Sag and tension calculations for mountainous terrain

J. Bradbury, Dip. Tech. (Eng.), G.F. Kuska, C. Eng., M.I.E.E., and D.J. Tarr
Indexing terms: Cables and overhead lines, Power transmission Abstract: While normal sag and tension calculations based on the 'equivalent-span' concept are satisfactory, when applied to transmission lines located in a reasonably undulating terrain, the answers obtained by this method are inaccurate for mountainous terrain. An alternative method of calculation, which is based on the analysis of the change of state equation for each span of a section in turn, is given. It is shown that when using this new approach the full effect of both the suspension and tension insulators can be included together with the influence of the running-out blocks on the sag of the conductor. The paper also shows how this concept can be adapted to the function of line design and gives several examples of critical areas where existing methods may give unacceptable results. When stringing conductors in mountainous terrain, it is not always practical to measure the conductor sag using conventional techniques and the paper gives three additional means which may be used, and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each.
List of symbols

A = cross-sectional area of conductor, mm2 a,b,c,d = constants depending on sag>> C catenary constant = H/W,m E = Young's modulus of complete conductor, kg/mm2 H = horizontal tension of conductor, kg H' = component of tension in line with AG (Fig. 2d), kg h = height difference between attachment points at adjacent towers, m ht = vertical distance from tower to instrument, m K = unstretched length of conductor in a span (i.e. length after removing the tension at 0 C), m L = chord length between adjacent towers (Fig. 1), m / = length of tension or suspension insulator set, m S = stretched length of conductor in a span, m T = total (tangential) tension in conductor, kg V = vertical load at attachment point due to conductor (uplift load denoted by negative value), kg W = conductor weight per unit length, kg/m Wh = conductor wind load per unit length (wind acting normal to conductor), kg/m Wr = resolved conductor weight per unit length in the plane (as shown in Fig. 2c), kg/m Wv = W + weight of ice per unit length, kg/m W' = resolved conductor weight per unit length in the plane (as shown in Fig. 2b), kg/m X = horizontal span length, m Xo = horizontal distance from attachment point to low point datum (Fig. 1), m Xp = horizontal distance from any point on the catenary to low point datum (Fig. 1), m x = horizontal distance from attachment point to any point on the catenary, m xt = horizontal distance from tower to instrument, m y = sag from chord line at point x on the catenary, m y0 = sag from attachment point at low point datum (Fig. yh yh ' Z = maximum value of y occurring at point X/2 (absence of tension insulators) (Fig. 1), m = maximum value of y not necessarily at point X/2 in presence of tension insulators (Fig. 4), m = transverse horizontal load at attachment point due to conductor, kg

= coefficient of thermal expansion of complete conductor, per deg C /3 = blow-out angle of conductor (Fig. 2b), degrees 7 = angle to the vertical of the suspension or tension insulator sets, degrees Ah = height difference between tower and conductor attachment points (Fig. 9), m Ax = horizontal difference corresponding to Ah, m 5 = angle between chord line and the horizontal in the unresolved plane, degrees 6 = conductor temperature, C i// = angle between chord line and the horizontal in the resolved plane (Fig. 2d), degrees to = weight of tension or suspension insulator set, kg <t> = angle of the tangent at point F to the horizontal (Fig. 1), degrees Subscripts 1 and 2 denote different values for the same variables.
1 Introduction

Paper 20S4C (P8), first received 2nd November 1981 and in revised form 20th May 1982 The authors are with Balfour Beatty Power Construction Limited, Power Transmission Division, 7 Mayday Road, Thorton Heath, Surrey CR4 7XA, England IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982

