According to the Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue (Washington, D.C. 1872) p. 115.) Thirty percent of reven e fro!

18"1 to 18"5 ca!e fro! inco!e ta#es a$one, %ith &e% 'or(, )ennsy$vania, and *assach setts responsi+$e for near$y ",- of that fig re. According to the &' Ti!es, (.Artic$e no 2/ &' Ti!es (7 0 ne, 11,8) p. 5) 2vidence that the ta# syste! %as set p to pay for socia$ progra!s can +e fo nd in the )rotestantis! of the ear$y 11th cent ry. The re$igio s !ove!ents of the 11th cent ry, no% ca$$ed A%a(enings, %ere rooted in the )ost3*i$$ennia$ist +e$ief that Christians ! st pave the %ay for the 4econd Co!ing of Christ +y ridding the %or$d of socia$ evi$s. This %as to +e done +y h !an intervention on a !ass sca$e. A$tho gh so!e refor!ers %ere ada!ant a+o t the A%a(ening +eing a grassroots !ove!ent, and considered govern!ent to +e the instr !ent of evi$, a transfor!ation of society on s ch a !ass sca$e co $d not +e done %itho t so!e type of aid fro! the govern!ent. The 4econd 5reat A%a(ening occ rred ear$y in the 11th cent ry and %as fo$$o%ed $ater in the cent ry +y the Third 5reat A%a(ening. 6oth !ove!ents %ere )rotestant !ove!ents %hich centered on e$i!inating society7s i$$s s ch as poverty, chi$d $a+or, racia$ tensions, inade8 ate schoo$s, s$ !s, ine8 a$ity, and !ost i!portant$y the te!perance !ove!ent that contin ed %e$$ into the 2,th cent ry. With the idea that the i$$s of society ! st +e refor!ed on a !assive sca$e, the 5reat A%a(enings paved the %ay for other !ove!ents $ater in the 11th cent ry, inc$ ding the )op $ist and )rogressive *ove!ents. 5overn!ent %as to .prevent the evi$s of inte!perance and pro!ote !ora$ity/.

The United States Congress only declared war three times in the nineteenth century; the war of 1812, the war with Mexico in 184 , and with S!ain in 18"8; and #oth world wars in the 2$th century% &et since the founding of the re!u#lic to the early 1"8$s, there ha'e #een o'er 2$$ instances of the !resident sending troo!s a#road for a (!olice action)% (Instances of the use of the United States Armed Forces Aborad, 178 !1 8", (Washington D.C.9 :.4. 5overn!ent )rinting ;ffice, 118<) p. <18)

*resident +utherford , -ayes in his State of the Union .ddress /ecem#er

th

188$ s!o0e at length a#out .merica1s economic interests and called for the

ex!ansion of the na'y to !rotect those interests% -is ho!e was that the ex!ansion of the na'y would hel! to o!en u! the resources of 2a!an, China, and the 3ast 4ndies to .merican mar0ets% (5hate'er modifications of our regulations of trade and na'igation may #e necessary or useful to meet and direct these im!ulses to the enlargement of our exchanges and of our carrying trade 4 am sure the wisdom of Congress will #e ready to su!!ly= .n additional and not ni!portant, a$tho gh secondary, reason for fostering and enlarging the 6a'y may #e found in the n8 estiona+$e service to the ex!ansion of our commerce %hich %o $d +e rendered +y the fre8 ent circ $ation of nava$ ships in the seas and ports of a$$ 8 arters of the g$o+e. 4hips of the proper constr ction and e8 ip!ent to +e of the greatest efficiency in case of !ariti!e %ar !ight +e !ade constant and active agents in ti!e of peace in the advance!ent and protection of o r foreign trade and in the n rt re and discip$ine of yo ng sea!en, %ho %o $d nat ra$$y in so!e n !+ers !i# %ith and i!prove the cre%s of o r !erchant ships. ; r !erchants at ho!e and a+road recogni>e the va$ e to foreign co!!erce of an active !ove!ent of o r nava$ vesse$s, and the inte$$igence and patriotic >ea$ of o r nava$ officers in pro!oting every interest of their co ntry!en is a ? st s +?ect of nationa$ pride./ (.@ie%s of the )resident/ &' Ti!es (" Dece!+er, 188,) p. 1)

