c are coplanar.
Vector Triple Product
If a, b, c are three non-zero vectors then
( ) ( ) ( )
a × b× c = a ⋅c b − a ⋅b c
also (a × b)× c = (a ⋅ c )b − (b ⋅ c)a

Examples
1. If a = ( 2, 5), b = ( −2, 3) find a ⋅ b.
Solution : a ⋅b = −4 + 15 = 11
2. ( )(
If α = i + 2 j − 3k, β = 3i − j − 2k, find 2α + β ⋅ α + 2 β )
( )( )
Solution : 2α + β ⋅ α + 2 β = (5i + 3 j − 8k ) ⋅ (7i − 7 k ) = 35 + 0 + 56 = 91
3. Prove that the vectors a = 3i − 2 j − k, b = 2i + j − 4k are perpendicular to each other.
Solution : a ⋅ b = 6 − 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ a & b are perpendicu lar to each other.
4. Find m such that 3i + mj + k and 2i − j − 8k are orthogonal .
Solution : (3i + mj + k) ⋅ ( 2i − j − 8k) = 0 ⇒ 6 − m − 8 = 0 ⇒ −m = −2
5. If a + b = a − b . Show that a and b are orthogonal to each other.
Solution : Given a + b = a − b
( )( ) ( )( )
Squaring both the sides, a + b ⋅ a + b = a − b ⋅ a − b
a ⋅ a + a ⋅b + b ⋅a + b ⋅b = a ⋅ a − a ⋅b − b ⋅ a + b⋅b ( )
i.e. 2 a ⋅ b = 0
∴ a ⋅ b = 0 ∴ a is perpendicular to b.
6. Find the projection of a = i + 3 j + 5k on b = −3i + j + k.
a⋅b −3+3+ 5 5
Solution : Projection of a on b = = = .
b 9 +1+1 11
7. If a = 2i + j + k and b = i − 2 j + 2k and c = 3i − 4 j + 2k, find the projection of a + c on b.
( )
Solution : Projection of a + c on b =
(a + c)⋅ b = (5i − 3 j + 3k)⋅ (i − 2 j + 2k) = 5 + 6 + 6 = 17
b 1+ 4 + 4 3 3
8. Find the cosine of the angle between vectors a = 4i − 3 j + 3k and b = 2i + j − k
a ⋅b 8−3−3 2
Solution : cosθ = = =
a b 16 + 9 + 9 4 + 1 + 1 34 6
9. Find the cross product of vectors a = 9i − j + 4k, b = 8i − j + k
i j k
Solution : a × b = 9 − 1 4 = i(−1 + 4) − j (9 − 32) + k(−9 + 8) = 3i + 23 j − k
8 −1 1
10. If a = i + 2 j + 2k and b = 2i + j − 2k, then find a × b

iˆ ˆj kˆ
Solution : a × b = 1 2 2 = iˆ(−4 − 2) − ˆj (−2 − 4) + kˆ(1 − 4) = −6iˆ + 6 ˆj − 3kˆ
2 1 −2
a × b = 36 + 36 + 9 = 81 = 9
11. Find the unit vecto r perpendicular to the pair of vectors a = 6i − 2 j + k and b = 3i + j − 2k
i j k
Solution : Vector perpendicular to a & b is a × b = 6 − 2 1 = i(4 − 1) − j (−12 − 3) + k(6 + 6) = 3i + 15 j + 12k
3 1 −2
a×b 3i + 15 j + 12k 3i + 15 j + 12k

n = = =
a×b 9 + 225 + 144 378
12. ( )( ) ( )
Prove that 2a + b × a + 2b = 3 a × b
Solution : (2a + b )× (a + 2b ) = 2(a × a )+ 4(a × b )+ b × a + 2(b × b ) = 4(a × b )+ b × a = 3(a × b ).
13. If a, b, c are non zero vectors prove that a × (b + c )+ b × (c + a )+ c × (a + b ) = 0
Solution : a × b + a × c + b × c + b × a + c × a + c × b = a × b + a × c + b × c − a × b − a × c − b × c = 0.
14. Find the sine of the angle between th e vectors a = i + j + k and b = 2i − 3 j + 2k
i j k
Solution : a × b = 1 1 1 = i(2 + 3) − j (2 − 2) + k(−3 − 2) = 5i − 5k , a × b = 5 2 + 5 2 ,
2 −3 2
52 + 52 5 2
∴ sinθ = =
1+1+1 4 + 9 + 4 3 17
15. If a + b + c = 0, then show that a × b = b × c = c × a
Solution : Given a + b + c = 0
( ) ( )
a × a + b + c = a × a + a × b + a × c = 0 ∴ a × b = − a × c [Q a × a = 0 ] ∴ a × b = c × a
Similarly b × a = c × b or c × b = − a × b or a × b = b × c
Similarly c × a = b × c ∴ a × b = b × c = c × a
16. Find the area of the triangle whose sides are a = 3i − 2 j + k and b = i − 3 j + 5k
1
Solution : A = a×b
2
i j k
a × b = 3 − 2 1 = i(−10 + 3) − j (15 − 1) + k(−9 + 2) = −7i − 14 j − 7k
1 −3 5
49 + 196 + 49 294
area = = sq.units
2 2
17. Position v ectors of the points A, B and C are respectively i − j + k, 2i + j − k and 3i − 2 j + k. Find the area of triangle
ABC.
Solution : AB = OB − OA = ( 2i + j − k) − (i − j + k) = i + 2 j − 2k.
AC = OC − OA = 3i − 2 j + k − (i − j + k) = 2i − j.
i j k
AB × AC = 1 2 − 2 = i(0 − 12 − j (4) + k(−1 − 4) = −2i − 4 j − 5k.
2 −1 0
1 45
area = 4 + 16 + 25 = sq.units
2 2
18. Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a = 3i + 2 j − k and b = i + 2 j + 3k.
i j k
Solution : a × b = 3 2 − 1 = i(6 + 2) − j (9 + 1) + k(6 − 2) = 8i − 10 j + 4k
1 2 3
A = 64 + 100 + 16 = 180 sq.units
19. Find the area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are d1 = 3i + j + 2k and d 2 = i − 3 j + 4k.
1
Solution : A = d1 × d 2
2
i j k
d1 × d 2 = 3 1 2 = i(4 + 6) − j (12 − 2) + k(−9 − 1) = 10i − 10 j − 10k
1 −3 4
1 1
d1 × d 2 = 100 + 100 + 100 ; d1 × d 2 = 300 sq.units = 5 3 sq.units.
2 2
20. Find the scalar triple product of vectors a = 2i − j + 3k, b = i + 2 j + 3k and c = 3i + j − k.
2 −1 3
( )
Solution : a ⋅ b × c = 1 2 3 = 2(−2 − 3) + 1(−1 − 9) + 3(1 − 6) = −10 − 10 − 15 = −35.
3 1 −1
21. Evaluate [ i − j, j − k, k − i ]

1 −1 0
Solution : 0 1 − 1 = 1(1) + 1(−1) + 0 = 0
−1 0 1
22. Find the volume of parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are

a = i − j + k, b = 2i − 4 j + 5k, c = 3i = 5 j + k.
1 −1 1
( )
Solution : a ⋅ b × c = 2 − 4 5 = 1(−4 + 25) + 1(2 − 15) + 1(−10 + 12) = 21 − 13 + 2 = 10 cubic units
3 −5 1
23. Find λ if the vectors a = ( 2, − 3 4), b = (1, 2, − 1) and c = (λ , − 1, 2) are coplanar.
2 −3 4
[ ]
Solution : a b c = 1 2 − 1 = 0
λ −1 2
i.e., 2(4 − 1) + 3( 2 + λ ) + 4( −1 − 2λ ) = 0
8
6 + 6 + 3λ − 4 − 8λ = 0 ⇒ 5λ = 8 ; λ = .
5
24. Show that the points A( 4, 5, 1), B(0, − 1, − 1), C (3, 9, 4) and D (−4, 4, 4) are coplanar.
Solution : OA = 4i + 5 j + k, OB = − j − k, OC = 3i + 9 j + 4k, OD = −4i + 4 j + 4k
AB = OB − OA = −4i − 6 j − 2k, AC = OC − OA = −i + 4 j + 3k, AD = OD − OA = −8i − j + 3k

Consider
−4 −6 −2
( )
AB ⋅ A C × A D = − 1 4 3 = −4(12 + 3) + 6(−3 + 24) − 2(1 + 32) = −60 + 126 − 66 = 0
− 8 −1 3
∴ A, B, C and D are coplanar.
Exercise
1. The position vectors of the points A, B and C are respectively a , b and 2a − 3b. Express vectors BC , AC , AB in terms of
a and b.
2. Position v ectors are A, B, C and D are 2a + 4c, 5a + 3 3 b + 4c, − 2 3 b + c and 2a + c respectively.
3
Show that AB || CD and AB = CD
2
3. If a = 3i − 4 j , b = 2i − 3 j , c = i + j , find (i) 2b − c + 2a (ii) 2a − 3c + 2b
4. Find the unit vecto r in the direction of a + b + c where a = i + 4 j + 2k , b = 3i − 3 j − 2k and c = −2i + 2 j + 6k.
5. If a = 2i + 3 j and b = −i + 2 j , find a ⋅ b.
6. Show that the vectors (–1, 2, 3) and (2, –5, 4) are orthogonal.
7. Find the values of λ such that λi − 3 j + k and λi + λj + 2k may be orthogonal .
8. If a and b are unit vecto r show that the vectors a + b and a − b are orthogonal .
9. If a = (1, − 1, 3) and b = ( 2, 1, 1), find a × b.
10. Find the projection of a on b where a = i + 2 j − 3k and b = −2i + 3 j .
11. If a = 2i + j − 3k and b = i − 2 j + k. Find the projection of b on a.

12. If a = ( 2, 3) and b = (8, m) and a × b is a null vector, find m.
13. If a = ( 2, − 1, 3), b = ( −2, 1, 4) and c ≡ ( 2, 1, − 7), find the unit vecto r in the direction of a + b + c.
14. Show that cos θ sin φ i + sinθ j + cos φ k is a unit vecto r.

15. Show that points A (3, –2, 4), B (1, 1, 1) and C (–1, 4, –2) are collinear.
16. Show that points A (1, 1, 1), B (7, 2, 3), C (2, –1, 1) form a triangle.
17. Show that points A, B and C whose position v ectors are 2i + j + k , i + 3 j − 5k and 3i − 4 j − 4k respectively form a
right-angled triangle.
18. Find the cosine of the angle between th e vectors a = i + j + k and b = 2i + 3 j − 2k.
19. Find the sine of the angle between the vectors 2i − 3 j + k and 3i + j − 2k.
20. Find the unit vecto r perpendicu lar to the vectors 3i + j + 2k and 2i − 2 j + 4k.
21. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose co-terminal edges are represented by a = 2i − 3 j + 4k ; b = i + 2 j − k and
c = 3i + j + 2k.
22. Show that vectors 2i − j + k , i + 2 j − 3k and 3i − 4 j − 5k are coplanar.
23. If the vectors i + 2 j + 5k , 2 i + xj − 10k and 3i + 9 j − 2k are coplanar. find x.
24. Show that points A (2, 3, –1), B (1, –2, 3), C (3, 4, –2) and D (1, –6, 6) are coplanar.
25. Find the scalar tri ple product of, a = i − 2 j + k , b = 2i + j + k , c = i + 2 j + k.
26. ( )( ) ( )
Prove that 2a + 3b × a + 4b = 5 a × b
27. Find the area of the triangle whose 2 sides represented by a = i − 3 j − 2k, b = i + 2 j + k.
28. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are i − j + 2k, 2 j + k and j + 3k.
29. Find the area of parallelogram whose diagonals are a = 3i + j − 2k and b = i − 3 j + 4k.
30. ( ) ( )
If a = (1, − 1, 2), b = (1, 2, 3) & c = (3, − 2, 4). Find a × b × c and a × b × c.
BCA 21 / IMCA 21 / Mathematics SVT 65
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Limits of functions
x 2 −1
Consider y = f ( x) = the function is defined for all values of x except for x = 1.
x −1
1 −1 0
∴ for x = 1, f ( x) = = which is indeterminate.
1 −1 0
Let us consider the values of f (x) as x approaches 1
x 2 −1
x f ( x) =
x −1
.9 1.9
.99 1.99
.999 1.999
1.01 2.01
1.001 2.001
1.0001 2.0001
It can be seen from the above values that as x approaches 1, x − 1 approaches 2.

2
x −1
x 2 −1 x 2 −1 x2 −1
This value 2 is called " Limit of as x approaches 1" which can be written as lim or Lt = 2.
x −1 x →1 x − 1 x →1 x − 1
In general the limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a is denoted as l and which is written as
lim f ( x) = l or Lt f ( x) = l
x→a x →a
Properties
(1) lim[ f ( x) ± g ( x)] = lim f ( x) ± lim g ( x)
x →a x →a x→a
(2) lim[ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) lim g ( x) in particular lim kf ( x) = k ⋅ lim f ( x) where k is a contant
x →a x →a x →a x →a x →a
f ( x) xlim f ( x)
(3) lim = →a provided lim g ( x) ≠ 0.
x→ a g ( x) lim g ( x) x →a
x→a
Standard Limits
xn − an
(1) lim = na n −1
x→a x−a
70 KSOU Differential Calculus
sinθ tanθ
(2) lim = 1 (θ in radians) also lim =1
θ →0 θ θ→ 0 θ
n
 1 1
(3) lim 1 +  = e 2 < e < 3 or lim(1 + x) x = e
n →∞  n x →0
a x −1 e x −1
(4) lim = log e a ( a > 0) in particular lim = 1.
x →0 x x →0 x
Examples
x2 + 4x + 3 0+0+3 3
(1) lim = =
x →0 x − 5x + 4
2
0−0+4 4
3 4
+ 2−
(2) lim 2
2 x 2 − 3x + 4
(dividing Nr & Dr by x 2 ) = lim
x x2 = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2
x →∞ 3 x + 2 x + 1 x →∞ 2
3+ +
1 3+0+0 3
x x2
x 4 − 81 x 4 − 34
(3) lim = lim = 4(3) 3 = 108
x →3 x − 3 x →3 x − 3
x7 + a7 x 7 − (−a) 7
x +a
7 7
x − (−a) 7( − a ) 6
= lim 5x + a 5 = lim
7
(4) lim 5
= = a2
x →− a x 5 + a 5 x →− a x + a x →− a x − (−a) 5
5 − (−a) 4
5
x+a x − (−a)
sin 7 x sin 7 x
(5) lim = lim × 7 = 1× 7 = 7
x →0 x x →0 x
1 − cos 2θ 2 sin 2 θ
(6) lim = lim =2
θ →0 θ2 θ →0 θ2
tan3 x
−1
tan3 x − x x 3 −1
(7) lim (dividing Nr & Dr by x) = lim = =1
x →0 3 x − sin x x →0 sin x 3 −1
3−
x
ab
b  1 
(8) lim(1 + ax) x = lim (1 + ax) 
ax = e ab
x →0 x →0  

3
n  n 
 3  3 3
(9) lim 1 +  = lim 1 +  = e3
n →∞  n n →∞  n  
 
−2
1  − 
1
(10) lim(1 − 2 x) x = lim (1 − 2 x) 2 x  = e −2
x →0 x →0  

ax − bx ( a x − x ) − (b x − x ) ax − x bx − x a
(11) lim = lim = lim − lim = log e a − log e b = log e
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x b
2x −1
2 −1
x
log e 2
(12) lim = lim x = = log e 2
x →0 sin x x →0 sin x 1
x
Continuity of a function
A function f ( x) is said to be continuous at x = a if lim f ( x) = f (a)
x →a
∴ A function f ( x) is said to be continuous if lim f ( x) exists, f (a) exists and they are equal.
x→0
If these donot happen then the function is said to be not continuous or discontinuous.
A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at all points in the interval.
Examples
x 2 −1 x 2 −1 0
(1) f ( x) = is not continuous at x = 1 Q lim = 2 exists but f (0) = donot exists.
x −1 x →1 x −1 0
where as it is continuous at all other values of x.
4 x + 3 for x ≥ 4
(2) Discuss the continuity of function f ( x) =  at x = 4.
3x + 7 for < 4
Solution : While finding the limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a, if we consider the limit of the function as x approaches
a from left hand side, the limit is called 'Left Hand Limit' (LHL) and if x approaches a from right hand side the
limit is called 'Right Hand Limit' (RHL) and the limit of the function is said to exists if both LHL & RHL exists
and are equal, for convenience LHL & RHL are denoted as lim− f ( x) and lim+ f ( x) and further
x →a x →a
LHL = lim− f ( x) = lim f (a − h) & RHL = lim+ f ( x) = lim f (a + h)

x →a h →0 x →a h →0
For the given problem

LHL at x = 4 is lim− f ( x) = lim f (4 − h) = lim 3(4 − h) + 7 = 19
x →4 h →0 h →0
RHL at x = 4 is lim+ f ( x) = lim f (4 + h) = lim 4(4 + h) + 3 = 19

x →4 h →0 h →0
and f ( 4) = 19
∴ The function is continuous at x = 4
 sin x
 for x ≠ 0
(3) Examine the continuity of f ( x) =  x at x = 0.
2 for x = 0

sin x
Solution : lim = 1, but f (0) = 2
x →0 x
∴ The function is discontinuous at x = 0.
5 x − 4 for 0 < x ≤ 1

(4) Examine the continuity of the function f ( x) = 4 x 2 − 2 x for 1 < x < 2
4 x + 4 for x ≥ 2

at x = 1 and x = 2.
at x = 1, LHL = lim− f ( x) = lim f (1 − h) = lim 5(1 − h) − 4 = 1

x →1 h →0 h →0
RHL = lim f (1 + h) = lim 4(1 + h) 2 − 2(1 + h) = 4 − 2 = 2

h →0 h →0
LHL ≠ RHL at x = 1
∴ The function is discontinuous at x = 1.
at x = 2, LHL = lim f ( 2 − h) = lim 4( 2 − h) 2 − 2( 2 − h) = 16 − 4 = 12

h →0 h →0
RHL = lim f (2 + h) = lim 4(2 + h) + 4 = 12

h →0 h →0
and f (2) = 4 × 2 + 4 = 12
∴ lim f ( x) = f (2)
x →2
∴ The function is continuous at x = 2.
Differentiability of a function
f ( a + h) − f ( a )
A function f ( x) is said to be differentiable at a point a if lim exists and the derivative is denoted as f '( a ).
h →0 h
f ( x + δx ) − f ( x )
A function f ( x) is said to be differentiable at x if lim exists and the derivative is denoted as f '( x).
δx
δx →0
[δ x is called the increment in x which is very very small].

