OVERVIEW OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Theodore J. Reinhart

1 . 1 INTRODUCTION

Composite materials are macroscopic combinations of two or more distinct materials having a discrete and recognizable interface separating them. Thus composites are heterogeneous materials, and many are naturally occurring; the most common is wood. The composites of interest in this discussion, however, are the synthetic, man-made materials, possessing high strength and/or stiffness relative to weight which are used in high performance structural applications because of these properties. Figure 1.1 shows the strength- and stiffness-to-weight relationships for several fibers when arrayed in unidirectional laminates. The narrower definition of composites becomes more specific and can be restricted to those combinations of materials that contain high strength/stiffness fiber reinforcements supported by a high performance matrix material. Fibers and matrix materials may be organic or inorganic in chemical make up. Normally the fibrous reinforcement material is referred to as the discontinuous phase and the matrix material as the continuous phase. The primary engineering properties of the composite are derived predominantly from the mechanical and physical properties of the discontinuous phase, the fiber reinforcement. These are the fiber-dominated properties of the composite. Increasing the fiber volume

fraction results in increases in the levels of mechanical properties up to the point where there is insufficient matrix material to support the fibers and to transfer load within the composite. The matrix is the adhesive binder that supports the fibers under compressive loads, provides shear capabilities in two dimensional fiber lay-ups, and transfers loads internally in the composite among the myriad fibers and fiber bundles that comprise the load-carrying portions of the composite material. In twodimensional composites the matrix provides the basic resistance to impact damage and delamination.

Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published in 1998by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7

Fig. 1 . 1 Plot o f specific tensile strength to specific tensile modulus for commercially available composites.

22 Overview of composite materials Matrix materials may be selected from metallic, ceramic and organic resin materials. With perhaps the exception of ceramic matrix composites, the matrix material is not as strong or as stiff as the discontinuous phase or fiber material. There are many exceptions or perhaps special cases to these statements. Many organic resin matrix materials are modified to increase toughness by the addition of small amounts of rubber base or thermoplastic modifiers, thus forming a discontinuous phase of particles within the continuous matrix phase of the composite. The classes of fiberreinforced composites are usually related to the form of the fibrous reinforcing material and include continuous, long discontinuous and short discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites. Complicating the straightforward classification are the forms of the reinforcement, such as woven, unwoven, braided, knitted and orthogonal arrays of reinforcements. All of the above are possible and each provides a unique set of engineering properties. The available levels of engineering properties are governed by fiber length, fiber orientation and fiber volume fraction. Continuous and long discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites offer maximum levels of translation of fiber properties into useful composite engineering properties. Decreases in fiber length are accompanied by a decline in composite engineering properties. At some point in this fiber length decrease the composite properties will approach those of a system filled with particulate materials. Continuous fiber-reinforced composites are normally fabricated via a ply by ply lay-up technique resulting in a laminar (layered) construction, which may be converted, before or after impregnation with the matrix, but prior to consolidation and cure, to a three-dimensional composite. Figure 1.2 shows the wide range of composite constituent materials, and manufacturing and fabrication options. High performance composites offer combinations of engineering properties which cannot be achieved using homogeneous metallic alloy structural materials such as aluminum, titanium and steel, and may provide a higher level of these properties. The largest volume usage of structural composites in industrial, aerospace, commercial and military applications is based upon resin matrix fiberreinforced composites. Thus these composites will be emphasized throughout this volume. High performance composite materials were developed by the US Air Force Materials Laboratory in a systematic search for structural materials that could offer weight savings over the conventional materials. This large and comprehensive R&D program to develop composites was initiated in response to a general

RESIN TYPE

RElNFORCEMENT TYPE
LONG CONTINUOUS

FIBER PLACEMENT

PROCESS

---

\ '

MAT

-===I:----- PULTRUSION

COMPRESSION MOLDING INJECTION MOLDING

THERMOPLASTIC PARTICULATE

*TRANSFER MOLDING THERMOSTAMPING

Fig. 1 . 2 Display of composite constituent materials and manufacturing options.

