Analysis and Modeling of Magnetic Coupling

Bryce Hesterman Advanced Energy Industries

Tuesday, 10 April 2007 Discovery Learning Center University Of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado

Denver Chapter, IEEE Power Electronics Society www.denverpels.org

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Analysis and Modeling of Magnetic Coupling

Denver Chapter of IEEE PELS Discovery Learning Center University of Colorado April 10, 2007
Bryce Hesterman Member of Technical Staff I Advanced Energy Industries, Inc. Fort Collins, Colorado

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Presentation Outline
Introduction Modeling magnetic coupling with electric circuit equations Measuring electric circuit model parameters Equivalent circuits for transformers and coupled inductors Magnetic circuit modeling overview Tips for creating magnetic circuit models Deriving electric model parameters from magnetic model parameters Matrix theory requirements for coupling stability Examples

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Motivation For This Presentation

Magnetic coupling often seems to be mysterious and hard to quantify I had the good fortune of having a mentor, Dr. James H. Spreen, who taught me how to analyze magnetic coupling Goal: help make magnetic coupling less mysterious by showing how to model it, measure it and use it in circuit analysis and simulation

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What Is Magnetic Coupling?

Two windings are coupled when some of the magnetic flux produced by currents flowing in either of the windings passes through both windings Only part of the flux produced by a current in one winding reaches other windings

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Magnetic Coupling Modeling Options

Electric circuit: inductances and couplings
Linear model Model parameters can be determined from circuit measurements Parameters can be measured with fairly high accuracy if appropriate measurement procedures are followed No information on flux paths or flux levels

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Magnetic Coupling Modeling Options

Magnetic circuit: reluctance circuit and electrical-to-magnetic interfaces for each winding
Explicitly shows flux paths as magnetic circuit elements Flux paths and reluctances are only approximations Works with linear or nonlinear reluctance models Electrical circuit parameters can be calculated from magnetic circuit parameters, but not vice-versa

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V-I Equations For an Isolated Inductor

(Current flows into positive terminal)

Time domain

di v=L dt

Frequency domain

v = jLi

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Time-domain Equations For Two windings

L11 = Self inductance of winding 1 L22 = Self inductance of winding 2 L12 = L21 = Mutual inductance

di1 di2 v1 = L11 + L12 dt dt

di1 di2 v2 = L 21 + L 22 dt dt

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Time-domain Equations For N Windings

v1 = L11 di di di di1 +L12 2 + L13 3 ++ L1N N dt dt dt dt di di di di1 + L22 2 + L23 3 ++ L2 N N dt dt dt dt

v2 = L12

di3 diN di1 di2 v N = LN 1 + LN 2 + LN 3 ++ LN N dt dt dt dt

v1 L11 v L 2 = 21 v N LN 1

L12 L 22 LN 2

L1N i1 L 2 N d i2 dt LN N iN

d [v] = [L] [ i ] dt

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Frequency-domain Equations For Two Windings

L11 = Self inductance of winding 1

L22 = Self inductance of winding 2

v1 = jL11 i1 + jL12 i2
v2 = j L21i1 + j L22 i2

L12 = L21 = Mutual inductance

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Frequency-domain Equations For N Windings

v1 = j L11i1 + j L12 i2 + j L13i3 ++ j L1N iN v2 = j L12 i1 + j L 22 i2 + j L23 i3 ++ j L 2N iN

v N = j LN 1i1 + j LN 2 i2 + j LN 3i3 ++ j LN N iN

v1 L11 v L 2 = j 21 v N LN 1

L12 L 22 LN 2

L1N i1 L 2N i2 LN N iN

[v] = j[L][ i ]

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Inductance Matrix Symmetry

The inductance matrix is symmetric due to the reciprocity theorem (This is required for conservation of energy)

Lqr = Lrq
L. O. Chua, Linear and Nonlinear Circuits. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987, pp. 771-780 This principle can be derived from Maxwells equations: C. G. Montgomery, R. H. Dicke, and E. M. Purcell, Ed., Principles of Microwave Circuits. New York: Dover Publications, 1965 It can also be derived from a stored energy argument: R. R. Lawrence, Principles of Alternating Currents. New York: McGrawHill, 1935, pp. 187-188