dy
If y = f ( x), the derivative is denoted by or f '( x)
dx
Note :- A function which is differentiable is always continuous but the converse is not always true.
− x for x < 0
eg. y = f ( x) = x =  is continuous for all x but not differentiable at x = 0.
 x for x ≥ 0
To find the derivates of xn, loge x, ax, sin x, cos x and a constant C with respect to x.
dy ( x + δx ) n − x n
(1) Let y = x n , = lim = nx n −1
dx δx →0 x + δx − x
Eg. (i)
d 7
dx
( )
x = 7 x 6 , (ii )
d −4
dx
( )
x = −4 x − 5 (iii)
d 94
dx
( )
9 9 1 9 5
x = x 4− = x 4
4 4
(iv)
dx
x ( )
d − 53 5 5 1
3
5 8
= − x− 3− = − x− 3
3
( v)
d
dx
( x )= 2 1 x
dy log e ( x + δx ) − log e x
(2) Let y = log e x then = lim
dx δx →0 δx
x
1 x  x + δx  1  δx  δx 1 1
= lim ⋅ log  = lim ⋅ log1 +  = log e e = .
δx →0 x δx  x  δx →0 x  x x x
(3) Let y = a x
dy a x + δx − a x ( a δx − 1) d x
= lim = lim a x = a x log e a ( a > 0) in particular (e ) = e x
dx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx dx
(4) Let y = sin x
dy sin(x + δx) − sin x

= lim
dx δx →0 δx
x + δx + x x + δx − x δx
2 cos sin sin
2 2  δx  2 = cos( x + 0) ⋅1 = sin x.
= lim = lim cos  x +  ⋅
δx →0 δx δx →0  2  δx
2
(5) Let y = cos x
dy cos( x + δx ) − cos x
= lim
dx δx →0 δx
δx
sin
 δx  2 = − sin(x + 0) ⋅1 = − sin x.
= lim − sin x +  ⋅
δx →0  2  δx
2
dy c−c
(6) Let y = c (a constant) = lim =0
dx δ x →0 δx
Thus derivative of a constant is zero.
Thus we have the following standard derivatives
Function y = f (x) Derivative

x n
nx n −1
1
log x
x
ax a x log e a
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
constant zero
Rules for differentiation

I Sum Rule
dy
If y = u + v whose u & v are functions of x then to find
dx
Give a small increment δx to x, let the corresponding increments in u, v & y be δu, δv & δy respectively.
Then y + δy = u + δu + v + δv
Subtracting
y + δy − y = u + δu + v + δv − u − v ie δy = δu + δv
δy δu δv
divide through out by δx then = +
δx δx δx
take limits on both sides as δx → 0.
δy δu δv
Then lim = lim + lim
δx →0 δx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx
dy du dv
ie = +
dx dx dx
dy du dv dw
Note : - If y = u + v − w then = + −
dx dx dx dx
dy d 6 d d
Eg. (1) If y = x 6 + sin x − cos x then = ( x ) + (sin x) − (cos x)
dx dx dx dx
= 6 x 5 + cos x − (− sin x) = 6 x 5 + cos x + sin x.
dy 1
( 2) If y = 3 x − log e x + c then = 3 x log e 3 − + 0.
dx x
II Product Rule
dy
If y = uv where u & v are functions of x then to find .
dx
Give a small increment δx to x, let the corresponding increments in u , v & y be δu , δv & δy respectively.
then y + δy = (u + δu )(v + δv) = uv + uδv + vδu + δu ⋅ δv
∴ δy = y + δy − y = uδv + vδu + δu ⋅ δv
divide through out by δx,
δy δv δu δv
=u +v + δu ⋅
δx δx δx δx
take limit on both sides as δx → 0,
δy δv δu δv
then lim = u lim + v lim + lim δu ⋅
δx →0 δx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx δx →0 δx
dy dv du dv
ie =u +v +o
dx dx dx dx
dy dv du
ie =u +v
dx dx dx
dy dv
Note (1) If y = kv where k is a constant then =k
dx dx
dy dw dv du
( 2) If y = uvw, then = uv + uw + vw
dx dx dx dx
3 dy 3 d d  3 
Eg. (1) If y = x 2 sin x then =x 2 (sin x) + sin x  x 2 
dx dx dx  
3 3 12
=x 2 cos x + sin x ⋅ x
2
dy
( 2) If y = 8 cos x then = −8 sin x
dx
dy d d d
(3) If y = e x sin x ⋅ log x then = e x sin x (log x) + e x log x ⋅ (sin x) + sin x ⋅ log x (e x )
dx dx dx dx
1
= e x sin x ⋅ + e x log x ⋅ cos x + sin x ⋅ log x ⋅ e x .
x
III Quotient Rule

u dy
If y = where u & v are functions of x then to find .
v dx
Give a small increment δx to x, let the corresponding increments in u, v & y be δu, δv & δy respectively.
u + δu
then y + δy =
v + δv
u + δu u v(u + δu ) − u (v + δv) vu + vδu − uv − uδv
∴ δy = − = =
v + δv v v ( v + δv ) v ( v + δv )
divide through out by δx
δu δv
v −u
δy
= δx δx
δx v ( v + δv )
take limit on both sides as δx → 0

δu δv
v −u
δy
ie lim = lim δx δx
δx →0 δx δx →0 v(v + δv)
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
ie =
dx v2
This rule can be easily remembered in the following manner
u Nr
If y = = (say)
v Dr
dy Dr (derivative of Nr ) − Nr (derivative of Dr )
Then =
dx ( Dr ) 2
k dy k dv
Note : - If y = where k is a constant then =− 2
v dx v dx
sin x
Eg. (1) If y = tan x =
cos x
d d
cos x (sin x) − sin x (cos x)
dy dx dx
then =
dx cos 2 x
cos x ⋅ cos x − sin x( − sin x) cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1
= = = = sec 2 x.
cos x
2
cos x
2
cos 2 x
dy
∴ If y = tan x, then = sec 2 x.
dx
cos x
( 2) If y = cot x =
sin x
dy sin x( − sin x) − cos x(cos x)
then =
dx sin 2 x
− sin 2 x − cos 2 x −1
= = = −cosec 2 x.
sin x
2
sin 2 x
dy
∴ If y = cot x, then − cosec 2 x.
dx
1
(3) If y = sec x =
cos x
dy 1 d
then =− ⋅ (cos x)
dx cos x
2
dx
1 1 1 sin x
=− ( − sin x) = (sin x ) = ⋅ = sec x tan x.
cos x
2
cos x cos x cos x
dy
∴ If y = sec x, then = sec x tan x.
dx
1
( 4) If y = cosec x =
sin x
dy 1
then = − 2 ⋅ cos x
dx sin x
1 cos x
=− ⋅ = −cosec x ⋅ cot x.
sin x sin x
dy
∴ If y = cosec x, then = −cosec x ⋅ cot x.
dx
IV Chain Rule or function of a function rule

dy δ y δ y δu
If y = f (u ) where u = g ( x) to find , consider = ×
dx δ x δu δx
δy δy δu
∴ lim = lim ×
δx → 0 δ x δ x → 0 δu δx
dy dy du dy dy du dv
ie = ⋅ also if y = f ( x ), u = g (v) & v = h( x) then = ⋅ ⋅
dx du dx dx du dv dx
Eg. (1) If y = (ax 2 + bx + c) n then put u = ax 2 + bx + c

dy
y = un ∴ = nu n −1
du
u = ax 2 + bx + c
du
= 2ax + b
dx
dy dy du
∴ = ⋅ = ( ax 2 + bx + c) n ( 2ax + b).
dx du dx
(2) If y = log(x 3 − 2 x 2 + 7)
dy 1 d 3 3x 2 − 4 x
then = 3 × ( x − 2 x 2
+ 7 ) =
dx ( x − 2 x 2 + 7) dx x3 − 2x 2 + 7
(3) If y = sin(2 x 2 + 4 x − 3)
dy
then = cos(2 x 2 + 4 x − 3)(4 x + 4) = 4( x + 1) cos( 2 x 2 + 4 x − 3)
dx
 x 2 −1 
(4) If y = tan  2 
 x +1
 
dy  x2 −1  d  x2 −1 
then = sec 2  2   2 
  
dx  x + 1  dx  x + 1 
 x 2 − 1  ( x 2 + 1)(2 x ) − ( x 2 − 1)2 x 2 
 x − 1  × 2 x( x + 1 − x + 1)
2 2 2
= sec 2  2  × = sec
  x2 +1
 x +1  ( x 2 + 1) 2   ( x 2 + 1) 2
 x 2 −1  4x
= sec 2  2 
 x + 1  × ( x 2 + 1) 2
 
Derivative of Hyperbolic functions

(1) If y = sinh x,
dy d d  e x + e−x  e x − e−x
then = (sinh x) =  = = cosh x.
dx dx dx  2 
 2
( 2) If y = cosh x,
dy d d  e x − e−x  e x + e−x
then = (cosh x) =  = = sinh x.
dx dx dx  2 
 2
sinh x
(3) If y = tanhx = ,
cosh x
dy d  sinh x 
then =  
dx dx  cosh x 
cosh x cosh x − sinh x sinh x cosh 2 x − sinh2 x 1

= = = = sech 2 x.
cosh x 2
cosh x
2
cosh x 2
cosh x
( 4) If y = coth x = ,
sinh x
dy d  cosh x 
then =  
dx dx  sinh x 
sinh x sinh x − cosh x cosh x sinh2 x − cosh 2 x −1

= = = = −cosech 2 x.
sinh2 x sinh2 x sinh2 x
1
(5) If y = sech x = ,
cosh x
dy d  1  1 d
then =  =− (cosh x)
dx dx  cosh x  cosh 2 x dx
−1 −1 sinh x
= ⋅ sinh x = ⋅ = −sech x tanhx.
cosh 2 x sech x cosh x
1
(6) If y = cosech x = ,
sinh x
dy −1 d
then =− (sinh x)
dx sinh2 x dx
−1 − 1 cosh x
= ⋅ cosh x = ⋅ = −cosech x ⋅ coth x.
sinh x
2
sinh x sinh x
Implicit Functions
Function of the type f ( x, y ) = 0 is called Implicit function.
dy
To find treat y as a function of x & use chain rule.
dx
Eg. (1) If ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
 dy  dy
then 2ax + 2h x + y  + 2by =0
 dx  dx
dy
ie (2hx + 2by ) = −2ax − 2hy
dx
dy − 2( ax + hy ) − ( ax + hy)
∴ = =
dx 2(hx + by ) hx + by
Eg. (2) If x sin y + y sin x = 10
differentiating w.r.t. x
dy dy
x cos y + sin y + y cos x + sin x =0
dx dx
dy
ie ( x cos y + sin x) = − sin y − y cos x
dx
dy − (sin y + y cos x)
∴ =
dx ( x cos y + sin x )
Parametric functions
Functions of the type x = f (t ), y = g (t ) taken together is called Parametric function, where t is the paramter. Parametric
functions are also denoted as x = f (θ ), y = f (θ ) where θ is the parameter.
dy dx dy dx dy
To find , consider & or &
dx dt dt dθ dθ
dy dy dt dy dy dθ
then = or =
dx dx dt dx dx dθ
dy
Eg. (1) If x = a cos 3 t , y = a sin 3 t , find
dx
dx dy
Solution : x = a cos 3 t , = −3a cos 2 t sin t , y = a sin 3 t , = 3a sin 2 t cos t
dt dt
dy dy dt 3a sin 2 t cos t
∴ = = = − tant
dx dx dt − 3a cos 2 t sin t
dy
( 2) If x = a (3 cos θ − 4 sin 3 θ ) & y = a (3 sinθ − 4 cos 3 θ ), find
dx
dy dy dθ a (3 cosθ + 12 cos 2 θ sin θ )
Solution : = =
dx dx dθ a (−3 sin θ − 12 sin 2 cos θ )
3 cosθ (1 + 4 sin θ cos θ )
= = − cot θ
− 3 sin θ (1 + 4 sin θ cosθ )
Differentiation using Logarithms
If y = f ( x) g ( x )
use logarithms on both sides
log y = log f ( x) g ( x ) = g ( x) log f ( x)

1 dy 1 g ( x ) f '( x )
= g ( x) f '( x) + g '( x) log f ( x) = + g '( x) log f ( x)
y dx f ( x) f ( x)
dy  g ( x) f '( x) 
∴ = f ( x) g ( x )  + g '( x ) log f ( x ) 
dx  f ( x) 
dy
Eg. (1) Find if y = x x
dx
Solution : log y = x log x
1 dy 1
∴ = x ⋅ + log x ⋅1
y dx x
dy
ie = x x [1 + log x]
dx
dy
( 2) If y = x sin x + (cos x) tanx , find .
dx
Solution : Let y = u + v where u = x sin x & v = (cos x) tanx
log u = sin x log x
1 du sin x
∴ = + cos x log x
u dx x
du  sin x 
ie = x sin x  + cos x log x 
dx  x 
v = (cos x ) tanx
log v = tan x log cos x
1 dv 1( − sin x)
∴ = tan x + sec 2 x log cos x
v dx cos x
dv
∴ = (cos x) tan x [ − tan2 x + sec 2 x log cos x]
dx
dy du dv  sin x 
∴ = + = x sin x  + cos x log x  + (cos x) tan x [ − tan2 x + sec 2 x log cos x]
dx dx dx  x 
Derivatives of inverse Trigonometric functions

d 1
(1) (sin −1 x) = for x < 1
dx 1− x2
d −1
( 2) (cos −1 x) = for x < 1
dx 1− x2
d 1
(3) (tan−1 x) =
dx +
1 x2
d −1
( 4) (cot −1 x) =
dx 1+ x2
d 1
(5) (sec −1 x) = for | x | > 1
dx x x 2 −1
d −1
(6) (cosec −1 x) = for x > 1
dx x x2 −1
Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions

d 1
(1) (sinh−1 x) = ∀x
dx 1+ x2
d 1
( 2) (cosh −1 x) = for x > 1
dx x −1
2
d 1
(3) (tanh−1 x) = for x < 1
dx 1− x2
d −1
( 4) (coth−1 x) = 2 for x > 1
dx x −1
d −1
(5) (sech −1 x) = for x < 1
dx x 1− x2
d −1
( 6) (cosech −1 x) =
dx x 1+ x2
Exercise
dy
Find of the following
dx
1. y = x 2 + a 2 2. y = loge (3x + 2) 3. y = log e cos x
x +1
4. y = 5. y = x 2 e x 6. y = ( 2 x + 3) 2
x −1
7. y = ax 2 + bx + c 8. y = e x
9. y = (3 x + 5)1 / 3
10. y = sin x + log e x + x 2 + e x 11. y = cosec x − tanx + x 5 12. y = sinh−1 x
13. y = sinh x sinh−1 x 14. y = sin x ⋅ sin −1 x 15. y = sec −1 x + cosec −1 x

x2 + x +1
16. y = (1 + x 2 ) tan−1 x 17. y = (1 + x 2 ) sin x 18. y =
x
19. y = ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 2) 20. y = 5e x + 4 loge x 21. y = e x (sin x + cos x)
ex e x + e− x
22. y = 2
23. y = 24. y = sin x ⋅ sin 2 x
x 2
2x  x+a 
25. y = ( x + a)( x + b)( x + c) 26. y = sin −1 27. y = tan−1  
1+ x 2
 1 − ax 
1 − cos x
28. y = 29. y = e sinh x 30. y = log e sin x
1 + cos x
 1+ x 
31. y = log e ( x 2 tan x) 32. y = (1 − x 2 ) cos −1 x 33. y = tan−1  
1− x 
 1− x 
34. y = tan−1   35. xy = c 2 36. sin −1 x + sin −1 y = 0
1+ x 
37. x 2 + y 2 = a 2 38. x 2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = a 2 / 3 39. x = at 2 , y = 2at
1
40. x = t , y = 41. x = 4 cosh t , y = 4 sinh t 42. x = a cos t , y = b sin t
t
43. x = log e sec t , y = tan2 t 44. y = x cos xy 45. y = sin xy
( x 2 + 1)e x e x − e−x
46. y = 47. y = 48. y = (1 + x 2 ) tan x
log e x ⋅ cosec x e x + e−x
xe x x2 + ex cos −1 x
49. y = 50. y = 51. y =
1 + cos x 1 − x log e x log e x
x 3e x  x2 +1   3x − x 3 
52. y = 53. y = sec −1  2  54. y = tan−1  2 

cos −1 x  x −1   1 − 3x 
5 x 3 cosh x 1 + sin x x+3

55. y = 56. y = 57. y = sec x
cosech x 1 − sin x x −1
58. y = ( x − 1) 2 cosec−1 ( x − 1) 59. sin(x + y) = log e ( x + y) 60. y sin x + x sin y = 0
61. x = et (cos t + sin t ), y = e t (cos t − sin t ) 62. x = a cos 4 t , y = a sin4 t

a a
63. x = log e sec t , y = tan2 t 64. x = , y= 65. y = sin n x ⋅ sin nx
1 + cos t 1 − cos t
−1
66. y = (sin −1 x) tanx 67. y = (sin x) sin x 68. y = (sin x) tan x
69. y = (log x x) log e x 70. e x + y = e x + e y