Since the advent of transmission lines, theories have been progressively developed to define the sag and tension behaviour of the conductor. Initially these were oriented towards manual calculations and, consequently, were based upon the parabolic theory (Boyse and Simpson [1]). With the introduction of computers most theories are now based upon the accurate catenary equations (Rieger [2]). In multi-span sections, it is usual to assume that the horizontal tensions will react to changes in load and temperature as a single span referred to by the well known term 'equivalent span'. The mathematical treatment to obtain the 'equivalent span' is based upon parabolic theory, and there is no similar concept using full catenary equations. While the methods give acceptable and practical results for the majority of lines constructed'in normal, reasonably undulating terrain, e.g. in the UK, in mountainous areas these theories produce significant errors. Overhead-line engineers are already aware of this problem, as illustrated by Winkelman [3], which develops the parabolic and catenary theories for application to inclined sections. Our recent experience, on applying this method to very mountainous terrain, highlighted the presence of further inaccuracies which will result in the towers and conductors experiencing loads in excess of their limiting design values. In an attempt to overcome these problems, a theory has been developed which is the subject of this paper. At the development stage it became evident that the above inaccuracies were valid for both the single- and multi-span sections. This paper was originally presented to the 2nd international conference on 'Progress in cables and overhead lines
0143-7046/82/050213 + 08 $01.50/0 213

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for 220 kV and above' [4] and has now been expanded to include practical examples using the methods of calculations described.
2 2.1 Theory Basic equations

angle to the horizontal of the tangent at point F = tan" 1 ! s i n h l - ^ |}

2.2 Change-of-state equation

(9)

Before detailed considerations were given to the problem, it was recognised that there are two theories, inelastic [2,3] and elastic (Hattingh [5]), applicable to the solution of a catenary. Considering the two theories, it became evident that the elastic treatment requires lengthy computation without producing worthwhile improvements in the accuracy of the result. It is therefore felt that the inelastic theory gives a tolerable accuracy, and, for this reason, the inelastic catenary equations are used. These, by reference to Fig. 1, are given below:
LT

catenary constant C = = c/cosh^length of conductor between points A and D S = Csinh C horizontal length Xo (D' A) Xo also Xo = Csinh" 1 H vertical component of tension at point A V = //sinh^total tension at point A T = half-span sag yh = C |cosh-1 ^ = -Csinh"1 h X 2Csinh

(1) (2)

(3)

When considering a length of conductor suspended between two towers, after it has been clamped in, it is assumed that the unstretched length K of the conductor at 0C is constant, i.e. it equals the length given by the catenary equation less the elastic and thermal changes. To utilise the above statement in the development of the change-of-state equation, two simplifications have been made related to the unstretched length of the conductor and its tension. With respect to the former, an assumption was made that, when calculating the elastic and thermal changes, the value of K is equal to the chord length L. This assumption causes an error of less than 0.01 % in the estimation of the unstretched length. It is felt that this accuracy is sufficient for practical purposes, but, if further accuracy is required, it can be improved by adopting the second-term-approximation system given in step (d) of Section 3.1. Regarding the tension, in calculating the elastic changes, the mean total tension in the conductor length has been assumed to equal the horizontal tension. Referring to Fig. 1, the change-of-state equation becomes:

(4) sinh C2 (5) h sinh

yi A (Y)
EA

(10)

(6)

(7)

1+
2 Csinh

X 2C~

(8)

Xo Fig. 1 Inclined span

Sign convention: Xo positive and Xp negative for the case shown, i.e. if point F is to the left of D, Xp becomes positive 214