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Coupling Coefficient For Two Windings

k=

L12 = L11L22

L21 = L11L22

M L1L2

1 k 1

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Coupling Coefficients For N Windings

k qr =

Lqr Lqq Lrr

k qr = k rq L12 L11L 22 1 L32 L33 L 22 L13 L11L33 L 23 L22 L33 1

1 k12 K = k 21 1 k31 k32

1 k13 = L 21 k 23 L 22 L11 1 L 31 L L 33 11

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Coupling Measurement Techniques: Series-aiding Series-opposing Method

Coupling measurements are made for each pair of windings Measure the inductance of each pair of windings connected in the seriesaiding manner Measure the inductance of each pair of windings connected in the seriesopposing manner

L12 =

Laid Lopp 4
L2

k=

Laid Lopp L12 = L1L 2 4 L1L 2

L1 L2

L1

series-aiding, Laid

series-opposing, Lopp

Series-aiding Series-opposing Coupling Formula Derivation

Start with the fundamental VI equations

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v1 = j L11i1 + j L12 i2

v2 = j L12 i1 + j L 22 i2

1 k12 1
Write down what is known for the series-aiding configuration

i2 = i1

i1
L1

i2
L2

vaid = v1 + v2
vaid = j Laid i1

series-aiding, Laid

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Substitute assumptions for series aiding into V-I equations

v1 = j L11i1 + jL12 i1
v2 = j L 21i1 + j L22 i1
Recall Substitute Simplify Recall Therefore

vaid = v1 + v2

vaid = ( j L11i1 + jL12 i1 ) + ( j L12 i1 + j L 22 i1) vaid = j (L11+ 2L12 + L 22 )i1

vaid = j Laid i1

Laid = L11+ 2 L12 + L 22

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Write down what is known for the series-opposing configuration

i2 = i1

i1
L1

i2
L2

vopp = v1 v2
vopp = j Lopp i1

series-opposing, Lopp

Substitute assumptions for series-opposing into V-I equations

v1 = j L11i1 jL12 i1
v2 = j L21 i1 j L22 i1
Recall Substitute

vopp = v1 v2

vopp = ( j L11i1 jL12 i1 ) ( jL12 i1 j L22 i1)

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Simplify Recall Therefore Recall Subtract Solve Recall

vopp = j (L11 2L12 + L22 )i1

vopp = j Lopp i1

Lopp = L11 2 L12 + L 22 Laid = L11+ 2 L12 + L 22 Laid Lopp = 4L12 L12 =
k=

Laid Lopp
L12 L11L22

Therefore

k=

Laid Lopp 4 L11L22

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Coupling Measurement Techniques: Voltage Ratio Method

Coupling measurements are made for each pair of windings Measure the voltage at each winding when a voltage is applied to the other winding vocqr = voltage measured at winding q when winding r is driven vdrq = voltage measured at winding r when winding r is driven and the voltage at winding q is being measured

k=

voc 21 voc12 vd 12 vd 21

Measurements can be corrupted by capacitance and loading Particularly suited for measurements between windings on different legs of three-phase ungapped transformers

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Voltage Ratio Method Coupling Formula Derivation

Start with the fundamental VI equations

v1 = j L11 i1 + jL12 i2
v2 = jL12 i1 + j L22 i2
Find i1 and v2 when winding 1 is driven and winding 2 is unloaded

v1 = vd 12 = j L11 i1
v2 = voc 21 = j L12 i1
Substitute i1, simplify and rearrange

i1=

vd 12 j L11

voc 21 = j L12

vd 12 j L11

voc 21 L12 = vd 12 L11

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Find i2 and v1 when winding 2 is driven and winding 1 is unloaded

v2 = vd 21 = j L22 i2
v1 = voc12 = j L12 i2
Substitute i2, simplify and rearrange Recall

i2 =

vd 21 j L22

voc12 = j L12 voc 21 L12 = vd 12 L11

vd 12 j L22

voc12 L12 = vd 21 L22

k=

voc 21 voc12 vd 12 vd 21

Multiply

voc 21 voc12 L12 L12 = vd 12 vd 21 L11 L22

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Take the square root

voc 21 voc12 = vd 12 vd 21

L12 =k L11L22

Therefore

voc 21 voc12 k= vd 12 vd 21

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Coupling Measurement Techniques: Self and Leakage Inductance Method

Coupling measurements are made for each pair of windings Measure the self inductance of each winding (L11 and L22) The inductance measured at a winding when another winding is shorted is called the leakage inductance Lleakqr = inductance measured at winding q when winding r is shorted