Successive Differentiation
dy
If y = f ( x) then = f ′( x ) is also a function of x, hence further derivatives can be obtained.
dx
d2y
The second derivative is denoted by or f ′′( x) or y 2 or D 2 y.
dx 2
d3y
The third derivative is denoted by or f ′′′( x) or y3 or D 3 y.
dx 3
dny
In general n th derivative is denoted as or f ( n ) ( x) or y n or D n y.
dx n
Examples
d2y
1. If y = (1 + x 2 ) tan−1 x find at x = 1
dx 2
Solution : y = (1 + x 2 ) tan−1 x
dy 1
= (1 + x 2 ) × + tan−1 x ⋅ ( 2 x) = 1 + 2 x tan−1 x.
dx 1+ x 2
d2y 1
= 0 + 2x × + 2 tan−1 x
dx 2 1+ x2
 d2y  2 π π
at x = 1,  2  = + 2× = 1+ .
 dx  x =1 1 + 1 4 2
d2y − 4a
2. If y 2 = 4ax, show that 2
=
dx y3
Solution : y 2 = 4ax
dy dy 2a
2y = 4a ⇒ =
dx dx y
again differentiating w.r.t. x
d2y 2a dy 2a  2a  − 4a 2
=− = −  =
dx 2 y 2 dx y 2  y  y3
 t d2y sin t
3. If x = a  cos t + log tan  & y = a sin t , then show that =
 2  dx 2
a cos 4 t
 t
Solution : x =  cos t + log tan 
 2
 
dx  1 1 t 
∴ = a − sin t + sec 2 
dt 1
 tan 2 2
 2 
   
 1   1   1   − sin 2 t + 1  a cos 2 t
= a − sin t +  = a − sin t +  = a − sin t + = a  =
 1 t t t  sin t   sin t  sin t
2 tan cos 2   2 sin cos 
 2 2   2 2 
dy
y = a sin t , ∴ = a cos t
dt
dy dy dt a cos t
∴ = = × sin t = tant
dx dx dt a cos 2 t
d2y d  dy  d  dy  dt 1 sec 2 t
∴ =  =   = sec 2 t × =
dx 2 dx  dx  dt  dx  dx dx dt a cos 2 t
sin t
d2y sin t
∴ =
dx 2
a cos 4 t
d2y
4. If y = sin 2 x, find
dx 2
dy
Solution : = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2 x
dx
d2y
= cos 2 x ⋅ 2 = 2 cos 2 x
dx 2
d2y
5. If y = x 2 log e x find
dx 2
dy 1
Solution : = x 2 ⋅ + log e x ⋅ 2 x = x( 2 log e x + 1)
dx x
d2y 2
= x  + (2 log e x + 1) = 3 + 2 log e x
dx 2  x
d2y
6. If y = e ax ⋅ sin(bx + c) find
dx 2
dy
Solution : = e ax ⋅ cos(bx + c) ⋅ b + sin(bx + c) ⋅ ae ax
dx
= e ax {b cos(bx + c ) + a sin(bx + c)}

dy
dx
d2y
dx 2
{ }
= e ax − b 2 sin(bx + c) + ab cos(bx + c) + ae ax {b cos(bx + c) + a sin(bx + c)}
{ }
= e ax 2ab cos(bx + c) + (a 2 − b 2 ) sin(bx + c)
d2y
7. If x = a (θ − sinθ ), y = b(1 − cos θ ) find
dx 2
dx dy
Solution : = a (1 − cos θ ), = b sinθ
dθ dθ
dy b sinθ b ⋅ 2 sin(θ 2) cos(θ 2) b
= = = cot(θ 2)
dx a (1 − cos θ ) a ⋅ 2 sin 2 (θ 2) a
d2y b θ 1 dθ b θ 1 b
= − cosec 2 ⋅ ⋅ = − cosec 2 ⋅ = − 2 cosec 4 (θ 2).
dx 2
a 2 2 dx 2 a 2 a (1 − cos θ ) 4a
−1
8. If y = e m sin x
, then prove that (1 − x 2 ) y 2 − xy1 − m 2 y = 0
dy −1 m
Solution : = e m sin x ⋅
dx 1− x2
cross multiplying & squaring, we have
(1 − x 2 ) y12 = m 2 y 2
(1 − x 2 ) ⋅ 2 y1 y 2 + y12 (−2 x) = m 2 ⋅ 2 yy1
Dividing throughout by 2 y1 , we get (1 − x 2 ) y 2 − xy1 − m 2 y = 0
9. If y = sin(m sin−1 x), then prove that (1 − x 2 ) y2 − xy1 + m 2 y = 0
m
Solution : y1 = cos(m sin −1 x) ⋅
1− x2
m 1− y2
y1 = ⇒ (1 − x 2 ) y12 = m 2 (1 − y 2 )
1− x 2
(1 − x 2 )2 y1 y 2 + y12 (−2 x) = m 2 (−2 yy1 )
Dividing throughtout by 2 y1 we get (1 − x 2 ) y2 − xy1 + m 2 y = 0.
10. If y = e x tan−1 x, prove that (1 + x 2 ) y 2 − 2(1 − x + x 2 ) y1 + (1 − x) 2 y = 0
dy 1
Solution : = ex ⋅ + e x tan−1 x
dx 1+ x 2
(1 + x 2 )[ y1 − y] = e x
(1 + x 2 )( y2 − y1 ) + 2 x( y1 − y) = e x
(1 + x 2 ) y 2 − (1 + x 2 − 2 x) y1 − 2 xy = (1 + x 2 ) y1 − (1 + x 2 ) y
⇒ (1 + x 2 ) y 2 − 2(1 + x 2 − x) y1 + (1 − x) 2 y = 0
Exercise
d2y 16 d2y −2
(1) If 4 x 2 + 9 y 2 = 36 show that =− ( 2) If x 2 + 2 xy + 3 y 2 = 1 prove that =
dx 2
9y 2
dx 2
( x + 3 y) 3
d2y 1 d2y
(3) If x = a cos 3 θ , y = a sin 3 θ find ( 4) If x = a tanθ , y = a sin 2θ find
dx 2 2 dx 2
d2y sec 3 θ
(5) If x = a (cos θ + θ sinθ ), y = a (sinθ − θ cos θ ) show that =
dx 2
aθ
d2y d2y
(6) If y = sin −1 2 x, then find 2
(7) If y = x log e x, then find
dx dx 2
d2y d2y
(8) If y = e 4 x ⋅ sec 3 x, then find 2
(9) If y = a x , then find
dx dx 2
d2y d2y
(10) If x = at 2 , y = 2at , then find 2
(11) If x 3 y 3 = a x , then find
dx dx 2
d2y
(12) If y = a cos mx + b sin mx, prove that 2
+ m2 y = 0
dx
m
(13) If y =  x + x 2 + 1  , prove that ( x 2 + 1) y 2 + xy1 − m 2 y = 0
 
(14) If y = ax n+1 + bx − n , prove that x 2 y2 − n(n + 1) y = 0
(15) If x = sin t , y = sin pt , prove that (1 − x 2 ) y 2 − xy1 + p 2 y = 0
(16) If x 2 + xy + y 2 = 1, then prove that ( x + 2 y ) 3 y 2 + 6 = 0
(17) If y = e ax sin bx prove that y 2 − 2ay1 + (a 2 + b 2 ) y = 0
b
(18) If y = ax + 2
then show that x 2 y 2 + 2( xy1 − y ) = 0
x
b
(19) If y = ax n +1 + then show that x 2 y 2 = n( n + 1) y
xn
d 2x
( 20) If x = a cos nt + b sin nt then show that + n2 x = 0
dt 2
nth derivative of Standard functions

1. If y = (ax + b) m to find y n
Solution : y1 = m(ax + b) m−1 a ; y2 = m(m − 1)(ax + b) m − 2 a 2
differentiating n times, we have
y n = m(m − 1) L(m − n + 1)(ax + b) m− n a n
1
in particular if m = −1, ie y =
ax + b
y n = (−1)(−2)(−3) L(−n)(ax + b) −1− n a n

( −1) n n ! a n
ie y n =
( ax + b) n +1
2. If y = log(ax + b) to find y n
1
Solution : y1 = ⋅a
ax + b
differentiating ( n − 1) times
( −1) n −1 a n −1 ( −1) n −1 a n
yn = ⋅a =
( ax + b) n ( ax + b) n
3. If y = a mx to find yn
Solution : y1 = a mx ⋅ m(log a) ; y2 = a mx ⋅ m 2 (log a) 2
∴ In general, yn = m n (log a) n a mx
4. If y = sin(ax + b) to find y n
 π
Solution : y1 = a cos(ax + b) = a sin  ax + b + 
 2
 π  π
y 2 = a 2 cos  ax + b +  = a 2 sin  ax + b + 2 ⋅ 
 2  2
 π  π
y3 = a 3 cos  ax + b + 2 ⋅  = a 3 sin  ax + b + 3 ⋅ 
 2  2
 π
∴ In general, y n = a n sin  ax + b + n ⋅ 
 2
5. If y = cos(ax + b) to find y n
 π
Solution : y1 = −a sin(ax + b) = a cos  ax + b + 
 2
 π  π
y 2 = −a 2 sin  ax + b +  = a 2 cos  ax + b + 2 ⋅ 
 2  2
 π
∴ In general, y n = a n cos  ax + b + n ⋅ 
 2
6. If y = e ax cos(bx + c) to find y n
Solution : differentiating w.r.t. x
y1 = ae ax cos(bx + c) − be ax sin(bx + c)
put a = r cos α , b = r sin α
then y1 = re ax cos(bx + c) cosα − re ax sin(bx + c) sinα
= re ax [cos(bx + c) cosα − sin(bx + c) sinα ] = re ax cos(bx + c + α )
again differentiating w.r.t. x & simplifying, we get
y2 = r 2 e ax cos(bx + c + 2α )
b
In general, y n = r n e ax cos(bx + c + nα ) where r = a 2 + b 2 & α = tan−1
a
7. If y = e ax sin(bx + c) to find yn
Solution : differentiating w.r.t. x
y1 = ae ax sin(bx + c) + be ax cos(bx + c)
put a = r cos α , b = r sin α
then y1 = re ax [sin(bx + c) cosα + cos(bx + c) sinα ] = re ax sin(bx + c + α )

again differentiating w.r.t. x & simplifying, we get
y 2 = r 2 e ax sin(bx + c + 2α )
b
In general, y n = r n e ax sin(bx + c + nα ) where r = a 2 + b 2 & α = tan−1
a
8. Statement of Leibmitz's Theorem on nth derivative of a product
If u & v are functions of x, the n th derivative of the product uv is given by
(uv) n = u n v + nc1u n −1v 2 + nc2 u n − 2 v2 + LL + ncn uvn
where suffixes of u & v represent order of the derivatives of u & v.
Examples
1
1. Find the n th derivative of
x − 6x + 8
2
1 1 A B
Solution : Let y = = = + (Say)
x − 6x + 8
2
( x − 2)( x − 4) ( x − 2) ( x − 4)
multiplying throughout by ( x − 2)( x − 4)
1 = A( x − 4) + B ( x − 2)
1
put x = 2, 1 = A( −2) ⇒ A = −
2
1
put x = 4, 1 = 2 B ⇒ B =
2
1 1
−
∴ y= 2 + 2
( x − 2) ( x − 4)
1 1
− ( −1) n n ! ( −1) n n !
differentiating n times, we have y n = 2 + 2
( x − 2) n +1 ( x − 4) n +1
2. Find the n th derivative of sin 2 x cos 3 x
(1 − cos 2 x) cos 3 x + 3 cos x
Solution : Let y = sin 2 x cos 3 x = ×
2 4
1
ie y = [cos 3 x + 3 cos x − cos 3 x cos 2 x − 3 cos 2 x cos x]
8
1 1 3 
=  cos 3 x + 3 cos x − (cos 5 x + cos x) − (cos 3 x + cos x) 
8 2 2 
1 1 1 3 3 
=  cos 3 x + 3 cos x − cos 5 x − cos x − cos 3 x − cos x) 
8 2 2 2 2 
1 1 1 
∴ y=  cos x − cos 3 x − cos 5 x 
8 2 2 
1  π 1 n  π 1 n  π 
differentiating n times, we have y n = cos x +  − ⋅ 3 cos 3x + n  − ⋅ 5 cos 5 x + n 
8  2 2  2 2  2 
3. If y = e 2 x sin2 x to find yn
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x
Solution : y = e (1 − cos 2 x) y= e − e cos 2 x
2 2 2
1 n 2x 1 n 2x
differentiating n times, we have y n = 2 e − ⋅ r e cos( 2 x + n − α )
2 2
2 π
where r = 4 + 4 = 8 , α = tan−1 = tan−1 1 =
2 4
∴ y n = 2 n −1 e 2 x −
1
2
( 8) n  π
cos  2 x + n ⋅ 
 2
4. If y = e 4 x sin 5 x cos 3x find y n

1 4x 1 4x 1
Solution : y = e [sin 8 x + sin 2 x] ie y = e sin 8 x + e 4 x sin 2 x
2 2 2
differentiating n times, we have y n =

1
2
( 16 + 64 ) e n 4x  8 1
sin 8 x + n tan−1  +
 4 2
( 16 + 4 ) e
n 4x  2
sin 2 x + n tan−1 
 4
ie y n =
1
2
( 80 ) e n 4x
sin(8 x + n tan−1 2) +
1
2
( 20 ) en 4x  1
sin 2 x + n tan−1 
 2
5. If y = x 2 log 3x find yn
Solution : y = x 2 log 3x
Let u = log 3 x = log 3 + log x
( −1) n −1
∴ un = , v = x2
xn
differentiating n times, using Leibnitz' s Theorem,
(−1) n −1 ( −1) n − 2 ( −1) n −3

y n = (uv) n = ⋅ x 2 + nC1 2 x + nC 2 ⋅2
xn x n −1 x n−2
=
( −1) n −3
x n−2
[(−1) 2
+ ( −1)1 2n + n( n − 1) = ] ( −1) n −3
x n−2
[1 − 2n + n 2
−n ]
ie y n =
( −1) n −3
x n−2
[n 2
− 3n + 1 ]
6. If y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x) show that x 2 y n + 2 + (2n + 1) x y n +1 + (n 2 + 1) y n = 0
Solution : Let y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x)
1 1
y1 = −a sin(log x) + b cos(log x)
x x
ie xy1 = −a sin(log x) + b cos(log x)

differentiating w.r.t. x again
1 1
xy 2 + y1 = −a cos(log x) − b sin(log x )
x x
ie x 2 y2 + xy1 = −a cos(log x) − b sin(log x) = − y
ie x 2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
differentiating n times, using Leibnitz' s Theorem, we have
x 2 y n + 2 + nC1 2 xyn +1 + nC 2 ⋅ 2 y n
+ xy n +1 + nC1 ⋅1 y n
+ yn = 0
adding, x 2 y n + 2 + (2n + 1) xy n +1 + [ n(n − 1) + n + 1] y n = 0
ie x 2 y n+ 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 + 1) y n = 0
−1
7. If y = e m cos x
, prove that (1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − ( n 2 + m 2 ) y n = 0
−1
Solution : y = e m cos x
−m
y1 = e m cos x ⋅ ie 1 − x 2 y1 = −my
1− x2
squaring both sides (1 − x 2 ) y12 = m 2 y 2
differentiating again w.r.t. x,
(1 − x 2 )2 y1 y2 + y12 (−2 x) = m 2 2 yy1
dividing by 2 y1 , we have
(1 − x 2 ) y2 − xy1 − m 2 y = 0
differentiating w.r.t. x, n times using Leibnitz' s Theorem,
(1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 + nC1 y n +1 ( −2 x) + nC 2 y n ( −2)
− xy n +1 + nC1 y n ( −1)
− m 2 yn = 0
adding, (1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − ( n 2 − n + n + m 2 ) y n = 0
ie (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − (n 2 + m 2 ) yn = 0
8. If y1 m + y −1 m = 2 x, prove that ( x 2 − 1) y n + 2 + (2n + 1) xy n +1 + (n 2 − m 2 ) y n = 0
Solution : y1 m + y −1 m = 2 x
( )
ie y1 m
2
+ 1 = 2 xy1 m
∴ (y ) 1m 2
− 2 xy1 m + 1 = 0
2x ± 4x2 − 4
which is a quadratic equation in y1 m ∴ y1 m = = x ± x 2 −1
2
m
Consider, y1 m = x + x 2 − 1 ∴ y =  x + x 2 − 1 
 
 2 
m −1   m −1  x − 1 + x 
y1 = m  x + x − 1  2 1 +  = m  x + x − 1 
2x 2  
     
 2 x −1  x −1
2 2
ie x 2 − 1 y1 = my
Squaring both sides ( x 2 − 1) y12 = m 2 y 2

( x 2 − 1)2 y1 y2 + y12 (2 x) = 2m 2 yy1

dividing throughou t by 2 y1 , we have
( x 2 − 1) y2 + xy1 − m 2 y = 0
differentiating n times using Leibnitz' s Theorem
( x 2 − 1) y n + 2 + nC1 y n +1 2 x + nC 2 y n 2
+ xy n +1 + nC1 y n 1
− m 2 yn = 0
adding, ( x 2 − 1) y n + 2 + ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 + ( n 2 − n + n − m 2 ) y n = 0
ie ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + (2n + 1) xyn +1 + (n 2 − m 2 ) y n = 0
m
We obtain the same result if y1 m =  x − x 2 − 1  ie y =  x − x 2 − 1 
   
Exercise
1
1. Find the n th derivative of
x − 5x + 6
2
2. Find the n derivative of (i) sin3 x (ii) cos3 x (iii) sin 4 x cos 3x (iv) sin 8 x sin 4 x (v) cos 5x cos x.
th
3. Find the n th derivative of (i) e3 x sin2 x (ii) e 2 x cos 2 x (iii) e x sin 5x cos 2 x
4. If y = sin(m sin −1 x), prove that (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn+1 − (n 2 − m 2 ) y n = 0

−1
5. If y = e a sin x
, prove that (1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − ( n 2 + a 2 ) y n = 0
6. If y = ( x 2 − 1) n , prove that ( x 2 − 1) yn + 2 + 2 xyn +1 − n(n + 1) y n = 0

Polar Co-ordinates r = f ( q)
Let O be a fixed point and OA the initial line. Let P be any point on the curve.
Let AO P = θ & OP = r