lntroduction 23
call from the using communities for structural materials that could reduce weight and reduce corrosion and fatigue problems in aircraft components. Fiberglass reinforced resin base composites have been used successfully in filament wound rocket motor cases as well as in various other aircraft and missile applications. Fiberglass reinforced composites in general lacked the stiffness that is desired in h g h performance structural applications in aircraft, missiles and spacecraft. The search for higher modulus glass fibers met with only limited success, however the use of boron, carbon, graphite and other compositions resulted in a technological breakthrough and provided a new class of structural materials called Advanced Composites. More recent developments have led to the commercialavailability of a wide range of high strength, high stiffness fiber materials, both organic and inorganic in nature, for use in high performance composite applications. Advanced composite materials, while basically more expensive as a raw material, more expensive and complicated to design with, more difficult to characterize, more expensive to manufacture and assemble and more difficult to inspect when compared to conventional structural metallic materials, have found significant commercial, recreational, and military applications. Inexpensive fiberglass reinforced plastic composites, initially put to broad use in the 1950s, are found in a variety of industrial and consumer products from automotive and truck applications, to corrosion resistant piping and construction, to large and small water craft. The service performance of these materials in the above and many other applications has been highly satisfactory. Advanced composites have found extensive applications in many areas where cost is secondary to performance. Sporting and recreational applications including golf club shafts, fishing rods, and skis, have provided a significant market and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Military applications, while presently decreasing, and the commercial airplane producers, specifically Boeing and Aerospaciale, will continue to be a market for advanced composites. Large scale applications in transportation, both air and ground, and in the civil engineering infrastructure arena are and will continue to be an unrealized goal for advanced composite materials at least in the near term. Fibers are inherently stronger than the bulk form of a material for a number of reasons. Two major reasons are (i) the fibers small diameter with the probability of fewer flaws and (ii) the opportunity to align or preferentially orient molecular or crystal structure. All structural materials fail mechanically because of the formation, propagation and growth of flaws. Since composite construction provides very large numbers of load-carrying fibers, catastrophic failure requires the failure of many fibers. This situation then provides many early warning signs when significant damage is accumulating in a fiber-reinforced composite structure. Fibrous materials such S-glass, (Kevlar 49) aramid, Spectra, boron and the many types of carbon fibers produced commercially possess specific properties (strength/density) and (modulus/density) many times greater than structural alloys of aluminum, titanium or steel. However, when the fibers are combined with a matrix into a near quasi-isotropic lay-up, a highly useful engineering form of the material, the specific properties are greatly reduced but are still superior compared to conventional homogeneous metallic materials. Figure 1.1 plots the specific tensile strength versus the specific tensile modulus for a number of unidirectional composites and compares them to steel, aluminum and titanium materials. These are calculated values based upon literature fiber values and 65 vol.% fiber content. It can readily be seen that these high performance fiber materials form the basis for the advanced composites technology. The wide variety of materials that can be combined to form composites having highly acceptable levels of

