E-Book 'Pure Maths Part Three - Algebra' From A-Level Maths Tutor

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com
2
This book is under copyright to A-level Maths Tutor. However, it may be

distributed freely provided it is not sold for profit.
Contents
indices 3
laws of logarithms 7
surds 12
inequalities 18
quadratic equations 22
partial fractions 28
polynomials 33
The Binomial Theorem 37
iteration 41
Sets theory 46
functions 50
©2009 A-level Maths Tutor All Rights Reserved www.a-levelmathstutor.com

3
Indices
The Laws of Indices
Indices - Multiplication
remembering that:
Examples

4
Indices - Division
remembering that:
Examples:

5
Indices - Powers
remembering that:
Examples:
Indices - Roots and Reciprocals
remembering that:
and

6
Examples:

7
The Laws of Logarithms
The Laws of Logarithms

8
Proofs

9
Changing the base
Remember that the change of base occurs in the term where the base is 'x' or some other
variable.
Example

10
Simultaneous equations
'Substitution' simultaneous equations are common problems. First find what x is in terms
of y. Then substitute for x in the other equation. Solve for y.
Example

11
Variable in the index
Take logs on both sides. Move the indices infront of the logs. Expand the equation. Collect
x-terms to the left. Sum the numbers to the right. These problems can be tricky with the
amount of arithmetic involved. So make sure you write everything down to make checking
your working easier.
Example

12
Surds
Rules
Surds are mathematical expressions containing square roots. However, it must be

emphasized that the square roots are 'irrational' i.e. they do not result in a whole number,
a terminating decimal or a recurring decimal.
The rules governing surds are taken from the Laws of Indices.
rule #1
examples
rule #2

13
examples
Some Useful Expressions
expression #1

14
expression #2 - (the difference of two squares)
Rationalising Surds - This is a way of modifying surd expressions so that the square root is
in the numerator of a fraction and not in the denominator.
The method is to multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by the square root.

15
Rationalising expressions using 'difference of two squares'
Remembering that : .... .....from 'useful expressions' above.
Example #1 - simplify
multiplying top and bottom by

16
Example #2 – rationalise
multiply top and bottom by
Reduction of Surds - This is a way of making the square root smaller by examining its
squared factors and removing them.

17
Rational and Irrational Numbers - In the test for rational and irrational numbers, if a surd
has a square root in the numerator, while the denominator is '1' or some other number,
then the number represented by the expression is 'irrational'.
examples of irrational surds:

18
Inequalities
Symbols
The rules of inequalities (sometimes called 'inequations')
These are the same as for equations i.e that whatever you do to one side of the
equation(add/subtract, multiply/divide by quantities) you must do to the other.
However, their are two exceptions to these rules.
When you multiply each side by a negative quantity
'<' becomes '>', or '>' becomes '<' .
That is, the inequality sign is reversed.
Similarly, when you divide each side by a negative quantity
< becomes >, or > becomes< .
That is, the inequality sign is reversed.

19
Examples
Inequalities with one variable
Example #1 - Find all the integral values of x where,
The values of x lie equal to and less than 6 but greater than -5, but not equal to it.
The integral(whole numbers + or - or zero) values of x are therefore:
6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4
Example #2 - What is the range of values of x where,
Since the square root of 144 is +12 or -12(remember two negatives multiplied make a
positive), x can have values between 12 and -12.
In other words the value of x is less than or equal to 12 and more than or equal to -12.
This is written:

20
Inequalities with two variables - Solution is by arranging the equation into the form
Ax + By = C
Then, above the line of the equation, Ax + By < C
and below the line, Ax + By > C
Consider the graph of -2x + y = -2
note - the first term A must be made positive by multiplying the whole equation by -1
The equation -2x + y = -2 becomes 2x - y =2
look at the points(red) and the value of 2x - y for each. The table below summarises the
result.
more than 2
point(x,y) 2x - y value above/below
?
(1,1) 2(1)1(1) 1 no - less above
(1,4) 2(1)-(4) -2 no - less above
(2,3) 2(2)-(3) 1 no - less above
(3,3) 2(3)-(3) 3 yes - more below
(2,1) 2(2)-(1) 3 yes - more below
(4,2) 2(4)-(2) 6 yes - more below