Lleak12 k12 = 1 L11

k 21 = 1

Lleak 21 L22

If perfect measurements are made, k12 = k21

Self and Leakage Inductance Method Coupling Formula Derivation

Start with the fundamental VI equations

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v1 = j L11i1 + jL12 i2

v2 = jL12 i1 + j L 22 i2
Find the leakage inductance at winding 1 when winding 2 is shorted, L12s Write down what is known for that condition

v1 = j Lleak 12 i1
v2 = 0 = j L12 i1 + j L22 i2
Simplify

0 = L12 i1 + L22 i2

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Solve for i2

L12 i2 = i1 L 22

Combine equations for v1

v1 = j Lleak 12 i1= j L11 i1 + jL12 i2

Simplify

Lleak 12 i1= L11 i1 + L12 i2

Substitute value of i2

L2 Lleak 12 = L11 12 L 22

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Divide by L11

Lleak 12 L2 = 1 12 L11 L11L 22 L12s L2 1 = 12 L11 L11L 22

1 Lleak 12 L12 = L11 L11L 22

Rearrange

Take square root

Therefore Similar formula when winding 1 is shorted

Lleak 12 k = 1 L11 Lleak 21 k = 1 L22

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Self Inductance Measurement Tips

The ratios of the self inductances of windings on the same core will be nearly equal to the square of the turns ratios The ratios of the inductances are more important than the exact values Measure at a frequency where the Q is high (It doesnt have to be at the operating frequency) Avoid measuring inductance close to self-resonant frequencies Take all measurements at the same frequency

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Self Inductance Measurement Tips

For ungapped cores: The ratios of the inductances are more important than the exact values Inductance measurements may vary with amplitude of the test signal Best results are obtained if the core excitation is equal for all measurements If possible, adjust the measurement drive voltage to be proportional to the turns in order to keep the flux density constant Inductance measurements can be made at flux levels near normal operating levels using a power amplifier and a network analyzer

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Leakage Inductance Measurement Tips

Avoid measuring inductance close to self-resonant frequencies Winding resistances decrease the measured coupling coefficients when using the self and leakage inductance method Measure at a frequency where the Q is high (It doesnt have to be at the operating frequency) For each pair of windings, shorting the winding with the highest Q gives the best results.

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Coupling Coefficient Value Discrepancies

Use the same value for k12 and k21 when performing circuit calculations If k12 k21, the one with the largest value is usually the most accurate

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Coupling Coefficient Significant Digits

Inductances can typically be measured to at least two significant figures Use enough significant digits for coupling coefficients in calculations and simulations to be able to accurately reproduce the leakage inductance

k = 1

Lleak 12 L11

2 Lleak12 =L11 1 k12

Generally use at least four significant digits when the coupling coefficient is close to 1 (k is known to more significant digits than the measured inductances it was derived from)

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Coupling Polarity Conventions

Polarity dots indicate that all windings which have dots of the same style will have matching voltage polarities between the dotted and un-dotted terminals when one winding is driven and all of the other windings are open-circuited By convention, positive current flows into the terminals that are labeled as being positive regardless of the polarity dot positions Voltage reference polarities can assigned in whatever manner is convenient by changing the polarity of the coupling coefficient

1 k 1
Pin-for-pin equivalent electrical behavior

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Three-legged Transformer Coupling Coefficient Dot Convention

Three types of polarity dots are required for a three-legged transformer There are three coupling coefficients The triple product of the three coupling coefficients is negative It is simplest to make all three of the coupling coefficients negative

k12 k 23 k31 0

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Equivalent Circuits For Two Windings

Many possible circuits, but only three parameters are required My favorite is the Cantilever model: two inductors and one ideal transformer

k
L11 L22
1

La Lb

1: Ne
2
Ideal

La = Lleak12
Measure the inductance at winding 1 with winding 2 shorted

Lb = L11 La
Measure the self inductance of winding 1 and subtract La

L 22 Ne = Lb
Measure the self inductance of winding 2 and calculate above equation

Cantilever Model Derivation

k
L11 L22
1

La Lb

1: Ne
2
Ideal

If winding 2 is shorted, then the inductance measured at winding 1 is simply La because the ideal transformer shorts out Lb. Thus La is equal to the leakage inductance measured at winding 1.

