1

Cracking English Phonetics and Phonology

Clina Goglniceanu

Selected Bibliography Abercrombie, D.: Studies in Phonetics and Linguistics, Oxford University ress, 1!"# $loomfield, %.: Language &'(elft) *m+ression,, %ondon, 1!#$olinger, D.: Intonation and Its Parts, .d(ard Arnold,1!/" Catford,0.C.: Fundamental problems in Phonetics, .dinburg) University ress, 1!11 C)itoran,D.: English Phonetics and Phonology, .ditura Didactica si edagogica, $ucuresti, 1!1/ C)oms2y,3.: Language and Mind, 4arcourt, $race56orld, *nc.,1!"/ Cruttenden,A.: Intonation, Cambridge University ress, 1!!# Crystal,D.: rosodic Systems and Intonation in English, Cambridge Univesrity +ress, 1!"! Dret72e $.: Modern British and American English Pronunciation, 8c)oning), 1!!/ Gimson,A.C.:An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, .d(ard Arnold, 1!19 Gogalniceanu,C.: Introduction to Linguistics, A Theoretical and Practical Approach to Sounds and Phonemes, *nstitutul .uro+ean, :99Gogalniceanu C.: rac!ing English Phonetics and Phonology, *;, :99! Grevisse,;.: Le Bon usage, Duculot, 1!// 4alliday, ;.A.<.: Intonation and "rammar in British English, ')e 4ague, ;outon, 1!"1 0assem,6.: The Phonology of Modern English, 6ars7a(a, 1!/0inga=Dascalu, %.: Intonation in #omanian in Intonation Systems, A 8urvey of '(enty %anguages, .d. Daniel 4irst and Albert Di Cristo, Cambridge University ress, 1!!/

0ones,D.: The Pronunciation of English, Cambridge University ress, 1!"10ones,D.: An $utline of English Phonetics, Cambridge University ress, !t).d., 1!/1 <aiser,%.: Manual of Phonetics, Amsterdam, 1!#1 <ingdon, >.: The "round%or! of English Stress, %ondon, 1!#/ <ingdon,>.: The "round%or! of English Intonation, %ongmans, :nd .d., 1!#! <ortmann,$.:EnglishLinguistics&Essentials'Anglisti2.Ameri2nis ti2 Cornelsen, :99# %adefoged, .: A ourse in Phonetics, 4arcourt $race 0ovanovic), *nc.,1!1# %aver,0.: Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge University ress, 1!!? O@Connor,0.D.: Phonetics, enguin, 1!1i2e,<.: The Intonation of American English, Ann Arbor, 1!?# ilc), 4.:Manual of English Phonetics, ;unc)en, 1!!? uscariu,8.: Limba romana, vol.**, >ostirea, 1!?? 8tan,*.'.: Fonetica, CluA=3a+oca, 1!!" 8(eet,4.: The Indispensable Foundation A Selection from the %ritings of (enry S%eet, %ondon, 1!11 'enc), .:The #oles of Intonation in English )iscourse, eter %ang,,1!// 'enc), . The Intonation Systems of English, Cassell, 1!!" 'rubet72oy,3.8.: "rund*uger der Phonologie, rague, 1!-! Basiliu, .m.: Fonologia limbii romane, $ucuresti, 1!"# 6ard, C.: The Phonetics of English, Cambridge, 1!#/ CCC)tt+:DD(((.britis)t)eatreguide.infoDimagesDmyfairlady1.A+g CCC)tt+:DD(((.+)onetics.ucla.eduDcourseDc)a+ter1Dvo(els.gif CCC)tt+:DD(((.acoustics.)ut.fiD+ublicationsDfilesDt)esesDlemmett yEmstDimage"-.gif CCC)tt+:DD(((.(indom.21:.mn.usD4a++eningsArc)iveD

%anguage Fgeneral considerations 4uman s+eec) is a system of conventional signs. %anguages are made by )uman beings. ')e +)enomenon of language can be understood if G(e +ut on t)e (or2ing Aac2et of )umilityH &Ant)ony $urgess, A ;out)ful of Air,

')e .nglis) language= %ingua Iranca

.nglis) belongs to t)e family of *ndo=.uro+ean languages and originated from t)e 6est Germanic grou+ from ()ic) )ave come German, Dutc), Ilemis), Irisian & s+o2en in some +arts of nort)ern 4olland,. *t is s+o2en in t)e United <ingdom of Great $ritain, in t)e United 8tates and in many ot)er +arts of t)e (orld. *t is t)e official language in several countries, it is t)e most (idely taug)t as a foreign language in more t)an 199 countries according to some estimates. .nglis) is t)e language used in international business, +olitics, science, tec)nology, aviationJ it is t)e language of t)e *nternet and electronic mailJ it is t)e official language of t)e United 3ations and since 1!!# it is one of t)e languages of t)e

# .uro+ean CommissionJ all t)e im+ortant scientific Aournals are +ublis)ed in .nglis)J in mar2eting and advertising, in t)e film industry and music .nglis) )as also a +redominant role. According to some statistics t)ere are ##,999,999 first .nglis) s+ea2ers. *t is also estimated t)at .nglis) is studied as a foreign language in t)e .uro+ean Union by /!K of sc)oolc)ildren. 4aving in vie( t)e use of language as a means of communication in t)e (orld (e can s+ea2 about: International languages, languages used by different +eo+le coming from different linguistic communities to Gfacilitate communication among t)em and to reduce misunderstanding.H *nternational languages can be: = artificial languages li2e Esperanto and Interlingua' .s+eranto derives from t)e name of Do2toro .s+eranto, t)e +seudonym of %a7arus %ud(ig Lamen)of, a olis) oculist, ()o +resented it in )is boo2, +nua Libro in 1//1. 4is intention (as to create an easy to learn language ()ic) could be acMuired in a s)ort time, ()ic) )ad to be +olitically neutral, (it) no intention of re+lacing a country@s language, but only to serve as a common second language. All (ords are derived from *ndo=.uro+ean roots, t)ey are s+elled as t)ey are +ronounced, grammar is sim+le and regularJ verbs )ave only one form for eac) tense and mood. *n 1!#? .s+eranto (as officially recogni7ed by U3.8CO and it )as an estimated number of s+ea2ers ranging from 199,999 to several millions. Alt)oug) it (as and still is used in corres+ondence, cultural exc)ange, movies, it )as a lo( level of usage. = Interlingua (as created in 1!#1 by t)e *nternational Auxiliary %anguage Association. *n grammar and vocabulary it is derived from .nglis) and >omance languages. *t also )as a lo( level of ado+tion.

" ')ere are also national languages ()ic) are used outside t)eir national boundaries and are s+o2en by ot)er +eo+le. 8uc) a language (as %atin in t)e ;iddle Ages and in t)e >enaissanceJ Irenc) (as used in di+lomacy for several centuriesJ .nglis) )as been used all over t)e (orld for many years no(. C.< Ogden &Basic English&A "eneral Introduction %ith #ules and "rammar, 1!-9, +ro+osed a sim+lified variety of .nglis) to be ado+ted as an international secondary language, ()ic) )e develo+ed bet(een 1!:# and 1!-:. ')is form of .nglis) )as a vocabulary of /#9 (ords and its grammar is extremely sim+le. ')e term lingua franca a++lies to a language used by s+ea2ers of different languages to communicate (it) one anot)er in t)e absence of a common language. As .nglis) )as been t)e common language for non=.nglis) s+ea2ers, it is often called lingua franca. %inguists say t)at .nglis) found itself on many occasions in t)e rig)t +lace at t)e rig)t time. >andol+) Nuir2 & A "rammar of ontemporary English, %ondon, 1!1:, is of t)e o+inion t)atH .nglis) is as muc) big business as t)e ex+ort of manufactured goods.H ')e Muestion to be ans(ered is ()at )ad made .nglis) acMuire t)e status of international or global language or to be so often referred to as lingua franca' 'o ans(er t)is Muestion, (e )ave to consider )istorical, social, cultural and linguistic factors. ')e $ritis) .m+ire in t)e 1/t) and 1!t) centuries and early :9t) century included vast territories and many countries, covering almost a t)ird of t)e eart)@s surface ()ere .nglis) (as t)e official language. ')ousands of +eo+le )ad to learn it to be able to communicate in matters of +olitics, business, education and even in every day life. A language can get an international c)aracter ()en it )as a strong +olitical, economic, military basis and .ngland +rovided its language (it) suc) assets.

1 *n t)e :9t) century, t)e United 8tates of America became t)e most influential economic and +olitical +o(er. 'ec)nological and scientific +rogress in all areas of researc) in t)e U< and t)e U8A )as contributed to t)e continuous s+read of .nglis) and to its maintaining its +restige all over t)e (orld. Considering .nglis) from a linguistic +oint vie( (e can mention some ot)er factors t)at )ave contributed to t)e international status of .nglis). ;odern .nglis) vocabulary is t)e result of linguistic influences from five maAor sources: = Old .nglis) = Irenc) = 3orse, t)e language of t)e Bi2ings = 6ords from %atin and Gree2 = 6ords borro(ed from over -#9 languages. *t is also said t)at modern .nglis) is a Gsand(ic) languageH, )aving at t)e bottom Anglo=8axon or Old .nglis)J in t)e middle, varieties of Irenc)J at t)e to+ layer, %atin and Gree2. ')ese HingredientsH are still to be found in any text. As a result, t)ere are )undreds of tri+lets: grou+s of t)ree (ords, one from eac) old sources, ()ic) designate related actions and conce+ts, but (it) different s)ades of meaning: Old English Old French Latin to come bac2 to return to regress fol2 +eo+le +o+ulation (eird strange +eculiar $ld English )ad most of its vocabulary derived from t)e Germanic dialects s+o2en by t)e Angles, 8axons and 0utes ()o invaded .ngland from across t)e 3ort) 8ea. *ts grammar (as similar to t)at of modern German: nouns )ad grammatical gender and casesJ verbs )ad inflections and t)e subAunctive mood (as active and t)ey could occur in different +arts of t)e sentence. Irom t)is +oint of vie(, ;ar2 '(ain@s considerations (ere valid for Old .nglis)

/ li2e for German:H In "erman, a young lady has no se,, %hile a turnip has' Thin! %hat o-er%rought re-erence that sho%s for the turnip, and %hat callous disrespect for the girl'. 'o su++ort t)is vie(, (e can mention t)at t)e Old .nglis) (ord for girl (as t)e neuter noun maegden' Alt)oug) t)e Bi2ing incursions into $ritain lasted only about t(o centuries, some of t)eir (ords (ere incor+orated into .nglis): call, fello%, frec!le, gormless' ')ere are estimated about !99 (ords of Bi2ing origin to exist in .nglis). ')ere are also t)ousands of loan(ords ta2en over from over -#9 languages, +articularly from t)e domain of food. 3a+oleon considered t)e $ritis) to be a Gnation of s)o+2ee+ersH, but in suc) s)o+s t)ere came large numbers of exotic names ()ic) enric)ed t)e .nglis) vocabulary: damas!, pashminas &Urdu,, coffee &Arabic,. ')ere are also many names of foodies & coffee: espresso, cappuccino, latte macchiato, barista crema/' *t is almost im+ossible to 2no( t)e number of (ords in a language, t)e more so in .nglis) ()ere means of forming ne( (ords are very active. 6.4. Auden (rote G The %inds must come from some%here %hen they blo%0 There must be a reason %hy the lea-es decay , t)erefore, (ords must come from some()ere and t)ey decay too. >eferring to ()at a bride )as to (ear, t)e r)yme says: something old, something ne%, something borro%ed, something blue and t)is may be used to ex+lain )o( ne( (ords come about. Something old: .nglis) )as a great ca+acity for creating ne( (ords: by com+osition= acti-e%ear, mouse potato, carbon footprint1 by c)anges of meaning &about 1# +er cent of t)e ne( (ords, F mouse for com+uter &1!"#,, bro%ser &(eb bro(ser, &1!!-,, challenged used for handicapped &1!/#,J abbreviations and bac2=formation F ad from advertisement, admin from administration, edit from editor.

! Something new: ne( (ords may be uni2ue creations3 %e(is Carroll@s -orpal &rat)er rare,, names of +eo+le +ut to ne( uses F sand%ich, cardigan1 ne( (ords are formed from a +reexisting material: brunch,Aids &acronyms,. Something borrowed: as (e )ave seen, .nglis) )as borro(ed (ords from over 456 languages& canoe, barbecue, a-ocado, chilli, coca' 8+anis) 1-KJ Arabic /KJ Irenc) ?1KJ German 1:KJ *talian :9K, 4indi "K. Something blue: refers to taboo (ords re+laced by eu+)emisms. 3o(adays eu+)emisms are used in very different situations not only to re+lace (ords referring to sex, race, religion. solo parent for a single mom& because of solo album, solo ex)ibition, solo flig)t,, dual heritage for mi,ed race to avoid race. As a conclusion (e may Muote Daniel Defoe@s satire to t)e .nglis) language calling .nglis)men mongrels. *t )as al(ays been asserted t)at .nglis) is remar2able for t)e ric)ness of its vocabulary, being considered to be t)e ric)est from t)is +oint of vie( out of all t)e (orld languages. .nglis) is distinguis)ed by a great flexibility in grammar: t)ere is a freedom bet(een active and +assive voiceJ t)e +resent tense can be ex+ressed by several forms: 7I spea!, I am spea!ing, I do spea!/ J a (ord can be a noun, a verb or an adAective& loo!, blame, comfort,. Com+aring .nglis) (it) languages li2e Irenc), German, >omanian, it is evident t)at .nglis) )as fe( inflections to ex+ress different grammatical relations)i+s. resent day .nglis) is an analytical language and t)e loss of inflections )as led to fixed (ord order. David Crystal &English global language, 6as)ington, 1!!", saying t)at G.nglis) is a language on

19 ()ic) t)e sun never setsH comes to su++ort t)e idea t)at .nglis) is lingua franca'

.nglis) )onetics and )onology

%anguage: definition
GA )uman system of communication ()ic) uses structured vocal sounds and can be embodied in ot)er media suc) as (riting, +rint and +)ysical signs.H &The $,ford ompanion to the English Language,. %anguage is an act of communication. Communication is t)e transmission of a message from a source to a receiver. %anguage symbols are made of sounds +roduced by t)e )uman vocal a++aratus ()ic) are arranged in classes ma2ing u+ a structure. ')ese symbols ex+ress meaning, but t)e connection bet(een symbols and t)ings is arbitrary.