21
The Modulus
The modulus is the numerical value of a number, irrespective of the sign it carries.
hence l xl<3 means -3 < x<3
Example

22
Quadratic Equations
Introduction
The general form of a quadratic equation is:
ax2 +bx + c
where a, b & c are constants
The expression b2 - 4ac is called the discriminant and given the letter ∆ (delta).
All quadratic equations have two roots/solutions. These roots are either REAL, EQUAL or
COMPLEX*.
*
complex - involving the square root of –1

23
Solution by factorising - This is best understood with an example.
solve:
You must first ask yourself which two factors when multiplied will give 12 ?
The factor pairs of 12 are : 1 x 12, 2 x 6 and 3 x 4
You must decide which of these factor pairs added or subtracted will give 7 ?
1 : 12 ...gives 13, 11
2 : 6 .....gives 8, 4
3 : 4 .....gives 7, 1
Which combination when multiplied makes +12 and which when added gives -7?
these are the choices:
(+3)(+4),
(-3)(+4),
(+3)(-4)
(-3)(-4)
Clearly, (-3)(-4) are the two factors we want.
therefore
Now to solve the equation .
factorising, as above
either

24
or
for the equation to be true.
So the roots of the equation are:
Completing the square
This can be fraught with difficulty, especially if you only half understand what you are
doing.
The method is to move the last term of the quadratic over to the right hand side of the
equation and to add a number to both sides so that the left hand side can be factorised as
the square of two terms.
e.g.
However, there is a much neater way of solving this type of problem, and that is by
remembering to put the equation in the following form:

25
using the previous example,
Using the Formula - the two solutions of quadratic equations in the form
are given by the formula:

26
Proof
The proof of the formula is by using 'completing the square'.

27
Example find the two values of x that satisfy the following quadratic equation:

28
Partial Fractions
some definitions:
Proper Fraction When the degree(index) of the function is higher in the denominator
than the numerator.
Improper Fraction When the degree(index) of the function is higher in the numerator
than the denominator.
Partial Fractions Factorising the denominator of a proper fraction means that the fraction
can be expressed as the sum(or difference) of other proper fractions.
Simple addition/subtraction of algebraic fractions
As with simple fraction arithmetic, a common denominator is found from the denominators
of either fraction and the numerators altered to be fractions of the new denominator.
Equations & Identities
Equations are satisfied by discrete values of the variable involved.
Example:
Identities are satisfied by any value of the variable used. Note the equals sign '=' is
modified to reflect this.

29
Example:
When we make partial fractions(below) we are creating an identity from the original
expression.
Denominator with only 'linear factors'
By 'linear' we mean that x has a power no higher than '1' . In other words, this method
does not work with x2, x3, x4 etc.
For each linear factor of the type:
there is a partial fraction:
Example:
where x is a variable and A,B,a,b,c,d are constants, where 'a' is not equal to 'b'.

30
Example
Denominator with 'repeated' linear factors
For each 'repeated' linear factor of the type:
Example:

31
Example
Denominator with a quadratic factor
For each quadratic factor of the type:

32
Example:
Example

33
Polynomials
Introduction
A polynomial is an expression which:
consists of a sum of a finite number of terms

has terms of the form kxn
(x a variable, k a constant, n a positive integer)
Every polynomial in one variable (eg 'x') is equivalent to a polynomial with the form:
Polynomials are often described by their degree of order. This is the highest index of the
variable in the expression.
eg: containing x5 order 5, containing x7 order 7 etc.
These are NOT polynomials:
3x2+x1/2+x
second term has an index which is not an integer(whole number)
5x-2+2x-3+x-5
indices of the variable contain integers which are not positive
examples of polynomials:
x5+5x2+2x+3
(x7+4x2)(3x-2)
x+2x2-5x3+x4-2x5+7x6

34
Algebraic long division
If
f(x) the numerator and d(x) the denominator are polynomials
and
the degree of d(x) <= the degree of f(x)
and
d(x) does not =0
then two unique polynomials q(x) the quotient and r(x) the remainder exist, so that:
Note - the degree of r(x) < the degree of d(x).
We say that d(x) divides evenly into f(x) when r(x)=0.
Example

35
The Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x-a), the remainder is f(a).
Example
Find the remainder when (2x3+3x+x) is divided by (x+4).
The reader may wish to verify this answer by using algebraic division.