24 Overview of composite materials engineering properties can make the selection certain threshold stress levels. The phenomenon known as stress-rupture failure has been of specific materials a challenging task. This introduction will present the basic thoroughly investigated by researchers in the materials, design factors, material forms and industry and government. The glass fiber that is the industry standard fabrication methods used in the manufacture and assembly of advanced composite compo- is E-glass, which is a calcium aluminoborosilicate formulation having very good mechanical nents. and electrical characteristics at very reasonable cost. Average mechanical property levels 1.2 GLASS FIBERS for individual filaments are 3450 MPa (500 ksi) The development of glass fibers on a commer- for tensile strength and 72.4 GPa (10.5 x lo6psi) cial scale was the enabling technology that for Youngs modulus. Extensive research has allowed the glass fiber-reinforced organic been conducted to develop glass fibers posresin matrix composite industry to begin. The sessing higher strength and stiffness initial understanding of organic matrix com- characteristics. Glass formulations producing filaments of posites was based on glass fiber reinforcement. Glass fiber composites of all descriptions increased strength and stiffness have been have found extensive and successful applica- found to be toxic (beryllium glasses) or very tions including low performance non-structural high melting and difficult to handle in comapplications as well as high performance struc- mercial scale equipment. S-glass fibers contain tural applications. The applications range from a higher percentage of alumina compared to the building construction trades, to auto, truck E-glass. Filament strength, modulus and meltand rail transportation, seagoing applications ing point are higher than E-glass. Typical including high performance racing craft and filament strength and stiffness are close to commercial and military aerospace. Specific 4600 MPa (670 ksi) and 85.5 GPa (12.4 x lo6psi). The technology developed using glass applications involve, decorative panels, appliances, ship and boat hulls, light aircraft and fiber-reinforced resin matrix composites glider construction, nearly all forms of recre- resulted in many high performance applicaational equipment, high pressure gas tions, and was the start of the effort to develop containers and rocket motor casings. This wide stronger and stiffer fibers to meet high perforspread use of glass fiber-reinforced organic mance structural needs in commercial and composites and their continued future growth military aerospace applications. Figure 1.3 is due to many factors, including: cost, avail- shows the installation of a large commercial ability, handling and processing ability, useful fiberglass composite pipe. properties and characteristics and past good Closely related to the E- and S-glasses are the experience in service. Many improvements to high silica and quartz fibers produced commerglass fiber composites have been made over the cially for highly specialized applications in years including the development of hghly ben- rocket motors and electrical windows. High sileficial silane coupling agents. These agents, ica fibers are produced by chemically leaching which can be tailored for compatibility with the highly soluble components from E-glass almost any resin matrix, provide a higher level fibers and then consolidating the fibers by a of engineering properties and environmental heat treatment. These fibers contain upwards of durability far exceeding earlier composites. 95% silica. Glass fiber composites provide high levels of Quartz fibers are drawn from mineral engineering properties, however the glass fiber quartz rods using oxy-hydrogen or laser heatsurface is sensitive to moisture attack under ing sources. Commercially available fibers are certain conditions of exposure and above 99.95% silica. Quartz fibers typically have

Carbon/graphitefibers 25

<

Fig. 1.3 Underwater installation of a large fiberglasscomposite pipe.

organic precursor fibers such as rayon or polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The process, shown in Fig. 1.4, involves highly controlled steps including heat treatment and tension, to trans1.3 CARBON/GRAPHITE FIBERS form the organic precursor into a highly The search for advanced fibers led to the ordered carbon or graphitic structure. Carbon development of carbon and graphite fibers. and graphite fibers are also produced from These fibers are currently the best known and pitch base precursor materials. Although the most widely utilized in high performance potential for low cost exists, complex processresin base composites. Primarily developed ing steps involved in the pitch treatment have for military aerospace applications, these prevented the production of really low cost materials have found wide-spread commer- fibers. US manufactured pitch base carbon and cial and industrial applications. This situation graphite fibers while having a very high modhas resulted in the availability of a wide vari- ulus, up to 830GPa (120 x 106psi), have ety of fibers having various levels of engineering properties at costs once thought unachievable. These materials are now available on a world wide basis at competitive prices and are now experiencing increasing levels of interest for applications such as commercial aerospace, ground transportation and the infrastructure. The production of carbon/graphite fibers is well suited to large scale continuous operation where economies of scale operate effectively and the stability of operating conditions provides a narrow band of fiber mechanical properties. Carbon fibers are produced com- Fig. 1.4 Conceptualized production process for carmercially by the thermal decomposition of bon fiber manufacture.

similar mechanical properties as the E-glass materials but have a much higher melting point.

26 Overview of composite materials demonstrated low tensile properties and thus have not been seriously considered for high performance structural applications. Advances in PAN precursor carbon fiber technology have resulted in cost reductions and properties increases which have improved the status of these materials in high performance structural applications. PAN base carbon fibers are now commercially available having modulus values of 280450 GPa (40-65 x lo6psi) and tensile strengths of 4140-5170 MPa (600-750 h i ) and some versions up to 6890 MPa (1000 ksi) in tensile strength. High fiber elongation has long been considered a very desirable trait. Elongations of 2% and above are highly desirable and provide toughness in the composite that low elongation fibers (<l.8%) cannot provide. Since high strain fibers must be coupled with a tough matrix resin the availability of these fibers has stimulated the introduction of new formulations of high elongation resin matrix materials. In many instances in aerospace applications, compression is the design controlling factor. The new high strength, high modulus carbon fibers have smaller diameters thus requiring higher levels of support from the resin under compression loading. Thus, the limiting factor becomes resin shear modulus and the newer fibers have not resulted in increased levels of compression strength in the composite.
1.4 ORGANIC FIBERS
1.4.1 ARAMID

