A sensor is a device that detects or measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal.

A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal when touched. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high sensitivities.

SENSORS
DEFINITION of SENSORS 1.A thermistor is a temperature-sensing element composed of sintered semiconductor material which exhibits a large change in resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. Thermistors usually have negative temperature coefficients which means the resistance of the thermistor decreases as the temperature increases. They are made up of a mixture of sulphides or oxides or sometimes metals such as copper, iron or cobalt. They tend to be formed into a disc or a bead sealed with plastic or glass. They have great resistance at low temperatures but when they warm up their resistance decreases rapidly. Current can then flow through them. This makes them ideal as one of the components for a temperature sensor.

Thermistors are one of the most accurate types of temperature sensors. OMEGA thermistors have an accuracy of 0.1C or 0.2C depending on the particular thermistor model. However thermistors are fairly limited in their temperature range, working only over a nominal range of 0C to 100C . Finished thermistors are chemically stable and not significantly affected by aging.

2. A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled a voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the temperature. The thermocouple alloys are commonly available as wire.

Thermocouples are the most widely used device for sensing temperature, and probably the least understood. They are simple and efficient, and provide a small voltage signal proportional to the temperature difference between two junctions in a closed thermoelectric circuit. In its most basic configuration, one junction is held at a constant reference temperature while the other is placed in contact with the medium to be measured. This medium can be gas, liquid, or solid, but in all cases, the medium shall not be allowed to chemically, electrically, or physically contaminate or alter the thermocouple junction. For special applications or to protect them from the environment, thermocouples are available with protective coatings and shields or sheaths.

3. ceilometer is a device for measuring the height of cloud bases and overall cloud thickness. One important use of the ceilometer is to determine cloud ceilings at airports. The device works day or night by shining an intense beam of light (often produced by an infrared or ultraviolet transmitter or a laser), modulated at an audio frequency, at overhead clouds. Reflections of this light from the base of the clouds are detected by a photocell in the receiver of the ceilometer. There are two basic types of ceilometers: the scanning receiver and the rotating transmitter. The scanning-receiver ceilometer has its separate light transmitter fixed to direct its beam vertically. The receiver is stationed a known distance away. The parabolic collector of the receiver continuously scans up and down the vertical beam, searching for the point where the light intersects a cloud base. When a reflection is detected, the ceilometer measures the vertical angle to the spot; a simple trigonometric calculation then yields the height of the cloud ceiling. Many modern scanning-receiver ceilometers use a laser pulse to identify the height of a clouds base and top and various points in between to create a vertical profile of the cloud. The rotating-transmitter ceilometer has its separate receiver fixed to direct reflections only from directly overhead while the transmitter sweeps the sky. When the modulated beam intersects a cloud base directly over the receiver, light is reflected downward and detected. 4. A hygrometer measures and regularly reports the relative humidity in the air. They may be used in homes for people with illnesses affected by humidity; as part of home heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems; and in humidors or wine cellars. Humidity sensors can also be used in cars, office and industrial HVAC systems, and in meteorology stations to report and predict weather.

A humidity sensor senses relative humidity. This means that it measures both air temperature and moisture. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, is the ratio of actual moisture in the

air to the highest amount of moisture air at that temperature can hold. The warmer the air is, the more moisture it can hold, so relative humidity changes with fluctuations in temperature.

The most common type of humidity sensor uses what is called capacitive measurement. This system relies on electrical capacitance, or the ability of two nearby electrical conductors to create an electrical field between them. The sensor itself is composed of two metal plates with a non-conductive polymer film between them. The film collects moisture from the air, and the moisture causes minute changes in the voltage between the two plates. The changes in voltage are converted into digital readings showing the amount of moisture in the air. 5. Phototransistors are designed specifically to take advantage of this fact. The most-common variant is an NPN bipolar transistor with an exposed base region. Here, light striking the base replaces what would ordinarily be voltage applied to the base -- so, a phototransistor amplifies variations in the light striking it. Note that phototransistors may or may not have a base lead (if they do, the base lead allows you to bias the phototransistor's light response. Transistors used germanium or silicon throughout the device giving a homo-junction structure. The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes hole electron pairs to be generated. This mainly occurs in the reverse biased base-collector junction. The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the electric field and provide the base current, causing electrons to be injected into the emitter. One of the main disadvantages of the phototransistor is the fact that it does not have a particularly good high frequency response. This arises from the large capacitance associated with the base-collector junction. This junction is designed to be relatively large to enable it to pick up sufficient quantities of light. For a typical homo-structure device the bandwidth may be limited to about 250 kHz. Hetero-junction devices have a much higher limit and some can be operated at frequencies as high as 1 GHz. The characteristics of the photo-transistor under different light intensities. They are very similar to the characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, but with the different levels of base current replaced by the different levels of light intensity.