where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two different conditions. It should be noted that this equation is only valid for stillair conditions. When the conductor is subjected to wind acting normal to it, the vertical and transverse forces present must be resolved in the deflected plane of the conductor before applying eqn. 10. The method for resolving these forces is given in Fig. 2 and explained below: Step 1: Fig. 2a shows an inclined span under the influence of a wind force. Consider the forces acting on the conductor element, i.e. the wind force Wh acting normal to the conductor and the vertical force Wv due to the conductor and ice weight. Force Wv must be resolved along two axes normal to and parallel with the chord line. Step 2: Fig. 2b shows a section through the element (Fig. 2a) along the X X axis. The forces acting are Wh, Wv cos 5 and Wv sin 5, the latter applied parallel with the chord line. The resultant force W' acting at an angle j3 to the vertical is obtained. Step 3: Fig. 2c shows the inclined span rotated about axis AB through angle /3. The forces in the deflected plane, W' and Wv sin 5, are combined to give the resultant force Wr acting at an angle i// to the normal to the chord line. Step 4: Fig. 2d shows the inclined span rotated about point A, such that the chord line makes an angle \p to the line AG. This line represents the 'horizontal' plane in which the catenary equations are valid. Under this condition, force Wr is the only force present and acts 'vertically', thus satisfying the requirements to solve the change-of-state equation (eqn. 10). To use eqns. 110 the parameters H and W should be replaced by H' and Wr, respectively. Having solved eqn. 1 for the unknown H'2 it should be noted that this is the 'horizontal' tension in the rotated plane (Fig. 2d~), and not the inline horizontal force at the tower. To obtain the tension components H, V and Z at tower A (Fig. 2a), it is first necessary to calculate the Vertical' force in the rotated
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Q=Wh c = W v sin8 d = Wwcos6

Fig. 2 Resolution of forces under wind conditions a Span subjected to a wind force normal to the conductor 6 Deflection of element through section X X c Span through section Y Y d Span in resolved plane

suspension insulator

suspension insulator

Fig. 3 Forces on suspension insulators a Conductor on running-out blocks b Conductor clamped in IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982 215

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plane at point A (eqn. 6) and then reverse the above step-bystep procedure. 2.3 Effect of suspension insulators Two conditions must be considered, when the conductor is on running out blocks, and when it is clamped in. 2.3.1 Conductor on running-out blocks: Consider Fig. 3a which shows the conductor mounted immediately below the suspension insulator. Assuming the block to be frictionless, it follows that:

on the solution of eqn. 10 and are ignored. As far as the error in sag is concerned, the effect can be significant. By reference to Fig. 4, the following equations apply: tan
3 also / = VA/J2 +
Ax2
7

H V + co/2

Ax Ah

(13)

(14)

T = \IH\ + v\ = \ltii + v\

(11)

Taking moments about point Q, the following equation is derived: 7 = tan - l H2 (12)

Furthermore, as the block is free to rotate thus permitting conductor movement between spans, the unstretched length in individual spans is not constant. Obviously, the total unstretched length in a section is constant. 2.3.2 Conductor clamped in: Once the conductor is clamped in, the unstretched length in individual spans remains constant, because no conductor movement occurs at the clamp. Considering this condition, it is evident that although previous theories assumed the suspension set to be always vertical this assumption is incorrect, because the verticality depends upon the geometry of the section and the temperature. For this reason Fig. 3b shows the suspension insulator at an angle 7 to the vertical. Again by taking moments about Q, eqn. 12 can be derived. It follows that the horizontal tensionsHx and H2 in the adjacent spans are different unless 7 equals zero. 2.4 Effect of tension insulator The length and weight of a tension insulator cause errors in sag and tension, particularly in EHV downleads. However, with regard to tension, the reduction in span length X and the slight variation in height difference h have only a marginal influence

The horizontal tension H is known from the change-of-state equation and the insulator weight co given. The vertical force V is dependent on Xo and hence on Ah. The solution for Ah and Kcan be achieved by iterative technique. To provide the necessary sagging information during stringing, the maximum sag y^ (which does not necessarily occur at X/2) must be calculated. In this respect, it should be noted that eqn. 8 no longer applies; and a practical approach is given below: (i) Calculate y for three different values of* (ii) Solve

y = ax2 + bx + c

(15)

(iii) Calculate JC for maximum sag, i.e. JC = b/2a (iv) Substitute x from (iii) into eqn. 15 thus obtaining ^
3 Application of theory by computer programming