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Language Structure Describing t)e (ay in ()ic) language (or2s one refers to t)e different levels of linguistic organi7ation according to ()ic) meaning is ex+ressed in any +articular language. ')ese levels )el+s us focus on certain +atterns of organi7ation . *t s)ould also )ave in mind t)at t)ere are interrelations)i+s bet(een levels. %anguage is a com+lex structure and it is not easy to establis) t)e levels of its organi7ation. One model suggests t(o basic levels: = t)e set of +)ysical forms & sounds, letters, signs, constructions, (ords, contained in a language = t)e range of abstract meanings conveyed by t)ese forms. ')e notion of forms may be subdivided into different 2inds of organi7ation.. ')e +)ysical facts of +ronunciation, as defined by t)e +rocesses of articulation, acoustic transmission, and audition are t)e subAect matter of phonetics. ')e (ay language organi7es sounds to convey differences of meaning is t)e study of phonology. 6it)in t)is (e can distinguis) t)e study of vo(els, consonants and syllables, t)at is segmental phonology and t)e study of +rosodies, tones of voice, t)at is suprasegmental phonology. ')e study of t)e (ay meaningful units are broug)t into seMuences to convey (ider and more varied +atterns of meaning is t)e domain of grammar. 6it)in t)is level (e can distinguis) t)e study of t)e (ord structure, t)at is

1: morphology and t)e study of t)e (ord order (it)in sentences, t)at is synta,' ')e study of t)e +atterns of meaning t)emselves is t)e domain of semantics. 8ometimes t)e study of vocabulary is ta2en se+arately from t)e study of larger +atterns of meaning referred to as te,t or discourse'

Practical Work 1. Give your comment on Ludwig Wittgenstein@s assertion: G')e limits of my language mean t)e limits of my (orld.H

:. %anguage used by )uman beings is one form of communication. Can you mention some ot)er forms of communicationO

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')ree great +ersonalities of t)e 1!t) century: 8aussure, Dur2)eim, Ireud

%inguistics became t)e science of language in t)e 1!t) century. Sigmund Freud F t)e founder of modern +syc)ology &18561939,

Ferdinand de Saussure F t)e founder of modern linguistics 71857-1913,

Emile Durkheim F t)e founder of modern sociology 18581917,

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Ferdinand de Saussure = t)e founder of modern linguistics, t)e Gfat)erH of structuralism. 8aussure@s (or2 GCours de linguistiMue generaleH& 8!1-, re+resents a ne( a++roac) to t)e study of language, ()ic) is seen as a system of elements lin2ed to one anot)er. 4e made definitions regarding t)e nature of language. 4e defined t)e act of s+eec) in terms of a connection bet(een t)oug)t and sound. 4is (or2 can be +laced bet(een +syc)ology and sociology. 4e made t)e distinction bet(een langue &language,, a system of interde+endent terms in ()ic) t)e value of eac) term results solely from t)e simultaneous +resence of t)e ot)ersJ and parole t)e actual manifestation of language in s+eec) or (riting. 4e s+ecifies t)at the linguistic sign consists of t(o +arts: signifier=signifiant on t)e level of ex+ression: a sound or a seMuence of sounds signified = signifie on t)e level of meaning ')ere is a reciprocal relations)i+ bet(een t)e t(o = t)e sound seMuence ex+resses t)e conce+t and vice versa and also a relations)i+ of arbitrariness bet(een t)e t(o. ')e notion of system for t)ese t)ree t)in2ers: language is a system for Saussure t)e +syc)e is and im+ersonal system for Freud t)e collective norms and beliefs re+resent t)e system for Durkheim. All of t)em vie(ed society as a set of institutions or systems.

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%anguage features
9ocal auditory channel: sounds are +roduced by t)e vocal organs and are +erceived by t)e auditory system on-ertibility to other media: (riting, +rint, sign languageJ $raille al+)abet

+se of arbitrary symbols: in t)e maAority of (ords t)ere is no corres+ondence bet(een form &sounds, and meaning )uality& sounds do not )ave meaning, but combining into different +atterns t)ey can ex+ress meaning Interdependence: t)e role of every element of language is defined by t)at of all t)e ot)er elements of t)e same system $pen3endedness or creati-ity: t)ere is an unlimited number of utterances +roduced (it) a limited number of +)onemes )isplacement: (e can refer to events removed in time and +lace and to imaginary situations ontinual change: language )as al(ays been in a continuous +rocess of develo+ment

Turn3ta!ing: +eo+le can ta2e it in turns to tal2 in establis)ed interc)anges

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!ow languages change" ')e only languages t)at do not c)ange are t)e dead ones. Using t)e com+arative met)od of investigating languages linguists establis)ed t)e facts of language c)ange in t)e 1! t) century. *n t)e :9t) century, es+ecially (it) t)e )el+ of sociolinguistics, researc) focused on t)e causes of suc) c)anges to ans(er mainly t)e Muestion :hy do languages changeO *n order to establis) )o( old languages sounded li2e, orthoepists & s+ecialists in t)e study of +ronunciation, gave a descri+tion of t)e organs of s+eec) and of t)e sounds of .nglis) in t)e 1"t) century. ')ey studied t)e (or2s of t)e (riters of t)e li2e C)aucer, 8)a2es+eare. ')e comparati-e reconstruction also +rovided valuable information regarding t)e earlier forms of t)e language by com+aring t)e (ay languages )ave c)anged. *t is to be said t)at linguistic c)ange does not affect simultaneously all sounds or (ords in a language. A c)ange s+reads gradually t)roug) t)e (ords, ()ic) is 2no(n as le,ical diffusion' ')at means, t)at at first a fe( +eo+le use t)e c)ange s+oradically in a fe( (ords & commonly used (ords are first affected by a c)ange, , t)en a large number of (ords are affected, (it) a certain c)anged sound being used more freMuentlyJ t)en t)e maAority of t)e (ords ta2e u+ t)e c)ange. Iactors im+licated in language c)ange: Social factors: #eographical distance: ()en +eo+le move a(ay from eac) ot)er t)eir language (ill di-erge' ')e t(o grou+s (ill )ave different ex+eriences and t)eir vocabulary (ill c)ange. 6)en +eo+le come into contact (it) eac) ot)er t)eir language (ill

11 con-erge. ')e sounds, vocabulary, grammar of one grou+ may exercise some influence on t)e ot)er. At +resent, t)e increased mobility of +eo+le ma2es t)is factor a maAor one. $ultural de%elopments: ne( obAects and ideas are continually created and languages )ave to c)ange to account of t)em. At t)e same time, old obAects and ideas fall out of daily use, and t)e language becomes obsolete. &mper'ect learning: some +eo+le may learn im+erfectly t)e language of ot)ers. ')is may a++ly to immigrants. ')e minority language becomes a substratum ()ic) may in t)e long run influence t)e ma;ority' ')us, American .nglis) )as been influenced by many ot)er languages, mainly by languages from Africa. Social prestige: +eo+le are tem+ted to s+ea2 li2e t)ose t)ey admire. ')is +)enomenon may lead to conscious c)anges & t)ey may use or avoid forms : %hom, intrusive r, or to subconscious c)anges, ()en +eo+le are not a(are of t)e direction in ()ic) t)eir s+eec) is moving. ')is movement may be to(ards a favoured accent or dialect & one t)at is +ositive +restige,, or a(ay from one ()ic) is )eld in lo( esteem & negative +restige,. Conscious c)ange in American and $ritis) .nglis) is in t)e direction of t)ose linguistic forms t)at are recogni7ed as +restigious = o-ert prestige = as in t)e case of standard .nglis). ')is 2ind of c)ange is often initiated by +eo+le from lo(er middle=class or u++er=(or2ing class, es+ecially (omen. $y contrast, subconscious c)ange is usually in t)e o++osite direction a(ay from overt +restige. *t is often initiated by (or2ing=class men and is associated (it) toug)ness and virility of t)e co-ert prestige' Linguistic factors Ease o' articulation: many c)anges in t)e sound system of .nglis) occurred in t)e 1!t) century because s+ea2ers )ad t)e tendency to ma2e as little effort as +ossible, 2no(n as the least articulatory effort +rinci+le. ')us final consonants (ere (ea2ened or dro++ed from +ronunciationJ adAacent sounds influenced eac) ot)er to a large extent.

1/ (nalogy: irregular features in t)e grammar of a language are often influenced by its regular +atterns. ..g., several irregular verbs of Anglo=8axon )ave fallen under t)e influence of t)e regular ones in t)e +ast 1,999 years: helpan and healp as a +ast tense and holpen as a +ast +artici+leJ by t)e 1?t) century, t)e verb became regular, using t)e form ending in )ed helped. During t)e early ;iddle .nglis), over ?9 ot)er verbs &%al!, climb, burn, step, (ere c)anged li2e t)is. 8ocial factors, suc) as t)e develo+ment of t)e standard language and t)e gro(t) of t)e +rinting slo(ed do(n t)e c)ange, so t)at +resent day .nglis) still )as many irregular verbs. 3evert)eless, analogy is still active ()en +eo+le use non=standard forms : !no%ed or ()en c)ildren are )eard saying goned' *andomness: many c)anges in vocabulary are isolated and arbitraryJ but less randomness in +)onology or grammar.

1!

Language can+t stay still , -ust listen to London 4enry 4itc)ings Daily ;ail, 0anuary :911

Pesterday, ()ile getting a )aircut, * fell into conversation (it) t)e customer in t)e c)air next to mine. An Albanian, )e (as com+laining t)at Qno one in %ondon s+ea2s good .nglis) t)ese days@. * as2ed ()at )e regarded as good .nglis), and )e sur+rised me by re+lying Q li2e on .ast.nders F all t)at old= fas)ioned coc2ney@. revious generations felt t)at coc2ney, for all its effusive lac2 of in)ibition, (as not somet)ing to ()ic) one s)ould as+ire. $ut no( t)at coc2ney is losing ground, it is becoming an obAect of nostalgia. And it really is losing ground. %inguists estimate t)at it may disa++ear (it)in -9 years. *t is being su++lanted by ()at t)ey call ;ulticultural %ondon .nglis), ()ic) you may 2no( by t)e catc)y yet misleading name 0afaican. ;ulticultural %ondon .nglis) is easily recogni7ed by features suc) as t)e use of tag Muestions F Qinnit@ or Qis it@ F ()ic) certainly aren@t invitations for a res+onse. *nfused (it) (it) Afro=Caribbean seasoning, it is em+loyed by &mostly young, %ondoners of every imaginable bac2ground. Critics maintain t)at it is +)oney FQ0afaican@ im+lies t)is F but it is an aut)entic, organic variety of .nglis) and it loo2s li2ely to become more +revalent. ')is is only one of t)e many different forms of t)e language t)at can be )eard in %ondon today. Alt)oug) (e tend to tal2 about .nglis) as if it is somet)ing monolit)ic, t)ere are numerous .nglis)es. 'une into t)e conversations )a++ening around you in a cafR or on t)e 'ube, and you@ll ma2e out a mosaic of variants.

:9 One reason for t)is is t)e large number of ot)er languages s+o2en by %ondoners F at least -99. Among t)e more +rominent of t)ese are unAabi, $engali, Urdu and GuAarati, as (ell as Caribbean creole, Cantonese, olis), Arabic, 'agalog and Gree2. On a recent )our=long bus Aourney , * )eard >ussian, ortuguese, 'ur2is) and Poruba. As +assengers flitted bet(een native and ado+ted languages, it (as clear t)ese )ad become intert(ined. .nglis) )as +ros+ered t)roug) assimilating terms from ot)er languages, and engagement F in %ondon and beyond F (it) s+ea2ers of foreign languages )as enabled t)is, ()ile also +ro+agating )ybrids suc) as 4inglis) & a blend of 4indi and .nglis),. %ondon .nglis) )as long been (ildly diverse. *n t)e 1?t) century, Geoffrey C)aucer absorbed (ords of Irenc) and *talian originJ recycling t)em (as a (ay to ma2e )is (riting a++ear more dignified. 'oday t)e multi+licity of tongues on our streets means sco+e for cross=+ollination is muc) greater. 6e find it convenient to t)in2 of t)ere being a single, fixed .nglis), but daily ex+erience confirms t)at ours is a boisterous +arliament of tongues. *n examining t)is subAect * ta2e a descri+tive vie( F trying to observe and re+ort ()at is )a++ening to .nglis). 0ust yesterday C)arles ;oore in t)e Daily 'elegra+) condemned t)is as Qanarc)ic@. A descri+tive a++roac) to language c)ange does not ecli+se t)e cogent arguments for teac)ing in sc)ools a standard form of (ritten .nglis). $ut t)e s+o2en language (ill al(ays be elastic. *t is t)e s+o2en language t)at is t)e great driver of c)ange, and in %ondon scarcely a day goes by (it)out our noticing some addition or adAustment. ')is can be disconcerting, but .nglis) dra(s strengt) from being mobile and +rotean. 4enry 4itc)ings: A (istory of Proper English

:1

Languages can die A language dies only ()en t)e last +erson s+ea2ing it dies, or better said ()en t)e second=last +erson ()o s+ea2s it dies, because t)ere (ill be no one left to s+ea2 to. 6)en )uman communities disa++ear t)eir language disa++ears too &4ittite in t)e time of t)e Old 'estament,. At +resent (e (itness massive language extinction. Of t)e ",999 languages in t)e (orld about )alf are going to die out in t)e course of t)e +resent century:-,999 languages in 1,:99 mont)s, ()ic) means t)at a language dies out some()ere in t)e (orld every t(o (ee2s. *f a language )as less t)an 199 s+ea2ers it is not going to last very long. A 1!!! survey s)o(ed t)at !"K of t)e (orld@s languages are s+o2en by ?K of t)e +eo+le, so suc) languages are in danger. *n 1!!! t)e 8ummer *nstitute of %inguistics recogni7ed ",1/? languages. ')ere (ere #1 languages (it) one s+ea2er left &:/ in Australia,. ')ere (ere about #99 languages in t)e (orld (it) less t)an 199 s+ea2ers. ')e reasons for t)is situation range from natural disasters to cultural assimilation, to genocide. Unless t)e s+ea2ers of a language are too fe( or too old, t)ere are t)ings t)at can be done to give ne( life to suc) languages. ')e term used for t)is is re%itali.ation. ')e community of suc) a language in danger s)ould do somet)ing in t)is res+ect. %inguists )ave t)e tas2 of documenting t)e language.

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Practical Work 1. .x+lain eac) of t)e language features mentioned before.

:. 4ere are some Muotations referring to c)ange affecting t)e universe and, t)erefore, language. G.veryt)ing rolls on, not)ing stays still.H& (eraclitus, <th century B , G')e ever=()irling ()eel of c)ange, to ()ic) all mortal t)ings dot) s(ay.H &Edmund Spenser, G')ere can never be a moment of true standstill in language, Aust as little as t)e ceaseless flaming t)oug)t of men. $y nature it is a continuous +rocess of develo+ment.H &:ilhelm -on (umboldt, 8=45, G8ince Qtis 3ature@s %a( to c)ange. Constancy alone is strange.H &>ohn :ilmont, Earl of #ochester, A dialogue bet%een Strephon and )aphne, Give your o(n comments on t)e above Muotations and +oint out )o( you see c)ange in language.