P ( r , q)
j
then co - ordinates of P are ( r , θ ) which are called Polar co - ordinates. r
r is called radius vector, which is distance of P from
q y
O A
O and θ is the AO P measured in anticlock direction. p
Q
Equation to the curve is taken as r = f (θ )
Let PT be the tangent to the curve r = f (θ) at P, then angle made by

the tangent with radius vector OP is denoted as ϕ ie O PT = ϕ and angle
made by the tangent with initial line OA is denoted by ψ. It can be seen T
from the figure that
ψ =θ +ϕ (1)
Let OQ represent perpendicular from the pole O upon the tangent at P, it is denoted as p.
OQ p
It can be seen from the triangle OPQ that sin φ = =
OP r
∴ p = r sin φ (2)
rdθ
To prove that tanφ = (important result)
dr
dy
If the Cartesian co - ordinates of P are ( x, y ) then x = r cos θ y = r sinθ and tanψ =
dx
dr
r cos θ + sinθ
dy dθ dθ
∴ tanψ = =
dx dθ cos θ dr − r sinθ
dθ
dr
using (1) & dividing Nr & Dr of RHS by cos θ , we have
dθ
dθ dθ
r + tanθ tanθ + r
tanθ + tanφ
tan(θ + ϕ ) = dr ie = dr
dθ 1 − tanθ tanφ 1 − tanθ ⋅ r dθ
1− r tanθ
dr dr
dθ
Comparing LHS & RHS, we have tanφ = r (3)
dr
[ ]
2
1 1 1 1 1  dr 
from (2) p = r sin φ ∴ = 2 cosec 2φ = 2 1 + cot 2 φ = 2 + 2   using (3)
p2 r r r r  rdθ 
2
1 1 1  dr 
= +   (4)
p2 r 2 r 4  dθ 
using r = f (θ ) & ( 4) we can eliminate θ and obtain a relation between p & r for the curve, which is called Pedal
Equation or (p, r) equation of the curve.
To find the angle between two curves r = f (θ ) & r = g (θ ) r = g ( q)

r = f ( q)
Let the two curves r = f (θ ) & r = g (θ ) intersect at P.
Let PT1 & PT2 be the tangents to the two curves and let φ1 & φ 2 bet the angles
made by the tangents with the radius vector OP. P
f1
∴ Angle between tw o curves is given by φ1 − φ 2 f2
f1 -f2
tanφ1 − tanφ 2
Now tan(φ1 − φ 2 ) = (5)
1 + tanφ1 tanφ 2
using the result in (3) we can find tanφ1 & tanφ 2 and hence angle between two T1
T2
curves at the point of intersection can be found out.
If tanφ1 = tanφ 2 then tan(φ1 − φ 2 ) = 0
ie φ1 = φ 2 ∴ the two curves touch each other at P.
π
If tanφ1 tanφ 2 = −1 then φ1 − φ 2 =
2
∴ the two curves are said to intersect orthogonally.
Examples
(1) Show that in the equiangular spiral r = aeθ cotα the tangent is inclined at a constant angle to the radius vector.
Solution : r = aeθ cotα
dr
differentiating w.r.t. θ , = aeθ cot α cot α = r cot α
dθ
dθ r r
tanφ = r = = = tanα ⇒ φ = α hence the result.
dr dr r cot α
dθ
π
( 2) Show that the tangent to the Cardiod r = a (1 + cos θ ) at the point θ = is parallel to the initial line.
3
Solution : r = a (1 + cos θ )
dr
differentiating w.r.t. θ , = a (0 − sin θ )
dθ
θ
2 cos 2
dθ r a (1 + cos θ ) 2 = − cot θ = tan π + θ 
tanφ = r = = =
dr dr − a sinθ θ θ 2  2 2
− sin cos
dθ 2 2
π θ π π π π π π
∴φ= + when θ = , φ= + & ψ =θ +φ = + + = π
2 2 3 2 6 3 2 6
∴ the tangent is parallel to the initial line.
2a θ θ
(3) For the curve = 1 − cos θ show that (i ) φ = π − and (ii ) p = a cosec
r 2 2
2a
Solution : = 1 − cos θ
r
2a dr dr − r 2 sin θ
differentiating w.r.t. θ , − = sin θ ∴ =
r dθ
2
dθ 2a
θ
2 sin 2
dθ r r 2a 1 − cosθ 2 = − tanθ
Now tanφ = r = = =− = =
dr dr − r 2 sinθ r sinθ − sinθ θ θ 2
− sin cos
dθ 2a 2 2
θ  θ θ  θ θ
ie tanφ = − tan = tan π −  ∴ φ = π − & p = r sin φ = r sin π −  = r sin
2  2 2  2 2
θ 2a θ 2a a θ
ie p = sin ⋅ = sin ⋅ = ∴ p = a cosec
2 1 − cos θ 2 2 sin 2 θ sin θ 2
2 2
(4 ) Find the angle between the curves r = 2 sinθ & r = sinθ + cos θ .
dr
Solution : r = 2 sinθ , = 2 cos θ
dθ
Let φ1 be the angle made by the tangent at the point of intersection with radius vector
dθ r 2 sinθ
∴ tanφ1 = r = = = tanθ
dr dr 2 cos θ
dθ
∴ φ1 = θ (1)
for the curve r = sin θ + cos θ
dr
= cos θ − sinθ
dθ
Let φ 2 be the angle w.r.t. this curve
dθ r sinθ + cosθ tanθ + 1  π

∴ tanφ 2 = r = = = = tanθ + 
dr dr cosθ − sinθ 1 − tanθ  4
dθ
π
∴ φ2 = θ + (2)
4
π
from (1) & (2) φ1 − φ 2 = θ + −θ
4
π
∴ angle between tw o curves is
4
(5) Prove that the curves r = a (1 + cos θ ) & r = b(1 − cos θ ) intersect at right angles.
Solution : Consider r = a (1 + cos θ )

dr
= − a sinθ
dθ
dθ r a (1 + cos θ ) (1 + cos θ )
∴ tanφ1 = r = = =
dr dr − a sinθ − sinθ (1)
d θ
dr
Consider r = b(1 − cos θ ), = b sinθ
dθ
dθ r b(1 − cos θ ) (1 − cos θ )

tanφ 2 = r = = =
dr dr b sinθ sinθ (2)
dθ
from (1) & (2)
(1 + cos θ ) (1 − cos θ ) 1 − cos 2 θ sin 2 θ

tanφ1 tanφ 2 = × = = = −1
− sinθ sinθ − sin 2 θ − sin 2 θ
∴ the two curves intersect orthogonally.
2a
(6) Find the pedal equation of = 1 + cos θ
r
2a
Solution : = 1 + cos θ
r
differentiating w.r.t. θ
2a dr
− = − sinθ
r 2 dθ
1 dr sinθ
ie = (1)
r 2 dθ 2a
2 2
1 1 1  dr  1  1 dr  1 sin 2 θ
Now = +   = 2 + 2  = 2+ using (1)
p2 r 2 r 4  dθ  r  r dθ  r 4a 2
  2a  2  1
=
1
+
1
[1 − cos θ ]= r1 + 4a1
2
1 − 
1  4a 2 4a 
− 1  = 2 + 2 1 − 2 − 1 + 
r2 4a 2   r   r
2 2
4a  r r 
1 1 1  − 4a 2 4a  1 1 1 1
ie = + 2 
+ = 2 − 2 + =
p2 r2 4a  r 2 r  r r ar ar
∴ p 2 = ar which is the required pedal equation.
Exercise
 3θ 
1. Find the length of the perpendicular from the pole on the tangent to the curve. r = a (1 − cosθ )  Ans : 2a sin 
 2
2. For the curve r 2 = a 2 sin 2θ show that ψ = 3θ .
π 
3. Find the angle of intersection of the curves r = 2 sinθ , r = 2 cos θ Answer :  
2
4. Show that the curves r = a (1 + sinθ ) & r = a (1 − sinθ ) intersect orthogonally.
5. Find the pedal equation of the curve r m = a m cos mθ Answer : pa m = r m +1

6. Find the pedal equation of r = aθ Answer : p 2 (r 2 + a 2 ) = r 4
Indeterminate Forms
f ( x) 0 ∞
While evaluating lim or lim[ f ( x) − g ( x) ] or lim f ( x) g ( x ) when it takes the forms , , ∞ − ∞, 1∞ , ∞°, 0° they
x→a g ( x) x→a x→a 0 ∞
are called Indeterminate forms and to evaluate such forms the following rule known as L' Hospital's Rule is used.
L' Hospital's Rule
f ( x) 0 ∞ f ( x) f ′( x) 0 ∞
If lim is of the form or then lim = lim again if this is of the form or then
x→a g ( x) 0 ∞ x → a g ( x) x → a g ′( x ) 0 ∞
f ( x) f ′′( x) 0 ∞
lim = lim whenever it is of the or This rule can be applied.
x→a g ( x) x → a g ′′( x) 0 ∞
To evaluate lim[ f ( x) − g ( x)] when it is of the form ∞ − ∞, then

x→a
1 1
−
g ( x) f ( x)
Consider lim [ f ( x) − g ( x)] = lim
0
which is of the form & hence L' Hospital' s Rule can be applied.
x→a x→a 1 0
g ( x) f ( x)
Consider lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = y (say)
x →a
log f ( x)
then log y = lim log f ( x) g ( x ) = lim g ( x) log f ( x) = lim
x →a x →a x →a 1
g ( x)
0 ∞
which is of the form or and hence L' Hospital' s rule can be applied.
0 ∞
Examples
log x
(1) Evaluate lim
x →1 x 2 − 3x + 2
log x 0
Solution : lim this is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
x →1 x − 3x + 2
2
0
1
1
= lim x = = −1
x →1 2 x − 3 2−3
2 sin x − sin 2 x
(2) Evaluate lim
x →0 x3
2 sin x − sin 2 x 0
Solution : lim This is of the form ∴ applying L' Hospital' s rule
x →0 x3 0
2 cos x − 2 cos 2 x 0
= lim again it is of the form ∴ applying L' Hospital' s rule again
x →0 3x 2 0
− 2 sin x + 4 sin 2 x  2 sin x 4 sin 2 x  2 4 sinθ

= lim = lim − ⋅ +  = − × 1 + × 1 Q lim =1
x →0 6x x →0  6 x 3 2x  6 3 θ →0 θ
1 4
= − + =1
3 3
tan x − x
(3 ) Evaluate lim
x→0 x 2 tan x
tan x − x tan x − x x tan x − x x
Solution : lim = lim × = lim Q lim =1
x →0 x 2 tan x x →0 x3 tan x x → 0 x 3 x → 0 tan x
0
This is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
0
sec 2 x − 1 0 ∴ using the rule again

= lim 2
=
x →0 3x 0
2 sec x ⋅ sec x tan x 2 sec 2 x tan x 2 1

= lim = lim × = ×1 =
x →0 6x x→0 6 x 6 3
1 1 
(4) Evaluate lim  − x 
x→0 x e − 1
Solution : This is of the form ∞ − ∞
1 1  (e x − 1) − x 0
∴ lim  − x  = lim which is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
x →0  x e − 1 x → 0 (e − 1) x
x
0
ex −1
= lim
x →0 e x
− 1 + xe x
0
which is again of the form ∴ using the rule again
0
ex 1 1
= lim = =
x→0 e x + xe + e x x
1+ 0 +1 2
 x 1 
(5) Evaluate lim − 
x →1  x − 1 log x 

Solution : This of the form ∞ − ∞
x −1
 x log x −
1  x
∴ lim −  = lim
x →1  x − 1 log x 
 x →1  x − 1
log x  
 x 
0
This is of the form ∴ using L' Hospital' s rule
0
1 1
−
x x2 x −1 0
= lim = lim is form again applying the L' Hospital' s rule
x →1  1  x − 1 1 x →1 log x + x − 1 0
log x ×  2  + ×
x  x x
1 1
= lim =
x →1 1
+1 2
x
( 6) Evaluate lim (tan x) cot x

π
x→
2
Solution : This is of the form ∞ 0

Let y = lim (tan x) cot x
π
x→
2
log tan x
log y = lim log(tan x) cot x = lim cot x log tan x = lim using L' Hospital' s rule
x→
π
x→
π
x→
π tan x
2 2 2
1
⋅ sec 2 x
= lim tan x = lim
1
= lim cot x = 0
x → tan x
π sec x2 π π
x→ x→
2 2 2
∴ y = e0 = 1
1
 sin x  x
( 7) Evaluate lim  
x →0  x 
Solution : This is of the form 1∞

1
 sin x  x
Let y = lim  
x →0  x 
 sin x 
log  
1  sin x   x 
log y = lim log   = lim
x →0 x  x  x →0 x
0
This is of the form ∴ applying the L' Hospital' s rule
0
x x cos x − sin x
×
sin x x2 x x cos x − sin x x cos x − sin x
= lim = lim × = 1 × lim
x →0 1 x →0 sin x x 2 x → 0 x2
0
This is of the form ∴ again applying the L' Hospital' s rule
0
cos x − x sin x − cos x − x sin x − sin x
= lim = lim = lim =0
x →0 2x x → 0 2x x →0 2
ie log y = 0 ∴ y = 1
a sin x − sin 2 x
(8) If lim is finite, find the value of a and the limit.
x →0 tan3 x
0
Solution : The given limit is of the form ∴ applying the L' Hospital' s rule
0
a cos x − 2 cos 2 x
= lim
x →0 3 tan2 x ⋅ sec 2 x
0
limit exists if this is of the form
0
∴ a cos x − 2 cos 2 x = 0 for x = 0 ∴ a = 2
2 cos x − 2 cos 2 x x2 1 3 cos x − 2 cos 2 x 0

= lim × × = lim × 1 × 1 is of form
x →0 3x 2
tan x2
sec x
2 x →0 3x 2
0
∴ using L' Hospital' s rule

−2 sin x + 4 sin 2 x −2 sin x 4 sin 2 x 2 4 1 4
= lim = lim + × = − + = − + =1
x →0 6x x →0 6x 3 2x 6 3 3 3
∴ a = 2 and the limit is 1.
Exercise
Evaluate the following
cosh x − cos x e x − e sin x
(1) lim ( 2) lim
x →0 x sin x x →0 x − sin x
e x − sin x − 1 xe x − log(1 + x)
(3) lim ( 4) lim
x →0 log(1 + x) x →0 x2
 1 1   1 1
(5) lim  2 −  ( 6) lim  − 
x →0 x sin 2 x  x →0  sin x
x
1 1
(7) lim(cos x) x2 (8) lim( x) 1− x
x →0 x →1
1
1
 ax + bx + cx x
(9) lim(cot x) log x
(10) lim  
x →0 x →0  3 
 
3 1 1 1 1 1
Answers : (1) 1 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) (5) − (6) 0 (7) (8) (9) (10) ( abc) 3
2 3 e e e
Partial Derivatives
A function of two independent variables and a dependent variable is denoted as z = f ( x, y ) which is explicit function where
x & y are independent variables and z a dependent variable. Implicit function is denoted by φ ( x, y, z ) = C
f ( x + δx, y ) − f ( x, y ) ∂z ∂f
If lim exists then it is called Partial derivative of z or f w.r.t. x and denoted by or
δ x →0 δx ∂x ∂x
f ( x, y + δy ) − f ( x, y ) ∂z ∂f
If lim exists then it is called Partial derivative of z or f w.r.t. y and denoted by or
δy →0 δy ∂y ∂y
∂z ∂z
while obtaining the derivative differentiate the given function w .r.t. x treating y as a constant and while finding
∂x ∂y
differentiate the given function with respect to y, treating x as a constant.
∂z ∂z
Eg. (1) If z = x 2 + xy − y 2 then = 2x + y + 0 = 2x + y & = x − 2y
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
( 2) If z = x 2 y − x sin xy then = 2 xy − x cos xy ⋅ y − sin xy & = x 2 − x cos xy ⋅ x = x 2 (1 − cos xy)
∂x ∂y
 2 xy  ∂ ( x 2 − y 2 ) 2 y − 2 xy ⋅ 2 x
(3) If z = tan−1  2  then z = 1
×
x −y
2 
 ∂x
1+
4x2 y 2 (x 2
− y2 ) 2
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
=
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
×
2x2 y − 2 y3 − 4x2 y
=
− 2 y3 − 2x2 y
=
− 2 y( y 2 + x 2 )
=
− 2y
(x 2
−y 2 2
) + 4x y 2 2
(x 2
−y 2 2
) (x 2
+y )
2 2
(x 2
+y )
2 2 x + y2
2
∂z 1 ( x 2 − y 2 )(2 x) − 2 xy (−2 y )
& = ×
∂y
1+
4x y 2 2
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
=
(x 2
− y2 ) 2
×
2 x 3 y − 2 xy 2 + 4 xy 2
=
2 x 3 + 2 xy 2
=
2 x( x 2 + y 2 )
=
2x
(x 2
−y 2 2
) + 4x y 2 2
(x 2
−y 2 2
) (x 2
+y )
2 2
(x 2
+y )
2 2 x + y2
2
Successive derivatives
∂z ∂z
For the function z = f ( x, y ) & are first order partial derivatives, the second order partial derivatives are
∂x ∂y
∂  ∂z  ∂  ∂z  ∂  ∂z  ∂  ∂z  ∂2z ∂2z ∂2z ∂2z ∂2z ∂2z

 ,  ,  ,   which are denoted as , , , but in general = .
∂x  ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y 2 ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2z ∂2z ∂2z ∂2z