For the purpose of tower design, profiling and stringing, an overhead line contractor requires data resulting from a large number of sag and tension calculations. These must, particularly in mountainous terrain, reflect the geometry of the line. Under conditions of excessive gradients the suspension insulator will swing longitudinally, with the result that the horizontal tensions in adjacent spans may not be equal. Consequently, the 'equivalent span' concept is not valid. The solution to the problem lies in the evaluation of the elastic and thermal effects in the conductor in each individual span, i.e. span-byspan analysis. Without the aid of a computer program it is not practical to undertake these calculations. While the programming of the sag equations was straightforward, the tension equations presented some difficulties. For multi-span sections these were overcome by the method outlined below: 3.1 Starting conditions To carry out the calculations two parameters of the line must be known at a given point in time, namely, the angle 7 of all suspension insulators and a limit tension. Normally the suspension insulators are assumed to be vertical at the expected stringing temperature. The assumed tension values relate to a limit in the horizontal or total component, as required by the specification. For calculating the left-hand side of eqn. 10 the procedure is as follows: (a) The vertical and transverse loads are estimated at each tower position. (b) The total tension is estimated at the first tower. (c) The left-hand side of eqn. 10 is evaluated for the first span in the section, using the value of the chord length for the unstretched length. (d) Should further accuracy in the unstretched length be required (see Section 2.2), the left-hand side of eqn. 10 can be recalculated using the value for the unstretched length found under step (c) above. (This improves the accuracy in calculating the unstretched length to better than 0.0001 %). (e) Steps (c) and (d) are repeated for all spans in the section
IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982

Fig. 4 216

Span with tension insulator

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taking into account the angle 7, if any, of the suspension insulator, using eqn.12 for calculation of the horizontal tension in succeeding spans.
3.2 Condition when conductor is clamped in

This refers to the evaluation of the right-hand side of eqn. 10, i.e. for a condition other than the starting condition. The procedure adopted is as follows: (a) Using the equivalent-span technique the horizontal, vertical and transverse tensions are estimated at each tower. (b) The total tension is estimated at the first tower. (c) The right-hand side of eqn. 10 is evaluated for each span and angle 7 of the suspension insulator, changed to accommodate any variation in the chord length. Before considering the next span the horizontal tension is altered according to eqn 12. (d) By reiteration of steps (b) and (c), convergence on the position of the conductor attachment point at the last tower is obtained. 3.3 Condition when conductor is on running-out blocks This refers to the conductor being free to move and the procedure adopted is the same as under Section 3.2 with the exception of step (c), which is as follows: (c) A summation of the values for the right-hand side of eqn. 10 is made. When considering successive spans, the horizontal tension is changed according to eqn. 11.
4 Application of theory to practical line situations

adopt more than one sag and tension method for its construction. Hence, at an early stage, one method is selected and used throughout the line; even though, when the conventional method is selected, isolated sections may be found which slightly exceed the limits given above. With some line constructions, where conventional techniques may be ideal, isolated mountainous sections may be present where the method from this paper must be considered.
5 Practical application to line design

Conventional sag and tension methods are satisfactory for the majority of situations, and use of the method described above, cannot be normally justified in view of the additional data required. Computer runs have shown that for normal level singlespan sections there is no difference between conventional methods and the one now proposed; unlike multi-spans, where even with level span sections, there is a small difference of approximately 0.3 % between the theories. This is due to the fact that under wind conditions, if conventional suspension insulators are used, the bottom of the suspension insulator will move in the transverse direction, causing an increase in the chord length between the fixing points. This effect is included in the present theory, but ignored in conventional techniques. As conditions on the line change from a level span, the difference between conventional methods and the one proposed gradually increases. Under extreme circumstances, limited investigations have shown that conventional theories will underestimate the maximum tension and sag by up to about 20%; hence, it is apparent that in critical situations there is a need for more accurate sag and tension techniques. It is therefore necessary to have available a method of assessing these critical situations. As guidelines, the following empirical conditions have been developed, to determine the sections in which the more rigorous treatment given in this paper should be considered: (a) if the span gradient for any span within the section exceeds 0.2 or if the average span gradient within the section exceeds 0.15 (b) if the conventional sag and tension using the modifications given by Winkelman [3] give an offset in excess of 0.5 m (c) for all sections containing spans in excess of 1 km, e.g. river crossings (d) if aircraft warning spheres are fitted (e) if for some reason one or more suspension sets are not designed to be vertical at the time of clamping. Naturally, when considering a complete line, it is not ideal to
IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982