:-

-. %anguage )as been com+ared to a trans+arent glass t)roug) ()ic) (e can see t)e (orld, and a tool by ()ic) (e c)ange it. 6)at is your o+inion regarding t)e above assertionO

?. %anguage is a mental +)enomenon being genetically in=built and a social +)enomenon' 6)at could be t)e relations)i+ bet(een t)in2ing, as an individual +)enomenon, and t)e (ay it is ex+ressed in language in a certain communityO

#. <ate $urridge, &:eeds in the "arden of :ords/ Ggardens and standard languages )ave muc) in common. $ot) are )uman constructions and t)ey s)are t(o fundamental c)aracteristics. ')ey are restricted to boundaries and t)ey are also cultivated.H 6)at do you understand by Gb undariesH in t)is contextO

:? 4o( is language G!ulti"atedHO

%inguistics = t)e scientific study of language

Alt)oug) linguistic +reoccu+ations existed from ancient times, t)e term GlinguisticsH (as used for t)e first time in t)e middle of t)e 1!t) century. *ts main aims are to give t)e +rinci+les of )uman language and to offer descri+tions of individual languages.

)onetics +)one S sound, voice

G')e science ()ic) studies t)e c)aracteristics of )uman sound ma2ing es+ecially t)ose used in s+eec), and +rovides met)ods for t)eir Descri+tion, Classification and 'ranscri+tionH &)a-id rystal, Phonetics is concerned (it): t)e o+erations ta2ing +lace in t)e nerves and muscles of t)e s+eec) mec)anism during t)e +roduction of s+eec) t)e nature and c)aracteristics of sound (aves t)e +rocess of )earing t)e relation bet(een t)e data of eac) of t)e above

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'y+es of )onetics and t)eir subAect matter:

#eneral = t)e sounds +roduced by )uman vocal

a++aratus inde+endent of any linguistic use Linguisti! F t)e s+eec) sounds of a +articular language
$rti!ulat r% = t)e organs of s+eec) and t)e +roduction of sounds $! usti! = t)e +)ysical +ro+erties of sounds $udit r% F t)e +rocessing and inter+retation of s+eec) sounds by t)e ear, nervous system and brain &nstrumental F t)e study of t)e sound structure by means of s+ecial instruments E'(erimental F t)e as+ects of sounds t)at are essential for understanding and for t)e recognition of linguistic categories F rensi! F t)e a++lication of +)onetics to crime investigations

:" Practical Work 1. ;a2ing use of your general 2no(ledge in %inguistics ex+lain t)e terms synchronic +)onetics and diachronic +)onetics.

:. 6)at (ould be t)e tas2 of comparati-e and contrasti-e +)oneticsO

-. .x+lain t)e role of Forensic Phonetics in t)e field of la(.

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)onetics = t)e basic branc) of linguistics

)onetics is concerned (it) t)e ex+ression level of language, but it must ta2e into account t)e content level. Only meaningful sound seMuences are regarded as s+eec). ')e structure of language can be understood relying on +)onetics and +)onetic analysis.

)onetics and ot)er 8ciences

Alt)oug) an inde+endent science, +)onetics is related to ot)er sciences: Le'i! l g% : pin pan pun = one sound ma2es t)e difference in meaning #rammar : (ord stress: rebel to rebel intonation and ty+es of clauses: Do you 2no( ;aryO Pes./D / *t is so. PesO / C/ *s it soO St%listi!s: a sound or a grou+ of sounds can suggest a certain meaning: sp &(etness, spray, splash, sprin!le, splatter

:/ )h%si l g% : t)e +roduction of s+eec) )h%si!s& t)e acoustic features of sounds )s%!h l g%& t)e formulation of message in t)e brain of t)e s+ea2er. ')e decoding of t)e message in t)e interlocutor@s brain.

Practical Work 1. 6)at is t)e ex+ression level of a languageO

:. Comment on t)e assertion t)at t)e structure of a language can be ex+lained by resorting to )onetics. On ()at levels of language is )onetics mostly em+loyedO

-. Give t)ree exam+les to illustrate )o( stress can c)ange t)e meaning of (ords in .nglis) and >omanian.

?. Iind t(o grou+s of letters used in (ords in .nglis) and t(o in >omanian ()ic) can determine a c)ange of meaning in eac) language.

:!

)onetics and )onology

)onetics is t)e study of t)e +)ysical as+ects of s+eec), t)e acoustic bases of s+eec) and t)e +)ysiological bases.

)onology is concerned (it) t)e linguistic +atterning of sounds in )uman languages, (it) t)e meaning=distinguis)ing function of sounds. *t is also concerned (it) t)ose abstract +atterns in t)e sound system of a language t)at )ave to be learned by anyone acMuiring a language.

A linguistic system is based on contrasts F by selecting one sound instead of anot)er one (ord is distinguis)ed from anot)er: /k/ cane D2enD /g/ gain DgenD

')e same +)onetic context ain can ex+ress t(o different meanings due to t)e t(o different +)onemes /k g/

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Practical Work 1. 6)at do you understand by t)e +)ysical, acoustic and +)ysiological as+ects of s+eec)O

:. Give three exam+les for eac) of t)e follo(ing situations: a. t)e same +)onetic context distinguis)ed by t)ree +)onemes in initial +osition

b. t)e same +)onetic context ex+ressing different meanings by inserting t)ree different vo(els in medial +osition

c. t)e same +)onetic context ex+ressing different meanings by )aving a different +)oneme in final +osition.

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*m+ortance of )onetics
G )onetics is to t)e science of language generally ()at mat)ematics is to astronomy and t)e +)ysical sciencesH &(enry S%eet,

G )onetics gat)ers ra( material. )onetics coo2s it. ractical )onetics +rovides a tec)niMue for describing sounds in terms of movements of t)e vocal a++aratus, and for (riting t)em in terms of articulatory formulas, i.e letters of t)e +)onetic al+)abet.H &?'Pi!e,

)onetics +lays an im+ortant +art in: a. teac)ing and learning t)e native language and a foreign language b. t)e t)era+y of s+eec) and )earing

-: c. sound recordings d. it is connected (it) communication

Practical Work 1. 6)at is t)e role of )onetics in teac)ing t)e native language in elementary sc)oolO

:.

6)at is t)e role of )onetics in t)e +rocess of teac)ing and learning a foreign languageO

-.

Iind some ot)er domains in ()ic) )onetics is relevant.

?.

Give exam+les to illustrate t)e relation bet(een )onetics and 8tylistics.

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A 4istorical A++roac) to t)e .nglis) %anguage

00 B$) 122 (3 0th century t)e >oman occu+ation t)e Angles, 8axons and 0utes invaded $ritain. ')e Celts (ere driven to 6ales, Corn(all and 8cotland. ')e (ord English is used for t)e s+eec) of t)ese invaders. th 4 century %atin (as introduced for religious +ur+oses. th th 5 century , 66 8candinavians came to .ngland 3orman invasion. Irenc) became t)e official language.

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')e 4istory of .nglis): +)onetic and +)onological c)anges

Old English ?#9 &t)e first Germanic invasions, or 199 &t)e first texts available, = 1199 7iddle English 1199 F 1#99 7odern English 1#99 F to t)e +resent time

Old .nglis)
Iull endings or inflections A synt)etical language F t)e relation bet(een (ords (ere ex+ressed by inflections. ')e al+)abet F t)e runes, t)en t)e %atin al+)abet. 8+elling (as generally +)onetic. ;utation or Umlaut: t)e modification of a stressed vo(el under t)e influence of anot)er vo(el: man3men, foot3feet, tooth3 teeth' Iracture or brea2ing: t)e front vo(els (ere Gbro2enH by t)e +resence of a follo(ing h or a consonant cluster com+rising r or l: eahta @ eight' *n unstressed +ositions t)ere (ere no long vo(els or di+)t)ongs and s)ort vo(els tended to be (ea2ened.

Ancient Al+)abets: t)e $gams and t)e #unes

')e Ogams (ere sets of notc)es on t)e edge of a stone or sMuared stic2s. %ater t)ey (ere (ritten on a flat surface above and belo( a )ori7ontal line. ')ere (ere A6 symbols arranged in ? grou+s of # and t)e

-# meaning (as obtained from t)eir number and t)eir +osition in relation (it) t)e central line. About 466 inscriptions in t)is al+)abet (ere discovered in t)e sout) (est of *reland, in 8cotland, .ngland and 6ales. ')e #unes (as t)e al+)abet of t)e ancient Got)s after t)e contact (it) t)e Gree2 and %atin al+)abets. #une from t)e 'eutonic (ord runS t)e mystery of (riting, #unaS ()is+er #unes (ere associated (it) mysteries, magic, (itc)craftJ t)ey re+resent t)e oldest form of Germanic (riting ()ic) existed in 8candinavia from t)e -rd century and contained AB symbols. *nscri+tions are to be found on gravestones, c)urc) crosses, bells, bracelets, brooc)es u+ to t)e 11t) century.

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8he *unes

-1 Practical Work 1. .x+lain t)e terms synthetical and analytical in relation to languages.

:. 6)at do you understand by a language )aving Gfull endings or inflectionsH. ;a2e a com+arison bet(een Old .nglis) and >omanian from t)is +oint of vie(.

-. 6)at al+)abet (as used in >omanian before t)e %atin oneO

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;iddle .nglis)
French (as used in Court and by t)e aristocracy. 3evert)eless, !9K of t)e +o+ulation s+o2e .nglis), ()ic) (as introduced in sc)ools after 1-?!. $y t)e end of 1?t) century .nglis) (as t)e official language in Court. After 1-99 .nglis) s+elling (as influenced by Irenc): long vo(els (ere not indicated by a s+ecial mar2 and began to be doubledJ fet @feet, gas3geese a final e (as added to t)e stem of some (ords to denote a long stressed vo(el single consonants after a stressed vo(el (ere doubled to indicate t)at t)e res+ective vo(el (as s)ort: stop 3stopped t)e maAority of s+elling c)anges of t)is +eriod (ere due to t)e res+elling of .nglis) by Anglo=3orman scribes according to t)e tradition of Irenc) t)e +)onetic c)aracter of .nglis) ort)ogra+)y (as (ea2ened by numerous borro(ings from Irenc), t)e dro++ing out of s+ecial mar2s for long vo(els and by t)e introduction of ne( symbols to re+resent t)e ne( sounds t)ere (as t)e tendency to s)orten long vo(els ()en follo(ed by consonants from 1-t) century t)e Muantity of a vo(el (as de+endent on its +osition in t)e (ord O. di+)t)ongs (it) an o+en second element disa++eared and ne( di+)t)ongs (it) a close second element a++eared unstressed vo(els (ere (ea2ened or lost.

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$hrist+s !ospital School West Susse9 :;

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Practical Work

1. 4o( (ould you ex+lain t)e existence of t(o terms to designate t)e animal and its meat, e.g. pig @ por!, o,0co% @ beef, sheep @ muttonC

:. 6)y (as .nglis) s+elling influenced by Irenc) in t)is +eriod of timeO

-. C)oose 'i%e (ords and c)ec2 t)eir s+elling evolution by loo2ing t)em u+ in a dictionary made u+ on a )istorical basis. 6)at c)anges can you noticeO

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;odern .nglis)
.arly ;odern .nglis) coincides (it) t)e great cultural +rogress of >enaissance Alt)oug) %atin (as still used, .nglis) (on full recognition ')e discre+ancy bet(een s+elling and sound (as more evident After 1#99 .nglis) sounds under(ent significant c)anges: most vo(els (ere c)anged in stressed syllables t)e guttural sound /X / re+resented by gh disa++eared r (as modified being silenced in many cases combinations of consonants became sim+le consonants in a +rocess of (ea2ening. ')e discre+ancy bet(een s+elling and +ronunciation is Austified by t)e fact t)at t)ere are some ?9 sounds in .nglis) and more t)an :99 (ays of s+elling t)em: /S / t)ere are 1? (ays to render it: shoe, sugar, passion, ambitious, ocean, champagne etc. /W/ is rendered by different letters in: go, beau, sto%, se%, doe, though, escargot' 3evert)eless, Sime n ) tter remar2ed t)at t)is discre+ancy is not so dramatic because: consonants are fairly regular in t)eir +ronunciation t)e language is free of diacritical mar2s t)e s+elling of borro(ed (ords are +reservedJ

?: and Da"id *r%stal +oints out t)at t)ere are only ?99 irregular s+ellings in .nglis),()ic) means t)at /?K of .nglis) s+elling conform to general +attern.

Spelling .nglis) s+elling )as been criticised by many sc)olars and lay men as (ell. *t (as considered to be old3fashioned for retaining s+ellings li2e 2nig)t or (ould, reflecting t)e (ay suc) (ords (ere +ronounced several centuries agoJ it (as said to be cumbrous being com+licated, time consumingJ it (as called ineffecti-e and inefficient' ')ere )ave been numerous +ro+osals for s+elling reform, but t)eir success (as very muc) limited or inexistent. $e(are of )eard, a dreadful (ord, ')at loo2s li2e beard and sounds li2e bird. And dead: it@s said li2e bed and not li2e bead, Ior goodness sa2es don@t call it deed. ')ere are languages, li2e 8+anis), Iinnis), >omanian (it) a one=to=one relations)i+ bet(een letters and sounds. ')ese are +)onetic languages defined in O.D: Gt)e s+elling of a (ord or of t)e (ritten form of a language: corres+onding to t)e current +ronunciation.H 'o illustrate t)e GlamentableH state of t)e .nglis) s+elling, (e may ta2e as an exam+le t)e grou+ of letters oug) ()ic) occurs in a very small number of (ords, but it )as nine different (ays of being +ronounced: though, rough, cough, hiccough, plough, through, lough' At t)e same time, Di: D can be s+elled in different (ays as in& feet, deal, niece, people, machine, !ey, 2uay, foetus, aesar' ')e mismatc) from sound to s+elling is greater t)an t)e ot)er (ay round. *t )as been calculated t)at t)ere are 1-.1 s+ellings +er sound and -.# sounds +er letter.