(&avy 'ear+oo( 1117 and 1118, pp. 71, 11) /es!ite not #eing at war, the United States Congress commissioned 7 #attleshi!s in 18"2, 2 more in 18"8, and three more in 18" The United States also annexed -awaii in 18"8 to ser'e commercial interests% (Congressiona$ Aecord, 55th Congress, 2nd 4ession, (" 0 $y, 1818) p. "712) .Bor the sa(e of o r co!!ercia$ s pre!acy in the )acific %e sho $d contro$ the Ca%aiian Ds$ands and !aintain o r inf$ ence in 4a!oa/ 3Cenry Ca+ot Eodge, Aep +$ican 4enator fro! *assach setts (#he $aterial Spirit, Wein+erg)

.The %#he &a'aiian Islands should be controlled b( the United States and no forei)n po'er should be permitted to interfere 'ith them* #he +icara)uan Canal should be built, o'ned and operated b( the United States* And, b( the purchase of the ,anish Islands, 'e should secure a much needed +aval station in the -est Indies. / )resident *cFin$ey, %hi$e ca!paigning for president in 181". This %as act a$$y %ritten into the Aep +$ican )arty p$atfor!.

Theodore +oose'elt #elie'ed U%S% ex!ansionism was the #est thing for e'eryone, including other countries that would #e the #eneficiaries of .merican im!erialism% 4n an .ugust 7rd, 1"14 letter to 5infred Thaxter /enison, he stated that he felt democracy was an (ideal for which only the highest races are fit%) 9*orrison, #he 0etters of #heodore Roosevelt vo$ < p. G8)

(6aac(, 6ennett DH Aay, 2d%ard 0ohn. .4pecia$ Dnterests and the Adoption of the Dnco!e Ta# in the :nited 4tates/ #he 1ournal of American &istor( vo$ G5, n !+er <. (4ept 1185) p. "1<) After the Civi$ War, the !i$itary %as great$y red ced in si>e and scope. 4ince there %as no threat to the :nion, there %as no need to (eep p a $arge !i$itary force other than to (eep the peace and to po$ice the frontier. Co%ever, in 1887 Congress #egan a military #uild:u! #eginning with a!!ro!riations for na'al 'essels with new technology of steam !ower and steel armaments to (eep p %ith nava$ vesse$s of the 2 ropean po%ers of the ti!e. 4t also esta#lished the .rmy:6a'y ;un <oundry ,oard and the 6a'al 5ar College and in 18"$ authori=es the construction of 'ery first #attleshi!s%

,etween 18>$ and 18"2 Congressional a!!ro!riations for na'al ex!enditures reached ?428 million, reaching o'er ?1 #illion #y 1"14% 94nflation calculator @ What cost I428,$$$,$$$ in 1812 %o $d cost

I1$, "4,447,4>4% $ in 2,12. A$so, if yo %ere to + y e#act$y the sa!e prod cts in 2,12 and 1812, they %o $d cost yo I428$$$$$$ and I1>2442"7%>> respective$y.)
6aac(, 6ennett DH Aay, 2d%ard 0ohn. .4pecia$ Dnterests and the Adoption of the Dnco!e Ta# in the :nited 4tates/ #he 1ournal of American &istor( vo$ G5, n !+er <. (4ept 1185) p. "1G 3 ;ne of the factors contri+ ting to this !assive nava$ + i$d3 p %as the :nited 4tates e!erging as a !a?or partner in %or$d trade %hich aided Congressiona$ s pport for the nprecedented + i$d3 p. Dt %as tho ght that the nava$ + i$d3 p %as needed in order to protect :.4. invest!ents a+road.