Following the development of the program, it has been found increasingly useful in connection with studies and calculations relevant to the following design activities: (a) the determination, for tower-design purpose, of all loads imposed by the conductors and earthwires (b) the design and selection of profile-plotting templates which reflect the effect of gradients (c) the investigation of tower loads in cases where a combination of long and short spans may result in unacceptable out-of-balance longitudinal and vertical loads (d) an accurate determination of sags and tensions in circumstances where the route topography imposes a severe limitation on tower locations. This, in cases of excessive gradients, can lead to critical ground-clearance problems (e) the production of sags and tension data for field use. In mountainous terrain the output refers to two stringing conditions: (i) when the conductor in a section is located on running-out blocks (ii) when the conductor in a section is clamped in (f) the evaluation of suspension-insulator longitudinalswing and out-of-balance tensions. This may be required when dealing with very long sections (g) use as a general-purpose design aid for the evaluation of sags and tensions leading to rapid solution of field problems In order that a better understanding of this theory can be obtained, a number of examples are given below. These examples relate to a 'Zebra' conductor (54/7/3.18mm ACSR) strung to typical UK loading conditions. This Section, however, does not constitute a criticism of UK practice which employs a special technique, see below, for safely overcoming the inadequacies of conventional sag and tension calculations, mentioned in this paper. In the UK external loads and factors of safety related to transmission lines are governed by the Statutory Instruments 1970, number 1355. Clause 9.2 defines the minimum factor of safety for total (tangential) tensions of the conductors as 2.0. For the 'Zebra' conductor this corresponds to a tension of 6722 kg. The conventional UK practice for sag and tension calculations for this conductor is to employ a maximum horizontal tension of 5505 kg. The difference between these two figures is more than sufficient to account for any increases in tension due to the nature of the terrain in the UK. 5.1 Variation of tensions with span gradients In most specifications, the maximum working tension (MWT) in the conductors refers to the maximum tension anywhere in the conductor's length. This occurs at the highest point of attachment of the conductor to the tower. Tension calculations (eqn. 10) are ruled by the horizontal tensions. Thus, the tension used in eqn. 10 should be reduced as the span gradient is increased, to ensure that the MWT is not exceeded. Fig. 5 illustrates this reduction in horizontal tension against span gradient, to ensure that the tension on a 366 m span does not exceed 2651 kg under still-air conditions anywhere in the span 217

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length. This shows, considering a span having a difference in height between the conductor attachment points of 100 m that the tension in eqn. 10 should be reduced to 2454 kg, a reduction of 7.4%. Even on level spans, this figure shows the specified tension should be reduced by 0.7%, a fact often ignored when conventional sag and tension equations are used.
0.6 0.5 - 0.4 >. >v \ specified maximum tension \
n200

150g

vertical and, hence, longitudinal loads of a magnitude H2 Hi are transmitted to the suspension towers. The magnitude of this force is influenced by the length of the insulator string or earthwire set. In the case of insulator sets, owing to their length, the transmitted force is normally very small. However, in recent years, there has been a tendency to reduce the length of the earthwire set which connects the earthwire to the tower. Fig. 7 shows that if this set is made too short, this may give rise to high longitudinal loads at the tower. This Figure was constructed assuming a level two-span section having 150 and 500 m span lengths. It was further assumed the set is vertical when under wind conditions, and the longitudinal out-of-balance forces shown are calculated at 75 C in still air.