?*t is evident t)at .nglis) s+elling is not +)onetic and one reason is t)e fact t)at t)ere are :" letters in t)e al+)abet and ?? sounds. ')ere are also ot)er factors t)at can ex+lain t)e discre+ancy bet(een s+elling and +ronunciation. ;any derived (ords c)ange t)e s+elling of t)eir root: humour3humorous, space3spatial, maintain3maintenance, retain3retention. 8ome (ords )ave different forms according to t)e context t)ey occur: practice3practiseJ ot)ers, borro(ed from ot)er languages, )ave several forms: yoghurt, yoghourt, yogurt' ')e most common letter in .nglis) is e , but t)e most common vo(el sound is sh%a 0W 0, ()ic) does not )ave its o(n letter. *ts name comes from ancient 4ebre( meaning emptiness' 8ome exam+les to illustrate )o( common t)is sound is: banana&t(ice,, I ordered an a-ocado and a banana &1 times,. ')is sound accurs only in unstressed syllables and it can re+lace many s)ort vo(els in unstressed +ositions. 8+elling mista2es can be made ()en (ords )ave vo(els t)at are +ronounced (it) s)(a: relevant is often s+elled rele-ant, rela-ent, rela-ant, because t)e last syllables are +ronounced s)(a and t)e sound s)(a can be rendered in s+elling by a or e' Double consonants are anot)er s+elling Gbanana s2inH, li2e dissappoint, e,aggerrate' *n some languages t)e grou+ of letters ph (as c)anged to f, ()ile in .nglis), alt)oug) t)e +ronunciation is 0f0, ph )as been 2e+t in s+elling. Iood terms and +lant names, usually of foreign origin, are +ronounced in different (ays, a fact affecting s+elling as (ell: bruschetta, brushetta' Anot)er source of confusion may originate in t)e use of )y+)ens. ')e :991 edition of t)e 8)orter Oxford .nglis) Dictionary recorded 1",999 )y+)ens, but t)e )y+)en usage )as declined by # +er cent in t)e last -9 years. *t is t)e o+inion of an anonymous commentator t)at Gif you ta2e )y+)ens seriously, you (ill undoubtedly go mad.H

?? 'a2ing one of 8)a2es+eare@s +)rase %ild goose chase, t)e Muestion can be: )o( many (ords to count O ')ere are six different (ays to (rite t)e +)rase, but t)e most freMuently used one is %ild3goose chase because it ans(ers t)e Muestion G6)at 2ind of c)ase is itOH *t is t)e chase of %ild geese not a %ild chase' 6it)out t)e )y+)en it not clear ()et)er (ild refers to the chase or the geese' t%enty odd men vs t%enty3odd men, (it)out )y+)en it refers to a number of eccentric men, (it) )y+)en it means t(enty normal +ersons. e,tra marital se,, may be good ne(s, but e,tra3marital se, +robably isn@t. *t is evident t)at )y+)ens can avoid ambiguity in com+ound ex+ressions before nouns. 4y+)ens facilitate understanding ()en t)ey come before t)e noun, but are not necessary after: they are -ery %ell !no%n0 a %ell3!no%n person this cheese is first class0some first3class cheese !eep your notes up to date0up3to3date notes Alt)oug) t)ere are different o+inions and different usage regarding )y+)ens, one rule s)ould be generally observed: a )y+)en is not used bet(een t)e verb and a follo(ing adverb &+)rasal verbs,: they built up' 4.6. Io(ler said G')e )y+)en is not an ornament, but an aid to being understood, and s)ould be em+loyed only ()en it is needed for t)at +ur+ose.H&8ir .rnest Go(er, ed., Fo%lerDs Modern English +sage, Oxford, 1!"#,.

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Practical Work

1. oint out t)e main influences on t)e .nglis) language in its )istorical evolution.

:. ')ere is t)e o+inion t)at .nglis) s+elling is Gc)aoticH and Gun+redictableH. ')e follo(ing sentence is Muoted to su++ort t)is claim: Though the rough cough and hiccough plough me through , I ought to cross the lough' Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e sentence and +oint out t)e different +ronunciations for t)e grou+ of letters ough. 6)at (ould be t)e translation of t)is sentence into >omanianO

?" -. C)aracterise ort)ogra+)y in ;iddle .nglis).

?. Give exam+les to illustrate t)e discre+ancy bet(een s+elling and +ronunciation in ;odern .nglis).

#. 6)at did Sime n ) tter mean by saying t)at Gconsonants are fairly regular in +ronunciationH in .nglis)O 6)at can you say about t)e >omanian consonants from t)is +oint of vie(O

". C)oose three .nglis) vo(els, three consonants and three di+)t)ongs and illustrate all t)eir s+elling +ossibilities.

1. Give ten exam+les to illustrate t)e influence of Irenc) on .nglis) +ronunciation.

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/. Do you agree (it) Sime n ) tter and Da"id *r%stal ()o are of t)e o+inion t)at .nglis) s+elling is not so G terriblyH irregular as far as its relation to +resent day. Give your +ros and cons to su++ort your o+inion.

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Barieties of .nglis)
+ermin l g%:
3ialect refers to varieties distinguis)ed by differences of grammar and vocabularyJ accent to varieties of +ronunciationJ Socioregional varieties are dialects ()ic) differ from t)e standard language in grammar, vocabulary and +ronunciation. .nglis) is s+o2en in a great number of countries as mot)er tongue, as t)e second language, as a foreign language. *t )as also +roved to be )ost to numerous borro(ings, some of ()ic) )ave been anglici7ed, ot)ers remaining closer to t)e language of origin. .nglis), as any ot)er language, )as been constantly c)anging. ')is reality ex+lains t)e great diversity of its reali7ations bot) in U<, in t)e U8A and all over t)e (orld.

*P is s+o2en by t)e educated +eo+le of .ngland, it is used by radio and 'B announcers and ne(sreaders. *t is considered to be t)e best and even t)e most beautiful .nglis). G#ecei-edH )as t)e 1!t) century meaning of Gaccepted by the best societyH.

>eceived ronunciation or >

#P definitions:
$,-, Ellis &1/"!, G*n t)e +resent day (e may T recogni7e a received +ronunciation all over t)e country, no (idely differing in any +articular locality, and admitting a certain degree of variety. *t

?! may be es+ecially considered as t)e educated +ronunciation of t)e metro+olis, t)e +ul+it and t)e bar.H D, - nes &1!11, > is considered to be t)e Gmost usually )eard in everyday s+eec) in t)e families of 8out)ern .nglis) +ersons ()ose menfol2 )ave been educated at t)e great +ublic boarding= sc)ools.H GT > means merely Q(idely understood +ronunciation@.H $,*, #ims n distinguis)ed: Conservative > used by t)e older generation General > ado+ted by t)e $$C Advanced > used by t)e younger generation belonging to t)e u++er class

(.$. #imson .1917-1985/ ),0 a!h 1-, 2artman &1!!1, G')e time )as come to abandon t)e arc)aic name >eceived ronunciation. ')e model used T is ()at is referred to as $$C .nglis)J t)is is t)e +ronunciation of +rofessional s+ea2ers em+loyed by t)e $$C.H 3ernd 4 rtmann &:99#, G> is a social, su+ranational +restige accent. Des+ite t)e fact t)at it is 2no(n as t)e $ritis) & or more precisely English English, standard accent and used as a reference accent in

#9 sc)ool and university education, at least t)e mar2ed and more traditional version of > is s+o2en by a small and continuously s)rin2ing minority of standard s+ea2ers of t)e u++er and u++er middle class.H

Practical Work 1. Do you agree on t)e fact t)at .nglis) )as a great diversity in its s+o2en reali7ations all over t)e (orldO Give your comments on t)is.

:. 6)at definition of > illustrative and ()yO

(ould you c)oose as t)e most

-. Does >omanian dis+lay a great variety of reali7ations in different regions of t)e countryO Give exam+les to su++ort your +oint of vie(.

#1

> c)aracteristics
/ / is di+)t)ongised <e= in that man t)e di+)t)ongs in price, mouth )ave a front starting +oint /U a: u: / are fully bac2 t)e centring di+)t)ongs /W second element ()en in free +osition near, %here t)e vo(el in nurse is very o+en /W / is +ronounced /ou/ /i/ is +referred to / / in (ords li2e %aited, horses, pri-ate in cloth, cross, soft, off /:/ is +referred /p t k/ )ave little as+iration in initial +osition pan, ten, !ite and ()en follo(ed by a nasal consonant t)ey are nasali7ed <mi= and <mW= for my as (ea2 forms some em+)asis is added to a voiceless consonant follo(ing an accented vo(el: it is a%fully nice assimilation occurs freMuently, ten minutes <tem minits= and EW W / )ave a very o+en

#: also elision, ne,t day <neks dei= dro++ing of unstressed h in him /im/ com+ression to arri-e [twWraiv]

Practical Work 1. .x+lain t)e follo(ing terms: 8tandard .nglis), Nueen@s .nglis) or <ing@s .nglis), $$C .nglis), Conservative > , Advanced > .

:. 4ave you ado+ted > +ronunciationO *f yes, ()yO

-. 6)at of t)e > c)aracteristics do you find to be more common in t)e s+eec) of t)e native s+ea2ers you )ave )eard s+ea2ingO

?. %isten to t)e $$C ne(sreaders and trac2 t)e > features in t)eir s+eec).

#-

#. 6)at can you say about t)e (ay of s+ea2ing of >omanian ne(sreaders on >omanian 'BO

Coc2ney
*t is %ondon s+eec) ()ic) is described as G)ars)H, (it) t)e c)aracteristic of slac2ness. GCoc2neys avoid movement of t)e li+s and Aa( as far as +ossibleH &:' Matthe%s E oc!neys Past and Present./ GCoc2neys avoid, as far as +ossible, any unnecessary movements of t)e articulating organsH &M' MacBride ELondonDs )ialect., $eing G)ars)H is ex+lained by some linguists as being t)e result of Coc2neys )aving in)abited a noisy and )ars) city ()ere t)e need to be )eard above t)e roar of Gunresting %ondonH is im+ortant. Coc2ney )as re+resented an oral rat)er t)an a (ritten culture.

#?

#.B. Shaw ,5% Fair Lad%

6rigins 7 the w rd * !kne%8

o!enay or coc!Ds egg, t)at is an unnatural obAect or frea2 of nature. ')e %atin term co2uina, or coo!ery, deriving from t)e time ()en %ondon (as considered t)e great centre of coo2=s)o+s. *n Celtic myt)ology %ondon (as mil2 and )oney. oc!gaine, a +lace of

*n t)e 1#t) century t)e term (as synonymous (it) mil!sop or an effeminate fello(. *n t)e 1"t) century it named a to(nsman as a ty+e of effeminacy, in contrast to t)e toug) in)abitants of t)e country. *n t)e 1!t) century oc!neys and oc!neyisms flouris)ed.

*hara!teristi!s8
9 !abular%8 rh%ming slang F ()ic) refers to (ords or +)rases t)at r)yme

## (it) t)e (ords t)at are really meant: apples and pears for stairs trouble and strife for (ife struggle and strife for (ife dog and bone for tele+)one G!li((ed rh%ming slang., ()ere t)e r)yming (ord is left out: boat for face from boat race por!ies for lies from por! pies loaf for )ead from loaf of bread

)r nun!iati n8 relytions Srelations toimeStime o(n S )ome fla)s Sflo(ers inselt S insult arst Sas2ed gornSgone bac2 slang : yob for boy Among younger Londoners oc!ney )as become milder or more subduedJ t)is may be due to a better formal education and to t)e general diminution of local dialects as a result of mass media communications. 3evert)eless, Coc2ney )as survived and )as retained its vitality.

#"

Geordie and 8couse

#eordie: t)e s+eec) of t)e 'yne and 6ear area of nort)= eastern .ngland, centered on t)e city of 3e(castle. Diminutive of "eorge, originally a nort)ern dialect (ord for Gcoal minerH. Scouse: t)e s+eec) variety of t)e ;erseyside area of nort)(estern .ngland, centered on t)e city of %iver+ool. LobscouseS a 2ind of ste( served in %iver+ool cafes.

.stuary .nglis) ..
A modified regional s+eec). A mixture of non=regional and local sout)=eastern .nglis) +ronunciation. *t can be +laced bet(een > and %ondon s+eec). *t is considered to be a dialect bet(een Coc2ney and t)e Nueen. &)a-id #ose%arne 8F=B,. *t (as called middle=class and lo(er middle class s+eec).

#1 *t is a ne( standard accent.

*hara!teristi!s8
glottaling : /t/ is re+laced by glottal sto+ /? / ()en +receded by a vo(el or / l n D and follo(ed by anot)er consonant or at t)e end of t)e (ord: ta2e it off Muite nice football bent, $entley yod coalescence : t)e semivo(el /-/ toget)er (it) t)e +receding alveolar +losive result in / tS dJ / . tense %owels in final +osition me, city )ave a longer vo(el in final +osition t)an in > . intonation prominence to +re+ositions and auxiliaries: %et@s go TO t)e mar2et. ')ey (ere (or2ing FOR years.

8lang
')e term slang (as used in t)e 1199s to designate t)e s+eec) of under(orld. *t (as used for t)e sa2e of secrecy. 8lang is in a continuous c)ange because it )as to be ne( and Qcool@. art of slang re+resents tomorro(@s formal language. *n Samuel - hns n:s dictionary &11##, (ords li2e abominably, no%adays, cle-er (ere considered to be lo( language, being slang. Samuel - hns n used t)e term slang to refer to t)e s+eec) of t)ieves.

#/

Parents who think slang is >sa'e+ .leanor 4arding Daily ;ail, 0anuary :/, :911 Once u+on a time , +arents (ould )ave considered teenage slang annoying and confusing. $ut modern mums and dads are more li2ely to t)in2 it@s Q(ic2ed@= and not in a bad (ay. Almost t)ree Muarters of +arents ado+t t)e fas)ionable +)rases and ex+ressions t)eir c)ildren use, a study )as found. 6)ile once t)ey@d )ave instructed t)eir offs+ring to be Qsafe@, t)ey@re no( using t)e (ord to denote t)at somet)ing meets t)eir a++roval. And Qs(eet@ is more li2ely to mean Qgood@ t)an a sugary treat. 4i+=at=)eart mums and dads )ave also ado+ted t)e +)rase Qinnit@, s)ort for Qisn@t it@. 4alf also use t)e (ord Q(ic2ed@ to describe somet)ing t)ey li2e F as t)e Duc)ess of Corn(all did ()en tal2ing about rince 6illiam@s engagement to <ate ;iddleton. *n t)e +oll, for (ebsite Genes reunited, mo!re t)an 1,199 +arents (ere as2ed )o( t)eir language (as influenced by t)eir c)ildren. *t found -9 +er cent )ave ado+ted Qtext s+ea2@ from younger family members , using acronyms suc) as@%O%@ for Qlaug) out loud@. 4o(ever, )alf said t)ey +ut t)eir foot do(n ()en it came to (ritten communications and al(ays com+osed text messages in +ro+er .nglis). And a t)ird blamed yout) culture and slang for )aving a detrimental effect on c)ildren@s manners and be)aviour. >)oda $rea2ell, )ead of genes reunited, said: Q*t is said t)at slang can be traced bac2 to 8)a2es+eare and C)aucer = t)e most famous of all being Coc2ney r)yming slang.

#! ')e conversation (e are )aving no( (it) our c)ildren, and t)e vocabulary (e are using, (ill be t)e literary stam+ of our generation.@

Practical Work 1. > )as sometimes being ridiculed being called GposhH or GeffeminateH. 6)at is t)e meaning of t)e (ord GposhHO Do you agree (it) t)is labeling of > O

:.

6)en you come close to a native s+ea2er of .nglis), try to identify )isD)er variety of .nglis). oint out t)e main c)aracteristics of t)e variety of .nglis) you )ave )eard.

-.

Iind some more (ords belonging to 8lang.

"9 ?. Comment on #, 3, Shaw@s remar2s: GT it is im+ossible for an .nglis)man to o+en )is mout) (it)out ma2ing some ot)er .nglis)man des+ise )im.H G8+ea2 t)at * may see you.H And $en 0onson@s: G%anguage most s)o(s a man.H

6els)
*t is a Celtic language.