There had +een ! ch disc ssion over %hat to do %ith the s rp$ s that had acc ! $ated over the years, and )resident C$eve$and, in his Bo rth Ann a$ *essage, Washington D.C., Dece!+er <rd, 1888, had even %arned of the corr ption that !ight co!e %ith the

te!ptation to spend this e#cess. (6ergh, 2rover Cleveland3 Addresses, State 4apers, and 0etters, p. 1GG)

The !assive increase in pension f nds +eca!e so!ething of a scanda$ as the Aep +$ican Congress %as acc sed of + ying votes %ith the !oney that had acc ! $ated fro! the s rp$ s. (.;ver a 6i$$ion Do$$arsH 2#pense Dnvo$ved in 6i$$s 6efore Congress./ &' Ti!es, (27 Be+r ary, 181,) p. 5) (What cost I1,$$$,$$$,$$$ in 181, %o $d cost I28,1 7,7" ,41$%82 in 2,12.

A$so, if yo %ere to + y e#act$y the sa!e prod cts in 2,12 and 181,, they %o $d cost yo I1$$$$$$$$$ and I4$8>48$8%8> respective$y.)

6y 18"" the I7< !i$$ion of reven e co$$ected fro! the inco!e ta# a!o nted to near$y <, percent of a$$ govern!ent reven e co$$ected. Three states %ere critica$ in ter!s of ta#es co$$ected. &e% 'or( contri+ ted a$!ost a third of that !oney and the co!+ination of &e% 'or(, )ennsy$vania and *assach setts paid !ore than ha$f of inco!e ta# reven e co!+ined. (Aeport of the Co!!issioner of Dnterna$ Aeven e (Washington, D.C., 1872) p. 115) A$$ three of those states initia$$y opposed ear$ier inco!e ta# +i$$s +eca se they %ere +earing !ost of the + rdens. Co%ever, that changed %ith the proposed inco!e ta# +i$$ of 181G. These states received a greater a!o nt of contracts for nava$ e#pendit res than states that did s pport the inco!e ta#. According to the Annual Report of the Secretar( of the +av(, the reven e generated fro! 11,2 to 111<, *assach setts received I<,.5 !i$$ion and &e% 'or( received IG8 !i$$ion, &e% 0ersey IG8 !i$$ion, @irginia I< !i$$ion and Connectic t received I.5 !i$$ion. The total amount of funds to the states that 'oted against the income tax was ?1>1%" million, or almost

$ !ercent of the total ex!enditure of funds, while funds to states that were 'oting for the income tax was ?11>%8 million or 4$% !ercent of the total%

A!erican po$itica$ force into !ar(ets they hadn7t had access toH the .)sychic Crisis/ (Aichard Cofstadter) distraction, )anic of 181<

The ;reat ;ame %as a ter! for the strategic riva$ry and conf$ict +et%een the 6ritish 2!pire and the A ssian 2!pire for s pre!acy in Centra$ Asia ranging fro! 181< to 11,7 (A sso3)ersian Treaty of 181< to the Ang$o3A ssian Convention of 11,7).

The Scram#le for .frica (a$so (no%n as the +ace for .frica or *artition of .frica) %as the invasion, occ pation, co$oni>ation, division, and anne#ation of African territory +y 2 ropean po%ers d ring the period +et%een 188G and 111G. The 6er$in Conference of 188G, %hich reg $ated 2 ropean co$oni>ation and trade in Africa, is often cited as a starting point.

The A!en /oor *olicy is a concept in foreign affairs, initia$$y sed to refer to the :nited 4tates po$icy in $ate 11th cent ry and ear$y 2,th cent ry that %o $d grant ! $tip$e internationa$ po%ers %ith e8 a$ access to China (%itho t any say fro! China), %ith none of the! in tota$ contro$ of that co ntry. ;n paper, the po$icy %as ai!ed to safeg ard Chinese sovereignty and territoria$ integrity fro! partition. Dn fact, it %as !ain$y sed to !ediate co!peting interests of the co$onia$ po%ers %itho t ! ch !eaningf $ inp t fro!

the Chinese, th s creating $ingering resent!ent and has +een seen as a sy!+o$ of nationa$ h !i$iation +y !any Chinese historians. As a theory, the ;pen Door )o$icy originates %ith 6ritish co!!ercia$ practice, as %as ref$ected in treaties conc$ ded %ith Jing Dynasty China after the Birst ;pi ! War (18<1K18G2). The L;pen DoorL %as a princip$e, not a po$icy for!a$$y adopted into a treaty or internationa$ $a%.