SENSOR SELECTION GUIDELINES

Input Range Input range is the maximum measureable range that the sensor can accurately measure. For example, a compression load cell may have an input range of 0 - 5000 pounds. The load cell cannot accurately measure "negative", or tensile loads, or compressive loads greater than 5000 pounds. Generally, quantities outside of the input range can be measured, but characteristics such as accuracy and repeatability may be compromised when the input is outside of the specified range. Output Range Output range generally refers to electronic sensors, and is the range of electrical output signal that the sensor returns. However, the output range could be a physical displacement, such as in a spring scale, or rotation, such as in a clock-style analog thermometer. The output range is related to the input range by the conversion algorithm specific to the sensor type, and the algorithm may include factors based on the calibration of the specific sensor.

Accuracy Accuracy actually refers to the amount of error, or inaccuracy, that may be present in a sensor. Accuracy can be stated as a unit of measurement, such as +/- 5 pounds, or as a percentage, such as 95%. In most cases, increased accuracy results in an increased cost for a sensor. Repeatability Repeatability, as the name implies, refers to how often a sensor under the same input conditions will return the same value. If a sensor is designed to be used over and over again, it is important that the output value is accurate over every measurement cycle for the life of the sensor. Repeatability is determined by calibration testing of the sensor using known inputs. Resolution Resolution is the smallest unit of measurement that the sensor can accurately measure. Some transducers return output signals in discrete steps, and therefore the resolution is easily defined. Resolution can be stated as a unit of measurement or as a percentage. For electronic sensors, resolution is also dictated by the resolution of the signal conditioning hardware or software. These qualities are common to all sensors, no matter what characteristic is being measured. All of these traits must be considered when selecting the right sensor for the specific needs of a test.

Selecting A Temperature Sensor Choosing a temperature sensor can often be very straightforward, sometimes tricky, but always worth doing well. That's because these sensors, especially in science and engineering uses, can spell the difference between repeatable results and nonsense numbers. The name of the game in measurement is to measure with an amount of inaccuracy or uncertainty that is acceptable. So, the first thing you need to know is how well you need to know the value of the temperature numbers you expect to get. A simple series of questions, when answered, will usually get you started. 1. What is the desired temperature range, the tolerable limit to the error in measurement and the conditions under which the measurement is to be performed? 2. Is it possible to touch the object and if so would the sensor or the temperature of the object be likely to be seriously affected by the contact? If the answer is yes, then a non-contact temperature sensor is needed. If no, then the answer probably lies with one of the other sensor types. 3. If a contact sensor appears satisfactory, then questions revolve more around temperature measuring range, satisfying the conditions of use and meeting the acceptable error allowance. Selecting A Pressure Sensor 1. First determine that you want to measure pressure. Pressure Sensors are designed to monitor the changes in pressure for fluid and gas applications. Do you want convert pressure into an analog output? The output of your Pressure Sensor is going to be one of the most critical questions youll face. Your options will vary between low (mv/V)/high (VDC) voltage analog, current, digital and wireless output. For example, if you select a low voltage analog output, youll have a faster response time and a wider temperature range and youll find fewer suppliers that can provide the instrumentation to go along with your Pressure Sensor. Going digital will provide options such as RS232, CAN Bus, or USB, but the number of suppliers offering these options will be limited. 2. The cost of the Pressure Sensor will of course vary greatly depending on all of the requirements you may have. A low or high price should not be an immediate qualification/disqualification factor. Make sure you ask about the materials, process used, and support that each manufacturer provides. Designing within your budget constraints is going to be key (of course) but make sure you are fully aware of what youre gaining/sacrificing with a low/high cost. 3. If youve clearly defined your application, this should be a fairly simple decision. If you select the right manufacturer, they will be able to work with you with innovative approaches that keep the project within your means. Specifying your application requirements up front will help minimize the number of head aches youll face further down the line with your project. You may want to consider using snubbers or some form of protection for your Pressure Sensor if your application includes Water Hammer

characteristics. Application examples include: process control, automotive racing, or volume control in any fluid application. 4. After youve determined that you want to measure pressure, define the type of pressure you want to measure gage, absolute, differential. What type of fitting (miniaturization) will you have (Male, female, flush mount, semi flush)? Similar to selecting a load cell, be sure to select the capacity over the maximum operating pressure. Also be sure to define your cable termination (Cable, Connector, Built in quick disconnect) and specification requirements (output, burst pressure, required excitation, nonlinearity, hysteresis, creep, bridge resistance, etc.) Environmental conditions should also be considered as well. This includes your temperature range or corrosive chemicals that your Pressure Sensor would be exposed to. 5. If you need an instrument for your application, select the instrument the same time you select the Pressure Sensor. This will help you avoid any chances of non-compatibility. Dont forget to purchase system calibration with your order. This integrates your sensor and instrument as one system. Dont forget, it is important to select the right sensor provider. Your sensor provider should have the knowledge and experience to support your long term needs.

Selecting A Level Sensor 1. Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or should it be completely external? 2. Should the sensor detect the level continuously or will a point sensor be adequate? 3. Can the sensor come in contact with the process fluid or must it be located in the vapor space? 4. Is direct measurement of the level needed or is indirect detection of hydrostatic head (which responds to changes in both level and density) acceptable? 5. Is tank depressurization or process shut-down acceptable when sensor removal or maintenance is required?