In example (1) = 2, = −2, =1 & =1
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2z ∂2z
In example (2) = 2 x + x 2 y sin xy − x cos xy − x cos xy & = 2 x + x 2 y sin xy − 2 x cos xy
∂y∂x ∂x∂y
∂2z ∂2z
∴ =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2z ∂  − 2y  ( x 2 + y 2 )(−2) + 2 y ⋅ 2 y − 2 x 2 − 2 y 2 + 4 y 2 − 2( x 2 − y 2 )
=  = = =
( ) ( ) ( )
In example (3)
∂y∂x ∂y  x 2 + y 2 
 x2 + y2
2
x2 + y2
2
x2 + y2
2
∂2z ∂  2x  ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 − 2 x ⋅ 2 x 2 y 2 − 2 x 2 − 2( x 2 − y 2 )
=  2 = = =
( ) ( ) ( )
and 
∂x∂y ∂x  x + y 2  x2 + y2
2
x2 + y2
2
x2 + y 2
2
∂2z ∂2z
Thus in general, always =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
Exercise
∂z ∂z ∂2z ∂2z
(1) Find , for z = log( x 2 + y 2 ) and show that =
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂2z ∂2z
( 2) If x = f ( x + ct ) + φ ( x − ct ) show that = c2 where c is a constant.
∂t 2 ∂x 2
∂z ∂z
(3) If z = e ax +by f (ax − by ) then show that b +a = 2abz
∂x ∂y
2
x2 + y2  ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
( 4) If u = then show that  −  = 41 − − 
x+ y  ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
 y ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
(5) If u = sin −1   then show that = .
x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
dy
Given = f ( x), the process of finding y is called 'Integration' and the resulting function is called 'Integral'. If g (x) is
dx
the integral then ∫ f ( x)dx = g ( x) is the notation used to represent the process.
In the above notation f (x) is called 'Integrand' and further
d
[g ( x)] = f ( x).
dx
But
d
[g ( x) + c] = g ′( x) when c is a constant ∴ ∫ f ( x)dx = g ( x) + c
dx
Thus integral of a function is not unique and two integrals always differ by a constant.
Properties
(1) ∫ [ f ( x) ± φ ( x)]dx = ∫ f ( x)dx ± ∫ ϕ ( x)dx

( 2) ∫ Kf ( x)dx = K ∫ f ( x)dx where K is a constant
(3) ∫ 0dx = c (a constant)
Standard Integrals
x n+1 d  x n +1 
1. ∫ x n dx =
n +1
+ c (n ≠ − 1) Q 

+ c = xn
dx  n + 1 
∫ x dx = log
1 d 1
2. e x+c Q (log x + c) =
dx x
ax d  ax 
3. ∫ a x dx = +c Q  + c  = a x in particular ∫ e dx = e +c
x x
log a 
dx  log a 

4. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c
5. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
6. ∫ sec x tanx dx = sec x + 1
7. ∫ cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + c
8. ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + c
9. ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + c
10. ∫ sech x tanhx dx = −sech x + c
102 KSOU Integral Calculus
11. ∫ cosech x coth x dx = −cosesh x + c

∫ 1+ x
1
12. 2
dx = tan−1 x + c or − cot −1 x + c
∫
1
13. dx = sin −1 x + c or − cos −1 x + c
1− x 2
∫
1
14. dx = sinh−1 x + c
1+ x 2
∫
1
15. dx = cosh −1 x + c
x −12
∫x
1
16. dx = sec −1 x + c or − cosec −1 x + c
x −12
∫x
1
17. dx = −sech −1 x + c
1− x 2
∫x
1
18. dx = −cosech −1 x + c
1+ x 2
Methods of Integration
There are two methods (1) Integration by substitution & (2) Integration by parts.
1. Integration by substitution
∫ f ( x) dx
dx
Consider put x = φ (t ) then = φ ′(t ) ie dx = φ ′(t ) dt
dt
∴ ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f [φ (t )]φ ′(t ) dt
now for the new integrand, we can use the standard forms, ie. we have to make a proper substitution so that the given
integrand reduced to a standard one.
Examples
sin x
1. ∫ tan x dx = ∫ cos x dx
dt
put cos x = t , then − sin x = ie sin x dx = −dt
dx
∫ tan x dx = ∫ − t
dt
∴ = − log t = − log cos x = log sec x + c
tan x sec x
or ∫ tan x dx = ∫ sec x
dx
put sec x = t , differentiating w.r.t. x
dt
sec x tan x = ∴ sec x tan x dx = dt
dx
∫ tan x dx = ∫ t
dt
∴ = log t = log sec x + c
cos x
2. ∫ cot x dx = ∫ sin x dx
dt
put sin x = t , differentiating w.r.t. x cos x = ie cos x dx = dt
dx
∫ cot x dx = ∫ t
dt
∴ = log t = log sin x + c
3. ∫ tanhx dx = log cosh x + c

4. ∫ coth x dx = log sinh x + c
5. ∫ sec x dx = log(sec x + tanx) + c
6. ∫ cosec x dx = log(cosec x − cot x) + c
f ′( x) [ f ( x)]n+1 + c(n ≠ −1)
∫ [ f ( x) ]
n
In general ∫ f ( x)
dx = log f ( x ) + c also f ′( x) dx =
n +1
2. Integration by parts
d dv du
If u & v are functions of x, we know that, (uv) = u +v
dx dx dx
∴ By definition of Integration
 dv du 
∫ ∫ ∫
dv du
uv =  u + v  dx = u dx + v dx using property (1)
 dx dx  dx dx
∫ u dx dx = uv − ∫ v dx dx
dv du
∴
The result can be used as the standard result. Out of the two functions of the product, one has to be taken as u & another
dv
then the RHS after evaluation gives the integral or if both functions have taken as u & v then the result is as follows
dx
 du 
∫ ∫ ∫
uv dx = u v dx −  ⋅ v dx  dx
 dx  ∫
any one form can be used depending on convenience. The first one can also be written as ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ u′v dx
Examples
1. ∫ xe dx put u = v, v′ = e x , u ′ = 1, v = e x
x
∴ ∫ xe ∫ ∫
dx = uv − u ′v dx = xe x − 1 ⋅ e x dx = xe x − e x + c
x
2. ∫ x sin x dx = x ∫ sin x du − ∫1 ⋅ ∫ sin x dx = − x cos x − ∫ − cos x dx = − x cos x + ∫ cos x dx = − x cos x + sin x + c

∫ log x dx
1
3. put u = log x, v′ = 1, u ′ = , v=x
x
∴ ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ u′v dx
∫ log x dx = x log x − ∫ x ⋅ x dx = x log x − ∫1 ⋅ dx = x log x − x + c
1
ie
∫ sin
−1 1
4. x dx put u = sin −1 x, v′ = 1, u ′ = , v=x
1 − x2
∫ sin ∫
−1 1
∴ x dx = x sin −1 x − x dx
1 − x2
−x
to evaluate ∫ 1− x 2
dx put 1 − x 2 = t 2 differentiating w.r.t. x
− 2 x dx = 2t dt ⇒ − x dx = t dt
− x dx
∫ ∫ ∫
t dt
∴ = = 1 ⋅ dt = t = 1 − x 2
1− x 2
t 2
∫ sin
−1
∴ x dx = x sin −1 x − 1 − x 2 + c
Special Types of Integrals

Type I
∫a ∫x ∫a ∫ Ax
dx dx dx dx
(1) , ( 2) , (3) & ( 4)
2
+ x2 2
− a2 2
− x2 2
+ Bx + C
to evaluate (1) put x = at , dx = a dt
∫a ∫a ∫
dx a dt 1 dt 1 1 x
∴ = = = tan−1 t = tan−1 + c
2
+ x2 2
+a t2 2
a 1+ t 2
a a a
to evaluate (2) & (3) use partial fractions
1 1 A B
= = + (Say)
x −a
2 2
( x + a )( x − a ) x + a x − a
multiply throughout by x 2 − a 2
1 = A( x − a) + B( x + a)
1
put x = a, 1 = 0 + B ⋅ 2a ∴ B =
2a
−1
put x = −a, 1 = A(−2a) + 0 ∴ A =
2a
−1 1
1 2 a
∴ 2 = + a
2
x − a2 x + a x − a
x−a
∫x
1 1
∫ x + a + 2a ∫ x − a = − 2a log( x + a) + 2a log( x − a) = 2a log x + a
dx 1 dx 1 1 1
∴ dx = −
2
−a 2
2a
x−a
∫x
dx 1
∴ = log +c
2
− a2 2a x+a
1 1 A B
next, = = + (Say)
x −a
2 2
( a + x)(a − x) a + x a − x
multiplying throughout by a 2 − x 2 , then

1 = A(a − x) + B(a + x)
1
put x = a, 1 = 0 + B (2a ) ⇒ B =
2a
1
put x = −a, A( 2a ) + 0 ⇒ A =
2a
1 1
1
∴ 2 = 2a + 2a
a − x2 a + x a − x
a+x
∫a
1 1
∫ a + x dx + 2a ∫ a − x dx = 2a log(a + x) − 2a log(a − x) = 2a log a − x 
1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ dx =
2
−x 2
2a
a+x
∫a
1 1
∴ dx = log +c
−x a−x
2 2
2a
∫ Ax
dx
to evaluate (4) 2
+ Bx + c
∫x ∫ ∫
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
G.I. = = 2
= 2
A B C A  B  2 A  B  B 2 − 4 AC
2
+ x+  x +  −
B
+
C
 x +  −
A A  2A  4 A2 A  2A  4 A2
This integral will take any one of (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
∫ 3x
dx
(1) Evaluate 2
− 2x + 4
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution : ∫ 3x 2
− 2x + 4
=
3 ∫x 2 2
− x+
=
4 3  1
2∫ =
4 4 3  1
2
− 4 + 12
∫
3 3 x−  − + x −  +
 3 9 3  3 9
1
x−
3 = 1 tan−1  3 x − 1  + c
∫ ∫
1 dx 1 dx 1 1
= 2
= 2
= × tan−1  
3  8 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2  2 2 
  +  x − 1    +  x − 1 
 3   3  3   3 3 3
   
∫x
dx
( 2) Evaluate 2
− 10 x + 21
x −5−2 1 x−7
∫x ∫ ( x − 5) ∫ ( x − 5)
dx dx dx 1
Solution : = = = log = log +c
2
− 10 x + 21 2
− 25 + 21 2
−2 2
2× 2 x −5+ 2 4 x −3
dx
(3) Evaluate ∫ 6 − 4x − 2x 2
∫ 6 − 4x − 2x ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution : = = =
2
2 3 − ( x 2 + 2 x) 2 3 − ( x + 1) 2 + 1 2 2 2 − ( x + 1) 2
1 1 2 + ( x + 1) 1  3 + x 
= × log = log +c
2 2× 2 2 − ( x + 1) 8  1 − x 
Type II
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx dx dx dx
(1) , ( 2) , (3) , (4)
a2 − x2 a2 + x2 x2 − a2 Ax 2 + Bx + C
∫
dx
to evaluate put x = a sinθ , dx = a cosθ dθ
a − x2
2
dx a cosθ dθ a cosθ dθ x
∴ ∫ a2 − x2
= ∫ a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ
= ∫ a cosθ ∫
= 1 ⋅ dθ = θ = sin−1
a
∫
dx x
∴ = sin −1 +c
a2 − x2 a
∫
dx
to evaluate put x = a sinhθ , dx = a coshθ dθ
a + x2
2
dx a coshθ dθ a coshθ dθ x
∴ ∫ a +x2 2
= ∫ a + a sinh θ
2 2 2
= ∫ a coshθ ∫
= 1 ⋅ dθ = θ = sinh−1
a
∫
dx x
∴ = sinh−1 +c
a2 + x2 a
∫
dx
to evaluate put x = a coshθ , dx = a sinhθ dθ
x − a2
2
∫
dx x
∴ = cosh−1 +c
x −a2 2 a
dx a sinhθ dθ a sinhθ dθ x
∴ ∫ x2 − a2
= ∫ a 2 cosh2 θ − a 2
= ∫ a sinhθ ∫
= 1 ⋅ dθ = θ = cosh−1
a
∫
dx
to evaluate
Ax + Bx + C
2
A∫ A∫ A∫
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
G.I. = = =
B C 2 2
x2 + x+  B  B2 C  B  B 2 − 4 AC
A A x+  − + x +  −
 2 A  4A 2
A  2A  4 A2
This will reduce to any one of (1), (2) & (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
∫
dx
(1) Evaluate
2x − 5x2
1
x−
∫ ∫ ∫
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1 5 = 1 × sin −1 (5 x − 1) + c
Solution : = = = sin −1
1 2 5  2  5 2 2 5 1 5
x − x2 −  x2 − x  1  1
  −x−  5
5 5  5    
5 5
∫
dx
(2) Evaluate
x − 2x + 5
2
x −1
∫
dx
∫
dx
∫
dx
Solution : = = = sinh−1 +c
x2 − 2x + 5 ( x − 1) 2 + 2 2 2 2 + ( x − 1) 2 2
∫
dx
(3) Evaluate
4 x 2 − 12 x + 8
1 dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution : G.I. =
4 ∫ x − 3x + 2
2
=
2 ∫  3 9
2
=
2 ∫ 
2
3  9−8
x −  − +2 x−  −
 2 4  2 4
3
x−
∫
1 dx 1 2 = 1 cosh −1 ( 2 x − 3) + c
= = cosh −1
2 2 2 2 1 2
 3 1
x −  −  2
 2 2
Type III
px + q px + q
∫ Ax 2
+ Bx + C
dx and ∫ Ax 2 + Bx + C
to evaluate put px + q = l (derivative of Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m = l (2 Ax + B) + m
where l & m are the constants to be found out by equating the co-efficients of corresponding terms on both sides. ie. to
solve for m & n from the equations
2 Al = p and lB + m = q
px + q 2 Ax + B
∫ Ax ∫ Ax ∫ ∫
dx dx
then dx = l dx + m = l ⋅ log( Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m
2
+ Bx + c 2
+ Bx + C Ax 2 + Bx + C Ax 2 + Bx + C
the second integral in RHS is Type I and hence can be evaluated.
px + q px + q
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx dl
dx = l dx + m = 2l Ax 2 + Bx + C + m
Ax + Bx + C
2
Ax + Bx + C
2
Ax + Bx + C
2
Ax + Bx + C
2
the second integral in RHS is Type II and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
2x + 3
(1) Evaluate ∫ 3x 2
− 4x + 5
dx
Solution : Put 2 x + 3 = l (6 x − 4) + m = 6lx − 4l + m

1 4 13
∴ 6l = 2 ⇒ l = , − 4l + m = 3 ie m = 3 + =
3 3 3
2x + 3 1 6x − 4 13 dx 1 13 dx
∴ ∫ 3x 2
− 4x + 5
dx = ∫
3 3x 2 − 4 x + 5
dx + ∫ = log(3x 2 − 4 x + 5) +
3 3x 2 − 4 x + 5 3 9 ∫x 2 4
− x+
5
3 3
∫ ∫
1 13 dx 1 13 dx
= log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + 2
= log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + 2
3 9  2 4 5 3 9 2   11 
2
x−  − + 
 x−  +
 3 9 3  3   3 
 
 x− 2 
1 13
= log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + ×
3
tan−1 3  = 1 log(3 x 2 − 4 x + 5) + 13 tan−1 3 x − 2  + c
  
3 9 11 11  3 3 11  11 
 
 3 
5x − 7
( 2) Evaluate ∫ 3x − x 2 − 2
dx
Solution : Put 5 x − 7 = l (3 − 2 x) + m = −2lx + 3l + m

5 15 1
∴ − 2l = 5 ⇒ l = − & 3l + m = −7 ⇒ m = −7 − 3l = −7 + =
2 2 2
5x − 7 3 − 2x
∫ ∫ ∫
5 1 dx
∴ dx = − dx +
3x − x − 2 2 2 3x − x − 2
2 2 − 2 − ( x 2 − 3x)
1
∫ ∫
5 1 dx dx
= − ⋅ 2 3x − x 2 − 2 + = −5 3 x − x 2 − 2 +
2 2 2 2 2 2
 3 9 1  3
−2−x−  +   −x− 
 2 4 2  2
 3
1  x− 
= −5 3 x − x 2 − 2 + × sin−1 2  = −5 3x − x 2 − 2 + 1 sin −1 (2 x − 3) + c
2  1  2
 
 2 
Type IV
∫ a cos x + b sin x + c
dx
x 1 x dt
to evalute put tan = t then differentiating w.r.t. x sec 2 =
2 2 2 dx
2dt 2dt 2dt 2 x 2 x 1 t2 1− t2

ie dx = = = & cos x = cos − sin = − =
sec 2
x
1 + tan2
x 1+ t2 2 2 1+ t2 1+ t2 1+ t2
2 2
x x t 1 2t
& sin x = 2 sin cos = 2 × =
2 2 1+ t 2
1+ t 2 +
1 t2
x 2dt 1− t2 2t
∴ when tan = t , dx = , cos x = & sin x =
2 1+ t2 1+ t2 1+ t2
2dt
(1 + t 2 )
∫ a cos x + b sin x + c = ∫ ∫ a(1 − t ∫
dx 2dt 2dt
∴ = =
(1 − t 2 ) 2t 2
) + 2bt + c(1 + t 2 ) (c − a )t 2 + 2bt + a + c
a +b +c
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
which is Type I and hence can be evaluated.
Examples
∫ 2 cos x − 3 sin x + 5
dx
(1) Evaluate
x 2dt 1− t2 2t
Solution : Put tan = t , then dx = , cos x = & sin x =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
2dt
1+ t2 2
∫ ∫ 2(1 − t ∫ 3t ∫
2dt 2dt dt
G.I. = = = =
2(1 − t 2 ) 3 × 2t 2
) − 6t + 5(1 + t 2 ) 2
− 6t + 7 3 t − 2t +
2 7
− +5
1+ t2 1+ t2 3
 
 
−1  −  = 1 tan−1 3 (t − 1)
∫ ∫
2 dt 2 dt 2 1 t 1
= = = × tan
3 (t − 1) 2 − 1 + 7 3  2 
2
3 2  2  3 2
(t − 1) 2 +    
3
 3
3  3 
3 x 
∫ 2 cos x − 3 sin x + 5 =
dx 1
∴ tan−1  tan − 1 + c
3 2  2 
∫ 3 − 5 cos x
dx
(2) Evaluate
x 2dt 1− t2
Solution : Put tan = t , then dx = & cos x =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t2
2dt
(1 + t 2 )
∫ 3 − 5 cos x = ∫ ∫ 3(1 + t ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 2dt 2dt 2 dt 1 dt
∴ = = = =
5(1 − t 2 ) 2
) − 5(1 − t 2 ) 8t 2
− 2 8 t −
2 2 4 2 1
2
3− t −  
1+ t2 8 2
1 x 1
t− tan −
1 1 1
2 = log 2 2
= × log
4 2× 1 t+
1 4 x 1
tan +
2 2 2 2
x
2 tan − 1
∫
dx 1 2
∴ = log +c
3 − 5 cos x 4 x
2 tan + 1
2
∫ 3 + 2 sin x
dx
(3) Evaluate
x 2dt 2t
Solution : Put tan = t , then dx = and sin x =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t2
2dt
1+ t2 =
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 2dt 2 dt 2 dt
∴ = = =
3 + 2 sin x 3+
4t 3(1 + t ) + 4t
2
3 4
1+ t2 + t 3  2
2
4
 t +  − +1
1+ t 2
3  3 9
2
t+
3 = 2 tan−1 3t + 2
∫
2 dt 2 1
= 2
= × tan−1
3 2  5  3
2 5 5 5 5
 t +  + 
 3  3  3 3
 x 
 3 tan + 2 
∫
dx 2 −1  2 +c
∴ = tan
3 + 2 sin x 5  5 
 
