Structure of Sentence

STRUCTURE REVISION
Structure 1
Example
- Japanese cars are better than American cars.
American cars arent as good as Japanese cars.
- Siemens is not as profitable as Uniliver.
Uniliver is more profitable than Siemens.
- This problem is more difficult than the previous one.
The previous problem isnt so (as) difficult as this one.
Practice
Finish the following sentences so that it is as similar in meaning as possible to the one
printed before it.
1. I can't cook as well as my mother does.
My mother...................................................................................................................
2. The Colombian coffee cost more than the Kenyan coffee.
The Kenyan coffee ......................................................................................................
Structure 2
A.
Example
- The office is not big enough for us to work in.
The office is so small that we cant work in it.
It is such a small office that we cant work in it.
131
Practice
printed before it.
1. The software is smart enough to detect and correct any mistakes.
The software ...............................................................................................................
2. Richard is tall enough to change light bulbs in some rooms without having to stand on a
chair.
Richard is ...................................................................................................................
B.
Example
- Our tax laws are so complicated that we cant understand them.
Our tax laws are too complicated for us to understand.
Our tax laws are not simple enough for us to understand.
Practice
printed before it.
1.
Emerging markets are so volatile that we shouldnt invest in them.

Emerging markets........................................................................................................
2. Rents in the city are so high that we cant have an office there.
Rents in the city...........................................................................................................
3. It was such a bad manual that I couldnt understand it.
The manual..................................................................................................................
Structure 3
Example
It is very important to be punctual.
To be punctual is very important.
132
Practice
printed before it.
1. Its difficult to understand what shes talking about.
To understand..............................................................................................................
2. It is very relaxing to spend a day in the country.
To spend......................................................................................................................
Structure 4
HAD BETTER
+ V
HAD BETTER NOT + V
ADVISE + obj. + TO V
ADVISE + obj. + NOT TO V
Example
- You had better leave the company as soon as possible.
Id advise him to leave the company as soon as possible.
- Youd better not accept any offer.
I advise you not to accept any offer.
Practice
printed before it.
1. Youd better not lend him any more money.
I strongly advised you.. ..........................
2. Youd better put your money in the bank.
I advise........................................................................................................................
Structure 5
133
A.
Example
- I'd rather listen to music than watch TV.
I prefer listening to music to watching TV.
B. Note that would rather is followed by a bare infinitive without to, whereas prefer
requires to + infinitive. Would rather (but not would prefer to) is also followed by a past
tense when we want to involve other people in the action, even though it has a present or
future meaning.
S1 + would rather + S2 + simple past
Study the following:
Shall we go out for dinner tonight? ~ No, I'd rather we ate at home, if you don't mind.
Shall I write to Harry and tell him that we've sold the car? ~ I'd rather you didn't.
Practice
printed before it.
1. He prefers golf to tennis.
He'd rather ..................................................................................................................
2. I'd prefer you to sign the contract without any further delay.
I'd rather .....................................................................................................................
3. I prefer travelling by train to driving.
I would rather .............................................................................................................
4. I prefer working at home to commuting to the office.
I would rather .............................................................................................................
5. I would prefer you not to smoke in here.
I'd rather ......................................................................................................................
6. I would prefer you to deliver the sofa on Friday.
I would rather ..............................................................................................................
134
Structure 6
Example
- He started running the company three years ago.
He has run the company for three years.
Practice
printed before it.
1. The last time I went to Bristol was three years ago.
I haven't ......................................................................................................................
2. Lucy hasn't worn that dress since Barbara's wedding.
The last .......................................................................................................................
3. Phoenix started producing books for children in 1999.
Phoenix has .................................................................................................................
Structure 7
Example
- We cannot expand much more rapidly because we dont have the finance.
If we had the finance, we could expand much more rapidly.
- My brother didn't buy that car because he didn't have enough money.
If my brother had had enough money, he would have bought that car
Practice
printed before it.
1. We cannot have cheaper goods because our labour costs are high.
If ..............................................................................................................................
2. The accident happened because the train driver ignored a warning light.
If the train driver .
135
Structure 8
A. STATEMENTS
Statement
Indirect
Statement
say/said (that)
S+
S+V
tell/told + obj (that)
Example
- She said, "I work for IBM."
She said (that) she worked for IBM.
- We are not planning to set up a subsidiary. The Managing Director said.
The Managing Director said (that) he was/ we were not planning to set up a
subsidiary.
Notes:
Changes in tenses
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Simple Present
Simple Past
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
Simple Past
Past Perfect
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Simple Future (will + v)
Present Conditional (would + v)
Future Perfect (will have + v)
Perfect Conditional (would have +v)
Present Conditional (would + v)
Perfect Conditional (would have + v)
Changes in time and place