36
The Factor Theorem

( a special case of the Remainder Theorem)
(x−a) is a factor of the polynomial f(x) if f(a) = 0
Example

37
The Binomial Theorem
Introduction
This section of work is to do with the expansion of (a+b)n and (1+x)n .
Pascal's Triangle and the Binomial Theorem gives us a way of expressing the expansion as
a sum of ordered terms.
Pascal's Triangle
This is a method of predicting the coefficients of the binomial series.
Coefficients are the constants(1,2,3,4,5,6 etc.) that multiply each variable, or group of
variables.
Consider (a+b)n variables a, b .
The first line represents the coefficients for n=0.
(a+b)0= 1
The second line represents the coefficients for n=1.
(a+b)1= a + b
The third line represents the coefficients for n=2.
(a+b)2= a2 + 2ab + b2
The sixth line represents the coefficients for n=5.
(a+b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5
The Binomial Theorem builds on Pascal's Triangle in practical terms, since writing out
triangles of numbers has its limits.

38
The General Binomial Expansion ( n≥1 )
This is a way of finding all the terms of the series, the coefficients and the powers of the
variables.
The coefficients, represented by nCr , are calculated using probability theory. For a deeper
understanding you may wish to look at where nCr comes from; but for now you must
accept that:
where 'n' is the power/index of the original expression

and 'r' is the number order of the term minus one
If n is a positive integer, then:
Example #1

39
Example #2
It is suggested that the reader try making similar questions, working through the
calculations and checking the answer here (max. value of n=8)

40
The Particular Binomial Expansion
This is for (1+x)n , where n can take any value positive or negative, and x is a fraction ( -
1<x<1 ).
Example
Find the first 4 terms of the expression (x+3)1/2 .

41
Iteration
Introduction
Repeatedly solving an equation to obtain a result using the result from the previous
calculation, is called 'iteration'. The procedure is used in mathematics to give a more
accurate answer when the original data is only approximate.
Problems usually involve finding the root of an equation when only an approximate value is
given for where the curve crosses an axis.
Direct/Fixed Point Iteration
method:
1. rearrange the given equation to make the highest power of x the subject
2. find the power root of each side, leaving x on its own on the left
3. the LHS x becomes xn+1
4. the RHS x becomes xn
The equation is now in its iterative form.
We start by working out x2 from the given value x1 .

x3 is worked out using the value x2 in the equation.
x4 is worked out using the value x3 and so on.

42
Example
Find correct to 3 d.p. a root of the equation
f(x) = x3 - 2x + 3
given that there is a solution near x = -2

43
Iteration by Bisection
method:
1. reduce the interval where the root lies into two equal parts
2. decide in which part the solution resides
3. repeat the process until a consistent answer is achieved for the degree of accuracy
required
Example
f(x) = 2x2- 2x + 7
given that there is a solution near x = -2

44
Newton-Raphson Method
This uses a tangent to a curve near one of its roots and the fact that where the tangent
meets the x-axis gives an approximation to the root.
The iterative formula used is:

45
Example
f(x) = 2x2 + x - 6
given that there is a solution near x = 1.4

46
Set Theory
Introduction
A set is a collection of objects, numbers or characters.
{abcdef....wxyz} {1,2,3,4,...45, 46, 47} etc.
Note how the set is enclosed in brackets {.....}
A definite set is one in which all its members are known.
Sets are given uppercase letters: A, B, C, etc.
The elements of sets are given lowercase letters: a, b, c,..etc.
An element x belonging to the set A is written:
A constraint bar {...|...} is for setting a property that all members satisfy.
A{x l x has the colour blue} - all elements of A are blue
Common Sets

47
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are used to visualise sets and their relations to one another.
Above is a diagramatic representation of set A. The set can be represented mathematically

as: A{1,3,5,7,9} .
Note that set A(the circle) is a subset of the Universal set(the rectangle).
A' (A-dash)is called the complement of A. It contains all elements which are not members
of A.
A and A' together make up the Universal set.