 
Type V
a cos x + b sin x
∫ c sin x + e cos x dx
Solution : to evaluate put a cos x + b sin x = l (Denominator) + m(derivative of denominator)
ie a cos x + b sin x = l (c sin x + e cos x) + m(c cos x − e sin x)
where l & m are constants to be foundout by equating the co - efficients of sin x & cos x separately.
ie from the equations lc − me = b & le + mc = a
a cos x + b sin x c sin x + e cos x c cos x − e sin x
then ∫ c sin x + e cos x dx = l ∫ c sin x + e cos x dx + m∫ c sin x + e cos x dx = lx + m log(c sin x + e cos x) + c
Examples
3 cos x − 2 sin x
Evaluate ∫ 4 sin x + cos x dx
Solution : Put 3 cos x − 2 sin x = l (4 sin x + cos x) + m(4 cos x − sin x)
∴ 4l − m = −2 (1)
l + 4m = 3 (2)
(1) × 4 16l − 4m = −8
(2) × 1 l + 4m = 3
5
adding 17l = −5 ⇒ l = −
17
20 − 20 + 34 14
from (1), m = 4l + 2 = − +2= =
17 17 17
3 cos x − 2 sin x 5 4 sin x + cos x 14 4 cos x − sin x 5 14
∴ ∫ 4 sin x + cos x dx = − 17 ∫ 4 sin x + cos x dx + 17 ∫ 4 sin x + cos x = − 17 ∫1⋅ dx + 17 log(4 sin x + cos x)
5 14
=− x + log(4 sin x + cos x) + c
17 17
Type VI
∫ f ( x) e dx where f ( x) = φ ( x) + φ ′( x)
x
∫ f ( x) e ∫
dx = φ ( x) e x dx + φ ′( x) e x dx ∫
x
Solution : (1)
∫ φ ( x) e
x
Consider dx
put u = φ ( x), v′ = e x , u′ = φ ( x), v = e x
∫
∴ φ ( x) e x dx = φ ( x) e x − φ ′( x) e x dx ∫
substituting this in (1), we have
∫ f ( x) e ∫ ∫
dx = φ ( x) e x − φ ′( x) e x dx + φ ′( x) e x dx = φ ( x) e x + c
x
Examples
xe x
(1) Evaluate ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx
xe x (1 + x − 1) e x (1 + x) e x ex ex ex
Solution : ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx = ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx = ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx − ∫ (1 + x) 2
dx = ∫ 1+ x
dx −∫(1 + x) 2
dx (1)
ex
Consider ∫ (1 + x)
dx
1 −1
put u = , v′ = e x , u ′ = , v = ex
1+ x (1 + x) 2
ex ex − ex ex ex
∴ ∫ (1 + x)
dx =
(1 + x)
−
(1 + x) 2
dx =
(1 + x)∫+
(1 + x) 2
dx ∫
substituting in (1)
xe 2 ex ex ex ex
∫ (1 + x) 2
dx =
(1 + x)
+
(1 + x) 2 ∫
dx −
(1 + x) 2
dx = ∫
1+ x
+c
x − sin x
( 2) Evaluate ∫ 1 − cos x dx
x x
2 sin cos
x − sin x sin x
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
x x 2 2 dx
Solution : dx = dx − dx = dx −
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 − cos x 2 sin 2 x
2 sin 2 x
2 2
∫ 2 x cosec ∫
1 x x
= 2
dx − cot dx (1)
2 2
∫ 2 x cosec x dx
1 2
Consider
1 x x
put u = x, v′ = cosec 2 , u ′ = 1, v = − cot
2 2 2
∫ 2 x cosec ∫
1 x x x
2
dx = − x cot + cot dx
2 2 2
substituting in (1)
x − sin x x x x x
∫ 1 − cos x dx = − x cot 2 + ∫ cot 2 dx − ∫ cot 2 dx = − x cot 2 + c
Other examples
sin x cos x
(1) Evaluate ∫ 1 + sin 4
x
dx
Solution : Put sin2 x = t , then 2 sin x cos x dx = dt
1
dt
sin x cos x
∫ ∫
1 1
∴ dx = 2 = tan−1 t = tan−1 (sin 2 x) + c
1 + sin 4 x 1+ t2 2 2
x2 + 1
(2) Evaluate ∫ ( x + 1)( x 2 + 2)
dx
x2 + 1 A Bx + C
Solution : Let = + 2
( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
2
multiplying throughout by ( x + 1)( x 2 + 2)
then x 2 + 1 = A( x 2 + 2) + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
2
put x = −1, 2 = A(1 + 2) + 0 ⇒ A =
3
4 1
put x = 0, 1 = 2 A + C ⇒ C = 1 − =−
3 3
Equating co - efficient of x 2 on both sides
2 1
A + B = 1⇒ B =1− A = 1− =
3 3
2 1 1
x−
x2 + 1
∴ = 3 +3 3
( x + 1)( x 2 + 2) x + 1 x 2 + 2
x2 + 1 x −1
∫ ∫ x +1 + 3 ∫ x ∫ x +1 + 6 ∫ x ∫
2 dx 1 2 dx 1 2x 1 dx
∴ dx = dx = dx −
( x + 1)( x 2 + 2) 3 2
+2 3 2
+2 3 x2 + 2
2 1 1 x
= log( x + 1) + log( x 2 + 2) − tan−1 +c
3 6 3 2 2
Type VII
(1) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx ( 2) ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx (3) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx ( 4) ∫ Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
(5) ∫ ( px + q) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
(1) To evaluate ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx put x = a sin θ , dx = a cos θ dθ
a2
∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = ∫ ∫ ∫
a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ ⋅ a cosθ dθ = a cosθ ⋅ a cosθ dθ = a 2 cos 2 θ dθ =
2 ∫
(1 + cos 2θ ) dθ
a2 a 2 sin 2θ a 2 a2 a2 a2
= θ+ × = θ+ sinθ cosθ = θ + ⋅ sinθ ⋅ 1 − sin 2 θ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a2 x a2 x x2 a2 x a2 x
= sin −1 + ⋅ 1− 2 = sin −1 + ⋅ a2 − x2
2 a 2 a a 2 a 2 a2
a2
∫
x 2 x
∴ a 2 − x 2 dx = a − x2 + sin −1 + c
2 2 a
( 2) To evaluate ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx put x = a sinhθ , then dx = a coshθ dθ
a2
∫ a 2 + x 2 dx = ∫ ∫
a 2 + a 2 sinh2 θ ⋅ a coshθ dθ = a 2 cosh2 θ dθ =
2 ∫ (1 + cosh 2θ ) dθ
a2 a2 a2 a 2 sinh 2θ a 2 a2
=
2 ∫
1 ⋅ dθ +
2 ∫ cosh 2θ dθ =
2
θ+
2
⋅
2
= θ+
2 2
× sinhθ coshθ
a2 a2 a2 x a2 x x2 a2 x x
= θ+ sinhθ 1 + sinh2 θ = sinh−1 + ⋅ 1+ 2 = sinh−1 + a2 + x2
2 2 2 a 2 a a 2 a 2
a2
∫
x 2 x
∴ a 2 + x 2 dx = a + x2 + sinh−1 + c
2 2 a
(3) To evaluate ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx put x = a coshθ , then dx = a sinh dθ
a2
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = ∫ ∫ ∫
a 2 cosh2 θ − a 2 ⋅ a sinhθ dθ = a sinhθ ⋅ a sinhθ dθ = a 2 sinh2 θ dθ =
2 ∫ (cosh 2θ − 1) dθ
a2 a2 a 2 sinh 2θ a 2 a2 a2
∫ ∫
x
= cosh 2θ dθ − 1 ⋅ dθ = ⋅ − θ= sinhθ coshθ − cosh−1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 a
a2 a2 x a2 x2 x a2 −1 x x a2 x
= cosh 2 θ − 1 coshθ − cosh −1 = 2
− 1 ⋅ − cosh = x 2
− a 2
− cosh −1
2 2 a 2 a a 2 2 2 2 a
a2
∫
x 2 x
∴ x 2 − a 2 dx = x − a2 − cosh−1 + c
2 2 a
∫ ∫
B C
( 4) To evaluate Ax 2 + Bx + C dx = A x2 + x + dx. This will take the form (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be
A A
evaluated.
(5) To evaluate ∫ ( px + q) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx
put px + q = l (derivativeof Ax 2 + Bx + C ) + m = l (2 Ax + B) + m
where l & m are constants to be found out,
then, ∫ ( px + q) ∫
Ax 2 + Bx + C dx = l ( 2 Ax + B) Ax 2 + Bx + C dx + m ∫ Ax 2 + Bx + C
Β
∫
2l 3 C
= ( Ax 2 + Bx + C ) 2 + m A x2 + x + dx
3 A A
the second integral reduces to (1), (2) or (3) and hence can be evaluated.
Type VIII
∫ ( px + q)
dx
Ax 2 + Bx + C
1 −1 1 1 
put px + q = then p dx = 2 dt & x =  − q 
t t pt 
dt
−
− dt
∫ ( px + q) ∫1 t2
∫
dx
∴ = =
Ax 2 + Bx + C A 1 
2
Β 1  A B
(1 − tq ) 2 + (t − qt 2 ) + Ct 2
2 
− q +  − q + C p 2
p
t p t  pt 
This integral reduces to any one of Type II and hence can be solved.
Type IX
∫e cos(bx + c) dx and ∫e sin(bx + c) dx

ax ax
To evaluate we have to use integration by parts.
∫
Let C = e ax cos(bx + c) dx & S = e ax sin(bx + c) dx∫
∫
Consider C = e ax cos(bx + c) dx
sin(bx + c )
put u = e ax , u ′ = ae ax , v′ = cos(bx + c), v =
b
e ax sin(bx + c) a ax
C=
b
−
b ∫
e sin(bx + c) dx
bC = e ax sin(bx + c) − aS
∴ aS + bC = e ax sin(bx + c) (1)
∫
Consider S = e ax sin(bx + c) dx
− cos(bx + c)
put u = e ax , u ′ = ae ax , v′ = sin(bx + c), v =
b
− e ax cos(bx + c) a ax
∴S=
b
+
b ∫
e cos(bx + c) dx
bS = −ea ax cos(bx + c) + aC
ie bS − aC = −e ax cos(bx + c) (2)
(1) × a a 2 S + abC = ae ax sin(bx + c)

( 2) × b b 2 S − abC = −be ax cos(bx + c )
adding (a 2 + b 2 ) S = e ax [a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)]
e ax [a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)]

∴S=
(a 2 + b 2 )
(1) × b abS + b 2C = be ax sin(bx + c)

( 2) × a abS − a 2C = −ae ax cos(bx + c)
subtracting ( a 2 + b 2 )C = e ax [b sin(bx + c) + a cos(bx + c) ]
e ax [a cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c)]

∴C=
(a 2 + b 2 )
Examples
∫e ∫ ∫ ∫
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x
(1) 2x
sin 3x cos 2 x dx = e [sin 5 x + sin x] dx = e sin 5 x dx + e sin dx
2 2 2
1 2 x (2 sin 5 x − 5 cos 5 x) 1 2 x (2 sin x − cos x)
= e + e +c
2 29 2 5
1 e 3x 1 3 x (3 cos 2 x + 2 sin 2 x)
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
1 3x 1 3x 1 3x
(2) e 3x cos 2 x dx = e (1 + cos 2 x) dx = e dx + e cos 2 x dx = × + e
2 2 2 2 3 2 9+4
e3x e3x
= + (3 cos 2 x + 2 sin 2 x) + c
6 26
Exercise
Integrate the following w.r.t. x
−1
sin −1 x 1 esin x
(1) ( 2) (3)
1 − x2 x cos (log x)
2
1 − x2
sec 2 x 3x − 2 x
( 4) (5) (6)
tan x(2 + tan x) ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 3) ( x − 1)( x 2 + 4)
x3 − x − 2 4x + 5 4x + 1
(7) (8) (9)
x2 −1 x + 22 x + 2
2
x 2 − 6 x + 18
(1 + x) x 1 1
(10) e (11) (12)
( 2 + x) 2 2 + cos x − sin x 3 + 4 cos x
2 sin x + 3 cos x 1 (1 + sin x) x

(13) (14) (15) e
4 sin x + 5 cos x 4 cos x + 9 sin 2 x
2
(1 + cos x)
1
(16) (17) 6 − 4x − 2x 2 (18) (2 x − 5) x 2 − 3 x + 2
x( x + 1)
n
1 1
(19) (20) (21) e 2 x sin 4 x sin 2 x
( x + 1) 2 x + 3x + 4
2
( x + 1) x − 1 2
(22) e 2 x cos 3x cos x (23) e3 x cos3 x (24) e 4 x sin3 x

Definite Integrals
Let f ( x) be a function defined in the interval (a, b) and ∫ f ( x) dx = g ( x) + c

The value of the integral at x = b minus the value of the integral at x = a ie [g (b) + c ] − [g ( a) + c]
b
ie g (b) − g ( a) is defined as Definite integral and denoted as ∫ f ( x) dx
a
b
ie If ∫ f ( x) dx = g ( x) then ∫ f ( x) dx = g (b) − g (a)
a
b is called upper limit and a is called lower limit.
Examples
2
∫ (x − 2 x 2 + 3) dx
3
(1) Evaluate
1
2
2  x4 x3   24 23  1 2 
1
∫
16 1 2
Solution : ( x − 2 x + 3) dx =  − 2 ×
3 2
+ 3 x  =  − 2× + 3 ⋅ 2  −  − + 3  = 4 = +6− + −3
1
 4 3 1  4 3  4 3  3 4 3
16 1 2 84 − 64 − 3 + 8 25
=7− − + = =
3 4 3 12 12
1 (sin −1 x) 2
( 2) Evaluate ∫0
1 − x2
dx
1
Solution : Put sin −1 x = t then dx = dt
1 − x2
π
when x = 0, t = sin −1 0 = 0 when x = 1, t = sin −1 1 =
2
π
1 (sin −1 π
t3  2 1  π 
3
x) 2 π3
∴ ∫ dx = ∫
2 2
t dt =  =   =
0
1 − x2 0 3  0 3 2  24
1
∫
dx
(3) Evaluate dx
−1 x 2 + 2x + 5
1
1 1  x + 1  −1  1 + 1  1 −1  − 1 + 1 
∫ ∫
dx dx 1 1
Solution : dx = = tan−1   = tan   − tan  
− x + 2x + 5
1 2 − ( x + 1) + 2
1 2 2
2  2  −1 2  2  2  2 
1 1 1π π
= tan−1 1 − tan−1 0 = −0=
2 2 24 8
π
∫
dx
( 4) Evaluate
0 4 + 3 cos x
x 2dt 1− t2
Solution : Put tan = t then dx = , cos x =
2 1+ t2 1+ t2
π
when x = 0, t = tan0 = 0 when x = π , t = tan = ∞
2
2dt
∞
π ∞
1+ t2
∞ ∞ t 
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
dx 2dt 2dt 1 −1
= = = = tan
0 +
4 3 cos x 0
4+
3(1 − t 2 ) 0 4(1 + t ) + 3(1 − t 2 )
2 0
t2 + ( 7) 2
7

7 0
(1 + t 2 )
1 1 1 π π
= tan−1 ∞ − tan−1 0 = × =
7 7 7 2 2 7
Properties of Definite Integrals

b b
1. ∫a
f ( x ) dx = ∫ a
f ( y ) dy
b a
2. ∫a
f ( x) dx = − ∫ b
f ( x) dx
b c b
3. ∫a
f ( x) dx = ∫ a
f ( x) dx + ∫ f ( x) dx
c
where a < c < b
a a b b
4. ∫0
f ( x) dx = ∫ 0
f (a − x) dx also ∫a
f ( x) dx = ∫a
f ( a + b − x ) dx
 2 ∫ af ( x ) dx
a  0
5. ∫−a
f ( x) dx = 
0
if f ( x) is an even function
 if f ( x) is an odd function
 2 ∫ af ( x ) dx
2a  0 if f ( 2a − x) = f ( x )
6. ∫0
f ( x) dx = 
0
 if f (2a − x) = − f ( x)
Examples
π
sin n x
∫
2
(1) Evaluate dx
0 cos n x + sin n x
π 
π π sin n  − x 
sin x n
2 
∫ ∫ ∫
a
∫
a
Solution : Let I = dx = f ( x) dx = f ( a − x) dx
2 2
dx using
cos x + sin n x n π  nπ 
0 n 0 0 0
cos  − x  + sin  − x 
2  2 
π
cos n x
= ∫
2
dx
0 sin n x + cos n x
π π π π π
sin n x cos n x (sin n x + cos n x) π
∴ 2I = ∫ 0
2
cos n x + sin n x
dx + ∫ 0
2
sin n x + cos n x
dx = ∫ 0
2
(cos n x + sin n x)
dx = ∫ 0
2
1 ⋅ dx = x ] 0
2
=
2
π
∴ I=
4
π x sin x
( 2) Evaluate ∫ 0 1 + sin x
dx
π x sin x π (π − x) sin(π − x) a a
Solution : Let I = ∫ 0 1 + sin x
dx = ∫ 0 1 + sin(π − x)
dx using ∫ 0
f ( x) dx = ∫0
f (a − x) dx
π (π − x) sin x
ie I = ∫0 1 + sin x
dx
π x sin x π (π − x) sin x π x sin x + (π − x) sin x π π sin x π sin x