*hara!teristi!s8
medial consonants are longer t)an t)e eMuivalent .nglis) consonants it is a non=r)otic dialect its intonation )as a sing=song toneJ rise=fall tones are common yesDno Muestions are said (it) a )ig) rise tone assimilation and elision are common in longer (ords secondary stress is omitted

8cots
*hara!teristi!s8 * ns nant s%stem8

"1 t)e velar fricative / X / as in daughter is still +resent in t)e sound system /kn %r 9tD clusters are admitted /p t kD )ave little or no as+iration in non=initial +osition /t/ may be glottalised no distinction bet(een clear and dar2 /l/ in some areas / Q D D are missing

9 wel s%stem8
no o++osition bet(een / D and /u:/ pull vs. pool vo(els are long in final +osition or follo(ing D % D . rDJ exce+t /i/ and / U D ()ic) are al(ays s)ort /? D in final +osition is o+en li2e / U / it is a r)otic dialect

)r s di! 7eatures:
t(o intonation +atterns are common: a narro(=)ig) to )ig)=mid fall and a series of falls, one on eac) accented syllable and anot)er on t)e last accented syllable

*ris)
9 wel s%stem8
/ / is o+en li2e /a/ many, any / / is unrounded in stop 1 U / is some()at rounded t)e final vo(el in happy is /i:/ in unaccented syllables D? Dis common

* ns nant s%stem8

": versa /l/ is generally clear <l= before a stressed vo(el /r/ it is a r)otic dialect is retroflex Dt d D are often used instead of D Q D / or vice

)r s di! 7eatures8
(ord stress is more flexible yesDno Muestions are normally said (it) a lo( fall nucleus

American .nglis)
*hara!teristi!s8
#eneral uni'ormity: in 111" t)irteen colonies (ere set u+ along t)e Atlantic coastJ t)e main s+eec) areas extended )ori7ontally from east to (estJ disregard for grammatical, syntactical and +)onological rulesJ large ca+acity for ta2ing in ne( (ords and +)rasesJ (merican dialects: Eastern accent Fnon=r)otic s+eec) of $oston and 3e( .ngland. Southern F non=r)otic s+eec) of t)e lo(land sout). #eneral (merican F t)e maAority of American accents: it is not mar2ed by regional c)aracteristics, being acce+ted by television net(or2s all over t)e U8.

"-

$meri!an S(elling
')e first guide to ort)ogra+)y (as Samuel - hns n@s dictionary 11##. @oah Webster 11/! came (it) s+elling +ro+osals: u in our (ords (as dro++ed: color1 t)e final e in determine (as dro++edJ b in thumb and s in island and t)e redundant consonants in tra-eler and %agon (ere dro++edJ r and e in many (ords ending in Fre (ere trans+osed: center, theater1 Practical Work 1. Give your comments on t)e follo(ing Muotations: G')e American c)aracter is bottomed u+on t)e +rofound conviction t)at not)ing in t)e (orld is beyond its +o(er to accom+lis).H &Prof' A'M'Schlesinger,

GAmerica (as born free.H &Toc2ue-ille,

Git is not a matter of $ritis) %ersus American, but it is one of $ritis) and American.H&#andolph Guir!,

"?

:. 6)y is it said t)at on !D11 Americans learnt t)at t)ey (ere mortalO

')e +roduction 8ounds

')e Organs of 8+eec)
%ungs: t)e source of energy 6ind+i+eDtrac)ea %arynx (it) t)e vocal c)ords. Glottis )arynx ;out) 3ose

"lottis closed for t)e glottal sto+ /" / o+en, leaving a narro( s+ace /h/ vocal cords are close toget)er and vibrate +roducing voice t)ey do not vibrate = voiceless +osition F ()is+er

"# ;out) fixed +artsD+oints of articulation: teet), )ard +alate, +)aryngeal (all movable +artsDarticulators: li+s, tongue, soft +alate, lo(er Aa( ')e roof of t)e mout) t)e alveolarDteet) ridge t)e )ard +alate t)e soft +alateDvelum *n relation to t)e above +arts of t)e s+eec) mec)anism sounds are: ')e 'ongue ')e %i+s dental alveolar +alatal velar

t)e front: ti+ and blade S a+ex t)e bac2 t)e centre t)e rims tig)tly s)ut = com+lete obstruction /p b m/ close toget)er= friction / ' % s ./ close toget)er= s+read /i: ? / relaxed, neutral +osition: /e/ (ide a+art= o+en +osition: /a:/ rounded /u:/ slig)t rounding / /

""

8he Organs o' Speech Practical Work 1. Give t)e >omanian eMuivalents of t)e follo(ing .nglis) terms: glottis uvula larynx t)e soft +alate vocal cords (ind+i+e

:. 6)ic) of t)e follo(ing statements are true, ()ic) are falseO ')e trac)ea is t)e source of energy for t)e +roduction of s+eec) sounds.

"1 Glottis is t)e eMuivalent term for t)e vocal cords. ')e soft +alate is raised ()en oral sounds are +roduced. ')e vibrations of t)e vocal cords +roduce voice. ')e articulators in t)e mout) are: t)e tongue, t)e li+s, t)e soft +alate. ')e li+s assume a rounded s)a+e for t)e +roduction of /A e a:/

Classification of Bo(els
')e +osition of t)e tongue: front vo(els /i: e / bac2 vo(els /u: O: a:/ central vo(els /?: ? U / ')e +osition of t)e li+s: rounded vo(els / O: u: / unrounded / e /

')e degree of muscular tension:

"/ tense vo(els /i: u:/ lax vo(els / W /

8he $ardinal Bowels

Classification of Consonants
Criteria: Activity of t)e vocal cords: voiced consonants: /b d g . m n l r / voiceless consonants /p t k s / osition of t)e soft +alate: oral consonants = all consonants exce+t t)e nasal ones nasal consonants /m n N / lace of articulation: bilabial: / p b m /

"! labio=dental: /' % / dental :/Q D / alveolar: / t d s . n l / +ost alveolar /r / retroflex /r / +alato=alveolar / S J tS dJ / +alatal:/-/ velar: Dk g N / labio=velar /w/ glottal : /h ? /

;anner of articulation: +losives / p b t d k g ? / affricates / tS dJ / fricatives :/ ' % s . S J h/ continuants / m n N / intermittent closure /r/ lateral /l/ Iorce of articulation: fortis: /p t k s/ lenis / b d g m n l r/ 8emivo(els or a++roximants /w -/

19

8he English $onsonants .*awle%; 1996/

11 Practical Work 1. Are t)e follo(ing statements correctO Iortis consonants are voiceless. %ax sounds are s)ort vo(els.

:. Define Articulatory, Acoustic and Auditory )onetics.

-. 6)at is t)e role of t)e lungs in t)e +roduction of t)e s+eec) soundsO

?. 6)at are t)e stages in t)e +roduction of s+eec) soundsO

#. Give t)ree exam+les of lax sounds.

". Give t)ree exam+les of lenis sounds. 1. 3ame t)e organs of s+eec).

1:

/. Give t)e articulatory descri+tion of t)e follo(ing sounds: /p/ /t/ /g/ /S / / / /D /

!. *ndicate t)e manner of articulation of t)e follo(ing sounds: /b/ /l/ /r/ /h/ /tS / /'/

19. *ndicate t)e consonants corres+onding to t)e follo(ing +laces of articulation: bilabial

1 dental alveolar retroflex +alatal velar glottal 11. *llustrate aspiration in five exam+les.

1:. 6)at is duration in +)onetic termsO Give exam+les of long sounds.

1-. Underline t)e (ord&s, t)at begin (it): a bilabial consonant: sure, +ot, not, meet, s)ort, mig)t, fly, cry a velar consonant: goat, cool, but, 2no(, gnat, green, c)emist, conMuer

1? an alveolar consonant: time, ')omas, loo2, dog, nig)t, +tarmigan, (rite, gnat a dental consonant: t)ig), ')eo, to+, t)is, t)yme, five, t)ere, veal a +alato=alveolar consonant: try, s)o+, Aob, Aam, 2ee+, c)ea+, ginger, c)oice 1?. Underline t)e (ord&s, ()ic) end in: a nasal consonant 2ing, cane, comb, sin2, tomb, ring, t)in2, t)an2 an affricate consonant +eac), Audge, race, garage, +restige, +ea2, range, leisure a +losive consonant (ee+, tend, meat, +us), tongue, (or2, s+ur, voiced

1#. Underline t)e (ords t)at contain a long vo(el:

1# )eart), t)emes, blac2, bruised, beauty, )umour, sou+, route, (ould, oug)t, because, ')ames, ()eat, (ea2, (ee2, eel. suite, reservoir, one, s(an, could, 7ero, (ood, tools, coo2, gross, board, bored, courier, routine,

1"

')e )oneme
654C t)e term +)oneme is used for t)e first time in a meeting of ')e 8ociety of %inguistics in aris. 6552 t)e term a++ears in t)e 8lavic vocabulary being used by ;rus.ewski. 6544 2enr% Sweet, +resident of t)e London Philological Society, establis)es definite distinctions of sound ()ic) may corres+ond to difference of meaning. 6556 ;rus.ewski called a +)onetic unit a +)oneme, ()ic) is +)onetically indivisible, as o++osed to t)e sound, ()ic) is an antro+o+)onic unit. 65D1 3aud uin de * urtena% &the ?a*an School of Linguistics, gave t)e follo(ing definition: G a +)oneme is a unit t)at is +)onetically indivisible from t)e stand+oint of t)e com+arability of +)onetic +arts of t)e (ordH. ')e +)oneme (as considered to be Gt)e +syc)ic eMuivalent of a sound. H')e +)oneme is a s+eec) sound formulated in one@s mind and Gaimed atH in t)e +rocess of tal2ing.

Baudouin de $ourtenay .18<5-19=9 / 6D21 6tt -es(ersen s+ea2s about Geconomy of soundsH

11 referring to t)e functional relevance of sounds. 6D24)6D25 Saussure defined t)e +)oneme as a com+lex +syc)ic unit t)at Aoins images of t)e articulatory act and t)e acoustic effect. G')e most im+ortant t)ing in a (ord is not t)e sound itself, but t)e +)onic differences, ()ic) +ermit to distinguis) t)e given (ord from all ot)ers.H

+he )rague S!h

>,S, +rubet?k %:

t)e +)oneme is a +syc)ical image of t)e sound &1!:!,. +)onemes are sound intentions or sound conce+ts. a sound is for +)onology a +)onetic realisation of t)e +)oneme, t)e material symbol of t)e +)oneme.

EPrinciples of Phonology. +rubet?k %E:

a +)oneme is a +)onological unit t)at cannot be analysed into still smaller distinctive units. Ga +)oneme is t)e sum of t)e +)onologically relevant +ro+erties of a soundH. 'rubet72oy tried to define t)e +)oneme on t)e basis of its function in t)e system of language. A s+eec) sound is t)e sum of all distinctive and non distinctive +ro+erties occurring at a s+ecific +oint in t)e sound flo(. a +)oneme can be realised by several different s+eec) sounds ()ic) are called variants.

1/

@ikolai 8rubet.koy .189@-1938/ 8rubet.koy+s rules to establis) t)e +)onemes of a language 0ule &: t(o sounds are o+tional variants of a single +)oneme if t)ey occur in exactly t)e same environment and are interc)angeable (it)out a c)ange in t)e lexical meaning of t)e (ord. U !eep call cry 0ule &&: if t(o sounds occur exactly in t)e same +osition and cannot be interc)anged (it)out a c)ange in meaning, t)e t(o sounds are realisations of t(o different +)onemes. Lippe LappeJ tin sin !in 0ule &&&: if t(o sounds of a given language, related acoustically or articulatory, never occur in t)e same environment, t)ey are combinatory variants of t)e same +)oneme: ten stea! little cotton 0ule &9: t(o sounds are not variants of t)e same +)oneme if t)ey can occur next to eac) ot)er, t)at is, if t)ey are +art of a sound seMuence in t)ose +ositions ()ere one of t)e sounds also occurs in isolation E'am(le: t)e .nglis) r occurs only before vo(els ()ereas /W/ does not occur in t)at +osition. $ut t)ey cannot be considered as combinatory variants of t)e same +)oneme, because in (ords li2e profession t)e r and / WD occur in succession and because t)ere are (ords in ()ic) /W Doccurs in isolation in t)e same environment: perfection'

1!

0 man -ak bs n
')e t)eory of distinctive features: t)e relations bet(een +)oneme are t)ose of binary o++ositions. t)e +)oneme is defined as a bundle of distinctive features. a distinctive feature involves a c)oice bet(een t(o terms of an o++osition. t)e +)oneme )as a discriminative function. t)e language is a system of signs . from Saussure,. +)onemes can be reduced to t)eir elements by distributional analysis and by t)e conce+t of o++osition

/9

')e %ondon 8c)ool

Daniel - nes
')e +)oneme: G a grou+ of related sounds of a given language used in connected s+eec) t)at no one of t)em ever occurs in +ositions ()ic) any ot)er can occu+y.H&1!11, or GA family of sounds ()ic) are related in c)aracter, used in suc) a (ay t)at no member ever occurs in a (ord in t)e same +)onetic context as any ot)er member.H

3aniel Fones .1881-1967/

/1

')e American 8c)ool

Edward Sa(ir
Alt)oug) )is conce+tion is mainly +syc)ological, )e +ut some em+)asis on t)e functional considerations.

Le nard 3l m7ield
')e +)oneme: t)e smallest unit ()ic) ma2es a difference in meaning. )onology defines eac) +)oneme by its role in t)e structure of s+eec) forms.

Leonard Bloom'ield .1887-19<9/

/:

Generative )onology
> ah *h msk% and 5 rris 2alle
Generative grammar is based on a syntactic com+onent and a +)onological com+onent. ')e +)onological com+onent relates t)e +)onetic re+resentation of an utterance to a syntactic structure. ')e analysis is based on com+lementary distribution. ')e +)onemic system of a language is a family of tentative +)onemes t)at meets certain ot)er conditions. A tentative +)oneme is Ga class of +)ones ()ic) are in com+lementary distributionH.

> ah *h msk% &GLanguage and MindH,

+art of an integrated t)eory of language. *t is de+endent on t)e level of grammar and +)onetics. ')ere is a de+endence of sound structure on syntactic information, because mor+)emes are realised differently according to ()et)er t)ey a++ear in isolation or as +art of a syntactic structure & %ife3 %i-es1 %ifeDs bag,. ')e +)onological com+onent must ma+ +)onological re+resentations onto +)onetic re+resentations. *f certain +)onological rules are a++lied on a syntactic string t)ey (ill generate t)e +)onetic re+resentation of t)e sentence. ')e +)onological com+onent )as a terminal string ()ic) may be coded as a +)onetic re+resentation, ()ic) is a seMuence of symbols consisting of +)onetic segments and +)onetic Aunctures.