1.0 0.8

I 0.3
o
in 0.2 :
0.1

100? c
\
\

c si

a, a

"50 ^ \ 2200 2400 horizontal tension, kg 2600

thwi ength

& 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 horizontal tension applied to earthwire peak at suspension tower, "U

2000

o
<D

"o

Fig. 5 Horizontal tension on a 366 m span to ensure conductor's tension should not exceed 2651 kg

5.2 Profile plotting The problems mentioned in Section 5.1 cause further complications during the profile plotting stage, because the templates are based on horizontal tensions. It follows, therefore, that template selection is a function of equivalent span length and span gradient. This problem has been solved by introducing a graph, Fig. 6, from which template selection is made .

Fig. 7

sets, 5.4

Loads applied to the suspension tower Effect of masses on conductors

On some lines, located in the vicinity of aircraft flight paths, it is necessary to install aircraft warning spheres on the earthwires. These form effective masses at discrete points of the line, causing a discontinuity in eqn. 2 at the point of their application. While the effect of this is mainly on the sag calculations, a second and far more important effect can arise with some designs, because the sag of the earthwire should be equal or less than the sag of the conductor from electrical considerations. This results in the tension of the earthwire being increased. Fig. 8 shows a simplified example of this, in which the increase in tension has been calculated to accomodate a single-centre span mass, placed on a 366 m level span; so that the sag remains the same as a conductor without such a mass. When considering additional masses under MWT conditions,

Fig. 6

equivalent span,mSketch of template selection graph

30-

3400

Fig. 6 is obtained by determining the number of templates, and tensions for each template, to be used during plotting. The program is run to predict the horizontal tension, at maximum operating temperature, from the specified limiting conditions for a number of spans and span gradients. From this data, Fig. 6 can be drawn by plotting the lines corresponding to the horizontal tension chosen for the templates. The straight line given in the Figure represents the level single-span condition, below which the graph is indeterminate. In practice, this graph is used in the following manner: (a) The worst span in a section is visually selected, usually having the highest span gradient (b) Any template is offered to this span and the weight span at the highest tower read off the template (c) The weight span is checked against Fig. 6, and the correct template selected for use in final plotting
5.3 Transverse loads on suspension earth wire peaks

3200

3000 10 2800

20 40 60 80 weight of central mass, kg

100

As eqn. 12 shows, the suspension insulator is not normally

218

Fig. 8 Increase in tension to accommodate a centre span mass without increasing sag IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982

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the effect of the weight of ice load and extra wind load on the added masses, together with their weight, must also be included in the tension calculations. To accommodate this additional tension caused by fitting spheres, while still maintaining the required factors of safety, the selected earthwire must be sufficiently strong. Failure to achieve this can result in a situation in which the sag of the earthwire dictates the main conductor sags, which can prove to be an uneconomical solution.
6 Sag measuring techniques

6.3

Low-point method

With this method (Fig. 9c), the instrument, e.g. theodolite or dumpy level, is located at a distance y0 below the conductor attachment point. Obviously, its application is limited to cases having a low-point datum, and the accuracy achieved is dependent upon the variation of y0 with changes in temperature. If the variation is small the method may be unsuitable.
6.4 Tangent method

When stringing conductors in mountainous terrain it is not always possible or desirable to use the conventional sagging technique. To provide field staff with alternatives, four further methods have been developed. Each has its limitations, but the selection of the appropriate method will be dictated by site circumstances, and is made by the stringing engineer.
6.1 Conventional method

Fig. 9d illustrates the case where the location of the theodolite is defined by limited access. In application, the stringing engineer, having fixed its location, is required to make use of the following equations: (16) where d = C In (tan 0 + sec 0) (17)

This is illustrated in Fig. 9a, where the gun sight and the sighting board are fixed to the towers at a distance yh> below the conductor attachment points. The field application is straightforward, but limited to cases when yh' is less than the tower heights. Its accuracy will decease with small spans.
6.2 Modified conventional method

The difficulty in using this method lies in the reiterative calculation for 0 and the accuracy with which it has to be measured. For reason of accuracy and site calculation this method is to be avoided if possible.
6.5 Tension method

By reference to Fig. 9b, it is seen that this method applies to conditions when the gun sight and the sighting board cannot be located on the tower. It requires care in accurate location of the theodolite, and has the same limitations as in Section 6.1.