La = Lleak12

To convert the coupled inductor model to the cantilever model, recall that Therefore

Lleak12 = L11 1 k 2

La = L11 1 k 2

k
L11 L22
1

La Lb

1: Ne
2
Ideal

By observation, Lb must equal the open-circuit inductance of winding 1 minus La

Lb = L11 La

To convert the coupled inductor model to the cantilever model, recall that Substitute Therefore

La = L11 1 k 2

Lb = L11 L11 1 k 2 Lb = k 2 L11

k
L11 L22
1

La Lb

1: Ne
2
Ideal

The inductance of winding 2, L22 , is equal to Lb reflected through the ideal transformer

L 22 = Ne2 Lb

Solve for the turns ratio Recall

L 22 Ne = Lb

Lb = k 2 L11

Thus, in terms of the coupled inductor model

1 Ne = k

L 22 L11

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Two Leakage Inductance Model

Two Leakage Inductance model allows the actual turns ratio to be used, but it adds unnecessary complexity These leakage inductances are not equal to the previously-defined conventional leakage inductances measured by shorting windings

L11 = Ll1 + LMag

N2 L 22 = Ll 2 + LMag N 1 N2 L12 L12 = LMag N k= L L 1 11 22
N1 LMag = N 2 L11L22 Lleak12 L 22 =
2

Ll1

N1 :N 2

Ll 2

LMag
Ideal

N1 N 2

L11L22 Lleak 21 L11

Two Leakage Inductance Model Derivation

Start with the fundamental VI equations

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v1 = j L11i1 + jL12 i2

v2 = j L12 i1 + j L 22 i2
Write down the open-circuit primary voltage due to a current in the secondary

N2 v1 = j L12 i2 = j LMag N i2 1

By inspection, the mutual inductance is

N2 L12 = LMag N 1

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Solve for LMag

N1 L Mag = N 2

L12
2

Recall

L11 = Ll1 + LMag

N2 L 22 = Ll 2 + LMag N 1

Solve for the two leakage inductances

Ll1 = L11 LMag

N2 Ll 2 = L 22 LMag N 1
12

Recall the equation for Lleak12 from the derivation of the Self and Leakage Inductance model L2

Lleak 12 = L11

L 22

By symmetry,

L2 Lleak 21 = L22 12 L11

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Solve for L12

L12 = L11L 22 Lleak12 L 22 = L11L 22 Lleak 21L11

N1 L Mag = N 2 N1 L Mag = N 2 N1 L Mag = N 2 L12 L11L 22 Lleak12 L 22 L11L 22 Lleak 21 L11

Recall

Therefore

Also,

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Equivalent Circuits For More Than Two Windings

Many possible circuits, but only N(N+1)/2 parameters are required My favorite is the extended cantilever model
Exact correspondence to the coupling coefficient model R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, A multiple-winding magnetics model having directly measurable parameters, in Proc. IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conf., May 1998, pp. 1472-1478

Extended cantilever model with parasitics:

K. D. T. Ngo, S. Srinivas, and P. Nakmahachalasint, Broadband extended cantilever model for multi-winding magnetics, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 16, pp. 551-557, July 2001 K.D.T. Ngo and A. Gangupomu, "Improved method to extract the short-circuit parameters of the BECM," Power Electronics Letters, IEEE , vol.1, no.1, pp. 17- 18, March 2003

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Magnetic Devices Can Be Approximately Modeled With Magnetic Circuits

Reluctance paths are not as well defined as electric circuit paths Accuracy is improved by using more reluctance elements in the model
R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R15

R2 R1 R13 R7 R8

R3 R15

R4

R5 R6

R1

MMF1

MMF2 R17 R19

MMF3

R17

R18 R16

R19 R12 R10 R11

R14
R18 R13 R16 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R14

R9

Winding 1

Winding 2

Winding 3

High-leakage Transformer with two E-Cores

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Winding Self Inductance

Replace the MMF source for each winding not being considered with a short circuit Determine the Thvenin equivalent reluctance, th ,at the MMF source representing the winding for which the self inductance is being calculated Inductance = turns squared divided by the Thvenin equivalent reluctance
R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R15