Direct speech
Indirect speech
today
that day
tonight
that night
yesterday
the day before / earlier
the day before yesterday
two days before
tomorrow
the next / following day
the day after tomorrow
in two days time
136
last week / year, etc
the previous week/year, etc
next week/year, etc
the following week/year, etc
a year ago
the previous year/ a year before
these
those
come here
go there
Practice
printed before it.
1. Robert: "My father flew to Dallas last year."
Robert told me that ......................................................................................................
2. They said, "We have just arrived."
They said that ..............................................................................................................
3. Jason: "I will do my best in the exams tomorrow."
Jason told me that ........................................................................................................
4. She said, "I went to the cinema yesterday."
She said .......................................................................................................................
B. QUESTIONS
1. YES/NO QUESTIONS
Example
-The sales manager said to me: Do you know everyone in Marketing?
The sales manager asked me if (whether) I knew everyone in Marketing.
Practice
printed before it.
1. Tom said, Will they accept our offer, Mary?
Tom asked ...................................................................................................................
2. John said to his secretary, "Is Peter coming to the meeting?"
John asked ...................................................................................................................
137
2. WH-QUESTIONS
Example
- When will the shipment arrive? they asked me.
They asked me when the shipment would arrive.
Practice
printed before it.
1. Where is their head office, Sally? asked Ann.
Ann asked....................................................................................................................
2. The director wondered, "How are the negotiations going?"
The director asked .......................................................................................................
C. COMMANDS
Example
- He said to me: Please return the form as soon as possible.
She asked me to return the form as soon as possible.
- He said to me: Dont put any calls through to my office.
He told me not to put any calls through to his office.
Practice
printed before it.
1. John said to me: Dont answer the phone."
John requested .............................................................................................................
2. The director said to his secretary: "Send the letter immediately."
The director asked .......................................................................................................
138
Structure 9
Example
- If sales dont improve soon. We have to cut production
Unless sales improve soon, we have to cut production.
Practice
printed before it.
1. If nothing goes wrong, we will sign the deal tomorrow.
Unless .........................................................................................................................
2. Were not going to get that contract if we dont improve our offer.
We ..............................................................................................................................
3. This project will only be viable if you can cut your overheads.
This project ...............................................................................................................
Structure 10
Example
- I speak terrible English.
I wish I spoke English well.
- They didn't offer me the job.
I wish they had offered the job to me.
- I regret not going to the airport to say goodbye to him.
I wish had gone to the airport to say goodbye to him.
- You are smoking at the moment and it is annoying me.
I wish you would stop smoking.
139
Practice
printed before it.
1. Its unfortunate you didnt manage to give her my message.
I wish ..........................................................................................................................
2. Maria says she'd like to have been put in a higher class.
Maria wishes ...............................................................................................................
3. Mrs Taylor does not like living in such a small house.
Mrs Taylor wishes ......................................................................................................
4. It would be nice to be able to understand the language when I go to France.
I wish ..........................................................................................................................
Structure 11
Form of Passive: Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle

Example
Tense
Simple Present
Simple Past
Present Perfect
Future I
Modal
140
Subject
Verb
Object
writes
a letter.
Active:
Rita
Passive:
A letter
is written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
wrote
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
was written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
has written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
has been written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
will write
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
will be written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
can/must/ should write
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
can/must/ should be written
by Rita.
Tense
Present
Progressive
Past Progressive
Past Perfect
Future II
Conditional I
Conditional II
Subject
Verb
Object
Active:
Rita
is writing
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
is being written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
was writing
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
was being written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
had written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
had been written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
will have written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
will have been written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
would write
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
would be written
by Rita.
Active:
Rita
would have written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter
would have been written
by Rita.
Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Subject
Verb
Object 1
Object 2
Active:
Rita
wrote
a letter
to me.
Passive:
A letter
was written
to me
by Rita.
Practice
printed before it.
1. The secretary has just finished the report.
The report....................................................................................................................
2. You can cancel the contract within five business days.
The contract.................................................................................................................
3. We will deliver the goods immediately.
The goods....................................................................................................................
4. They were painting the outside of the ship when the accident happened.
The outside ..................................................................................................................
5. Our teacher is going to punish that student.
That student.................................................................................................................
6. Rachel will give you some advice.
You .............................................................................................................................
141
Structure 12
Example
- Ill have a local garage service my car.
I'll have my car serviced by a local garage.
- John got a friend to type all of his papers.
John got all of his papers typed.
Practice
printed before it.
1. Ill get the accounts department to send them a cheque immediately.
I
..............................................................................................................................
2. I have my secretary check these figures for me.

