Effect of temperature on remnant magnetization

Heating a sample above its Curie temperature is a way of demagnetizing it Thermal demagnetization

Non-linear responses

Non-linear responses
Generally, the response of M to H is non-linear Only at small values of H or high temperatures is response sometimes linear

Non-linear responses

M tends to saturate at high fields and low temperatures

The Microscopic Picture of Magnetic Materials

We will now revisit the experimentally observed magnetic behaviours and try to understand them from a microscopic point of view

Paramagnetic gas
Imagine a classical gas of molecules each with a magnetic dipole moment In zero field the gas would have zero magnetization

Paramagnetic gas
Applying a magnetic field would tend to orient the dipole moments Gas attains a magnetization

Paramagnetic gas
Very high fields would saturate magnetization Heating the gas would tend to disorder the moments and hence decrease magnetization

Ferromagnetism
Materials that retain a magnetization in zero field Quantum mechanical exchange interactions favour parallel alignment of moments Examples: iron, cobalt

Ferromagnetism
Thermal energy can be used to overcome exchange interactions Curie temp is a measure of exchange interaction strength Note: exchange interactions much stronger than dipoledipole interactions

Magnetic domains
Ferromagnetic materials tend to form magnetic domains Each domain is magnetized in a different direction Domain structure minimizes energy due to stray fields

Magnetic domains
Applying a field changes domain structure Domains with magnetization in direction of field grow Other domains shrink

Magnetic domains
Applying very strong fields can saturate magnetization by creating single domain

Magnetic domains
Removing the field does not necessarily return domain structure to original state Hence results in magnetic hysteresis

Break up of magnetization into domains due to energy minimization

Single domain Large magnetostatic energy Uniformly magnetized specimen Overall energy of the system Four domains 1/4 Two domains 1/2

Closure domains zero

180o domain wall

e = A (d / dx)2 + K sin2
Exchange J/m Anisotropy J/m3

Exchange energy

large

small

Change in domains during magnetization process

Partial magnetization E = - 0M.H Domain wall movement Irreversible rotation of domain magnetization Coherent rotation of moments from the easy axes lying close to the field direction Single-domain sample Spontaneous magnetization

Magnetic domain walls

Wall thickness, t, is typically about 100 nm

Antiferromagnetism
In some materials, exchange interactions favour antiparallel alignment of atomic magnetic moments Materials are magnetically ordered but have zero remnant magnetization and very low Many metal oxides are antiferromagnetic

Antiferromagnetism
Thermal energy can be used to overcome exchange interactions Magnetic order is broken down at the Nel temperature

Ferrimagnetism
Antiferromagnetic exchange interactions Different sized moments on each sublattice Results in net magnetization Example: magnetite, maghemite

Single domain particles

Particles (nano) smaller than t (100 nm) have no domains

Multidomain

t< 100 nm Single domain

Surface area increases and volume remains the same

Single cube

Eight smaller cubes 1000 tiny cubes

Length of one side Total surface area(H x W x Number of sides x Number of cubes) Total volume (L x W x H x Number of cubes) Surface area to volume ratio Surface area volume

20 m 2400 m2 8000 m3 0.3

10 m

2 m

4800 m2 24,000 m2 8000 m3 0.6 8000 m3 3.0

Magnetic nanoparticles behavior

Assembly of magnetic clusters (each comprised of many ferromagentically aligned elemental moments of magnitude () acting independently Superparamagnetic material

Superparamagnetism

Unblocked particles that respond to a field are known as superparamagnetic

Superparamagnetism
in nanoparticles No remanent magnetism upon field removal Applications: Magnetization (emu) Magnetic Inks 300 K Magnetic separation Vacuum sealing Magnetic marking Magnetic refrigeration Applied field, H (T) MRI

Superparamagnetism
Response of superparamagnets to applied field described by Langevin model Qualitatively similar to paramagnets At room temperature superparamagnetic materials have a much greater magnetic susceptibility per atom than paramagnetic materials

Room temp

Superparamagnetism
Superparamagnets are often ideal for applications where a high magnetic susceptibility is required zero magnetic remanence is required

Room temp

Size effect

Ferromagnet Paramagnet Superparamagnet

Magnetic interactions
Magnetic dipolar interaction
Two magnetic dipoles 1 and 2 separated by a distance r have an energy equal to E = 0/4r3[1 . 2 - 3/r2(1 . r)(2 . r)] : if = 1 B & r = 1 ~ 10-23 J (1 ~ K)

Exchange interaction
Direct exchange Indirect exchange (Superexchange, double exchange and anisotropic exchange)

Direct exchange
Magnetic moments interact via an exchange interaction
H = - J Si . Sj Heisenberg Hamiltonian J = Positive Ferromagnetic = Negative Antiferromagnetic In rare-earths, the 4f electrons are strongly localized and lie very close to the nucleus Even in transition metals, such as Fe, Co and Ni where the 3d orbitals extend further from the nucleus, it is difficult to explain the observed magnetic properties

Indirect exchange: Superexchange

An indirect exchange interaction between nonneighbouring magnetic ions which is mediated by a non-magnetic ion placed in between the magnetic ions

Double exchange
LaMn3+O3 d4

Antiferromagnetic

La1-xSrxMn3+O3
X=0.2

Ferromagnetic

Magnetic anisotropy
Are the magnetic properties same in all directions? No It depends on the crystallographic direction in which the magnetic dipoles are aligned
Crystal anisotropy (Spin Orbit Coupling) Shape anisotropy Stress anisotropy Externally induced anisotropy Exchange anisotropy

E = KVsin2 (simplest form)

K the effective uniaxial anisotropy energy per unit volume V particle volume angle between moments and easy axis

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy in magnetite

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy of cobalt

K = 4.1 x 105 J/m3

Magnetization of small particles

Easy direction

Hard direction

Ferrofluid
Audio speaker Domain detection Optical pick-up Biomedical applications

Drug Delivery

GMR can be considered one of the first real applications of the promising field of nanotechnology.

Nobel Prize Committee, October 2007 What's Giant in Giant Magnetoresistance? Although the term "giant" in giant magnetoresistance (GMR) seems incongruous for a nanotechnology device, it refers to a large change in resistance (typically 10 to 20%) when the devices are subjected to a magnetic field, compared with a maximum sensitivity of a few percent for other types of magnetic sensors.

Nanotechnology Structure GMR structures are ferromagnetic alloys sandwiched around an ultrathin nonmagnetic conducting middle layer:

A) is a conductive, nonmagnetic interlayer. Magnetic moment in alloy (B) layers face opposite directions due to antiferromagnetic coupling. Resistance to current (C) is high. The nonmagnetic conducting layer is often copper. Copper is normally an excellent conductor, but when it is only a few atoms thick, electron scattering causes coppers resistance to increase significantly. This resistance changes depending on the relative orientation of electron spins surrounding the conducting layer Applying an external magnetic field (D) overcomes antiferromagnetic coupling, aligning magnetic moments in alloy (B) layers:

Such exposure changes the device resistance so the structure can be used to sense an external field. Practical devices are often made of multiple layers of alternating magnetic and nonmagnetic layers to improve sensitivity.

'Nanorust' Cleans Arsenic From Drinking Water

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