R1

MMF1
MMF2 R19 MMF3

Rth1

MMF1

N2
R17 R18

N1
R13

N3
R14

N1 short short

R16 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12

N12 L1 = th1

Nx = turns of winding x

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Leakage Inductances
Replace the MMF source for each winding not being considered with a short circuit Replace the MMF source for the shorted winding with an open circuit Determine Thvenin equivalent reluctance, th , at the MMF source for the winding where the leakage inductance is to be determined Inductance = turns squared divided by the Thvenin equivalent reluctance
R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R15 R1

MMF1

Rth1

MMF1

N2
R17 R18

MMF2 R19

MMF3

N1 open

N1
R13

N3
R14

R16 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12

short

Lleak 13

N12 = th1

Nx = turns of winding x

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Reluctance Modeling References

R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd Ed., Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001 S.-A. El-Hamamsey and Eric I. Chang, Magnetics Modeling for ComputerAided Design of Power Electronics Circuits, PESC 1989 Record, pp. 635645 G. W. Ludwig, and S.-A. El Hamamsy Coupled Inductance and Reluctance Models of Magnetic Components, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol. 6, No. 2, April 1991, pp. 240-250 E. Colin Cherry, The Duality between Interlinked Electric and Magnetic Circuits and the Formation of Transformer Equivalent Circuits, Proceedings of the Physical Society, vol. 62 part 2, section B, no. 350 B, Feb. 1949, pp. 101-111 MIT Staff, Magnetic Circuits and Transformers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1943

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Energy Storage
The magnetic energy stored in one inductor is:

1 2 WM 1 = Li 2
The energy stored in a set of N coupled windings is:

WM N

1 T = [i] [L ][i] 2

The energy stored in a set of 2 coupled windings is:

L11 L12 i1 1 1 2 2 WM 2 = [i1 i2 ] = L 11i1 + 2 L12i1i2 + L 22i2 L12 L22 i2 2 2

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Stability of a Set of Coupled Inductors

As set of coupled inductors is passive if the magnetic energy storage is non-negative for any set of currents For two coupled inductors, this is guaranteed if: A set of three coupled inductors is passive if the following conditions are met:

1 k 1

2 2 2 k12 + k 23 + k31 2k12 k 23k31 1

1 k12 1

1 k 23 1

1 k31 1

Yilmaz Tokad and Myril B. Reed, Criteria and Tests for Realizability of the Inductance Matrix, Trans. AIEE, Part I, Communications and Electronics, Vol. 78, Jan. 1960, pp. 924-926

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Stability of a Set of Coupled Inductors

When there are more than three windings, the coupling coefficient matrix defined below can be used to determine stability

k12 1 k 1 21 K= k N 1 k N 2

k1N k2 N 1

k qr = k rq

A set of coupled inductors is passive if and only if all of the eigenvalues of K are non-negative There are N eigenvalues for a set of N windings Eigenvalue calculations are built-in functions of programs like Mathcad and Matlab

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Consistency Checks
The eigenvalue test can let you know if there are measurement errors, but it wont help identify the errors The ratios of magnetizing inductances on the same core leg should be approximately equal to the square of the turns ratios Set up test simulations to verify that the models match the test conditions Test leakage inductances by shorting one winding and applying a signal to the other winding (Compute the inductance indicated by the voltage, current and frequency) Check for coupling polarity errors, especially if there are windings on multiple core legs Compare test data with multiple windings shorted to simulations or calculations with multiple windings shorted

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Inverse Inductance Matrix

The inverse inductance matrix, , is the reciprocal of the inductance matrix

= L1
Each diagonal element is equal to the reciprocal of the inductance of the corresponding winding when all of the of the other windings are shorted Example application: You have a four-winding transformer. What is the inductance at winding 1 when windings 3 and 4 are shorted? Set up an inductance matrix, Lx, by extracting all of the elements from the total inductance matrix that apply only to windings 1, 3 and 4

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Inverse Inductance Matrix Example

Remove the outlined elements from L to get Lx

L11 L12 L13 L 22 L 22 L 23 L= L 31 L 32 L 33 L41 L42 L43

L14 L 24 L 34 L44

L11 L13 L14 Lx = L 31 L 33 L 34 L41 L43 L44

Use a computer program to compute the inverse of Lx

x = L x1

1 is the inductance at winding 1 when windings 3 and 4 are shorted x11

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Modified Node Analysis

Spice uses Modified Node Analysis (MNA) to set up the circuit equations This type of analysis is well suited for handling circuits with coupled windings A good description of the method is found in: L. O. Chua, Linear and Nonlinear Circuits. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987, pp. 469-472

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Modified Node Analysis Example

Assign node numbers The reference node is node 0 Assign currents for each branch Compute mutual inductances from the self inductances and coupling coefficients

L12 = k L11 L 22

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Write a KCL equation using the node-to-datum voltages as variables for each node other than the datum node, unless the node has a fixed voltage with respect to the datum node. In that case, write an equation that assigns the node voltage to the fixed value.

