CALCULUS

AM 1001
Prepared By:
Deptt. Of Mathematics
Chitkara University
Lecture 1

Limits
And
Continuity
Introduction to Limits
The concept of limit is to distinguish
calculus from algebra and trigonometry
Here we discuss the behavior of functions
with the help of theory of limits.
Its concept is also used to define tangent
lines to the graph of functions
Definition of Limit
Def: Let be defined on an open interval
about , except possibly at itself. Then
f(x) approaches the limit L as x
approaches i.e.
In other words, for every number , there
exists a corresponding number such
that,

0
x
0
x
0
x
L x f
x x
=

) ( lim
0
0 > c
0 > o
x x x L x f < < < , | | 0 , ) (
0
o c
) (x f
Rules of Limit
1. Sum/Difference Rule:
2. Product Rule:
3. Constant Multiple Rule:
4. Quotient Rule:
5. Power Rule If m and n are integers, then
| | M L x g x f
c x
=

) ( ) ( lim
| | M L x g x f
c x

=

) ( ) ( lim
kL x kf
c x
=

) ( lim
M
L
x g
x f
c x
=

) (
) (
lim
| | | |
n
m
n
m
c x
L x f =

) ( lim
Left Hand Limit
A function is said to have a left hand
limit at , written as
If for every number there exists a
corresponding number such that for all
) (x f
0
x
L x f
x x
=

) ( lim
0
0 > c
0 > o
c o < < < L x f x x x x ) ( ,
0 0
L
Right Hand Limit
A function is said to have a right hand
limit at , written as
If for every number there exists a
corresponding number such that for all

) (x f
0
x
L x f
x x
=
+

) ( lim
0
0 > c
0 > o
c o < + < < L x f x x x x ) ( ,
0 0
L
Introduction to Continuity
It is a function whose outputs vary
continuously with the inputs and do not
jump from one value to another without
taking on the values in between.
Eg. Variation in time on Earth.
Definition of Continuity
Def: A function is said to be
continuous at a point if the following
three conditions are satisfied:
1. is defined
2. exists (i.e. ).
3.

f
a x =
) (a f
) ( lim x f
a x
) ( ) ( lim a f x f
a x
=

) ( lim ) ( lim x f x f
a x a x
+

=
Introduction to Derivatives
These are used widely in science, economics,
medicine and in computer science to
calculate velocity and acceleration which
helps in explaining:
the behavior of machinery and
to define the consequences of making errors
in measurements.
Introduction to Derivatives
Method of Computation.
Change in Variable with reference to other
variable.
Eg. 1. Speed.
2. Useful in Business
Eg. Demand versus price.
Differentiation
Def: The derivative of function with
respect to the variable is

provided the limit exists.
Denoted by:
which represents the rate of change of y
w.r.t. change in x
f
x
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) (
0
'
+
=

dx
dy
0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
( )
y f x =
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
( )
y f x
'
=
The derivative
is the slope of
the original
function.
The derivative is defined at the end points
of a function on a closed interval.

-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
x
2
3 y x =
( )
( )
2
2
0
3 3
lim
h
x h x
y
h

+
'
=
2 2 2
0
2
lim
h
x xh h x
y
h

+ +
'
=
2 y x
'
=
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
x
0
lim2
h
y x h

'
= +
0

A function is differentiable if it has a

derivative everywhere in its domain. It
must be continuous and smooth.
Functions on closed intervals must have
one-sided derivatives defined at the end
points.
Steps of Differentation
1. Write expression for and
2. Expand and simplify the difference
quotient

3. Using the simplified quotient find
by evaluating the limit
) (x f ) ( h x f +
h
x f h x f ) ( ) ( +
) (
'
x f
h
x f h x f
x f
h
) ( ) (
lim ) (
0
'
+
=