#enerati%e phonology is:

/Any +)onetic re+resentation is a phonetic matri,' A terminal string consists of lexical mor+)emes &>ohn, man,, grammatical mor+)emes &past, plural, and Aunctural elements. Grammatical mor+)emes may be re+resented by terminal symbols, ()ic) can be analysed into features' %exical mor+)emes are re+resented by +)onemic segments or +)onemes. ')e +)onemic re+resentation is an intermediate level bet(een t)e +)onetic and t)e mor+)o+)onemic levels. ')e +)oneme re+resents a seMuence of categories, called distincti-e features' ')e +)onemic analysis s)ould +rovide a +)onemic re+resentation &matrices (it) +)onemes and distinctive features, and s)ould discover t)e sim+lest set of rules t)at determine t)e +)onetic matrices corres+onding to given +)onemic re+resentations. ')e +)onological com+onent is based on: a seMuence of re(riting rules, in +articular, a seMuence of mor+)eme structure rules a seMuence of transformational rules a seMuence of re(riting rules, called phonetic rules' ')e generative +)onological and +)onetic re+resentations s)ould use a set of +)onological rules &la(s, to state ()at is +redictable and ()at is non=+redictable or uniMue in t)e sound system of a language.

/? @oah $homsky .19=8-/

')e )oneme = t)e >omanian contribution

Emil Petro%ici t)e founder of t)e >omanian )onological sc)ool. ')e +)oneme )as t)e role of distinguis)ing (ords.

Emil Petro%ici 1899-1968/ (l. *osetti t)e +)oneme is t)e GideaH (e formulate about a sound. Phonetics studies t)e material sounds of language, phonology is concerned (it) t)eir functional role. (ndrei (%ram +)onology deals (it) variants of t)e +)oneme. ')ere are combinatory or positional variants and facultati-e variants, inde+endent of t)eir +osition. *n t)e >omanian linguistics, +)onetics and +)onology )ave been treated as t(o interrelated disci+lines.

/#

Conclusion
')e +)oneme t)eory )as been based all over t)e (orld on t)e notion of +)onemic contrast ()ic) brings about a c)ange of meaning in (ords.

8he *omanian (thenaeum , 3u!harest 0 mania

/"

Practical Work 1. Define t)e phoneme'

:. Give t)ree names of linguists ()o )ave dealt (it) t)e +)oneme +ointing out t)eir contribution to t)e +)oneme t)eory.

-. >ead t)e follo(ing: If the early bird gets the %orm, my ad-ice to %orms is sleep late' Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing t(o (ords +ointing out t)e role of t)e +)oneme: %arm and %orm

/1

')e 8egmental and 8u+rasegmental )onemes of .nglis)

Segmental (h nemes
A +)oneme is a sound unit ca+able of distinguis)ing different meanings. ta+ ca+ / t k / different +)onemes /t/ +losive, al%eolar, voiceless, fortis, cons. /k/ +losive, %elar, voiceless, fortis, cons. ')e distinctive feature of t)e +)onemes /t/ and /k/ is : place of articulation' +it +at / / / / front, closeG s)ort, lax, unrounded vo(el / / front, open, s)ort, lax, unrounded vo(el

')e distinctive feature: degree of opening of the mouth 3istincti%e 'eature S t)e c)oice bet(een t(o +olar Mualities of t)e same category or bet(een t)e +resence or absence of a certain Muality. ( phoneme is a bundle of distinctive features, realised in t)e acoustic substances of its variants or allo+)ones. ')e +)onemes of a language can be establis)ed by a +rocess of commutation or t)e discovery of minimal pairs F +airs of (ords t)at are different in only one segment : not nod' ')e inventory of +)onemes of a language is establis)ed by finding out t)e total o++ositions in all +osition in t)e (ord or

// syllable. Using t)e commutation +rocess :9 vo(el +)onemes and :? consonantal +)onemes )ave been establis)ed in .nglis). Segmental phonemes are vo(els, di+)t)ongs, consonants.

$ll (h nes
tin !in /t/ and /k/ are different +)onemes because t)ey distinguis) different meanings. $ut in t)e follo(ing (ords time sta!e bottom little t%ice tune eighth t)e +)oneme /t/ )as different reali7ations de+ending on t)e +)onological context in ()ic) it occurs

')ese reali7ations are t)e allophones of t)e +)oneme Dt/ ,being called positional allo+)ones because t)eir c)aracteristics are determined by t)e +osition t)ey )ave in a (ord. ')ey are in complementary distribution as t)ey cannot occur in t)e same +osition, t)eir configuration de+ending on t)e adAacent sounds. *n t)e (ord man t)e +)oneme / / (ill )ave different reali7ations every time t)e same s+ea2er +ronounces t)e (ord. ')ese variants or allo+)ones are in 'ree %ariation, t)eir c)aracteristics do not de+end on t)e adAacent sounds. 8he phoneme is a class of similar sounds all members of ()ic) are in com+lementary distribution or in free variation.

ll H t t t t t t t
=

/! Practical Work 1. 6)at is an allophoneO Give exam+les. :. 6)at is a minimal pairO Give exam+les. -. Grou+ t)e follo(ing (ords into minimal pairs: tin, seen, seed, sin, (ine, feel, veal, seem, vine, t)oug)t, t)in, belief, ()eel, believe, san2, t)eme, t)an2, taug)t.

?. 6)at is complementary distributionO Give exam+les.

!9

#. 6)at are t)e allo+)ones of t)e +)oneme D+D in t)e follo(ing (ords: +an s+y +lease, ca+ +rice +e( ". 6)at is t)e distincti-e feature7s/ of t)e follo(ing +airs of +)onemesO /p b/ /t n/ /s D/ i: / /S J/ /m n/ / i: a: / /k t/ / O: / /

!1

8he Suprasegmental Phonemes are units larger t)an one sound Stress; Aun!ture; (it!h; int nati n
Stress: t)e degree of force, loudness, +rominence allotted to a certain syllable in a (ord. *t may be: +rimary secondary tertiary (ea2 or lac2 of stress console D} knsWl / to console Dkn}sWl /

8)e (as on t)e }missing list. &t)e list of +ersons ()o )ave disa++eared, 8)e (as on t)e missing list. &t)e list cannot be found,

-un!ture1+ransiti n
close = unmar2ed bet(een +)onemes in a (ord o+en = DI/ at (ord boundaries freeVDanny t)atVstuff *VloveVyou freedVAnnie t)at@s V toug) *sleVvie(

!:

&nt nati n
Pitch Le%el and 8erminal $ontours An utterance is divided into tone groups or intonation unitsJ a tone grou+ )as a nucleus ()ic) bears t)e c)ange in t)e direction of t)e voice or a c)ange in t)e pitch of t)e voice ()ic) is t)e terminal contour of t)e utterance. 'erminal contours indicate: a fall DD / in t)e +itc) of t)e voice a rise /C / in t)e +itc) of t)e voice a continuation /K/ of a given +itc) itc) levels ? )ig)est +itc) +)oneme - next to )ig)est +itc) : next to lo(est +itc) 1 lo(est +itc) $y means of t)ese elements *ntonation may ex+ress different meanings: :Pes1 /D / t)at is so -Pes1 /D / of course it is so 1Pes: DC / * understand, +lease continue -Pes? /C / is it really so

Baby 8iger

!-

Practical Work 1. 6)at is t)e difference in meaning in t)e follo(ing (ord grou+s:

6)ite 4ouse F ()ite )ouse

German teac)er FGerman teac)er

:. >ead t)e follo(ing sentences (it) t)e intonation indicated by t)e +unctuation mar2s and ex+lained )o( meaning is ex+ressed by intonation. 6)o (rote it, eterO 6)o (rote itO eter. 6)o (rote itO eter?

!?

>omanian )onemes
Segmenal +)onemes: 1 vo(els :9 consonants ? semivo(els Suprasegmental +)onemes (ccent : rimary co}+ii }co+ii 6ea2 or lac2 of stress &ntonation: :*on -este 1romWn./D / statement 1*on :este -romWn. DC/ Muestion

!#

')e .nglis) Bo(el )onemes

8he Front Bowels Di: /

/i:/ front, close, tense, unrounded .aster, gleam, free ee F (eed ea = dream ie F field ei F receive i = mac)ine ea and oe in (ords of Gree2 or %atin origin: Aeso+, Oedi+us, Caesar, formulae E9ceptional: Muay, +eo+le, $eauc)am+

/i:/

(merican English /i/ similar to t)e $ritis) /i:/ 3o maAor difficulty for >omanian s+ea2ers +rovided t)e lengt) of t)e sound is observed and its +ossible di+)ont)ongisation in final +osition.

!"

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: eagle 7eal feast gleam t(eed .os .aster +edigree .ton c)ief

:. 8+ell c)ec2: >ead t)e follo(ing sentences and +oint out t)e effect of t)e s+elling mista2es. 4is (ee2 voice s+oiled t)e o+era. ;ic)elangelo +ainted t)e 8ixteent) C)a+el.

-. >ead t)e follo(ing anecdote and give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e (ords containing a front vo(el : Are you related to ;r. ;eadO *ndeed, but it is a distant relations)i+. *n ()at (ay are you related to )imO 4e is my brot)er.

!1 And you call t)at distantO 6)yO 6ell t)ere are eleven brot)ers bet(een us.

#. 8ome of t)e (ords in t)e follo(ing list contain /i: /. oint out t)e different (ays in ()ic) t)is sound is s+elt and grou+ t)e (ords according to t)is criterion: +restige amoeba leader et)er naXve marine aest)etic niece conceit s)ee+ recei+t uniMue

!/

/ / / / front, &retracted, close, s)ort, lax, unrounded *n unstressed +ositions it may be re+laced by / / ladies, goodness, believe in, )it, city i F t)is y F gym ie = marries a F +alace, cottage e F tic2et =ate verb /eit/ noun /it/ advocate, se+arate =ain fountain .xce+tional: 8unday, (omen, build, busy, minute, .ngland, money, +retty. American .nglis) / /. ')ere is t)e tendency to di+)t)ongise it to /W / >omanians s)ould observe t)e fact t)at t)e .nglis) vo(el is retracted from t)e front +osition and is a lax sound not a tense one.

!!

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: guinea biscuit ;onday liMuor reci+e :. 8+ell c)ec2: >ead t)e follo(ing sentence and ex+lain ()at is a )omo+)one and identify t)e )omo+)one in t)e text belo(J give four ot)er exam+les of )omo+)ones. ')e +oliceman said t)at t)e murdered girl (as a died blonde. +igeon Green(ic) +reface giddy a+ostro+)e *rene 4ereford c)emist event simile

199

/e/ /e/ front, mid=o+en, s)ort, lax, unrounded egg, men, eF +en ea F )ead a= many, any, ')ames, all ;all .xce+tional says, said, friend, again, leo+ard, Aeo+ardy, %eonard, %eicester, ate, leisure, bury $efore dar2 /l/ t)e vo(el is more o+en: bell, help *n American .nglis) /e/ is re+laced by ot)er sounds in some (ords li2e: lieutenant /lu: }tenWntD, ate /et/ >omanians s)ould be careful not to give a too o+en variant of t)is vo(el. ')e .nglis) vo(el resembles t)e >omanian /e/ in (ords li2e cec, set, net'

191

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: Canterbury t)ree+ence deaf leat)er breat) s(eat )eifer tread guess breat)e 7ealous >eading cleanse reading larvae

$anterbury $athedral

19:

/ / / / front, o+en, s)ort, lax, unrounded ant, lam+ aF talent .xce+tional: +lait, +laid, reveille American .nglis) D/.*n some cases it is di+)t)ongi7ed to /W/ Iree variation in: /eD or / / in lather, trans3, elastic, plastic / / or De/ in apical, a*ure As t)is vo(el does not exist in >omanian, t)ere is t)e tendency to re+lace it by D eD. ')is mis+ronunciation may lead to a c)ange of meaning in (ord +airs li2e: man F men bad F bed sad F said

19-

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: bass &fis), salmon laisto( (ag bade gravel +atroni7e Aam

19?

')e $ac2 Bo(els Da: O: u: D

/a:/ /a:/ bac2, o+en, long, tense, unrounded 6)en follo(ed by / ' Q s D or by a consonant follo(ed by anot)er consonant, t)ere is free variation bet(een Da:D and D D: transfer, telegraph, Atlantic' arm, )arm, car ar = garden ear = )eart er = cler2 a Iss F class a I'' =staff aIth =+at) aI mute l F )alf, calm Irenc) borro(ings )oir: memoir, reser-oir (ords of foreign origin: banana, cantata, drama t)e suffix F graph may be eit)er Dgra:'D or /gr' /: photograph, telegrap1, t)e corres+onding adAectives )ave only Dgr'D photographic, telegraphic t)e +refix trans= is normally +ronounced /trnsD. *n American .nglis) t)e symbol is DaD. ')e letter a follo(ed by ''G ssG 'G sG n, or follo(ed by anot)er consonant or by th is normally +ronounced // dance, staff, after, bath, rather, laugh, e,ample'

19#

*n >omanian /a/ is a central vo(el. >omanians s)ould 2no( t)at t)e .nglis) vo(el is a bac2 sound, an /a/ from t)e t)roat, and its lengt) s)ould be observed es+ecially in final +osition, car, or ()en follo(ed by a lenis consonant, card'

19"

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: vase bourgeois $er2ley draug)t $er2s)ire abattoir moustac)e Derby )eart) 4ertford

191

/ / / / bac2, o+en, s)ort, lax, slig)tly rounded odd, dog oF not, +ot a +receded by w F (ant, (as) .xce+tional: ouG ow F coug), Gloucester, 2no(ledge au F sausage, Austria ua F Muality, Muarrel / / in American .nglis) re+resents a sound bet(een /a/ and /o/ ')e grou+s wa= and Lua= )ave normally t)e +ronunciation (it) /a:/ >omanians s)ould avoid li+ rounding (it) t)is vo(el.

19/

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: sovereign barometer geology because s)one ;aurice cauliflo(er (allet

:. >ead t)e follo(ing tongue t(ister +aying attention to t)e sounds +resented so far: ')ere (as a man, and )is name (as Dob, And )e )ad a (ife and )er name (as ;ob, And )e )ad a dog, and )e called it Cob, And s)e )ad a cat, called C)itterabob. Cob, says Dob. C)itterabob, says ;ob. Cob (as Dob@s dog, C)itterabob ;ob@s cat.

19! $ob and $hitterabob

/: / /O:/ bac2, )alf=o+en, long, tense, rounded *n > it re+laces earlier /OW / in (ords s+elt (it) Fore &more,, =oar &roar,, =our &court,, =oor &door, small, a(e or = )orse aw F sa(, a(2(ard au F caug)t, launc) ou F t)oug)t all F all, ball alIcons. F )alt, malt .xce+tional (ater, broad, (rat) American /o/ is a rounded, close vo(el in (ords ()ere /r/ is +resent: court, sport, torn *n (ords ()ere /r/ is not +resent /o/ is more o+en and less rounded: sa%, sought, tall ')e initial grou+ wa) may be +ronounced /a:/, /o:/ or DO / : %atch, %ash, s%an >omanians do not )ave maAor difficulties in rendering t)is sound correctly, +rovided its lengt) is observed.

119

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: 8ean a++al Muart aut)or (all ;agdalene &College, la(n +our s(ard sa(ed

7agdalene $ollege $ambridge

111

/ / / / bac2D advanced, close, s)ort, lax, rounded +ut, sugar uF full, butc)er oo F boo2, (ood ou F could, (ould .xce+tional: bosom, bouMuet, (olf, (oman, $oleyn, 6olver)am+ton, 6orcester *n American .nglis) / / before /r/ or / / in t)e same syllable re+laces t)e long /u:/ as in poor DpWD. ')e >omanian /u/ is tenser t)an t)e .nglis) vo(el.