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Node 1 Node 2 Node 3

v 1 = vs i1 = j C1(v1 v2 ) = j C1(vs v2 )
1 v3 i2 = + j C 2 v3 = + j C 2 v3 R R1 1

Current variables must be maintained for each coupled inductor Other current variables can be replaced by equivalent expressions

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58

Write an equation for the voltage dropped across each coupled inductor with the node variables on one side and the inductance and current terms on the other side

v2 = j L11i1 jL12 i2

v3 = j L12 i1 j L22 i2
Note that the minus signs are due to the fact that i2 was assigned to be flowing out of the dotted end of the winding instead of into it

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Rearrange the node equations to facilitate writing matrix equations

i1 = j C1(vs v2 )

1 v2 + i1 = vs j C1

1 i2 = + j C 2 v3 R 1
v2 = j L11 i1 jL12 i2

1 + j C 2 v3 i2 = 0 R 1 v2 j L11 i1 + j L12 i2 = 0

v3 = j L12 i1 j L22 i2

v3 j L12 i1 + j L22 i2 = 0

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Convert the node equations into matrix form

G X =U

1 v2 + i1 = vs 1 j C1
3 1

1 2 R + j C 2 v3 i2 = 0 1
4

v2 j L11 i1 + jL12 i2 = 0

v3 j L12 i1 + j L22 i2 = 0

2 3 4

1 0 1 0

1 + j C 2 0 R 1 0 j L11 1 jL12

1 j C1

0 v2 v s v3 0 1 = i1 0 jL12 i 2 0 j L22 i2

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Modified Node Analysis Example Conclusions

The matrix equation can be solved numerically in programs like Mathcad or Matlab The approach is straightforward and can be used with many windings If you want to have a symbolic solution, simple cases can be handled with equivalent circuits (the cantilever model is easiest for two windings) Equivalent circuit equations can get very messy with more than two windings Is there a better way to find symbolic solutions by using Dr. R. D. Middlebrooks Design-Oriented Analysis techniques? (I hope to find out) See Dr. Middlebrooks web site: www.ardem.com for information on his analysis techniques

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62

Coupling Stability Example Using Mathcad

Figure 1. Three coupled windings with resistive loads.

Suppose we have a three-winding inductor with a resistor terminating each winding as is shown in Fig. 1. If we externally force an initial condition of currents in the windings, and then let the inductor "coast" on its own, the currents should all exponentially decay to zero as the stored energy is dissipated. If the coupling coefficient matrix is not positive definite, however, at least one of the eigenvalues for the system will be not be negative.

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63

As is shown below, this produces an unstable situation where more energy can be extracted from the inductor than was initially stored there. When the initial energy is dissipated, the stored energy becomes negative, and the inductor continues to deliver power. This, of course, is impossible. Therefore, a set of coupling coefficients in which the coupling coefficient matrix is not positive definite describes a coupled inductor that is not physically realizable. Because Spice and other circuit simulators allow such inductors to be specified, it is instructive to examine what happens when nonphysical sets of coupling coefficients are specified.

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We first examine a physically-realizable case. After that, we show what happens when the coupling coefficients are improperly chosen. Enter the values of the inductances and coupling coefficients L1 := 10 H L2 := 11 H L3 := 10 H k12 := 0.96 k23 := 0.99 k13 := 0.98

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65

Construct the coupling coefficient matrix.

1 k12 k13 K := k12 1 k23 k k 1 13 23 2.953 0.041 eigenvals ( K) = 5.654 10 3

Compute the eigenvalues of the coupling coefficient matrix.

All of the eigenvalues are positive. As is shown below, this leads to negative eigenvalues for the time response of the system.

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66

Construct the inductance matrix.

L1 K L1 L2 K L1 L3 1, 2 1, 3 L2 K L2 L3 L := K1 , 2 L1 L2 2, 3 K L1 L3 K L2 L3 L3 2, 3 1, 3

Evaluate the inductance matrix.