When considering short span sections, an accurate sagging method can be achieved by the use of a load cell prior to conductor marking and the installation of tension insulator. This technique lends itself to situations where compression deadends are made aloft.
6.6 Stringing tables

It is not possible to provide site staff with sufficient information in conventional sag-chart form to string conductors using

sighting board

Fig. 9 Method of sag measurement a Conventional b Modified conventional c Low-point datum d Tangent IEEPROC, Vol. 129, Pt. C, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1982
219

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Table 1 : Typical stringing table obtained from computer Temperature Horizontal load kg 2400 2290 2189 2096 2011 1933 1862 1796 Total tension high tower low tower number number kg kg 2400 2290 2189 2097 2012 1934 1862 1796 2422 2312 2211 2118 2033 1955 1883 1817 Half span sag m low tower number Y X m m high X m 233.74 227.65 222.05 216.92 212.22 207.90 203.93 200.28 tower number Y m

C 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00

3.32 3.48 3.64 3.80 3.96 4.12 4.20 4.44

-31.95 -25.86 -20.26 -15.13 -10.43 -6.11 -2.14 1.51

0.60 0.52 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.40

16.50 16.42 16.36 16.32 16.30 16.29 16.29 16.30

all five methods given above. The program provides computerprintout tables, illustrated in Table 1, which has an added advantage over conventional sag-chart owing to ease of reading rather than interpolation of graphs.
7 Conclusions

In many instances, where conditions were so severe that the use of helicopters became the only means of access, the use of the tension method, where the tangential tension is measured by a load cell, proved extremely effective.
8
Acknowledgments

To satisfy the statutory ground clearance requirements, and to ensure that the specified factors of safety of the line are maintained, an accurate method of span-to-span analysis has been developed. This is of particular importance in mountainous terrain, where existing techniques may result in noticeable errors. Normally, in reasonable terrain, consideration need not be given to the out-of-balance loads due to the longitudinal swing of the suspension insulator. However, in long multi-span sections with excessive gradients this effect can be significant and should be examined. In mountainous terrain, where the conventional method of sagging is either impossible or impracticable, then, alternative methods must be available to the site organisation. During the construction of the 400 kV line through the formidable Zagros mountains in Central Iran, it was necessary to apply the full range of methods, as detailed under Section 6, each being determined by the relative conditions of each section encountered.

The authors acknowledge the help of their colleagues in the preparation of this work, and wish to thank the General Manager of the Power Transmission Division, Balfour Beatty Power Construction Limited, and the Directors of Balfour Beatty Limited for permission to publish this paper.
9 References

1 BOYSE, CO., and SIMPSON, N.G.: 'The problem of conductor sagging on overhead transmission lines', J. IEE, 1944, 91, Pt. II, pp. 219-238 2 RIEGER, H.: 'Der Freileitungsbau' (Springer Verlag, 1960) 3 WINKELMAN, P.F.: 'Sag-tension computations and field measurements of Bonneville Power Administration', Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect., Engrs., 1959, 78, Pt. Ill B pp. 1532-1547 4 BRADBURY, J., KUSKA, G.F., and TARR, D.J.: 'Sag and tension calculations in mountainous terrain'. IEE Conf. Publ. 176, 1979, pp. 1-5 5 HATTINGH, J.T.: 'A universal stress-sag chart (for line computations)' (Blackie & Sons, 1936)

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