applications in high performance structural applications. The high tensile strength and low density of aramid fibers allowed applications in filament wound pressure vessels and rocket motor cases replacing S-glass. Combined with its lower density and high levels of properties, very lightweight structures resulted. Aramid fibers are highly damage- and cut-resistant and provide high levels of damage tolerance to composite components. Other applications involved aramid usage in lightly loaded secondary structures on commercial aircraft and helicopters, reducing structural weight compared to glass composites. Issues in the use of these fibers have involved moisture absorption by the fiber, relatively low adhesion to most resin matrix materials, low compression properties and difficult machining compared to other composites.
1.4.2 OTHER ORGANIC FIBERS

Aramid is a generic term for the class of aromatic-polyamide fibers produced using para-phenylene terephthalamide. These materials were introduced by E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc. in the 1960s. Competing fibers are now produced in Europe and Asia. Although organic polymer fibers can be produced that have fiber tensile strength and modulus values approaching the mid-range carbon fibers, low fiber compression capabilities have limited organic fiber composites

Continuing research into the various other rigid rod molecule fiber forming polymers including the spinning of polyethylene fibers by Allied Chemical Co. and others has resulted in high performance organic fibers that are finding specialized and general commercial applications. Spectra fiber, a high performance product spun from polyethylene offers high abrasion resistance, high strength, and high modulus at a very low density. This material has found use in combat equipment for both ground troops and aviators. Recreational uses of this material include ship sails and lines. Applications of Spectra are limited to temperatures of about 120C (250F) due to its low crystallite melting point.
1.4.3 PBO AND PBT FIBERS

High modulus high strength organic fibers have been prepared by the Air Force Materials Laboratory from the rigid rod molecules of poly (p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO) and poly (p-phenylene benzobisthiazole)

Other inorganicfibers 27
(PBT). These rigid rod polymers yield high technology, carbon-epoxy composites still modulus fibers due to their high degree of cannot compare in compression properties to aromaticity, high planarity, and linearity in those of boron-epoxy. the chain. These polymers in general are diffiBoron-epoxy composites have been used in cult to process into fiber due to their the sporting goods industry and boron fibers infusability and insolubility in anything have been used in metal matrix composites except the most powerful organic solvents (MMC) because of their excellent mechanical such as methanesulfonic acid or concentrated properties, thermal stability, and reduced reacphosphoric acid. tivity with the matrix (compared to carbon The h g h axial molecular orientation whch fibers). In order to prevent reaction between leads to extreme anisotropy of mechanical the boron fiber and the molten metal matrix properties is a distinctive feature of rigid rod during MMC production, boron fibers were, molecule fibers. While tensile strength and until recently, available with silicon carbide or modulus may in some instances be competitive boron carbide coatings that acted as diffusion with carbon fibers the transverse properties of barriers. Boron fibers with these coatings are the fiber are less than 20% of the axial proper- no longer commercially available because silities. In tension the axial characteristics con carbide fibers are now replacing boron in dominate and excellent properties are achieved. metal matrix composites. Boron fibers are produced as a rather large In compression and flexure the low transverse properties result in low mechanical properties monofilament fiber or 'wire' (100-200 pm or in composites of PBO and PBT fibers. 4-8 mils) by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) High modulus organic fibers have not of boron onto a tungsten or pyrolyzed carbon found serious applications in structural com- substrate. The resulting fibers have excellent posites due to their poor compressive strength (3450 MPa or 500 ksi) and stiffness (400GPa or 58 x 106psi)).However, because performance and relatively high cost. both the precursor gases and the manufacturing process are inherently expensive, boron 1.5 BORON FIBERS fibers cannot compete with carbon fibers on Boron fiber in organic resin matrices was ini- the basis of cost. tially developed by the Air Force Materials Laboratory in the early 1960s and became the 1.6 OTHER INORGANIC FIBERS first high performance reinforcement for use in structural composite materials. Early appli- Continuous filament forms of other inorganic cation of these fibers was found on the US Air fibers are also now commercially available. Force F-15 and the US Navy F-14 fighter air- Silicon carbide (Sic) fiber is produced from craft. Boron composites in honeycomb CVD of Sic by a method similar to that used in structure were utilized in the empennage boron fiber production. Sic fibers are also prostructure of these aircraft. Subsequent studies duced from an organic borosilane precursor have found that carbon-epoxy composites that is spun and pyrolyzed to produce silicon could be utilized in these aircraft to reduce carbide. Aluminum oxide fibers are produced costs of the composite structure. Considering in both the mono and polycrystalline forms. the enormous changeover costs involved in Advanced forms of ceramic fibers are now such a project and the limited production under intensive development for use in metal quantities of these aircraft remaining to be matrix composites for high temperature turproduced it has been determined that return bine engine applications. on investment costs would not be achieved. In spite of the advances made in carbon fiber