10.000 10.069 9.800 L = 10.069 11.000 10.383 H 9.800 10.383 10.000

Enter the values of the resistances

R1 := 1

R2 := 1

R3 := 1

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Enter the initial values of the currents

I1i := 1 A

I2i := 0 A

I3i := 0 A

Define a current vector

I1 I I2 I 3 I1i Ii := I2i I 3i 1 Ii = 0 A 0

Define an initial condition vector

We can think of this as a situation in which the current in winding 1 is externally forced to be 1 Ampere, and then the circuit is left to dissipate the stored energy starting at time t = 0.

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Compute the stored energy

Ii L Ii = 1.000 10

The time response of the circuit of Fig. 1 can be described by the following equation

I1 R1 I2 R2 I R 3 3

d L I dt

(1)

Compute the inverse inductance matrix

:= L

2.909 1.422 4.327 1 = 1.422 5.263 6.858 H 4.327 6.858 11.462

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Compute the eigenvalues of .

17.251 1 eigenvals ( ) = 2.351 H 0.033 I1 R1 d I I2 R2 dt I R 3 3 R1 0 0 d I 0 R2 0 I dt 0 0 R 3

Write (1) in terms of the inverse inductance matrix

(2)

Write (2) in a way that shows I in the right side

(3)

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Define G

R1 0 0 G := 0 R2 0 0 0 R 3
d I dt G I

(4)

Substitute G into (3)

(5)

Compute the eigenvalues of G

:= eigenvals ( G)

1.725 107 -1 = 2.351 106 s 4 3.277 10

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Compute the eigenvectors of G

0.295 0.77 0.565 -1 := eigenvecs ( G) = 0.501 0.628 0.595 s 0.814 0.107 0.571 e1 t The solution to (5) will have the form c1 0 0 I 0 c2 0 e 2 t (6) 0 0 c 3 3 t e

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The values of the constants c1, c2 and c3 can be determined from the initial conditions

I0

c1 c2 c 3

c1 1 c2 := Ii c 3

c1 0.295 c2 = 0.77 A s c 0.565 3

Check to see if the initial conditions are satisfied

c1 1 c2 = 0 A c 0 3

1 Ii = 0 A 0

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Compute a coefficient matrix

c1 0 0 C := 0 c2 0 0 0 c 3

0.087 0.594 0.319 C = 0.148 0.484 0.336 A 0.24 0.083 0.323

(Note that the minimum index value for matrices in this document is set at 1, not zero.) Define current functions I1( t) := C I2( t) := C I3( t) := C e e e
1 t

1, 1

+C +C +C

1, 2

e e e

2 t

+C +C +C

1, 3

e e e

3 t

2, 1

1 t

2, 2

2 t

2, 3

3 t

3, 1

1 t

3, 2

2 t

3, 3

3 t

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Check the current values at a few points I1( 0 s ) = 1 A I2( 0) = 0 A I3( 0) = 0 A I1( 0.1 s ) = 0.803A I2( 0.1 s ) = 0.021A I3( 0.1 s ) = 0.214A I1( 10 s ) = 0.23A I2( 10 s ) = 0.242A I3( 10 s ) = 0.233A

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75

Plot the current values

1

t := 0 , 10
,

s .. 20 10

I1( t ) 0.5 I2( t ) I3( t ) 0

0.5 0

5 .10

1 .10 t

1.5 .10

2 .10

Fig. 2. Winding Currents.

I1 drops quickly as the current builds up in the other two windings. All of the currents then decay.

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Define a current vector to facilitate calculating the stored energy.

I1( t) I( t) := I2( t) I ( t) 3

Define a function to compute the stored energy.

W ( t) :=

1 2

( I( t) ) L I( t)

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t := 0 , 10
5 .10 4 .10 W( t ) 3 .10 2 .10

7
6

s .. 10

2 .10

4 .10

6 .10 t

8 .10

1 .10

Fig. 3. Stored energy, J. The stored energy is dissipated as expected.

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We can now examine a case where the coupling coefficient are improperly specified. Are relatively small change in one of the couple coefficients is all that is required to create an unstable configuration.

Enter the values of the inductances and coupling coefficients

L1 := 10 H L2 := 11 H L3 := 10 H

k12 := 0.96 k23 := 0.99 k13 := 0.99 (Previously 0.98)

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Construct the coupling coefficient matrix.