∴ 2I = ∫ 0 1 + sin x
dx + ∫0 1 + sin x
dx = ∫
0 1 + sin x
dx = ∫0 1 + sin x
dx = π ∫
0 1 + sin x
π sin x(1 − sin x) π sin x − sin x 2 π π
=π ∫ 0 (1 + sin x)(1 − sin x)
dx = π ∫0 cos 2 x
dx = π ∫0
sec x tan x dx − π ∫ 0
tan2 x dx
 π π π 
∫ ∫ ∫ 1 dx = π [sec x − tan x + x] = π [sec π − tanπ + π ] − π [sec 0 − tan0 + 0]
π
= π  sec x tan x − sec 2 x dx + 0
 0 0 0
= π [− 1 + π ] − π [1] = π [− 2 + π ]
π
∴ I= (π − 2)
2
π
∫
3 dx
(3) Evaluate
π
6 1 + tan x
π 
π π
cos − x  dx
cos x dx 2  b b
Solution : Let I = ∫ = ∫ ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ f (a − x) dx
3 3
using
π
cos x + sin x π π  π  a a
6 6 cos − x  + sin − x 
2  2 
π
sin x dx
∴ I= ∫
3
dx
π
6 sin x + cos x
π
π  cos x dx sin x dx  π  cos x + sin x  π  3
∴ 2I = ∫ +  dx = ∫   dx =
∫ 1 ⋅ dx = x 
3 3 3
π
 π  cos x + sin x  π
6  cos x + sin x sin x + cos x  6   6 π
6
π π π
= − =
3 6 6
π
∴ I=
12
Exercise
π
sin x e π
e tan x
∫ ∫ ∫
2 4
(1) dx ( 2) log x dx (3) dx
0 1 + cos 2 x 1 0 cos 2 x
1 1 1
∫ ∫ ∫
dx
x tan−1 x dx xe − x dx
2
( 4) (5) (6)
− 12 9 − x2 0 −1
π ∞ π
∫ ∫ ∫
dx x dx
log(1 + tanθ ) dθ
2 4
( 7) (8) (9)
0 a cos x + b 2 sin 2 x
2 2 0 ( x + 1)( x 2 + 1) 0
2a f ( x) π 1 log(1 + x)
∫ ∫ ∫
2 x dx
(10) dx (11) (12) dx
0 f ( x ) + f ( 2a − x ) 0 sin x + cos x 0 (1 + x 2 )
π 1 7 π 1 2 π π
Answers : (1) , (2) 1, (3) e − 1, (4) log , (5) − , (6) − , (7) , (8) ,
4 3 5 4 2 e 2ab 4
(9)
π
8
log 2 (10) a (11)
π
2 2
log 2 + 1 ( ) (12)
π
8
log 2
Reduction formulae
π
∫ ∫
2
I. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = sin n x dx and hence to evaluate sin n x dx
0
∫
Solution : I n = sin n−1 x ⋅ sin x dx
put u = sin n−1 x & v′ = sin x, u ′ = (n − 1) sin n−2 x cos x & v = − cos x
∫
∴ I n = − sin n−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2 x cos 2 x dx = − sin n−1 cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2 x(1 − sin 2 x) dx ∫
∫ ∫
= − sin n−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2 x dx − (n − 1) sin n x dx = − sin n−1 cos x + (n − 1) I n−2 − (n − 1) I n
∴ I n + (n − 1) I n = − sin n−1 x cos x + (n − 1) I n−2
ie (1 + n − 1) I n = − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1) I n−2
− sin n−1 x cos x n − 1

ie I n = + I n −2
n n
the ultimate integral is I 0 or I1 according as n is even or odd
If n is even I 0 = 1dx = x ∫ ∫
If n is odd I1 = sin x dx = − cos x
∫
2
If I n = sin n x dx then
0
π
− sin n −1 x cos x  2
n −1 n −1
In =  + I n−2 = 0 + I n−2
n  0
n n
n −1 n −1 n − 3 n −1 n − 3 n − 5
∴ In = In−2 = × In−4 = × × I n−6
n n n−2 n n−2 n−4
in general
n −1 n − 3 1 π
 n × n − 2 × LL × 2 × 2 if n is even.

In = 
n −1 n − 3 2
 × × LL × × 1 if n is odd.
 n n−2 3
π
5 3 1 π 5π
∫
2
Eg. (1) I 6 = sin 6 x dx = × × × =
0 6 4 2 2 32
π
∫
2 4 2 8
( 2) I 5 = sin5 x dx = × ×1 =
0 5 3 15
∫ ∫
2
II. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = cos n dx and to evaluate cos n x dx
0
Solution : using integration by parts as in I we obtain
cos n −1 x sin x n − 1
In = + In
n n
π π
π  a a
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
and further if I n = cos n x dx = cos n  − x  dx using f ( x) dx = f (a − x) dx
0 0 2  0 0
∫
2
= sin n x dx which is I
0
∫
2 6 4 2 16
∴ Eg. (1) cos 7 x dx = × × ×1 =
0 7 5 3 35
π
7 5 3 1 π 35π
∫
2
( 2) cos 8 x dx = × × × × =
0 8 6 4 2 2 256
III. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = tann x dx ∫

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
Solution : I n = tann − 2 x ⋅ tan2 x dx = tann − 2 x ⋅ (sec 2 x − 1) dx = tann − 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x dx − tann − 2 x dx
tann −1 x
In = − I n − 2 which is the required formula.
n −1
IV. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = cotn x dx ∫

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
Solution : I n = cotn − 2 x ⋅ cot2 x dx = cotn − 2 x ⋅ (cosec 2 x − 1) dx = cotn − 2 x cosec 2 x dx − cotn − 2 x dx
− cotn −1 x
In = − I n−2
n −1
V. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = sec n x dx ∫

∫
Solution : I n = sec n − 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x dx
put u = sec n − 2 x & v′ = sec 2 x, u ′ = (n − 2) sec n − 3 x ⋅ sec x tan x & v = tan x
∫ ∫
∴ I n = sec n− 2 tan x − (n − 2) sec n − 2 x ⋅ tan 2 x dx = sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) sec n − 2 (sec 2 x − 1) dx
∫
= sec n − 2 x tan x − (n − 2) sec n x dx + (n − 2) sec n − 2 x dx ∫
∴ I n + (n − 2) I n = sec n − 2 x tan x + (n − 2) I n − 2
(1 + n − 2) I n = secn − 2 x tan x + (n − 2) I n − 2
sec n − 2 x tan x n − 2
∴ In = + I n − 2 which is the required reduction formula.
n −1 n −1
VI. To obtain the reduction formula for I n = cosec n x dx ∫

∫
Solution : I n = cosecn − 2 x ⋅ cosec 2 dx
put u = cosecn − 2 x & v′ = cosec2 x, u′ = −(n − 2)cosecn − 3 x ⋅ cosec x cot x & v = − cot x
∫ ∫
∴ I n = −cosec n − 2 x cot x − (n − 2)cosec n − 2 x ⋅ cot2 x dx = −cosec n − 2 x cot x − (n − 2) cosec n − 2 x(cosec 2 x − 1) dx
∫ ∫
= −cosecn − 2 x cot x − (n − 2) cosecn x dx + (n − 2) cosec n − 2 x dx = −cosec n − 2 x cot x − (n − 2) I n + (n − 2) I n − 2
ie I n + (n − 2) I n = −cosecn − 2 x cot x + (n − 2) I n − 2
ie (n − 1) I n = −cosecn − 2 x cot x + (n − 2) I n − 2
− cosec n − 2 x cot x (n − 2)
ie I n = + I n − 2 which is the required reduction formula.
(n − 1) (n − 1)
∫ ∫
2
VII. To obtain the reduction formula of I m, n = sin m x cos n x dx and hence to evaluate sin m x cos n x dx
0
∫
Solution : I m, n = sin m x cos n −1 x ⋅ cos x dx
put u = sinm x cos n −1 x & v′ = cos x, u′ = m sinm −1 x ⋅ cos n x − (n − 1) sinm +1 x ⋅ cos n − 2 x & v = sin x
∴ I m, n = sin m x cos n −1 x ⋅ sin x − ∫ (m sin )

m −1
x cos n x − (n − 1) sin m +1 cos n − 2 x sin x dx
∫ ∫
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − m sin m x cos n x dx + (n − 1) sin m + 2 x ⋅ cos n − 2 x dx
∫
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − mI m, n + (n − 1) sin m x(1 − cos 2 x) cos n − 2 x dx
∫
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − mI m, n + (n − 1) (sinm x cos n − 2 x − sin m x cos n x) dx
= sin m +1 x cos n −1 x − mI m , n + (n − 1) I m, m − 2 − (n − 1) I m , n
ie I m , n + mI m, n + ( n − 1) I m , n = sin m +1 x cos x n −1 x + (n − 1) I m , n − 2
sin m +1 x cos n −1 x (n − 1)
ie I m, n = + I m, n − 2
( m + n) m+n
π
∫
2
which is the required reduction formula, if I m, n = sin m x cos n x dx
0
π
sin m +1 x cos n −1 x  2
n −1 n −1 n −1
then I m, n =  + I m, n − 2 = 0 + I m , n − 2 ∴ I m, n = I m, n − 2
(m + n)  m+n m+n m+n
0
applying this reduction formula continuous ly, we have
 n −1 n −3 2 1
 m + n × m + n − 2 × LL × m + 3 × m + 1 if n is odd & m odd or even

 n −1 n −3 1 m −1 m − 3 2
I m, n = × × LL × × × × LL × × 1 if n is even & m is odd
m + n m + n − 2 m+2 m m−2 3
 n −1 n−3 1 m −1 m − 3 1 π
 m + n × m + n − 2 × LL × m + 2 × m × m − 2 × LL × 2 × 2 if n is even & m is even

Examples
π
∫
2 4 2 1 1
(1) I 5, 5 = sin 5 x cos 5 x dx = × × =
0 10 8 6 60
π
∫
2 4 2 1 8
( 2) I 6, 5 = sin 6 x cos 5 x dx = × × =
0 11 9 7 693
∫
2 3 1 6 4 2 48
(3) I 7, 4 = sin 7 x cos 4 x dx = × × × × ×1 =
0 11 9 7 5 3 3465
π
5 3 1 5 3 1 π 5π
∫
2
( 4) I 6, 6 = sin 6 x cos 6 x dx = × × × × × × =
0 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 2048
1 x9
(5) Evaluate ∫
0
1 − x2
dx
π
Solution : put x = sinθ , dx = cosθ dθ when x = 0, θ = 0 when x = 1, θ =
2
1 x9 π
sin 9 θ ⋅ cosθ dθ π
sin 9 θ ⋅ cosθ dθ π
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
8 6 4 2 128
dx = = = sin 9 θ dθ = × × × ×1 =
2 2 2
0
1− x 2 0
1 − sin θ 2 0 cosθ 0 9 7 5 3 315
2a x 3 dx
(6) Evaluate ∫
0
2ax − x 2
2a x 3 dx 2a x 3 dx
Solution : ∫0
2ax − x 2
= ∫
0
a 2 − ( x − a) 2
put x − a = a sinθ , dx = a cosθ dθ
π π
when x = 0, sinθ = −1 ⇒ θ = − when x = 2a, sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ =
2 2
π
( a + a sinθ ) 3 ⋅ a cosθ dθ π
a 3 (1 + sinθ ) 3 a cosθ dθ π
∴ G.I. = ∫ = ∫ = a3 ∫ (1 + sin 3 θ + 3 sinθ + 3 sin 2 θ ) dθ

2 2 2
−π 2
a − a sin θ
2 2 2 −π 2 a cosθ −π 2
 π π π π
  π π

= a3  ∫ 1 dθ + ∫ sin 3 θ dθ + 3 ∫ sinθ dθ + 3 ∫ sin 2 θ dθ  = a 3 θ ∫ +0+0+6 ∫ sin 2 θ dθ 
2 2 2 2 2 2
 −π 2 −π 2 −π 2 −π 2   −π 2 0 
π  π  1 π  3π  5π 3
= a 3  −   + 6 × ×  = a 3 π + = a
 2  
2 2 2   2  2
Exercise
∫ ( )
π π 1
∫ ∫
3
sin5 3θ dθ
6
(1) ( 2) x sin 7 x dx (3) x4 1 − x2
2
dx
0 0 0
∞ 1 2
∫ (1 + x ) ∫ ∫
dx 5
( 4) 7
(5) x 6 1 − x 2 dx ( 6) x 2
2 − x dx
0 2 2 0 0
π π π 1 − cosθ
∫ ∫ ∫ sin 2 θ dθ
2 2
(7) cot 4 x dx (8) cosec 5 x dx (9)
π
4
π
6 0 1 + cosθ
1 x7 1 x3 a x 7 dx
(10) ∫
0
1 − x4
dx (11) ∫ (1 + x )
0 2 4
dx (12) ∫0
a2 − x2
Answers : (1)
8
45
, ( 2)
16π
35
, (3)
3π
256
, ( 4)
8
15
, (5)
5π
256
, (6)
5π
8
, ( 7)
3π − 8
12
, (8)
11 3 3
4
+ log 2 + 3 , (9)
8
8 2
3
, ( )
1 1 16a 7
(10) , (11) , (12)
3 24 35
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
An equation which consists of one dependent variable and its derivatives with respect to one or more independent variables is
called a 'Differential Equation'. A differential equation of one dependent and one independent variable is called 'Ordinary
Differential Equation'. A differential equation having one dependent and more than one independent variable is called
'Partial Differential Equation'.
Examples of ordinary differential equation

dy y
1. − =0 2. x dx − y dx = 0
dx x
d2y
3. ax dx + by dy = 0 4. =0
dx 2
dy 2 x + 3 y − 7 dy 2 x − 3 y + 4
5. = 6. =
dx 3 x − y + 4 dx 4 x − 6 y + 1
3
d 2 y   dy  
2 2
7. a 2 = 1 +    8. y dx + x dy = 0
dx   dx  
2
d2y  dy  d2y dy
9. − 4  + 3 y = 0 10. x2 − 2x + 3y = 0
 dx 
2 2
dx dx dx
Order and Degree of a differential equation

Order
The order of the highest derivative occurring in a differential equation is called 'Order' of the differential equation.
Degree
The highest degree of the highest order derivative occurring in a differential equation (after removing the radicals if any) is
called 'Degree' of the differential equation.
In the examples given above (1), (2), (3), (5), (6) & (8) are of order one and degree one, (4), (9) & (10) are of order two
and degree one where as (7) is of order two and degree two after removing the radicals.
Formation of Differential Equation

Differential equations are formed by eliminating the arbitrary constants. Arbitrary constants are eliminated by differentiation.
Examples
(1) Form the differential equation by eliminating the constant a from x 2 + y 2 = a 2
Solution : x 2 + y 2 = a 2
differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
dy
2x + 2 y = 0 ⇒ x dx + y dy = 0 which is the differential equation.
dx
124 KSOU Differential Equations
(2) Form the differential equation by eliminating ' m ' & 'c ' from y = mx + c
Solution : y = mx + c
dy
differentiating w.r.t. x, we have =m
dx
again differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
d2y
= 0 is the required differential equation.
dx 2
(3) Obtain the differential equation by eliminating ' a ' & 'b ' from y = a cos 3 x + b sin 3 x
Solution : y = a cos 3 x + b sin 3 x
differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
dy
= −3a sin 3x + 3b cos 3x
dx
again differentiating w.r.t. x, we have
d2y
= −9a cos 3 x − 9b sin 3 x = −9 y
dx 2
d2y
ie + 9y = 0 which is the required differential equation.
dx 2
Note :- It can be seen from the above examples that the order of the differential equation depends on the number of
arbitrary constants in the equation. ie. if arbitrary constant is one then order is one and if the arbitrary constants are
two then the order is two.
Solution of equations of first order and first degree

I. Variable Separable
If the given differential equation can be written as f ( x) dx + g ( y ) dy = 0 then this type is called ' Variable separable' , solution
is obtained by integration
ie ∫ f ( x) dx + ∫ g ( y) dy = Constant
Eg. 1. Solve y 1 − x 2 dy + x 1 − y 2 dx = 0
Solution : divide throughou t by 1 − x2 1 − y2
y dy x dx
equation becomes + =0
1− y 2
1 − x2
∫ ∫
y dy x dx
integrating + = Constant
1− y 2
1 − x2
ie − 1 − y 2 − 1 − x 2 = −C
ie 1 − y 2 + 1 − x 2 = C is the solution.
Eg. 2. Solve 3e x tan y dx + (1 − e x ) sec2 y dy = 0
Solution : dividing throughout by tan y (1 − e x ), we have

3e x sec 2 y
dx + dy = 0
1− ex tan y
3e x sec2 y
integrating, ∫ 1− e x
dx + ∫ tan y
dy = Constant
− 3 log(1 − e x ) + log tan y = log C

tan y
ie log = log C
(1 − e x ) 3
∴ tan y = C (1 − e x )3 is the solution.
dy
Eg. 3. Solve xy = 1 + x + y + xy
dx
dy
Solution : given equation is xy = (1 + x)(1 + y )
dx
ie xy dy = (1 + x)(1 + y) dx
divide throughout by x(1 + y)
y dy (1 + x) dx
then =
1+ y x
1 + y −1  1+ x 
ie   dy =   dx
 1+ y   x 
 1  1 
ie 1 −  dy =  + 1 dx
 1+ y  x 
integrating, y − log(1 + y ) = log x + x + c is the soluton
dy
Eg. 4. Solve ( x − y ) 2 = a2
dx
Solution : put x − y = u
dy du du dy
then 1 − = ie 1 − =
dx dx dx dx
 du 
given equation becomes u 2 1 −  = a2
 dx 
du
ie − u 2 = a2 − u2
dx
u 2 du
ie = dx
u2 − a2
 u2 − a2 + a2 
ie   du = dx
 u2 − a2 
 
 a 2 
ie 1 + 2 du = dx
 u − a2 
 
a2 u−a
integrating u + log = x+c
2a u+a
a x− y−a
ie x − y + log = x+c
2 x− y+a
a x− y−a
ie log = y + c is the solution.
2 x− y+a
dy
= xe y − x given y = 0 when x = 0
2
Eg. 5. Solve
dx
dy
= xe y ⋅ e − x
2
Solution : given equation is
dx
ie e − y dy = xe − x dx
2
1
integrating, − e − y = − e − x + c
2
2
1 1
when x = 0, y = 0 ∴ −1 = − +c ⇒ c = −
2 2
1 1
∴ solution is − e − y = − e − x − ie 2e − y = e − x + 1
2 2
2 2
II. Homogeneous Equation
dy f ( x, y )
Equation of the type = or f ( x, y ) dx + g ( x, y ) dy = 0 where f ( x, y ) & g ( x, y ) are homogeneous expressions
dx f ( x, y )
in x & y of same degree is called a ' Homogeneous Equation'.
To solve put y = vx
dy dv
then = v+ x or dy = v dx + x dv
dx dx
by substituti ng this, the given equation reduces to variable separable form and hence can be solved.
dy
Eg. (1) Solve 2 xy = 3y 2 + x2
dx
dy dv
Solution : put y = vx then =v+x
dx dx
 dv 
given equation becomes 2 x 2 v v + x  = 3 x 2 v 2 + x 2
 dx 
divide throughout by x 2
 dv 
then 2v v + x  = 3v 2 + 1
 dx 
dv
ie 2v 2 + 2vx = 3v 2 + 1
dx
dv 2v dv dx
ie 2vx = v2 +1 ie =
dx v +1
2
x
integrating, we have log(v 2 +1) = log x + log c
 y2 
ie log  2 +1 = log x + log c
x 
 
