Professional Documents
Culture Documents
S phase
(DNA replication G1 phase
Interphase
G1
Cell acquire and synthesis the material for
cell division
Proteins and new organelles are
synthesised
If external condition are conducive for
growth, cell enters the S phase
Chromosomes are extremely fine and
cannot be seen under light microscope
( chromatin )
S phase
Synthesis of DNA - replication
A duplicated chromosomes consist two
identical sister chromatids
Chromosomes duplication and
condensation
Duplicated Chromosomes
Chromosomes condenses
chromosomes
duplication
contains two
identical DNA
double helix
Sister
chromatid
G2
Cell continues to grow and remains
metabolically active
Cell accumulates energy and completes
its final preparations for division
Mitosis
Two major phases :
1. mitosis
2. cytokinesis
Mitosis – prophase
- metaphase
- anaphase
- telophase
Prophase
- Chromosomes condense and tightly coiled
- Chromosomes become shorter, thicker,
visible under light microscope
- Chromosomes consist of two sister
chromatids joined together at the
centromere
Spindle fibre is formed in the cytoplasm
End of prophase – nucleolus disappears,
nuclear membrane disintegrates
Metaphase
- The centromers of all chromosomes are
lined up on the equator of the cell
- Mitotic spindle are fully formed
- Sister chromosomes are still attached to
each other at the centromer
Anaphase
- Two sister chromatids separate at the
centromere
- Sister chromatids are pulled to the
opposite poles by the shortening of the
spindle fibre
The separate chromosomes are known as
daughter chromosomes
Anaphase ends when the chromosomes
reach the poles of the cell
Telophase
- Begins when both set of chromosomes
reach the opposite poles of the cell
- Chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to
their extended state again
- Spindle fibre disappear
- Nuclear membrane forms around each set
of chromosomes
Nucleolus reforms
Cytokinesis
- The cytoplasm of the cell divides to form
two daughter cells, each having one
nucleus
Cytokinesis in animal cell
The embryo is
Electric pulse implanted into a
stimulates the surrogate mother
fusion between
the somatic cell
and the egg cell
without nucleus
The cells divides and
forming embryo
Tissue culture technique
Involves the growth of cells or tissues
outside the organisms in a suitabe culture
medium, which contains nutrients and
growth hormones or through in vitro
methods
To produce plant and animal cells through
asexual reproduction
Different parts of plants can be cultured
- young shoots
- meristematic tissues
- leaves
- roots
- seeds
- embryos
- cells
-Small pieces of a plant’s leaf, shoot, bud ,
stem or root tissues are cut out
- these cut out plant tissues are called
explant
-Enzymes are used to digest the cell walls
of tissues
-Naked cells without cell walls called
protoplasts
-The protoplasts are sterilised and placed
in a container which contains nutrient
solution
-A culture medium consist a complex
mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals
and other substances required for the
growth of tissues
- culture medium and apparatus must be
sterilised
- Protoplast begin to divide
- Cell division produces aggregates cells
and then develop into a callus
- Callus develop into somatic embryo
- Embryo develops into plantlet and
transferred into the soil for growth
Advantages of tissue culture
Thousand of young plants can be
produced
Have the same genetic content as parent
cells
A large number of identical plants can be
grown for commercial purposes
Advantages of cloning
Multiply copies of useful gene or clones
- Escherichia coli – produce bovine growth
hormone
- increase the quality of cow’s milk
- produce insulin – the gene that codes the
synthesis of human insulin is inserted into
the bacteria genome
Transgenic crops can be produced that
are resistant to herbicides, pests and
diseases
- high and better quality yields
- wheat, soya beans
Bacillus Gene
thuringiensis Cotton plant
Zygote
92 chromosomes
Meiosis produces haploid (n) gametes
Contain half of the genetic material of the
parent cells
During sexual reproduction the fusion of
two gametes restores the complete
number of chromosomes forming a diploid
zygote
Sperm Ovum
23 chromosomes 23 chromosomes
Zygote
46 chromosomes
Meiosis occurs in reproductive organs that
is in testes and ovaries
Plants – meiosis occur in the anthers and
ovaries
The process of meiosis
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
The stages of meiosis
Interphase
- The cells replicates its DNA /
chromosomes
- After replication each chromosomes
consists of two identical sister chromatids
- Chromosomes are not condense, not
visible under microscope
Animals – a pair of centrosomes are
formed in the cytoplasm
Centrossomes consist a pair of centrioles
Meiosis I
Prophase I
- Chromosomes begins to condense, shorter and
thicker
- Homologous chromosomes come together to
form pairs of bivalent through a process called
synapsis
- Each bivalent consist of four part structure called
tetrad
- A tetrad consist of two homologous
chromosomes, each of which is made up of two
sister chromatids
Non sister chromatids exchange segments
of DNA in a process known as crossing
over
Crossing over resuts in new combination
of genes on a chromosomes
The points at which segments of
chromatids cross ver are called chiasma
End of prophase I – the nucleolus and
nuclear membrane disappear
Two pairs of centrioles migrate to the
opposite poles of the cell
Metaphase I
- Spindle fibre pull tetrads to the middle of
the cell
- Homologous chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate / equator of the cell
- One chromosomes of each pair is
attached from one pole and the other at
the opposite chromosome
Anaphase 1
- Homologous chromosomes are pull apart
by spindle fibre and move them to the
opposite pole
- Each chromosomes still consist of two
sister chromatids
- At the end of anaphase I each pole has
only two chromosomes
Telophase I
- The chromosomes arrive at the poles
- Each pole has a haploid daughter nucleus
because it contains only one set of
chromosomes
- Spindle fibre disappear
- Nuclear membrane reappear to surround
each group of chromosomes
- Nucleolus reappear in each nucleus
Cytokinesis occur simultenously with
telophase I
Most organism there are no interpase
between meiosis I and meiosis II
Prophase II
- Nuclear membrane disintegrate
- Spindle fibre reform in each daughter cell
Metaphase II
- The chromosomes each still made up of
two sister chromatids are positioned
randomly at the metaphase [late
- Sister chromatids is attached to the
spindle fibre at the centromere
Anaphase II
- The centromere of the sister chromatids
separate
- The sister chromatids of each
chromosomes are now individual
chromosomes
- Each individual chromosomes moves
towards the opposite pole of the cell
Telophase II
- The nuceoli and nuclear membrane reform
- The spindle fibre break down
- Cytokinesis follows and four haploid
daughter cells are formed
- Each haploid cell contains half the number
of chromosomes and genetically different
from the parent diploid cells
Assignment
Find out the differences between meiosis I
and meiosis II
State the differences between mitosis and
meiosis
The importance of meiotic cell
division
Ensure the diploid number of
chromosomes is maintained
Provides genetic variation
- the process of crossing over in
prophase I result in the
exchange of genetic material
- during metaphase I each pair of
chromosomes is arranged randomly
Appreciating the movement of
chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis
Asexual reproduction produces offspring
that are identical to the parent
Sexual reproduction produces genetic
variability
If meiosis does not occur properly the
gametes formed will have abnormal
number of chromosomes
47 chromosomes – Down’s syndrome
- mental retardation
Radiation and chemicals are carcinogenic
that can disrupt the processes of mitosis
and meiosis
Food that contains preservatives such as
sodium nitrite, benzene and formaldehyde
can change the structure of DNA
molecule