1 k12 k13 K := k12 1 k23 k k 1 13 23

2.96 0.04 eigenvals ( K) = 5 6.757 10

Compute the eigenvalues of the coupling coefficient matrix.

One of the eigenvalues is negative. As is shown below on, this makes one of the eigenvalues for the time response of the system positive.

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Construct the inductance matrix.

K L1 L2 K L1 L3 L1 1, 2 1, 3 L2 K L2 L3 L := K1 , 2 L1 L2 2, 3 K L1 L3 K L2 L3 L3 1, 3 2, 3

Evaluate the inductance matrix.

10.000 10.069 9.900 L = 10.069 11.000 10.383 H 9.900 10.383 10.000

Enter the values of the resistances

R1 := 1

R2 := 1

R3 := 1

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81

Enter the initial values of the currents

I1i := 1 A

I2i := 0 A

I3i := 0 A

Define an initial condition vector

I1i Ii := I2i I 3i

1 Ii = 0 A 0

Compute the stored energy

Ii L Ii = 1.000 10

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82

Compute the inverse inductance matrix

:= L

248.75 239.557 495 1 = 239.557 226.136 471.964 H 471.964 980 495

Compute the eigenvalues of .

1.457 103 1 eigenvals ( ) = 2.385 H 0.033

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83

Define G

R1 0 0 G := 0 R2 0 0 0 R 3

(4)

Compute the eigenvalues of G := eigenvals ( G)

1.457 109 -1 = 2.385 106 s 3.27 104

One of the eigenvalues is positive, so the system is unstable.

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Compute the eigenvectors of G

0.414 0.713 0.566 -1 := eigenvecs ( G) = 0.395 0.701 0.594 s 0.82 0.023 0.572 e1 t The solution to (5) will have the form c1 0 0 I 0 c2 0 e 2 t (6) 0 0 c 3 3 t e

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The values of the constants c1, c2 and c3 can be determined from the initial conditions

I0

c1 c2 c 3

c1 1 c2 := Ii c 3

c1 0.414 c2 = 0.713 A s c 0.566 3

Check to see if the initial conditions are satisfied

c1 1 c2 = 0 A c 0 3

1 Ii = 0 A 0

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86

Compute a coefficient matrix

c1 0 0 C := 0 c2 0 0 0 c 3

0.172 0.508 0.32 C = 0.164 0.5 0.336 A 0.34 0.016 0.323

1 t 2 t 3 t

Define current functions

I1( t) := C I2( t) := C I3( t) := C

1, 1

e e e

+C +C +C

1, 2

e e e

+C +C +C

1, 3

e e e

2, 1

1 t

2, 2

2 t

2, 3

3 t

3, 1

1 t

3, 2

2 t

3, 3

3 t

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87

Check the current values at a few points

I1( 0 s ) = 1 A I2( 0 s ) = 0 A I3( 0 s ) = 0 A

I1( 0.01 s ) = 4 10 A
5 5

I1( 0.1 s ) = 3.344 10 A

62 62

I2( 0.01 s ) = 3 10 A I3( 0.01 s ) = 7 10 A

5

I2( 0.1 s ) = 3.189 10 A I3( 0.1 s ) = 6.621 10 A

62

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Plot the current values

t := 0 , 10

11

s .. 4.2 10

I1( t ) I2( t ) I3( t )

4 0 5 .10
10

1 .10 t

1.5 .10

Fig. 4. Winding Currents.

I1 rises instead of decaying. The other currents start at zero and then build up.

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Define a current vector to facilitate calculating the stored energy.

I1( t) I( t) := I2( t) I ( t) 3
1 2
T

Define a function to compute the stored energy.

W ( t) :=

( I( t) ) L I( t)

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5 .10

W( t )

5 .10

1 .10

2 .10

3 .10 t

4 .10

5 .10

Fig. 5. Stored energy.

The stored energy decays to zero, but it then goes negative as our imaginary inductor pumps out energy at a rapidly-increasing rate. One of the things that we can learn from this example is that estimating values for coupling coefficients can easily produce a nonphysical circuit. Trying to simulate such a circuit may produce frustration as one tries to figure out why the circuit won't converge.

Acknowledgement
Thanks to my manager, Dr. David J. Christie, for reviewing the presentation and providing helpful comments and suggestions Also, thanks to Dr. James H. Spreen for his continuing guidance

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