48
The union of sets A and B contains all of the elements from both sets.
The intersection of sets A and B contains a particular group of elements that exist in set
A and in set B.

49
Subsets
If B is a subset of A. Then all of the elements of B are also in A.

50
Functions
Introduction
To thoroughly understand the terms and symbols used in this section it is advised that you
visit 'sets of numbers' first.
Mapping(or function)
This a 'notation' for expressing a relation between two variables(say x and y).
Individual values of these variables are called elements
eg x1 x2 x3... y1 y2 y3...
The first set of elements ( x) is called the domain .
The second set of elements ( y) is called the range .
A simple relation like y = x2 can be more accurately expressed using the following format:
The last part relates to the fact that x and y are elements of the set of real numbers R(any
positive or negative number, whole or otherwise, including zero)
One-One mapping
Here one element of the domain is associated with one and only one element of the range.
A property of one-one functions is that a on a graph a horizontal line will only cut the
graph once.

51
Example
R+ the set of positive real numbers
Many-One mapping
Here more than one element of the domain can be associated with one particular element
of the range.
Example
Z is the set of integers(positive & negative whole numbers not including zero)

52
Complete function notation is a variation on what has been used so far. It will be used
from now on.
-1
Inverse Function f
The inverse function is obtained by interchanging x and y in the function equation and
then rearranging to make y the subject.
-1
If f exists then,
ff-1(x) = f-1f(x) = x
It is also a condition that the two functions be 'one to one'. That is that the domain of f is
identical to the range of its inverse function f -1 .
When graphed, the function and its inverse are reflections either side of the line y = x.
Example
Find the inverse of the function(below) and graph the function and its inverse on the same
axes.

53
Composite Functions
A composite function is formed when two functions f, g are combined.
However it must be emphasized that the order in which the composite function is
determined is important.
The method for finding composite functions is:
find g(x)
find f[g(x)]

54
Example
For the two functions,
find the composite functions (i fg (ii g f

55
Exponential & Logarithmic Functions
Exponential functions have the general form:
where 'a' is a positive constant
However there is a specific value of 'a' at (0.1) when the gradient is 1 . This value,
2.718... or 'e' is called the exponential function.
The function(above) has one-one mapping. It therefore possesses an inverse. This inverse
is the logarithmic function.

56
Notes
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distributed freely provided it is not sold for profit.

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The Binomial Theorem 37

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The Laws of Indices

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Indices - Roots and Reciprocals

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The Laws of Logarithms

The Laws of Logarithms

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Changing the base

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Variable in the index

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Surds are mathematical expressions containing square roots. However, it must be

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Some Useful Expressions

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expression #2 - (the difference of two squares)

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Rationalising expressions using 'difference of two squares'

Remembering that : .... .....from 'useful expressions' above.

multiplying top and bottom by

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multiply top and bottom by

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examples of irrational surds:

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The rules of inequalities (sometimes called 'inequations')

However, their are two exceptions to these rules.

When you multiply each side by a negative quantity

'<' becomes '>', or '>' becomes '<' .

That is, the inequality sign is reversed.

Similarly, when you divide each side by a negative quantity

< becomes >, or > becomes< .

That is, the inequality sign is reversed.

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Inequalities with one variable

Example #1 - Find all the integral values of x where,

The integral(whole numbers + or - or zero) values of x are therefore:

6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4

Example #2 - What is the range of values of x where,

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Then, above the line of the equation, Ax + By < C

and below the line, Ax + By > C

Consider the graph of -2x + y = -2

The equation -2x + y = -2 becomes 2x - y =2

(1,1) 2(1)1(1) 1 no - less above

(1,4) 2(1)-(4) -2 no - less above

(2,3) 2(2)-(3) 1 no - less above

(3,3) 2(3)-(3) 3 yes - more below

(2,1) 2(2)-(1) 3 yes - more below

(4,2) 2(4)-(2) 6 yes - more below

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hence l xl<3 means -3 < x<3

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The general form of a quadratic equation is:

where a, b & c are constants