28

Overview of composite materials

and bodies, appliances, bathtubs and showers and automobile hoods, decks, and doors. The very large number of resin formulations, curing agents, fillers, and other components provide a tremendous range of possible properties. The resulting resin systems include such types as general purpose, chemically resistant and heat resistant, with general-purpose polyester and vinyl ester resin composites being the most widely used by far. The development of highly effective silane coupling agents for glass fibers allowed the fabrication of glass fiber reinforced polyester and vinyl ester composites having excellent mechanical properties and acceptable environmental durability. These enhanced characteristics have been the major factors in the widespread use of these composites today. The problems of attaining adequate adhesion to carbon and aramid fibers have discouraged the development of applications for polyester or vinyl ester composites that use these fibers. Although there are applications of high performance fiberglass composites in military and aerospace structures, the relatively poor properties of advanced composites of polyester and vinyl ester resins when used with other fibers, combined with the comparatively large cure shrinkage of these resins, have generally restricted such composites to lower-performance applications.
1.8 EPOXY RESINS

1.7 MATRICES

As stated above, the purpose of the composite matrix is to bind the fibers together by virtue of its cohesive and adhesive characteristics, to transfer load to and between fibers, and to protect them from environments and handling. In continuous multifilament composites the fiber dominated properties form the basis for useful engineering properties of the material. In such composites the matrix material is subjected to high levels of strain magnification caused by the close proximity of the fiber and fiber bundles and becomes subject to failure by cracking. Thus the matrix is the 'weak link' in the composite, especially because resins do not presently exist that allow utilization of the stresses that the fibers are able to withstand. Thus, when the composite is under load, resins may microcrack and craze, form larger cracks through coalescence of microcracks, debond from the fiber surface, and generally break down at composite strains far lower than desired. Thermoplastic and toughened thermosetting matrices have been developed that allow increased composite strain levels but still do not provide for full fiber property translation. Nevertheless, the matrix resin provides many essential functions; in addition to those mentioned above, the matrix keeps the reinforcing fibers in the proper orientation and position so that they can carry the intended loads, distributes the loads more or less evenly among the fibers, provides resistance to crack propagation and damage, and provides all of the interlaminar shear strength of the composite. Furthermore, the matrix generally determines the overall service temperature limitations of the composite, and may also control its environmental resistance. Polyester and vinyl ester resins are the most widely used of all matrix materials. They are utilized mainly in commercial, industrial, and transportation applications, including chemicallv resistant pipinn I I " and reactors. truck cabs
J -

Epoxy resin R&D has provided a rich and high performing family of resin materials that have found extensive commercial and aerospace applications. Epoxy resins have demonstrated a tendency to absorb moisture both in the green or uncured and the cured stages. This property poses engineering limitations and resulted in the development of the cyanate, bismaleimide, and thermoplastic materials to be covered later in this introduction. Although epoxies are sensitive to moisture they are generally superior to polyesters in resisting other environmental influences, and