I
..............................................................................................................................
Structure 13
Example
- Though he was inexperienced, he got a good salary.
Despite his inexperience, he got a good salary.
- Belinda went to the party although she felt depressed.
In spite of feeling depressed, Belinda went to the party
Practice
printed before it.
1. Although he had a good salary, he was unhappy in his job.
In spite ................................................................................................................................
2. Though we hadn't finished the report, we sent it to the client.
Despite ...
142
Structure 14
Example
- Because she behaves well, everybody loves her.
Because of her good behaviour, everybody loves her.
- We didn't arrive until seven o'clock because the traffic was terrible
Because of the terrible traffic we didn't arrive until seven o'clock.
Practice
printed before it.
1. She found the exam easy because she had worked hard during the course.
Because of...................................................................................................................
2. Since they have no salary, they may be asking us for a loan unless we go on holiday
tomorrow.
Due to .........................................................................................................................
Structure 15
Example
- The flight to Hanoi lasts an hour and a half.
It takes an hour and a half to fly to Hanoi.
Practice
printed before it.
1. It is a six-hour drive from London to Edinburgh.
It takes.........................................................................................................................
2. When Mary wanted a new car, she had to save up for a year.
It took..........................................................................................................................
143
Structure 16
Example
- I didn't know how to use a computer until I was ten.
It was not until I was ten that I knew how to use a computer.
Practice
printed before it.
1. The noise did not stop until after midnight.
It was not.....................................................................................................................
2. Shirley didn't begin to read until she was eight.
It wasn't .......................................................................................................................
3. I didnt realize that I had left my dictionary at home until I arrived at the classroom.
It was not.....................................................................................................................
Structure 17
Example
- I havent seen her for three weeks.
Its three weeks since I last saw her.
Practice
printed before it.
1. Robert and Catherine have been married for four years.
It's ................................................................................................................................
2. John hasn't had his car repaired for over six months.
It is ..............................................................................................................................
144
Structure 18
A. YES / NO QUESTIONS
Example
- Is he coming to the party this evening?
Do you know if (whether) he is coming to the party this evening?
Practice
printed before it.
1. Have you applied for a similar position before?
Could you....................................................................................................................
2. Must we be here by six or can we come a little later?
Wed ...........................................................................................................................
B. WH-QUESTIONS
Example
- When does Alice usually arrive?
Do you know when Alice usually arrives?
Practice
printed before it.
1. What do you like most about your present job?
Could you ...................................................................................................................
2. Which newspaper did you see the advertisement in?
Do you ........................................................................................................................
145
Structure 19
Example
- As it is hotter, I feel more miserable.
The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel.
Practice
printed before it.
1. As T.V programmes become more popular, they seem to get worse.
The more .....................................................................................................................
2. That worker works better when he does not have enough time.
The less .......................................................................................................................
Structure 20
Example
- "Why don't you apply for the job, Ann?" said Sue.
Sue suggested that Ann should apply for the job.
Practice
printed before it.
1. Why don't you put an advertisement in the local paper?" they said to me.
They suggested............................................................................................................
2. "Why don't you complain to the company, Peter?" said William.
William suggested ......................................................................................................
146
Structure 21
Example
- When I was a child, I always went to the beach every morning.
When I was a child I used to go to the beach every morning.
Practice
printed before it.
1. I often did the gardening, but I dont have time for it now.
I used to.......................................................................................................................
2. When Ben worked for IBM, he often traveled a lot for his job.
Ben used to .................................................................................................................
Structure 22
Example
- I am accustomed to working under pressure.
I am used to working under pressure.
Practice
printed before it.
1. You will soon be used to living alone.
You .............................................................................................................................
2. When we lived in Bangkok, we were accustomed to hot weather.
We ..............................................................................................................................
Structure 23
Example
- The speaker will not confirm the story and he will not deny the story.
The speaker will neither confirm nor deny the story.
147
Practice
printed before it.
1. Jack is not here and Tom is in another city.
Neither Jack.................................................................................................................
2. We could fly, or we could go by train.
Either ..........................................................................................................................
Structure 24
Example
- He is not only a good leader but also an excellent strategist
He is both a good leader and an excellent strategist.
Practice
printed before it.
1. The new marketing plan will not only improve our position, but also increase our sales
volume.
The new marketing plan ..............................................................................................
2. He writes not only correctly but also neatly.
He writes .....................................................................................................................
Structure 25
Example
- Could we use our dictionaries?
Do you mind if we use our dictionaries?
- Can he come to class with me next week?
Do you mind if he comes to class with me next week?
- May I register for the examination tomorrow?
Do you mind if I register for the examination tomorrow?
148
Practice
printed before it.
1. Can I clean up the mess in the kitchen tomorrow?
Do you.........................................................................................................................
2. May I copy your notes from class yesterday?
Do you.........................................................................................................................
Structure 26
Example
- Could you answer my phone for me, Terry?
Would you mind answering my phone for me, Terry?
Would you please answer my phone for me, Terry?
- Will you mail this letter for me?
Would you mind mailing this letter for me?
Would you please mail this letter for me?
- Would you drive me to the doctor after work today?
Would you mind driving me to the doctor after work today?
Would you please drive me to the doctor after work today?
- Can you pick up some groceries?
Would you mind picking up some groceries?
Would you please pick up some groceries?
Practice
printed before it.
1. Can you deliver one copy for me when you're finished?
Would you...................................................................................................................
2. Would you explain these instructions for the fax machine?
Would you...................................................................................................................
149
Structure 27
Example
- You should repeat the main points at the end of your presentation.
You'd better repeat the main points at the end of your presentation.
Practice
printed before it.
1. If youre not well, you ought to ask Ann to go instead.
If youre ......................................................................................................................
2. Any large amount of company cash should be deposited in the safe.
Wed ..........................................................................................................................
Structure 28
Example
Lets set up a meeting to discuss this.
Why dont we set up a meeting to discuss this?
Practice
printed before it.
1. Lets stop now and carry on again tomorrow.
Why dont ...................................................................................................................
2. Lets organise a leaving party for Bob Simpson..
Why dont ...................................................................................................................
150
Structure 29
INVERSION
Inversion involves putting an auxiliary verb before the subject of a clause. We do this in a
number of different situations:
A. QUESTIONS
The most common use of inversion is in the forming of questions. We use the auxiliary verbs
be (for progressive and passive forms), have (for perfect forms) and do (for most other
forms). Modal verbs can also be inverted to form questions:
Example
Were they ready when you arrived?
Where was it made?
Have you ever visited France?
Where do you live?
What should we do now?
B. SO, NOR and NEITHER
Example
Inversion is common when using these words to express agreement or disagreement.
I'm from Turkey. So am I.
I don't like monsters! Nor/Neither do I.
C. When telling a story in the past time, if an event quickly follows another, these
adverbials and partial inversion is used to express the first event. In the inverted clause
usually past perfect is used. Detailed structures are as follows:
NO SOONER had + S + past participle THAN S + simple past
HARDLY
had + S + past participle WHEN S + simple past
SCARCELY had + S + past participle WHEN S + simple past
Example
- We stepped outside the front door, and it began to rain.
No sooner had we stepped outside the front door than it began to rain.
Hardly had we stepped outside the front door when it began to rain.
Scarcely had we stepped outside the front door when it began to rain.
151
Practice
1. The phone rang as soon as I went to bed.
No sooner ...............................................................................................................................
2. It started to pour with rain torrents after we had started our walk.
Hardly .........................................................................................................................
D. Inversion after NEVER, RARELY, IN / UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES, IN NO
WAY, ONLY, NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO, AT NO TIME, LITTLE etc. in front position.
Example
- We have never faced such a challenge!
Never (before) have we faced such a challenge!
- She rarely understood what the conversation was about.
Rarely did she understand what the conversation was about.
- Peggy didnt know at all where Al had gone.
Little did Peggy know where Al had gone.
- You are not allowed to disturb the pilots under any circumstances.
Under no circumstances are you allowed to disturb the pilots.
- The company will not bear responsibility for lost property on any condition.
On no condition will the company bear responsibility for lost property.
- You were not only late, but you didnt have a good excuse either.
Not only were you late, but you didnt even have a good excuse.
Practice
1. I was never shown how to operate the machinery.
At no time ..........................................................................................................................
2. There are more people out of work in this country than ever before.
Never .................................................................................................................................
3. The only way you can become a good athlete is by training hard every day.
Only by ............................................................................................................................
4. He spent all his money. He even borrowed some money from me.
Not only........................................................................................................................................
5. Whatever happens, you shouldnt phone the police.