11:

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: cus)ion could )ood broo2 broom soot 6ool(ic) (oolen (orsted coo2ery

11-

/u:/ /u:/ bac2, close, long, tense, rounded oo7e, moon, s)oe oo F food, cool o F move, tomb ou F t)roug), routine uF rude, rule euG eau F feud, beautiful ewGuiGueGoe c)e(, fe(, fruit, s)oe *n American .nglis) /u:/ is a strongly rounded vo(el. >omanians do not )ave difficulties in rendering t)is vo(el, but care s)ould be ta2en to +roduce a longer and less rounded vo(el in .nglis).

11?

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: uncout) (ound &n, r)eumatism cre( menu deuce eucaly+tus manoeuvre yout) 8ue (omb loose

:. >ead t)e follo(ing tongue t(ister and +ractice Du:D: A tutor ()o tooted t)e flute, 'ried to tutor t(o tooters to tootJ 8aid t)e t(o to t)e tutor: Gis it )arder to toot or 'o tutor t(o tooters to tootOH

11#

/U/ under, mot)er uF cut, but

8he $entral Bowels /U W: W /

/ / central, o+en, s)ort, lax, unrounded

oF come, tongue ou F country, sout)ern .xce+tional: oo = flood, blood oe ) does ')e American / / c)anges to / / in unaccented syllables: unable DW }neibl D 6)en t)is vo(el is s+elt o it may be c)anged to ot)er vo(els: D}dUNki D D}daNkiD D}dNkiD *n (ords li2e : hurry, %orry, courage t)ere is free variation bet(een DUr D and DW:rD >omanians s)ould avoid any li+ rounding in +ronouncing t)is vo(el. ')e vo(el in t)e >omanian (ords: catana, capac resemble t)e .nglis) vo(el DU D.

11" Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: mutton onion ton stomac) 8omerset dove oven t(o+ence nouris) Douglas sout)ern %ondon

111 /W: / /W:/ central, mid=o+en, long, tense, unrounded eart), burn, )er er F mercy, clergy ir F first, bird ur F fur, furnis) erG errG ear F )er, err, earl yr F myrtle ou F courtesy wIor F(ord eur in Irenc) borro(ings F amateur, connoisseur .xce+tional: colonel *n American .nglis) t)is vo(el )as /r/ colouring / D, ()ic) is +roduced by raising t)e central +ortion of t)e tongue or by raising t)e ti+ of t)e tongue. *n some +arts of America ()ere +reconsonantal and final /r/ is +ronounced, t)e vo(el )as a retroflex Muality. >omanians can start from /M/ (it) no li+ rounding and give t)e sound enoug) lengt).

11/

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: )erb (ere adAourn ersia sterling earl myrtle courteous fern surgeon (orm err

11!

/ / central, mid=o+en, s)ort, lax, unrounded

/6/ along, attempt, particularlyJ it is t)e vo(el in the J it is near to DW :D, but very s)ort /WND )as a )ig)er and more retracted tongue +ositionJ it is )eard in t)e vicinity of /k/ /g/: condemn, bac! again /WC/ is a more o+en sound, more li2e / /J it occurs in final +osition: hina, bitter / / occurs in unstressed syllables. *t can re+lace almost all ot)er vo(els and di+)t)ongs in unstressed +ositions Db}li:%D D'a:stD come DkUmD mout) DmauQ/ DbW}li:%D D}brek'WstD (elcome /}welkWm/ lymout) / }plimWD

6ea2 forms of grammatical (ords are +ronounced (it) /WD: and DWndD, must DmWstD. *t is freMuently omitted in certain unstressed (ords: condition DkWn}dSWnD DkWn}dSnD *t s)ould not be omitted bet(een t(o nasal consonants %oman D}wmWnD or ()en +receded by a nasal and a +losive and follo(ed by anot)er nasal consonant: London D }lUndWn D, sentenceD}sentWnsD 8ome unstressed syllables may )ave / / in American

1:9 .nglis) ()ile/ / is +referred in $ritis) .nglis): Muality / }kwlt D D }kwlWtD greatest / }gretst D D}gretWst D *n unstressed ar, er, ir, or, , ur Am. )as DWr D and $r. )as / / sugar, better, sur-i-e >omanians do not )ave difficulties in acMuiring t)is sound, but t)ey s)ould be careful about t)e (ay t)e sound is used in different contexts.

1:1 Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: *slington for(ard effort incumbent German %incoln tres+ass (oman

:. >ead and +ay attention to t)e vo(els in t)e follo(ing limeric2: A fly and a flea in a flue 6ere im+risoned, so ()at could t)ey doO 8aid t)e fly: H%et us fleeYH G%et us flyYH said t)e flea. 8o t)ey fle( t)roug) a fla( in a flue. -. 6rite t)e +)onetic symbol ()ic) re+resents t)e vo(el +)oneme&s, in t)e follo(ing (ords: do build fun sMuad tore bee ferry a++eal +aid t)an2 energy nort) (onder food cus)ion s(imming na+ flood boot too2

1:: brood move team eagle (ee2 duty s)ould clot) some lemon course ()irl )urt on ember lum+ stir lost foot ec)o

?. >ead t)e follo(ing GAdvice@ and indicate t)e vo(el +)oneme in eac) (ord: ')e more (e study, t)e more (e 2no(, ')e more (e 2no(, t)e more (e forget. ')e more (e forget, t)e less (e 2no(. ')e less (e 2no(, t)e less (e forget. ')e less (e forget, t)e more (e 2no(. 6)y studyO

(mphitheatre

1:-

8he English 3iphthongs/#lides

A di+)t)ong is a glide from one vo(el to anot)er (it)in one syllable. Di+)t)ongs are eMuivalent of long vo(els. Di+)t)ongs can occur in all +ositions exce+t beforeDN /. ')e first element in t)e .nglis) di+)t)ongs is longer and stronger, being its nucleus.

*lassi7i!ati n8
Falling di+)t)ongs F t)e first element is t)e nucleus *ising di+)t)ongs F t)e second element is t)e nucleus Wide di+)t)ongs = t)ere is a considerable movement of t)e s+eec) organs from t)e +osition of t)e nucleus to t)at of t)e glide /a a D @arrow di+)t)ongs: t)e movement is less mar2ed De W W EW/ $losing di+)t)ongs = t)e nucleus is more o+en t)an t)e vo(el De a / Opening di+)t)ongs = t)e nucleus is closer t)an t)e glide DW EW W /

1:? #lides to / / /e a / /e/ narro(, closing, falling angel, made, bay a F t)e letter of t)e al+)abet aiG ay F daisy, Aail eiG ey F veil, grey Irenc) borro(ings ending in e F cafR, resume 8ome +ro+er names: ;cCrea, 8)ea, Peats .xce+tional bass, gauge, gaol, )alf+enny, a), da)lia *n American .nglis) t)ere are (ords in ()ic) t)is di+)t)ong is re+laced by /e/ >omanians )ave a similar di+)t)ong in (ords li2e tei, lei'

1:# Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: bass &music, sleig) brae 6ales radar +atent Cambridge gauge Gaelic stea2 c)am+agne )alf+enny

1:"

/a / (ide, closing, falling ice, life, +ie eIconsonant fire, time iI different vo(els or consonants: lie, c)ild, rig)t, climb *n American .nglis) in certain unaccented syllables /aD is re+laced by / / direct DdW}rektD, finance D'W}nensD ')e ending File of adAectives is +ronounced (it) / / in American .nglis) and (it) DaD in $ritis) .nglis) agile /}dlD D}dal D fragile D} !dl D D} !dal D ')e >omanian (ords tai, ai )ave a similar di+)t)ong.

Fire and &ce *oses

1:1 Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: aisle missile sly t)yme docile bacilli +syc)ology :. >ead t)e follo(ing: Iried fres) fis), Iis) fried fres), Ires) fried fis), Ires) fis) fried, Or fis) fres) fried? -. ractice t)e di+)t)ongs in t)e +oem GIire and *ceH by >obert Irost: 8ome say t)e (orld (ill end in fire, 8ome say in ice. Irom ()at *@ve tasted of desire * )old (it) t)ose ()o favour fire. $ut if * )ad to +eris) t(ice, * t)in2 * 2no( enoug) of )ate 'o say t)at for destruction ice *s also great and (ould suffice. to (ind sleig)t malign nuclei +aradigm

// (ide, closing, falling

1:/ oi F oil, +oint oy F boy, annoy .xce+tional: buoy, buoyant American .nglis) )as t)e same di+)t)ong, alt)oug) in t)e 8out) and in t)e 3e( Por2 City it may be reduced to /O:/ li2e in oil +ronounced DO:l/. >omanians s)ould be careful to render t)e first element of t)e di+)t)ong correctly, t)e vo(el / / s)ould not be rounded.

Glides to D D
/W / narro(, closing, falling o F no, +otato oa F road, oa2 oe F toe, foe ou F soul, +oultry ow= 2no(, slo( .xce+tional: don@t, (on@t, o), only, brooc), se(, fol2, yol2 *n American .nglis) t)is di+)t)ong before r is re+laced by /o/ li2e in hoarse. >omanians s)ould avoid re+lacing t)is di+)t)ong by /ou/ li2e in nou, ou'

1:! Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing sentences: ')e boy (it) t)e toy made a lot of noise.

')ey noticed t)e buoy ()ile on t)e voyage on sea.

%oyd (as em+loyed by t)e oil com+any.

:.

Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: roll yeoman 4olborn cocoa +ost mould +oultry gross doe molten

1-9

/a/ (ide, closing, falling ou F out, doubt ow F )o(, go(n American .nglis) )as t)e same di+)t)ong. *n >omanian t)e .nglis) di+)t)ong is similar to Dau/ in dau, au.

E$l,&, *u?aB :ni%ersity &asi *omania

1-1

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: boug) Co(ley vo( :. o(l droug)t +loug)

>ead t)e follo(ing )iloso+)ical Advice and +ay attention to t)e di+)t)ongs: 4e ()o 2no(s not, and 2no(s not t)at )e 2no(s notJ )e is a fool, s)ut )im. 4e ()o 2no(s not, and 2no(s t)at )e 2no(s notJ )e is sim+le, teac) )im. 4e ()o 2no(s, and 2no(s not t)at )e 2no(sJ )e is aslee+, (a2e )im. 4e ()o 2no(s, and 2no(s t)at )e 2no(sJ )e is (ise, follo( )im.

1-:

#lides to /W / /W EW W D /W D narro(, o+ening, centring er F series, mysterious eer F beer, steer ear F dear, tear ere F )ere, mere eir F (eird ier F bier, fierce ea F ideal, realistic *n American .nglis) t)e letter r after t)is di+)t)ong is +ronounced. ')is di+)t)ong does not exist in >omanian, so >omanians s)ould not begin t)e .nglis) di+)t)ong (it) a long and tense /i/ and s)ould not end it (it) a variety of /r/ in t)e +resence of t)e letter r after it.

/EW

/ narro(, o+ening, centring

air F c)air, fair aer F aero+lane, aerial ear F bear, (ear are F care, dare .xce+tional: mayor, +rayer, scarce, ()ere, t)ere, )eir

*n American .nglis) t)is di+)t)ong may be reduced to /E / or /E:D ()en r follo(s, as in chair, beard'

1->omanians s)ould not +ronounced r after t)is di+)t)ong. /W / narro(, o+ening, centring oor F moor, +oor ure F endure, +ure ur F during, curious our F tour, gourd ewe F se(er, Ae(el ue Fcruel fuel ua F valuable, individual *n American .nglis) t)is di+)t)ong is often re+laced by DrD >omanians s)ould start t)is di+)t)ong (it) a lax /u/ and s)ould not add /r/ after it.

1-? Practical Work 1. follo(ing (ords: cairn +rayer beard )eir so( mare :. during t)eological mayor (eird fa2ir dour sure +eering cure +ierce +ear +leurisy Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e

>ead t)e +oem by 4.6. %ongfello( +aying attention to all t)e di+)t)ongs studied: * s)ot an arro( into t)e air, *t fell to eart), * 2no( not ()ereJ Ior, so s(iftly it fle(, t)e sig)t Could not follo( it in its flig)t. * breat)ed a song into t)e air, *t fell to eart), * 2no( not ()ereJ Ior ()o )as sig)t so 2een and strong, ')at it can follo( t)e flig)t of a songO %ong, long after(ard, in an oa2 * found t)e arro(, still unbro2eJ And t)e song from beginning to end, * found again in t)e )eart of a friend.

1-#

Bo(els and Di+)t)ongs >evision

1. *ndicate in t)e s+ace after eac) (ord ()et)er it ends in /i:/ or //: 2nee guarantee sea Iriday easy city be tiny )asty em+loyee Muay (itty +retty %ee agree

:. 6rite in t)e s+ace after eac) (ord t)e letter&s , re+resenting t)e vo(el +)oneme: Dste2 D Di:gl D Dlm D D)a: D D2ru:D Dbr2D D) t D(:D Di:l D Dbi:d D D lD D bO:d D D fAu:d D Dt nD D):bD Ds2O:d Dfe D D letsD Dfl d D Db7m D Dlu:s D Dni:tD D(:m7D D ( nd D

1-"

$onsonants
Plosi%es general 'eatures Place of articulation: bilabial /p b / alveolar / t d / velar Dk g / glottal / ? D Force of articulation: D p t k D are +ronounced (it) greater muscular energy and stronger breat) effort t)an D b d gD. ')e voiceless series Dp t kD are fortis, t)e voiced series Db d gD are lenis. *n t)e articulation of a +losive t)ere are three stages: 1. t)e closing stage, t)e articulating organs are broug)t toget)er forming an obstruction :.t)e )old or com+ression stage, t)e air is com+ressed be)ind t)e obstacle due to t)e lung action -.t)e release or ex+losion stage, t)e organs +art ra+idly and t)e air esca+es (it) +losion or ex+losion Aspiration : t)e fortis consonants are as+irated in initial accented +osition. 6)en Dl r w - D follo( D p t k D, t)e as+iration is evident in devoicing D l r w - D as in light, price, climb, t%ist, pe%' 6)en /s/ +recedes D p t k D as+iration does not occur. 9oicing: t)e lenis consonantsDb d g Dare fully voiced ()en t)ey occur bet(een voiced sounds : rubber, ladder, beggar' *n initial and es+ecially in final +osition t)ey are only +artially voiced: boat, did, goat

1-1 Length of t)e +receding sound: syllables closed by fortis consonants are s)orter t)an t)ose o+en or closed by lenis consonants see, seed, day, game = fully long seat, date F slig)tly reduced 8he Bilabial Plosi%es / p b/ /p/ bilabial, fortis, voiceless, +losive pG pp F +art, a++le .xce+tional F )iccoug) Dp/ is silent in pnG psG pt +neumonia, +neumatic +syc)ic, +seudo +tarmigan, recei+t /p/ is not +ronounced in clusters bet(een m and t: empty, prompt or in ot)er clusters as in raspberry, cupboard.