Differentiable on an Interval
A function is differentiable on an open
interval if it is differentiable at each point of
interval.
It is differentiable on a closed interval
if it is differentiable on the interior and
the limits right hand derivative
at a
and similarly for left hand derivative at b exists at
the end pionts
) (x f y =
) , ( b a
| | b a,
h
a f h a f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
+
+

h
b f h b f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
+

Derivatives will fail to exist at:

corner cusp
vertical tangent
discontinuity
( )
f x x =
( )
2
3
f x x =
( )
3
f x x =
( )
1, 0
1, 0
x
f x
x
<

=

>

To be differentiable, a function must be continuous and

smooth.
Sum Rule
The derivative of sum of finite number of
functions is the sum of their derivatives.
Eg. y=u+v+w+
Then, its derivative is



....... + + + =
dx
dw
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
dy
Product Rule
The derivative of product of two functions
is equal to the product of the first and the
derivative of the second plus the product of
the second and the derivative of the first.
Eg. If y=uv
Then
dx
du
v
dx
dv
u
dx
dy
+ =
Quotient Rule
The derivative of the quotient of two
functions is equal to the product of
denominator and derivative of numerator
minus product of numerator and derivative
of denominator, whole divided by square of
denominator.
Eg. If y=u/v
Then
( )
2
v
dx
dv
u
dx
du
v
dx
dy

=
Derivative of function of function
Chain Rule:-
If y is function of u say y=f(u),
where u itself is a function of x say u=
then y is called a function of a function.
Its derivative is given by:

) (x |
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
- =
Power chain rule
If is a differentiable function and
is an integer , then is differentiable and
) (x u n
n
u
dx
du
nu u
dx
d
n n 1
=
Derivative of Trigonometric funs.
Derivative of :
Derivative of :
Derivative of :
Derivative of :
Derivative of :
Derivative of :
x x cos sin =
x x
2
sec tan =
x x sin cos =
x x
2
csc cot =
x x x tan sec sec =
x x x cot csc csc =
Differentiation by Substitution
1. Pre requisite:
Trigonometry
Algebra
2. It reduces the given expression to be
differentiated in simple form by suitable
substitution.
Leibnitzs Theorem(Successive Differentiation)
Successive Differentiation: If is any
function then its derivative is
) (x f y =
) (
is derivative n its on, so and
y) of derivative (second ) (
is derivative its further
) derivative first ( ) (
th
' '
2
2
'
x f
dx
y d
x f
dx
y d
x f
dx
dy
n
n
n
=
=
=
Leibnitzs theorem
If u, v are two functions of x possessing
derivative of n
th
order then
( )
n n
n
r
r
n r
n
n
n
n
n
n n
uv c v u c
v u c v u c v u uv
+ + +
+ + + =

....
.. ..........
2
2
2 1
1
1
Absolute Extreme Values
Let be a function with domain D. Then
has an absolute maximum values on D at
point a if for all in D.

and an absolute minimum value on D at a
if for all in D.
f
f
) ( ) ( a f x f s
x
) ( ) ( a f x f >
x
Local Extremes Values
A function has a local maximum value at
an interior point a of its domain if
for all in some open interval containing a
f
) ( ) ( a f x f s
x
A function has a local minimum value at
an interior point a of its domain if
for all in some open interval containing a
f
) ( ) ( a f x f >
x
Finding Extrema
First Derivative Theorem (Local Extreme
Values): If has a local maximum or
minimum value at an interior point a of its
domain and if is defined at a then
Critical Points: An interior point of the
domain of a function where is zero or
undefined is a critical point of
f
'
f 0 ) (
'
= a f
f
'
f
f
Taylors Series Expansion
Definition: Let be a function with
derivatives of all orders through out some
interval containing a as an interior point.
Then the Taylor series generated by at
is
f
f
a x =
....... ) (
!
) (
..
..... ) (
! 2
) (
) )( ( ) ( ) (
2
' '
'
+ +
+ + + =
n
n
a x
n
a f
a x
a f
a x a f a f x f
Maclaurin Series

Maclaurin series generated by is




This is Taylor series generated by at

f
....... ) (
!
) 0 (
..
..... ) (
! 2
) 0 (
) )( 0 ( ) 0 ( ) (
2
' '
'
+ +
+ + + =
n
n
x
n
f
x
f
x f f x f
f
0 = x