Chapter 3

Cell Structure and Genetic Control

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Cells
Cells are the basic functional units of the body. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes. This diversity reflects their diverse functions. Cells do share some common features:
Plasma membrane and associated proteins Cytoplasm and organelles Nucleus (not all cells have one)

A Typical Cell

I. Plasma Membrane and Associated Structures

Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid barrier between the intracellular and extracellular environments
Hydrophobic center of the double membrane restricts the movement of water, water-soluble molecules, and ions. Many substances are selectively allowed to pass through protein channels.

Plasma Membrane

Membrane Proteins
Integral proteins span the membrane. Peripheral proteins are embedded on just one side of the membrane. Functions:
Structural support Transport Enzymatic control of cell processes Receptors for hormones and other molecules Self markers for the immune system

Endocytosis
A strategy for bringing large materials into the cell The plasma membrane furrows inward rather than extending outward. A small part of the membrane surrounding the substance pinches off and is brought in as a vesicle. Pinocytosis: nonspecific Receptor-mediated endocytosis: specific

Endocytosis

Exocytosis
Large cellular products (proteins) are moved out of the cell.
The Golgi apparatus packages proteins into vesicles that fuse to the plasma membrane, and the contents spill out of the cell.

Cilia
Tiny, hairlike structures composed of microtubules that project from the plasma membrane
Motile cilia beat in unison to move substances through hollow organs.
Found in respiratory tract and uterine tubes

Primary cilium may have a sensory function.

Found on almost every cell in the body

Cilia

Microvilli
Folds in the plasma membrane that increase the surface area for rapid diffusion
Examples: intestines and kidney tubules

Microvilli

II. Cytoplasm and Major Organelles

Cytoplasm
Material within a cell
Includes organelles, a fluid called cytosol, and an organized system of microtubules and microfilaments called the cytoskeleton

Cytoskeletal Proteins
Proteins of the cytoskeleton are not immobile. They organize the intracellular environment and allow movement of muscle cells and phagocytic cells. They form the spindle apparatus that pulls chromosomes apart in mitosis. They also serve as a railway system for vesicles and organelles to move along.

Cytoskeleton

Lysosomes
Organelles filled with digestive enzymes
Fuse with food vacuoles after an immune cell engulfs a bacterium or dead cell Primary lysosome: only contains digestive enzymes Secondary lysosome: contains the partially digested contents of the food vacuole or worn-out organelles Residual body: a lysosome filled with waste, which can be expelled through exocytosis

Peroxisomes
Contain enzymes specific to certain oxidative reactions
Found in most cells but most numerous in the liver; often oxidize toxic molecules (such as alcohol) Enzymes used to remove hydrogen from a molecule and transfer it to O2, forming hydrogen peroxide Also contain the enzyme catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide into water and O2

Mitochondria
Sites of energy production
Have an inner membrane and an outer membrane separated by an intermembranous space Inner membrane is folded into cristae

Mitochondria

Mitochondria
Most cells have mitochondria, and there can be thousands of mitochondria in a single cell.
Mitochondria can migrate around the cell and can make copies of themselves.

Ribosomes
Protein factories of the cell
Messenger RNA takes genetic information to the ribosome so a protein can be assembled. Very small Found free in the cytoplasm or associated with the rough ER

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER is also called granular ER.
Has ribosomes Functions in protein modification

Smooth ER is also called agranular ER.

Has many functions, e.g. lipid and carbohydrate metabolism

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Complex (Apparatus)

Consists of stacks of flattened sacs
One side receives proteins from the ER. These are packaged in vesicles and bud off to fuse with the plasma membrane for exocytosis.

Golgi Complex (Apparatus)

III. Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression

Cell Nucleus
Most cells have one nucleus.
Muscle cells have hundreds; RBCs have none.

The nucleus is enclosed by the nuclear envelope made of two membranes (outer and inner membranes)

Cell Nucleus

DNA and Genes

The nucleus contains DNA. A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
The gene on the DNA is transcribed as messenger RNA, which can leave the cell. The messenger RNA is then translated at the ribosome to assemble the proper amino acid sequence. These two steps can be called genetic expression.

Genome
The genome is all the genes in a particular individual or all the genes of a particular species.
Researchers believe humans have ~25,000 genes.

Chromatin
DNA in the nucleus is packaged with proteins called histones to form chromatin.

From DNA to Protein

Add a single slide to include: transcription, translation, protein

Protein Synthesis
Also called translation
mRNA attaches to a string of ribosomes to form a polyribosome.

Protein Synthesis
The proper amino acids in a polypeptide chain are coded for by regions of 3 nucleotides on the mRNA called a codon.

IV. DNA Synthesis and Cell Division

DNA Replication
Before cell division, each DNA molecule must replicate itself so that one of each copy can be distributed to the two new cells.

DNA Replication
Involves many enzymes e.g. DNA polymerase attaches complementary nucleotides to the exposed strand.
Two new molecules are being made from the original one, each with half old and half new DNA. This is called semiconservative replication.

V. The Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle

Divided into interphase and mitosis Interphase is divided into:
G1 S G2

Mitosis is divided into:

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

The Cell Cycle

Interphase
Nondividing cell. Some cells never divide so are always in interphase.
Lots of RNA synthesis occurring G1phase: The cell is performing the functions characteristic of cells in that tissue.

Interphase
S phase: If a cell is going to divide, it performs DNA replication in the S phase. G2 phase: Chromosomes start to condense.
Consist of two strands called sister chromatids joined by a centromere.

Mitosis
Prophase: Chromosomes become visible.
Metaphase: Chromatids line up in the center of the cell.
Attached to spindle fibers

Mitosis
Anaphase: Centromeres split as the spindle fibers shorten and pull chromatids to opposite sides.
Telophase: Cytoplasm is divided and cells separate.

Meiosis
Process by which two cell division steps produce gametes (ova and sperm)
Only occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes)

Meiosis I
Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair up.
Parts are often swapped in a process called crossover.

Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.

Cells line up at random; maternal and paternal chromosomes are shuffled. Crossover and shuffling result in genetic diversity.

Crossover

Meiosis I
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart. Telophase I: Homologous chromosomes are separated. This results in two daughter cells with 23 chromosomes each.
This is reduction division since each cell now has half as many chromosomes. Necessary for sexual reproduction

Meiosis II
Proceeds like mitosis with phases prophase II through telophase II. Sister chromatids line up in the center of the cell. Centromeres are broken and pulled to opposite poles. Results in 4 cells with 23 chromosomes each.

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