30 RESONANCE July 2006

GENERAL ARTICLE
Foundations of Basic Geometry
Jasbir S Chahal
Jasbir S Chahal is
Professor of Mathematics
at Brigham Young
University, Provo, Utah,
USA. His research
interest is in number
theory.
Keywords Keywords Keywords Keywords Keywords
Area, proport i onal i t y, Pyt ha-
gorean triplet.
Part 1. Foundation of Basic Arith-
metic, Resonance, Vol.11, No.1,
January 2006.
Part 2. Foundat i on of Basi c
Arithmetic, Resonance, Vol.11,
No.2, February 2006.
Figure 1.
! h o b n sic n o Iio n s o f Io n g Ih , n ro n n n u v o Iu n o
w o ro n o I n Iio n Io Ih o ro h isIo ric c iv iIiz n Iio n s.
! h o y rn n iu s, n In c o s n n u g ro n I b n Ih s b u iII n o ro
Ih n n u u u y o n rs n g o ro v iu o n n Io o v iu o n c o . V o
b o g in o u r in v o sIig n Iio n o f g o o n o Iry w iIh n u is-
c u ssio n o f n ro n s o f sin Io g o o n o Iric o b ]o c Is.
1 . A ro n s o f R o c In n g Io s n n u ! rin n g Io s
A :n | is a p la n c n u rc lorm cd l y lou r siraih i lin cs
m cciin a i ri h i an lcs a s sh ow n in 1 . 1.

W c d cn n c iis arca a s.
arca ol rcci A L C D l asc h cih i .
T h is is ih c m osi ol io u s w ay io d cn n c arca lor il w c
d ou l lc ih c l asc, ih c a rca sh ou ld d o u l lc, o r il w c irip lc
ih c h cih i ih c arca sh ou ld a lso irip lc. In m o d crn la n -
u a c, w c say ih a i ih c a rca is lin car in ca ch a ria l lc
an d . L p io a con sia n i 0, w h ich d cp cn d s on ih c
u n iis ol m casu rcm cn is, ih is is ih c o n ly d cn n iiio n ol ih c
arca il w c w an i ii io h ac ih csc ol io u s p rop criics.
F rom ih is d cn n iiion w c ca n sh ow ih ai ih c a rca ol a iri-
an lc is i cn l y ih c lo rm u la
h
b
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31 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
arca ol irian lc
1
2
(l a sc h ci h i)
W c con sid cr ih rcc p ossil lc cascs.
1) T h c casicsi ca sc is ih a i ol a ri h i iria n lc A L C (L
00

). Iis arca is a ciu a lly h all ih c arca ol ih c rccian lc

A L C D ( 2).


T h u s
a rca ol A L C
1
2
(a rca ol ih c rccian lc A L C D )

1
2
(l asc h cih i)
2) T o com p u ic ih c arca ol an acu ic irian lc A L C , w c
l cin l y d i id in ih c irian lc in io iw o ri h i irian lcs a s
sh ow n in ( 3).

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32 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
The formula for the
area of a circle
was known to the
Chinese and the
Babylonians as
half of the radius
times the
circumference.
Figure 4.
T h c l a sc ol A L C

. L cn cc
arca ol A L C arca o l a rca ol A D C

1
2

1
2

1
2
(

1
2
h cih i (l asc ol irian lc A L C )
S o w c h ac ih c sa m c lorm u la lor ih c a rca o l a irian lc.
3) F in ally ih c ca sc ol a n ol iu sc iria n lc A L C
( !).