( y2 + x2 )
ie log = log x + log c
x2
ie log ( y 2 + x 2 ) − log x 2 = log x + log c
∴ log ( y 2 + x 2 ) = 3 log x + log c = log cx3
∴ solution is y 2 + x 2 = cx3
x  x
Eg. (2) Solve 1 + e y  dx + e y 1 −  dy = 0
x
   y
Solution : put x = vy then dx = v dy + y dv
equation becomes (1 + ev )(v dy + y dv) + ev (1 − v) dy = 0
ie v dy + y dv + vev dy + yev dv + ev dy − vev dy = 0
ie (v + vev + ev − ev ) dy + y (1 + ev ) dv = 0
ie (v + ev ) dy + y(1 + ev ) dv = 0
divide throughout by y(v + ev )
dy (1 + e v ) dv
∴ + =0
y v + ev
integrating, log y + log(v + ev ) = log c
ie log y (v + ev ) = log c
ie y (v + e v ) = c
x x 
y + e y  = c
y 
x
ie x + ye y
= c is the solution
Equations reducible to homogeneous equatins
dy a1 x + b1 y + c1
Give = or ( a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) dx + ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) dy = 0
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2
a1 b1
Case (i) If = put a1 x + b1 y = t then it reduces to homogeneous equation and hence can be solved.
a2 b2
a1 b1
Case (ii) If ≠ put x = X + h & y = Y + k
a2 b2
where h & k are constants to be found out such that a1h + b1k + c1 = 0 & a2 h + b2 k + c2 = 0
then given equation reduces to
dY a X + b1Y
= 1 or ( a1 X + b1Y ) dX + ( a 2 X + b2Y ) dY = 0 which is homogeneous and hence can be solved.
dX a 2 X + b2Y
dy x + y −1
Eg. (1) Solve =
dx 2 x + 2 y + 3
dy dt
Solution : put x + y = t then 1 + =
dx dx
dt t −1
∴ given equation becomes −1 =
dx 2t + 3
dt t −1 t − 1 + 2t + 3 3t + 2
= +1 = =
dx 2t + 3 2t + 3 2t + 3
2t + 3
ie dt = dx
3t + 2
2t + 3
integrating ∫ 3t + 2 dt = x + c
put 2t + 3 = l (3t + 2) + m = 3lt + 3l + m
2 4 5
∴ 3l = 2 ⇒ l = 2l + m = 3 ⇒ m = 3 − 2l = 3 − =
3 3 3
2 3t + 2 5  2
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
5 dt 2 5 dt 2
∴ x+c = dt + = 1 dt + = t + log t + 
3 3t + 2 3 3t + 2 3 9 t + 2 3 9  3
3
2 5  2
∴ x+c = ( x + y ) + log x + y + 
3 9  3
1 2 5  2
ie x + c = y + log x + y +  is the solution
3 3 9  3
Eg. (2) Solve (2 x + y − 3) dy = ( x + 2 y − 3) dx

Solution : put x = X + h, y = Y + k
choose h & k such that
2h + k = 3 (1)
h + 2k = 3 (2)
(1) × 2 4h + 2k = 6
( 2) × 1 h + 2k = 3
subtracting 3h = 3 ⇒ h = 1, k = 3 − 2h = 3 − 2 = 1
The given equation reduces to ( 2 X + Y ) dY = ( X + 2Y ) dX
put Y = vX then dY = v dX + X dv
∴ (2 X + vX )(v dX + X dv) = ( X + 2 vX ) dX
divide throughout by X
then (2 + v)v dX + 2(2 + v) X dv = (1 + 2v) dX
∴ (2v + v 2 − 1 − 2v) dX + (2 + v) X dv = 0
ie (v 2 − 1) dX + (v + 2) X dv = 0
dX (v + 2) dv
ie + =0
X v2 −1
(v + 2) dv
integrating, log X + ∫ v2 −1
= Constant
∫ ∫
1 2v dv dv
ie log X + +2 2 = Constant
2 v2 −1 v −1
1 1 v −1
ie log X + log(v 2 − 1) + 2 × log = log c
2 2 v +1
Y
 Y2  −1
ie 2 log X + log 2 − 1 + 2 log X = 2 log c
X  Y
  +1
X
ie 2 log X + log(Y 2 − X 2 ) − 2 log X + 2 log(Y − X ) − 2 log(Y + X ) = 2 log c
ie log(Y + X ) + log(Y − X ) + 2 log(Y − X ) − 2 log(Y + X ) = 2 log c
3 log(Y − X ) − log(Y + X ) = 2 log c
(Y − X ) 3
ie log = log c 2
Y+X
∴ (Y − X )3 = c 2 (Y + X ) but X = x − 1, Y = y − 1
∴ ( y − x)3 = c 2 ( y + x − 2) is the solution.
III. Linear Equation (Leibnitz's Equation)

dy
Equation of the type + Py = Q where P & Q are functions of x is called a ' Linear Equation'.
dx
To find the solution multiply both sides of the given equation by e ∫

P dx
then  + Py  e ∫ = Qe ∫
 dy  P dx P dx
 dx 
dy ∫ P dx
+ yPe ∫ = Qe ∫
P dx P dx
ie e
dx
d  ∫ P dx  ∫ P dx
ie  ye  = Qe
dx  
∴ ye ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
P dx P dx
dx + c is the required solution.
+ Px = Q where P & Q are function of y is also a linear equation and its solution is xe ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
dx P dy P dy
Note : - dy + c
dy
dy
Eg. (1) Solve the equation + y tan x = cos x
dx
Solution : Comparing with the standard equation
P = tanx & Q = cos x
∫ P dx =∫ tan x dx = log sec x

e∫
P dx
= elog sec x = sec x
∴ Solution is ye ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
P dx P dx
dx + c
∫
ie y sec x = cos x ⋅ sec x dx + c = 1 dx + c = x + c ∫
−1
Eg. (2) (1 + y 2 ) dx + ( x − e − tan y
) dy = 0
Solution : divide throughout by (1 + y 2 ) dy

−1
dx x − e − tan y
∴ + =0
dy (1 + y 2 )
−1
dx x e − tan y
ie + 2 = 2
dy y + 1 y +1
Comparing with standard equation
−1
1 e − tan y
P= Q=
y +1
2
y +12
∫ P dy = tan y ∴ Solution is xe ∫ = Qe ∫
∫
−1 P dy P dy
dy + c
−1
e − tan y
∫ (y
tan −1 y −1
ie xe = e tan y
dy + c
2
+ 1)
∫y
−1 dy
ie xe tan y
= + c = tan −1 y + c
2
+1
−1
∴ Solution is xe tan y
= tan −1 y + c
Bernoulli's Equation
dy
The equation + Py = Qy n where P & Q are functions of x is called Bernoulli' s Equation.
dx
1 dy P
To find the solution divide by y n then n
+ n −1 = Q
y dx y
1
put n −1
= z ie y − n +1 = z
y
dy dz 1 dy 1 dz
( −n + 1) y − n = ie = ( n ≠ −1)
dx dx y dx ( −n + 1) dx
n
1 dz
∴ equation becomes + Pz = Q
(−n + 1) dx
dz
ie + ( −n + 1) Pz = ( −n + 1)Q which is a linear equation and hence can be solved.
dx
dx dz
Note : - + Px = Qx n is also Bernoulli' s equation, whose solution is given by + ( −n + 1) Pz = ( −n + 1)Q
dy dy
where P & Q are functions of y
dy
Eg. (1) Solve + y tan x = y 2 sec x
dx
Solution : divide throughout by y 2
1 dy 1
then + tan x = sec x
y 2 dx y
1 1 dy dz
put = z then − 2 =
y y dx dx
dz
∴ equation becomes − + tan x ⋅ z = sec x
dx
dz
ie − tan x ⋅ z = − sec x
dx
which is linear where P = − tanx, Q = − sec x
∫ P dx = ∫ − tanx dx = log cos x

e ∫ p dx = e log cos x = cos x
∫ ∫
∴ Solution is z cos x = − sec x ⋅ cos x dx + c = − 1 dx + c = − x + c
cos x
∴ Solution is = −x + c
y
dy tan y
Eg. (2) Solve − = (1 + x) e x sec y
dx (1 + x)
dy sin y
Solution : the given equation is cos y − = (1 + x) e x
dx (1 + x)
dy dz
put sin y = z , then cos y =
dx dx
dz z
∴ equation becomes − = (1 + x) e x which is a linear equation where
dx 1 + x
1
P=− , Q = (1 + x) e x
1+ x
∫ P dx = ∫ − (1 + x) dx = − log(1 + x)
1
1
log 1
∴ e ∫ P dx = e − log(1+ x ) = e 1+ x =
1+ x
∫ ∫
1 1
∴ Solution is z ⋅ = (1 + x) e x dx = e x dx = e x + c
1+ x (1 + x)
sin y
∴ Solution is = ex + c
1+ x
IV. Exact Differential Equation

Let M dx + N dy = 0 be the differential equation where M & N are functions of x & y, the equation is said to ' Exact' if
∂M ∂N
= and to find the solution
∂y ∂x
Consider ∫ M dx (1)
where the integration is done w.r.t. x treating y as a constant and take ∫ N dy (2)
here the integration is done w.r.t. y omitting the terms containing x in N

then the soltuion is (1) + (2) is Constant.
Eg. (1) Solve (2 x 3 − xy 2 − 2 y + 3) dx − ( x 2 y + 2 x) dy = 0

Solution : Comparing with standard equation
M = 2 x 3 − xy 2 − 2 y + 3, N = − x 2 y − 2 x
∂M ∂N ∂M ∂N
= −2 xy − 2, = −2 xy − 2 ∴ = hence equation is exact
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
x4 x2 x4 x2 y 2
∫ ∫
M dx = (2 x 3 − xy 2 − 2 y + 3) dx = 2 ⋅
4
− y2 ⋅
2
− 2 xy + 3x =
2
−
2
− 2 xy + 3x (1)
∫ N dy = ∫ (− x ∫
y − 2 x) dy = 0 ⋅ dy (omitting the terms which contain x)
2
= Constant
x4 x2 y2 c
∴ solution is − − 2 xy + 3x =
2 2 2
ie x 4 − x 2 y 2 − 4 xy + 6 x = c
Eg. (2) Solve ( x 2 + y 2 − a 2 ) x dx + ( x 2 − y 2 − b 2 ) y dy = 0

Solution : Comparing with standard equation
M = x 3 + xy 2 − a 2 x, N = x 2 y − y 3 − b 2 y
∂M ∂N
= 2 xy, = 2 xy
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
= ∴ equation is exact
∂y ∂x
x4 x2 y 2 a2 x2
for solution, consider ∫ ∫
M dx = ( x 3 + xy 2 − a 2 x) dx =
4
+
2
−
2
(treating y as a constant)
∫ N dy =∫ ( x y − y ∫
− b 2 y ) dy = (− y 3 − b 2 y ) dy omitting the terms which contain x
2 3
y 4 b2 y 2
=− −
4 2
x4 x2 − y 2 a 2 x 2 y 4 b2 y 2 c
∴ solution is + − − − =
4 2 2 4 2 4
ie x 4 + 2 x 2 y 2 − 2a 2 x 2 − y 4 − 2b 2 y 2 = c
Exercise
Solve the following
dy dy
(1) x 2 (1 − y ) + y 2 (1 + x) = 0 ( 2) = e 2 x − 3 y + 4 x 2e − 3 y
dx dx
dy x( 2 log x + 1)
(3) = ( 4) cos( x + y ) dy = dx
dx (sin y + y cos y )
dy  dy  dy
(5) y−x = a y 2 +  (6) ( x + 1) + 1 = e− y
dx  dx  dx
dy y y
(7) x dy − y dx = x 2 + y 2 dx (8) = + sin
dx x x
(9) x 2 y dx − ( x 3 + y 3 ) dy = 0 (10) (2 x + 5 y + 1) dx − (5x + 2 y − 1) dy = 0
dy 2 y − x − 4
(11) ( 4 x − 6 y − 1) dx + (3 y − 2 x − 2) dy = 0 (12) =
dx y − 3 x + 3
dy dy
(13) x log x + y = (log x ) 2 (14) = x 3 − 2 xy if y = 2 when x = 1
dx dx
dy dy
(15) + y cos x = y 3 sin 2 x (16) x + y = x3 y6
dx dx
(17) (1 + y 2 ) dx = (tan−1 y − x) dy (18) (2 xy + y − tan y ) dx + ( x 2 − x tan2 y + sec2 y) dy = 0
2x y 2 − 3x 2   1 
(19) dx + dy = 0 ( 20)  y1 +  + cos y  dy + ( x + log x − x sin y ) dy = 0
  x
3 4
y y 
Answers
x 1 1 x+ y
(1) log − − = c ( 2) 3e 2 x − 2e 3 y + 8 x 3 = c (3) y sin y = x 2 log x + c ( 4) y = tan + c (5) ( x + 1)(2 − e y ) = c
y x y 2
3 3
−1  x  2
(6) ( x + 1)(1 − e ) = c (7) y + x + y = cx
y 2 2 2
(8) y = 2 x tan (cx) (9)   = 3 log cy (10) ( x + y ) 7 = c x − y − 
 y  3
( )
1
5  2Y + 5 + 21 X  21
(11) ( 2 x − y ) + log(7 − 8 x + 12 y ) = c (12) ( X 2 − XY + Y 2 ) = c 
4

 2Y − 5 − 21 X  ( ) where X = x − 2, Y = y − 3
1 5 
(13) y log x = (log x) 3 + c (14) 2 y − x 2 + 1 = 4e1− x (15) y − 2 = ce 2 sin x + 2 sin x + 1 (16) x 3 y 5  + cx 2  = 1
2
3 2 
−1
(17) x = tan−1 y − 1 + ce − tan y
(18) x 2 y + xy − x tan y + tan y = c (19) x 2 − y 2 = cy 3 ( 20) y ( x + log x ) + x cos y = c

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Karnataka State Open University

Study Material for MCA

Mathematics - Code - MCA 11

6. Differential Equations of first order

5. Integral Calculus 101

6. Differential Equations 123

Identities:- (1) sin2θ + cos2θ = 1

Proof:- From the right angled triangle ABC

Trigonometric ratios of 30° & 60°

In the triangle ABD A

Trigonometric ratios of 45º

Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC where AC B = 90°

also, cosec45° = 2 , sec 45° = 2 and cot 45° = 1

Trigonometric ratios of any angle (from 0º to 360º)

Draw PM perpendicular to OX.

In the II quadrant x is –ve, y is +ve

In the III quadrant both x & y are –ve

In the IV quadrant x is +ve & y is –ve

Sine is +ve All are +ve

Trigonometric ratios of angles 0º, 90º, 180º, 270º and 360º P

If θ is very close to 270º as in fig. 4

If θ is very close to 360º as in fig. 5

Thus we have the following

Rules for allied angles

To prove that radian is a Constant angle

(1 + sin 2 A + 2 sin A) − (1 + sin 2 A − 2 sin A)

1 + sin 2 A + 2 sin A − 1 − sin 2 A + 2 sin A

a 2 −1 sec 2 A + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A − 1

sec 2 A − 1 + tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A

2 tan2 A + 2 sec A tan A

tan A sin A cos A

tanθ ( − secθ ) secθ

( − sinθ ) cos θ tanθ

sin( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

sin 75° = sin(45° + 30°)

= sin 45° cos 30° + cos 45° sin 30°

= cos 45° cos 30° − sin 45° sin 30°

sin15° = sin(45° − 30°)

= sin 45° cos 30° − cos 45° sin 30°

cos 15° = cos( 45° − 30°)

= cos 45° cos 30° + sin 45° sin 30°

sin105° = sin(60° + 45°)

= sin 60° cos 45° + cos 60° sin 45°

cos 105° = cos(60° + 45°)

= cos 60° sin 45° − sin 60° sin 45°

cos 15° = cos(90° − 75°) = sin 75°

sin105° = sin(180° − 75°) = sin 75°

cos 105° = cos(180° − 75°) = − cos 75°

To find sin2θ, cos2θ & tan2θ.

To find sin3θ, cos3θ & tan3θ.

= sin 2θ cos θ + cos 2θ sinθ

= 2 sinθ cosθ cosθ + (1 − 2 sin 2 θ ) sinθ

= 2 sinθ (1 − sin 2 θ ) + sinθ − 2 sin3 θ

= 2 sinθ − 2 sin 3 θ + sinθ − 2 sin 3 θ

= cos 2θ cos θ − sin 2θ sin θ

= (2 cos 2 θ − 1) cosθ − 2 sin 2 θ cosθ

= 2 cos 3 θ − cosθ − 2(1 − cos 2 θ ) cosθ

= 2 cos 3 θ − cos θ − 2 cos θ + 2 cos 3 θ

2 tanθ + tanθ (1 − tan2 θ )

2 tanθ + tanθ − tan3 θ

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ = 2 cos 2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ

sin 3θ = 3 sinθ − 4 sin 3 θ

Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle ABC where AC B = 90°