Cyanate resins 29
offer better mechanical properties. Even though No degradation of the composite materials the elongation to failure of most cured epoxies has been observed even after over 20 years of is relatively low, epoxies provide an attractive service exposure. The moisture absorption of combination of handling characteristics, pro- epoxy resins causes a decrease in the glass trancessing flexibility, composite mechanical sition temperature (Tg) of the material and properties, ease of manufacture, and acceptable limits (for conservative engineering practice) cost. Recent developments include modified epoxy resins to use at temperatures not exceedepoxy resin formulations that have improved ing the wet T of the cured material. While this elongation capabilities. In addition, a substan- use limitatio$is conservative, its imposition has tial data base exists for epoxy resins since both generally avoided unwanted service experience the US Air Force and the US Navy have been problems. Figure 1.7 shows the range of comflying aircraft with epoxy matrix structural posite applications on the C-5 cargo aircraft. components since 1972, and the in-service experience with these components has been very 1.9 CYANATE RESINS satisfactory. Figures. 1.5 and 1.6 show epoxy composite applications on the AV-8B horizontal The more recent commercial availability of stabilizer and forward fuselage. cyanate resins from a number of commercial

A L u no I r

rF-

(c

-71

e-

TE STRUCTUR

'- TOROUF BOX

LOWER SKIN WITH INTFGRAL SPARS

Fig. 1 . 5 Application of epoxy composites to the horizontal stabilizer of the AV-8B aircraft.

30 Overview of composite materials

Fig. 1.6 Application of epoxy composites to the forward fuselage of the AV-8B aircraft.

sources has provided a matrix material generally tougher and far more moisture resistant compared to epoxies. Thus they possess better electrical characteristicsand are not subjected to the so called hot/wet Tg service temperature reduction. The lack of a data base and manufacturing experience base tend to inhibit the introduction of the cyanate materials into new systems.
1.10 BISMALEIMIDE RESINS

epoxies in maximum hot/wet use temperature, extending the safe in-service temperature to 205-220C (400430F) or higher. They are available from a number of suppliers. The BMI materials have been selected for structural applications on the US Air Force F-22 fighter in combination with carbon fiber reinforcements.
1.11 OTHER THERMOSETTING RESINS

BMIs have a very competitive set of features including; toughness, moisture resistance, ease of handling and manufacture and good engineering properties. They are superior to

Polyimide resins including the PMR (Polymerization of Monomeric Reactants) and acetylene terminated versions are available and possess service temperature capabilities, in air, close to 260C (500F). Applications in

Thermoplastic resins 31

Nonstructural parts, liners, troop seats

7
v
0

Carbon/Epoxy Carbon/Kevlar/Epoxy

m GFRP/Nornexcore m Kevlar/foarn core

Kevlar/Nomex CarbonlNornex

Fig. 1 . 7 Composite applications on the C-5 cargo aircraft; total weight of composites: 7167 kg (15 787 lb); weight saving: 1997 kg (4398 lb).

sulfide (PPS),polyether ketone ketone (PEKK) and several others. Most thermoplastic matrices do not absorb any significant amount of water, but organic solvent resistance is an area of concern for the noncrystalline thermoplastics. Because thermoplastic matrices have an unlimited shelf life before molding (unlike thermosetting matrices), and because they can 1.12 THERMOPLASTIC RESINS potentially be remolded by the application of The families of amorphous and semicrys- heat and pressure, thermoplastic matrix comtalline thermoplastic materials have been posites also offer the possibility of lower-cost thoroughly evaluated for use as matrix resins. fabrication. However, cross-linking or thermal Thermoplastic matrix materials are generally degradation with repeated temperature tougher than most thermoset resins and offer cycling is a concern with most of the systems. the potential of improved hot/wet resistance. The fabrication procedures necessary for the Because of their high strains to failure, they low-cost manufacture of thermoplastic matrix also are the only matrices currently available composites have been extensively studied, that allow thermoforming and other forms of including effort to determine and understand rapid manufacture to be utilized. the mechanical properties obtained from the The thermoplastic resin materials include various techniques currently available for fabpolyether ether ketone (PEEK),polyphenylene ricating thermoplastic matrix composites.

military turbine engine casings (liners) and electronics form the major present day applications for these materials. Lack of toughness and difficulty in handling and in manufacture characterize this family of heat resistant organic matrix materials.

32 Overview of composite materials

Thermoplastic composites are deemed to be a mature technology and will compete with other composites on a properties and cost basis.
1 . 1 3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

craft (Fig. 1.8) that successfully circumnavigated the earth non-stop.