` ow A L C A D C A D L F rom ih is a n d ih c laci
ih ai A D C a n d A D L a rc ri h i irian lcs,
a rca ol A L C arca ol A D C arca ol A D L

1
2
( )
1
2

1
2

2 . A ro n o f n C irc Io
` cx i w c co m p u ic ih c a rca ol a circlc. T h c lorm u la lor
ih c arca o l a circlc w a s k n ow n io ih c C h in csc an d ih c
L a l y lon ian s as h a ll o l ih c ra d iu s iim cs ih c circu m lcr-
cn cc. F o r ih is w c cu i a circlc in io a la rc (c cn ) n u m l cr
ol cq u al sliccs a n d ih cn p lacc ih cm as sh ow n in
.
Il is cry larc, ih cn ih is n u rc is alm osi a rccian lc
w iih iis l a sc cq u al io h all o l ih c circu m lcrcn cc an d iis
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33 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
Figure 5. Changing a
circle into a rectangle.
Figure 6. Similar triangles.
Figure 4.
h ci h i cq u al io ih c rad iu s. S o, u sin ih c lorm u la lor ih c
arca ol a rccian lc, w c ci ih c lorm u la
arca o l circlc
1
2
circu m lcrcn cc ra d iu s. (1)
Ii sh ou ld l c n oicd ih a i on c can n o i cla im ih c iw o sid cs
ol (1) io l c cx acily cq u al w iih ou i h a in so m c id ca ol
lim ii`. T h u s ih csc a n cicn i ci iliza iion s w crc n oi u n -
aw arc ol ih c co n ccp i o l lim ii.
T o in csii aic ih is lo rm u la lu rih cr w c m u si d iscu ss ih c
p rop oriion a liiy o l ih c sid cs o l sim ila r irian lcs (irian lcs
ol ih c sa m c sh ap c). Il w c h ac iw o sim ilar iria n lcs w iih
sid cs ( ., .. ) an d ( .\ .2 ), as illu siraicd in o,
ih cn

\
,

2
.
co n sian i c. say
or
c
\ c,
2 c. .
i.c., ih c sid cs o l a iria n lc a rc p ro p oriion a l io ih c sid cs
ol a n y irian lc sim ilar io ii.
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34 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
Figure 7.
E cn ih ou h ih c p rop oriio n aliiy ol sid cs ol sim ilar iri-
an lcs m u si h ac l ccn ol iou s io ih c E y p iia n s lrom
l u ild in ih c p y ra m id s, ih c p ro ol a p p carcd m u ch laicr
in E u clid `s 1 | :-, L o ok o , F rop o siiio n !.
Ii is n oi h a rd io d cd u cc ih c w cll-k n ow n la ci ih a i all
circlcs l car ih c sam c raiio o l ih c circu m lcrcn cc io ih c
d iam cicr, i.c.,
. | n:. . n.n : .- :|
-n n|| .|-.
1 . L ci u s co n sid cr a n y iw o (co n ccn iric) circlcs ol d il-
lcrcn i sizcs. Il , a n d , d cn oic ih c circu m lcrcn cc
an d ih c rad iu s ol ih c l i cr a n d sm a llcr circlc rcsp cc-
ii cly, ih cn ii is cn o u h io sh ow ih ai

T o ap p rox im aic ih c circu m lcrcn ccs, w c in scril c rcu lar
- on s in sid c ih c circlcs as sh ow n in (1 . ) 8.
W c d cn oic l y

an d

ih c p crim cicrs ol ih c p o ly o n s
so lo rm cd , cach ol cq u al sid cs. A s illu sira icd in 1 .
, ih c p crim cicr ap p rox im a ics ih c circu m lcrcn cc ol ca ch
circlc. L u i

an d



, w h crc

a n d

arc ih c sid c lcn ih s ol ih c sm a llcr an d larcr p o ly o n s
rcsp cciicly.
The ratio
circumference/
diameter is the
same for all
circles.
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35 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
Although the first
occurrence of the
symbol for this ratio
appeared in 1706 in a
book by William
Jones, like many
other symbols, use of
was popularized by
the Swiss
mathematician
Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783),
probably to initialize
the word perimeter.
L y ih c p rop oriion aliiy o l sid cs o l sim ila r irian lcs, ii
lollow s ih ai
c