Under no circumstances.....................................................................................................
152
E. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
In formal English, the if clause in conditional sentences can be rephrased through inversion:
Example
If you won the election, what's the first thing you'd do?
Were you to win the election, what's the first thing you'd do?
If we had known what the weather would be like, we wouldn't have come.
Had we known what the weather would be like, we wouldn't have come.
Practice
1. If you changed your mind, you'd be welcome to join us.
Were you ...........................................................................................................................
2. He would have lent you his violin if you'd asked him.
Had you .............................................................................................................................
153

Structure of Sentence

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STRUCTURE REVISION

Emerging markets are so volatile that we shouldnt invest in them.

Past Perfect Progressive

Simple Future (will + v)

Present Conditional (would + v)

Future Perfect (will have + v)

Perfect Conditional (would have +v)

Present Conditional (would + v)

Perfect Conditional (would have + v)

Changes in time and place

the day before / earlier

the day before yesterday

two days before

the next / following day

the day after tomorrow

in two days time

last week / year, etc

the previous week/year, etc

next week/year, etc

the following week/year, etc

the previous year/ a year before

Form of Passive: Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle

has been written

can/must/ should write

can/must/ should be written

was being written

had been written

will have written

will have been written

would have written

would have been written

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

2. I have my secretary check these figures for me.

5. Whatever happens, you shouldnt phone the police.

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