1.14 MATERIAL FORMS

The design of a high performance composite structural component should be based upon a thorough understanding of the service conditions to be encountered. The 'building block' approach has been found successful in the design of both aircraft and spacecraft structural components. A comprehensive properties data base is required for this process. The database is obtained by a thorough program of coupon, subelement and element fabrication test and failure analysis. The building block program must account for properties in the as-manufactured article including variables induced by worker skill levels, tooling and suppliers, etc. An example of combining these diverse building blocks was the rapid design and manufacture of the all composite Voyager air-

Reinforcing fibers are commercially available in many product forms including monofilaments for fibers such as boron on silicon carbide to multifilament fiber bundles. Product forms include unidirectional ribbons and broadgoods up to 152 cm (60 ins) wide to single and multiple layer fabrics and mats that may or may not be stitched in the Z direction. These same forms are available combined with the matrix resin of choice for a particular component. Using prepregs rather than in-line impregnation of the fibers during the final composite fabrication process can offer significant advantages. Prepregs can have very precisely controlled fiber/resin ratios, highly controlled tack and drape (in the case of thermoset matrices), controlled resin flow during the cure process, and, in some processes, better control of fiber angle and placement. Prepreg

Fig. 1 . 8 All composite Voyager aircraft.

Further reading 33
materials can be produced and stored for future use, normally under refrigeration for thermosetting matrices, and then used in processes ranging from hand lay-up to highly automated filament winding or machine tape laying. Processes such as pultrusion and braiding can also use prepreg forms instead of in-line resin impregnation. While the latter may be lower in initial cost, it may be prohibitive for some resin systems (such as thermoplastics), and parameters such as fiber/resin ratio may not be as easily controlled as is the case with a prepreg.
1.15 MANUFACTURING/FABRICATION

The most common composite lay-up processes include: hand lay-up, fiber placement and machine tape lay-up. In lay-up, material that is usually in prepreg form is cut and laid up, layer by layer, to produce a laminate of the desired thickness, number of plies, and ply orientations. In filament winding, a fiber bundle or ribbon is impregnated with resin and wound upon a mandrel to produce a simple shape, such as a tube or pressure vessel, or a more complex shape, such as a wind turbine or helicopter rotor blade. Hand lay-up processes are usually accompanied by a compaction step for each one or more plies that are applied. Lay-up of thermoplastic matrix material is always accompanied by heat and pressure. For most components produced for aerospace applications, except filament wound components, the autoclave is the curing tool of choice. The autoclave cure process is chosen for many reasons, these include: reproducible, high quality, low void content, parts at reasonable production rates and costs. There are also a number of other fabrication processes that are used including pultrusion, resin transfer molding and press curing. These processes have found application in the fabrication of various components for aerospace usage. Very sophisticated, numerically controlled equipment is presently available for the lay-up

process. High prepreg lay-down rates and fairly low scrap rates are possible. However, most of the existing automatic lay-up processes are quite limited in their ability to produce satisfactory components having complex curvatures. This is more an artifact of the tape raw material than it is an equipment limitation. To select the best composite fabrication process, the designer generally chooses the process that will provide an acceptable quality component for the lowest cost. In evaluating cost and quality, however, tooling cost, production rate, materials cost, desired part finish and many other factors must be considered. Only after all the relevant factors have been weighed can the fabrication method (or the material) be selected. This overview chapter was intended as a primer to introduce the reader to composite technology. Fiber and matrix materials, design concerns, material forms and fabrication processes have been described briefly. For more specific and detailed data and guidelines on these topics, the reader should consult the technical sections in this volume. However, this introduction should have clarified that composites offer tremendous opportunities as well as impressive challenges - for the designer and manufacturer of high performance components.
FURTHER READING 1. Weeton, J.W. and Peters, D.M., eds, Engineers Guide to Composite Materials, American Society for Materials, 1987. 2. SPI Composites Institute, lntroduction to Composites, SPI, Washington, 1992. 3. Beukers, A. and de Jon, Th., Materials Delft University Press, Delft, Netherlands, 1992. 4. Corish, P.J., ed, Concise Encyclopedia o f Polymer Processing and Applications, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1992. 5 . Schwartz, M., ed Composite Materials Handbook 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.