C


n o

n L


o

L


r
!
.
T h u s
c

C


r
!
.
S in cc

is in d cp cn d cn i ol n (ii is alw ay s cq u al io ih c
con sia n i

) an d sin cc c

ap p ro ach cs c an d C

ap p roa ch cs
C as n in crcascs, ii lollow s ih a i
c
C

r
!
. i.c..
c
r

C
!
.
Q .E .D .
T o d ay w c u sc ih c G rcck lciicr : (p i) io d cn oic ih is u n i-
crsa l co n sian i. a n y circlc`s circu m lcrcn cc d i id cd l y iis
d iam cicr. L u i ih c G rcck s d id n o i u sc ih is sy m l o l. A l-
ih ou h ih c n rsi o ccu rrcn cc ol ih c sy m l ol : lor ih is raiio
ap p carcd in 1 0o in a l o ok l y W illia m 1 o n cs, likc m a n y
oih cr sy m l ols, u sc ol : w as p op u larizcd l y ih c S w iss
m aih cm a iicia n L con h ard E u lcr (1 0 1 83 ), p rol a l ly
io in iiia lizc ih c w o rd ,. :.
F rom ih is laci a n d ih c C h in csc L al y lo n ia n lo rm u la (3)
lor ih c a rca o l a circlc, w c can ca sily d cd u cc ih c w cll-
k n ow n lo rm u la (lam ou sly p ro cd l y A rch im cd cs) lor ih c
arca ol a circlc w iih ra d iu s r, i.c.,
a rca ol a circlc o l rad iu s r : r

.
1 . S in cc : is l y d cn n iiio n ih c ra iio circu m lcrcn cc,d ia-
m cicr, w c scc ih a i lor a circlc o l rad iu s r, iis
circu m lcrcn cc
circu m lcrcn cc
d ia m cicr
d ia m cicr
: (2r)
2 : r.
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36 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
S o l y (1),
a rca
1
2
circu m lcrcn cc ra d iu s

1
2
2

Q .E .D .
8 . P y Ih n g o ro n n ! h o o ro n
T h is is a ih corcm ccn iral io all o l com ciry. T h crc is
ih c F u n d a m cn ial T h co rcm ol A lcl ra, ih c F u n d am cn -
ial T h corcm ol A riih m ciic, an d ih c F u n d am cn ial T h c-
orcm ol C a lcu lu s. Il ih crc is a F u n d am cn ia l T h co rcm
ol G co m ciry, ii is ih c F y ih a o rca n T h corcm . A riilacis
rccal ih ai ih is ih corcm w a s k n ow n io ih c L al y lo n ia n s
an d ih c E y p iia n s so m ciim c aro u n d 20 00 L C , an d io
ih c C h in csc a n d In d ian s a rou n d 1 00 L C . In la ci, ih c
old csi k n ow n p ro ols (or raih cr h in is lor p ro o ls) o l ih c
F y ih a orcan T h co rcm o l ack io ih c C h in csc an d ih c
In d ia n s. L ow ccr, ih c ih corcm is olicn rclcrrcd io a s
ih c F y ih ao rca n T h corcm alicr ih c G rcck m aih cm aii-
cia n F y ih a o ras (aro u n d oih ccn iu ry L C ) w h o w as ih c
n rsi io p roc ii rio rou sly, l u i h is p ro o l w as m orc likcly
u sin sim ilar irian lcs. T h c p ro ol l y E u clid in L o o k 1
ol h is 1 | :- is a m a sicrp iccc ol m a ih cm a iics w riiin .
A m on m an y k n ow n p ro ols, ih c on c icn l y ih c In d ian
m aih cm a iicia n L h a skara (111 ! 118 A D ) lo ok s cry ca sy,
l u i assu m cs ih a i ih c su m ol ih rcc an lcs o l a irian lc
is 18 0

.
! h o o ro n . (F y ih a ora s) C . n .|: :.n | .:|
-.n- . n n |j,: - . n| nj- |n

.
1 . L h aska ra`s p ro ol w a s co m ciric, l u i ii can l c
cx p lain cd a s lo llow s. C u i a sq u arc o l cach sid c in io
lou r cq u al irian lcs a n d a sq u arc a s sh ow n in 1 . 8.
L y u sin ih c lo rm u la s lor ih c arca o l a rccia n lc a n d
iria n lc, w c scc ih a i ( )

! (

. A n d l y
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37 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
sim p lc alcl ra ih is rcd u ccs io
o

.
Q .E .D .
L o rc iso s
1. Il A .L .C w iih 0 A L C arc ih c a rca s ol
cq u ila icra l irian lcs d raw n on ih c sid cs o l a rih i
iria n lc, sh ow ih a i A L C .
2. S u p p osc a ch ord ol lcn ih / is ian cn i io ih c in n cr
ol ih c iw o con ccn iric circlcs. C om p u ic ih c a rca ol
ih c rcion l ou n d cd l y ih c ch ord an d m in or arc ol
ih c la rcr circlc cu i o n l y ih c ch ord (1 . 0 ).
3. A s sh ow n in 1 . 10 , circlcs ol rad ii o a n d 2 arc
l o ih ian cn i io lin c L a n d ian cn i cx icrn a lly io
cach oih cr. S u p p o sc ih c sm a llcr circlc rolls a lo n
ih c circu m lcrcn cc ol ih c lar cr o n c u n iil ii is a ain
ian cn i io L , a s sh ow n . L ow lar h as ih c ccn icr ol
ih c sm allcr circlc ira cllcd `
. P y Ih n g o ro n n ! ri Io Is
A irip lci ( ., .. ) w iih , , , an d . all p o siiic in ic-
crs sa iisly in ih c cq u aiion

,

.

is callcd a
1 j:|nn :.,|:. ` o ic ih ai

,

.

il an d o n ly
il (n )

(n , )

(n . )

lo r an y w h o lc n u m l cr n . W c
Figure 8.
Figure 9 (top).
Figure 10(bottom).
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38 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
call ih c F y ih a orcan irip lci rcp rcscn iin ih c sm allcsi
ri h i irian lc o l a icn sh ap c a ,. .:. :.,|:. O n c
su ch irip lci, (3, ! , ) h a s l ccn k n ow n sin cc a n iiq u iiy.
O ih cr com m on ly rcco n izcd irip lcis arc ( , 12 , 13 ) a n d
(8, 1, 1 ). T h c ord cr ol is im m a icrial, l u i w c sh all
w riic ih c o d d o n c n rsi. (L oih ca n n oi l c ccn .) T h c
lollow in ih corcm d cscril cs ih cm com p lcicly.
! h o o ro n . ||:| ,. .:. 1 j:|nn :.,|:- ( ).
.... . :- . . ,- :. :| -.n- n .|: :.-
n | ,n -. .|n - - n||-: -..) n :|

2 (2)

| . n . :- -| :|n:
(i) 0 :
(ii) , n ,,-.: ,n.:j. .... .- nn. n n :|
:| ,
(iii) , |n n:. :| :|n ..
L clorc w c p ro cccd w iih a p ro ol, lci u s n n d som c F y ih a -
o rca n irip lcis ( ) l y u sin ih is ih corcm .
L n n Io . L ci 2 a n d 1. L sin cq u aiion s (2)
w c ci
2

3
2 2 1 !
2

` cx i w c iak c 3 an d 2 . O u r irip lci ( ) is
n ow ( 121 3) lo r
3

2 3 2 1 2
3

13
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39 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
L y ch o osin iw o n u m l crs o an d o a s a l o c, w c can cn -
craic u p io p rop o riio n aliiy a ll rih i iria n lcs w iih sid cs
w h o sc lcn ih s arc w h olc n u m l crs. T h u s ih crc arc in n -
n iicly m an y p rim iiic F y ih a orcan irip lcis. ` ow ih ai
w c h ac sccn h ow u sclu l ih c ih corcm is, w c sk cich a
p ro ol.
1 :| . | . T o l c in w c w riic ih c cq u aiion

,

.

in ih c lorm

,
.

1. (3)
so ih a i w c ca n scc ih ai n n d in ih c F y ih a orcan irip lci
is cq u ialcn i io n n d in p o in is ( .\ ) o n ih c circlc

\

1 (!)
w iih co ord in aics

a n d \

a s raiio n al n u m l crs
in ih c low csi lorm . (A n:. n| h is a raiio o l iw o
w h o lc n u m l crs su ch as

).
F rom an aly iic com ciry, w c k n ow ih a i ih c circlc icn
l y (!) can l c p a ra m cicrizcd as (scc E x crcisc 1)

|

1
|

1
\
2 |
|

1
. ()
T o ci p oin is w iih raiion a l co ord in aics, w c p lu |

w h crc o , o arc in iccrs in ih c low csi lo rm in io ( ) a n d

so lc lo r an d \ .

(

1
(

1

o

o

o

an d
\
2 (

)
(

1

2o o
o

o

.
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40 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
Figure 11.
F cca ll ih ai

an d \

. S in cc |

is in ih c
low csi lo rm , so arc an d \ a l o c. L cn cc
o

.
, 2o o. (o)
. o

.
Ii is casy io scc ih ai o an d o m u si l c a s siaicd . Q .E .D .
F cca ll ih ai all F y ih a orcan irip lcis arc ol ia in cd lrom
ih c p rim iii c on cs ( ., .. ) a s (n .n , .n . ) lo r n in .
L o rc iso s
!. D cri c ih c p ara m cicrizaiion () lo r ih c circlc (!).
1 . :. In icrscci (! ) w iih ih c lam ily ol lin cs
|\ 1 ih rou h ih c n x cd p o in i ( 1.0 ) o n (!). In
oih cr w ord s su l siiiu ic |\ 1 in (! ) a n d
solc lo r \ an d in icrm s o l |, ih c slo p c o l ih c
lin c |\ 1 ol ih is lam ily as sh ow n in 1 .
11 .
. F in d o .o w h ich on su l siiiu iion in (2) i cs
12 . 00 . , 13. 00 an d . 18 .!1 .
R o n n rk s
1. T h c sop h isiicaiio n o l ih c L al y lo n ia n m aih cm aiics is
rcm a rkal lc. D u rin ih c p crio d 10 00-1o0 0 L C , ih c L al y -
lo n ia n s co m p ilcd ial lcs ol F y ih a o rca n irip lcis (scc [1[,
p p .8-1 0[). Ii is h ard io l clic c ih ai ih cy siu m l lcd u p on
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41 RESONANCE July 2006
GENERAL ARTICLE
Figure 12. The Egyptians
created right triangles from
ropes divided into 12 equal
segments..
Suggested Reading
[1] Andr Weil, Number Theory An Approach through History, Birkhuser,
1983.
Address for Correspondence
Jasbir S Chahal
Professor of Mathematics
Brigham Young University
USA
Email:jasbir@math.byu.edu
ih c p rim iii c F y ih ao rca n irip lcis lik c 12 00 ,
13 00 , 1 8! 1. F la u sil ly, ih cy w crc aw arc o l ih c
alo riih m p ro id cd l y ih c ih corcm lor cn cra iin ih c
p rim iii c F y ih ao rca n irip lcis.
2. Ii is l clic cd (l u i ih crc is n o h isiorica l c id cn cc)
ih ai as la r l ack as 0 00 y ca rs a o ih c E y p iian ro p c-
sircich crs u scd ih c F y ih a o rca n irip lci (3 !) io co n -
siru ci ri h i an lcs su ch as lor p y ram id l u ild in . In o r-
d cr io co n siru ci a irip lci (3! ), a rop c w a s d i id cd l y
clccn k n o is in io iw clc cq u al scm cn is. (S in cc ih c sizc
ol ih c rop c is a rl iira ry, ih c E y p iia n s m u si h ac k n ow n
ih c p ro p oriion a liiy ol sim ila r irian lcs.) T h c ro p c w a s
la id a n d sircich cd on ih c rou n d io m a kc a ri h i irian lc
w iih sid cs 3, ! , a n d as sh ow n in 12.
The description of right lines and
circles, upon which geometry is
founded, belongs to mechanics.
Geometry does not teach us to draw
these lines, but requires them to be
drawn.
Sir Isaac Newton
(1643 to 1727)
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