Db/ bilabial, lenis, voiced, unas+irated, +losive bG bb F baby, rubber b is silent in final +osition ()en +receded by m F comb, tomb or ()en follo(ed in t)e same syllable by t F debt, subtle, doubt

1-/ Practical Work 1. >ead t)e follo(ing limeric2 +aying attention to t)e as+iration of /pD: eter i+er +ic2ed a +ec2 of +ic2led +e++ersJ A +ec2 of +ic2led +e++ers eter i+er +ic2edJ *f eter i+er +ic2ed a +ec2 of +ic2led +e++ers, 6)ere@s t)e +ec2 of +ic2led +e++ers eter +i+er +ic2edO

:. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: cor+s +neumatic +syc)ology ras+berry s+rain cou+ cu+board tem+t

-.>ead and give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: comb 6)itby debt subtle abnormal submit limb doubt dumb +lumber

1-!

8he (l%eolar Plosi%es / t d/

/t/ alveolar, fortis, voiceless, +losive in initial stressed +osition it is as+irated F time tG tt F tell, better th F t)yme, ')omas, ;at)ilda, .st)er, ')ames =ed after voiceless cons. F as2ed it is silent in Fstle, =sten, =stm=: castle, listen, hristmas *t is not +ronounced in com+ounds or in seMuences ()en it is follo(ed by anot)er +losive = ne,t door *n American .nglis) in t)e middle of t)e (ord /t/ may be c)anged to a (ea2ly articulated /d/, to a variety of DrD, or to a glottal sto+. / }letW/ /}ledW/ /}lerWD /}twen? / /ai wn?W gW D

/d/ al%eolarG lenisG %oicedG unaspirated plosi%e

dG dd F dog, ladder ')ere is t)e tendency not to +ronounce it ()en +receded by /n/ and follo(ed by anot)er consonant: grandmother, handsome ')e +ast tense ending @ed in verbs is +ronounced: /d/ after vo(els and voiced consonants played, ama*ed /t/ after voiceless consonants chec!ed, typed *n American .nglis) /d/ is often (ea2ened or dro++ed, es+ecially before /n/ or /l/: land, old, or in t)e vicinity of a second /d/candidate D }kenideit D

1?9 Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: ')omas mistletoe $ent)am c)estnut )andsome madness )and2erc)ief .st)er bouMuet (restle moisten 6indsor admission (aited

:. *ndicate t)e final consonant in t)e follo(ing (ords: )a++ened bruised +roved laug)ed mattered +asted breat)ed (aded )issed glistened

1?1 Belar Plosi%es /k g/ /k/ velar, fortis, voiceless, +losive c follo(ed by a,o,u = car, call, cool cc follo(ed by e, i = accent, acce+t k F 2ing, 2ey ck Floc2 ch = c)emist Lu F liMuor, antiMue 9 F mixed /g/ velar, lenis, voiced, unas+irated, +losive gG gg F bag, struggle 9 F exam+le, ex)ibit it is silent before /n/: gnat, gna%, gnash it is silent in t)e grou+s of letters: gh F sigh, right, night

#lottal stop /? / *t is a sudden cessation of t)e +receding sound or it occurs (it) t)e sudden onset of t)e follo(ing sound. *t is voiceless and fortis. *t serves as a syllable boundary mar2er, ()en t)e second syllable begins (it) a vo(el: co3operate, reaction. *t occurs before initial vo(els ()en +eo+le s+ea2 (it) )esitation. *t may re+lace lin2ing /r/ later on *t may be a substitute of DtD Tottenham'

1?: Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: ac2no(ledge Muay malign indictment ex)aust exam+le +aradigm c)aos gnas) Muarter geogra+)y * )aven@t seen any <norr exotic +)legm victuals banMuet tongue ac)e dia+)ragm gnome gnosis coo+erate t)e )ouse is em+ty

1?-

8he (''ricate $onsonants /tS dJ tr dr ts d. /

Affricates are +losives ()ose release stage is accom+anied by friction. /tS / +alato=alveolar, fortis, voiceless, affricate ch F c)air, c)urc) =ture F lecture, +icture =tion +receded by /s/ Muestion, suggestion

/dJ/ +alato=alveolar, lenis, voiced, affricate

- F Aob, Aum+ g F follo(ed by eGiGy Fgender, giant, gym ggG dgG d-G di F exaggerate, bridge, adAacent, soldier ch F s+inac), Green(ic), 3or(ic) .xce+tional: =gaol *n American .nglis) t)ese affricates are articulated (it) less li+ rounding. DtS D occurs in (ords li2e: actual, situation' DdJ D occurs in (ords ()ere $ritis) .nglis) )as /d-/: education, adulation

1?? Practical Work 1. follo(ing (ords: adAacent digest nic)e s+inac) soldier 3or(ic) gauge lunc)eon tinge ginger Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e

1?# 8he Fricati%es /' % D s . S J h/

Iricatives are articulated by a narro(ing of t)e +assage of t)e air at some +oint so t)at t)e outgoing air esca+es (it) friction. 8he labio dental 'ricati%es /' %/ /'/ labio=dental, fortis, voiceless, fricative 'G '' F fine, buffalo ph F +)iloso+)y, di+)t)ong gh F enoug), coug), draug)t .xce+tional: lieutenant /%/ labio=dental, lenis, voiced, fricative % F ever, )ave ph F ne+)e(, 8te+)en ' only in of A number of nouns ending in ,' or F'e in t)e singular )ave % in t)e +lural: leaf F leaves life F lives 2nife = 2nives

1?" Practical Work 1. follo(ing (ords: draug)t 8te+)enson )y+)en di+)t)eria )eavens di+)t)ong Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e

1?1

8he dental 'ricati%es / D /

/ / dental, fortis, voiceless, fricative *n s+elling bot) / D / are rendered by th lurals of (ords ending in Fth )ave Ds D: if a s)ort vo(el +recedes F breaths if a consonant +recedes F healths if t)e letter r +recedes = births in heaths, faiths, gro%ths, sloths *n ot)er cases t)e +ronunciation is DD. D = baths, mouths / D occurs in initial +osition in nouns, adAectives, verbs, adverbs: thing, thic!, than!, thoroughly in all (ords beginning (it) thr) : three, in medial +osition in (ords of non=Germanic origin: author, method, through /D D occurs in functional (ords : the, that, this, there, they in (ords of Germanic origin: gather, %hether DD D dental, voiced, lenis, fricative th is +ronounced DD D : initially in +ronouns this, that, these, those and in than medially in Germanic (ords: father, northern in +lurals of nouns ending in Fth not +receded by r containing a long vo(el or di+)t)ong: paths, mouths finally ()en t)ere is a mute Fe : bathe, breathe and in be2ueath, booth, smooth ;ost >omanian learners can articulate correctly t)ese sounds in isolation alt)oug) t)ey do not exist in t)e inventory of >omanian +)onemes. *t may be difficult to +ronounce t)ese sounds in combination (it) fricatives li2e /s .D: si,th, faiths, paths, mouths

1?/ Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: t)eft t)ermometer ')ames yout)s boot) )yacint)s c)rysant)emums lat)e t)(art t)oug) sym+at)y t)umb (ort)y (reat)s beMueat)s et)er )eat)en )eat)

1?! 8he al%eolar 'ricati%es /s ./ /s/ alveolar, fortis, voiceless, fricative sG ss F see, asset sc F science, scyt)e c I eG i G y F ice, cycle, city it is silent in : isle, island, corps, demesne, -iscount ')e letter s may be +ronounced eit)er /s/ or /./: absurd DWb}sW:d/ absol-e DWb}.l%D cease Dsi:s/ please Dpli:.D 6)en s re+resents t)e +lural mor+)eme or t)e t)ird +erson singular in verbs it is +ronounced D./ after vo(els and voiced consonants and /s/ after voiceless consonants: plays, lemons, roofs, cups1 he reads, he spea!s *n Fsive, =sity it is +ronounced /s/ : curiosity conclusi-e, 6)en s is +receded by aG iG %G uG y it is +ronounced /s/: gas, crisis, us, genius, "ladys 3ouns and adAectives ending in ,se are +ronounced (it) /s/: base, loose, morose, geese, concise, obese 6ords ending in Flese, 3nse, 3pse, 3rse are +ronounced (it) /s/: pulse, dense, glimpse, course 6ords ending in Fse are +ronounced (it) /s/ ()en t)ey are nouns and (it) /./ ()en t)ey are verbs: > un 9erb useD-u:s/ use D-u:.D abuse DW} b-u:sD abuseDW} b-u:.D excuseDik}sk-u:sD excuseDik}sk-u:.D ')e same rule a++lies to t)e +air adAective close DklWusD and verb close DklWu.D.

1#9 ')e follo(ing nounDverb +airs are exce+tions to t)e above rule as t)ey )ave t)e same +ronunciation: increase, decease, promise ss al(ays /s/: fussy, miss .xce+tions: dessert, possess, dissol-e, scissors /./alveolar, lenis, voiced, fricative .G .. F 7ebra, fi77 es F buses, bus)es 9 , xylo+)one, exam+le ')e letter s is +ronounced /./J 6)en it re+resents t)e +lural mor+)eme or t)e t)ird +erson singular in verbs after vo(els or lenis consonants: days, he gi-es, dogs, she says 3ouns ending in sG ssG 9G shG ch ()ere t)e +lural ending is F es: gases, glasses, %atches Gree2 +ro+er names ending in Fes: Euripides, Sophocles, (ades %atin nouns in t)e +lural: a,is @ a,es, inde, F indices Gree2 nouns in t)e +lural: analysis @ analyses, basis 3 bases

1#1 Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: )ouses ceaseless (oods 6ednesday 0o)n@s crises gross analysis viscount 8mit)@s

(ula 7agna $l, &, *u?a :ni%ersity

1#:

8he palato)al%eolar /S J /
/S / +alato=alveolar, fortis, voiceless, fricative sh F s)i+, (is) sIai F mansion, ersia sIei F musician, s+ecial sci) conscious, gracious ti F nation, +artial su Fsugar, censure ce F ocean ss Fassure c) F mac)ine, moustac)e

DJ D +alato=alveolar, lenis, voiced, fricative

*t occurs in final +osition only in Irenc) borro(ings: beige, rouge sure F leisure, +leasure .ure F a7ure, sei7ure si F occasion s F usual, treasure

Practical Work

1#1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: moustac)e C)icago conscious +arac)ute c)ivalry censure 8ean genre Asia sc)edule

:. >ead t)e +oem by >obert Irost +aying attention to consonants: ')e (ay a cro( 8)oo2 do(n on me ')e dust of sno( Irom a )emloc2 tree 4as given my )eart A c)ange of mood And saved some +art Of a day * )ad rued.

7issy in the snow

Dh/ glottal, fortis, voiceless, fricative

1#? h F )ouse, be)ind wh F ()ole, ()ose *t is silent initially in four (ords: hour, honour, honest, heir *t is silent medially in: -ehement, -ehicle, nihilism, shepherd *t is silent in +ro+er names ending in ,ham: Balham, Fulham *t is silent after e9): e,haust, e,hibit *t is not +ronounced ()en +receded by r: rheumatism, rhapsody *t is not +ronounced in t)e auxiliaries: ha-e, has, had, or in +ronouns and +ronominal adAectives in unaccented +ositions: he, him *n Coc2ney it is not +ronounced in initial +osition

1## Practical Work 1. >ead t)e follo(ing: 4um+ty Dum+ty sat on a (all, 4um+ty Dum+ty )ad a great fall. All t)e 2ing@s )orses and all t)e 2ing@s men Couldn@t +ut 4um+ty Dum+ty toget)er again.

!umpty 3umpty :. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: 4ug) $al)am $uc2ing)am tell )im )eiress o) )ori7on give )er

1#"

8he nasal consonants /m n N/

')ere is a com+lete closure in t)e mout), t)e soft +alate is lo(ered and t)e air esca+es t)roug) t)e nose. ')e vocal cords vibrate, so t)ey are voiced sounds. ')ey are continuants.

/m/ bilabial, voiced, nasal

mG mm F mot)er, summer mb F comb, tomb, (omb *nitial m follo(ed by n is silent: mnemonic

nG nn F nine, dinner *t is silent ()en +receded by m: autumn, damn. *t is +ronounced in t)e derivatives of suc) (ords: autumnal, damnation, but not in t)e verb damned'

/n/ alveolar, voiced, lenis, nasal

ng F sing, 2ing nk F in2, t)an2 *n medial +osition ng is +ronounced / / ()en it stands for t)e ending of t)e verb V t)e noun suffix Fer or t)e +resent +artici+le Fing singer, singing ')e +refix con) )as / / if it occurs in an accented syllable: congress, con2uer 3asals are syllabic in (ords ending in /n/ !itten, in /m/ rhythm and in final +osition : common, London, :ashington'

/ / velar, voiced, lenis, nasal

1#1 Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: succumb longest 2ingdom languid bomber )ymn youngest ungrateful limb solemn

A++roximants

1#/ A++roximants are vo(el=li2e frictionless continuant sounds.

8he Lateral $onsonant /l/

')ere is a +artial closure, on one or bot) sides of ()ic) t)e air esca+es from t)e mout). /l/ alveolar, voiced, lenis lateral ')e main allo+)ones: clear Zl[ )as t)e resonance of a front vo(el. *t occurs before vo(els and DAD: lea-e, million voiceless Zl[ ()en +receded by voiceless cons., mostly Dp kD: plea, climb dar2 Zl[ t)e bac2 of t)e tongue is raised to(ards t)e soft +alate. *t )as a bac2 vo(el resonance. *t occurs in final +osition, before a consonant leap, fill, help'After a consonant it )as syllabic function: little, middle' lG ll F la2e, cellar /l/ is silent in =al' F calf, )alf =ould Fcould, (ould = alk F c)al2, tal2 =olk Ffol2, yol2 =alm F calm, salmon colonel, )alve, )olm, Ial2ner, %incoln, ;almesbury

Practical Work

1#! 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: s)ould c)al2 fol2 balm salmon yol2 Iaul2ner %incoln +salm calf

:. After +losives and affricates /l/ )as syllabic function. Divide into syllables t)e follo(ing (ords: a++le giggle trouble medal >ac)el 2ettle

1"9

8he post)al%eolar appro9imant or post) al%eolar 'rictionless continuant /r/

8he %oiced post)al%eolar 'ricati%e lingual /r/ is t)e most usual in .nglis). *t is articulated (it) t)e ti+ of t)e tongue against t)e bac2 +art of t)e teet)=ridge, t)e main body of t)e tongue is lo( in t)e mout). 8he %oiced post , al%eolar 'rictionless continuant /r/ is also common in .nglis). *t is articulated (it) t)e ti+ of t)e tongue )eld near but not touc)ing t)e rear +art of t)e teet) ridge. ')e bac2 rims of t)e tongue touc) t)e u++er teet). ')is allo+)one is vo(el=li2e but )as a marginal +osition in t)e syllable. *t occurs before a vo(el, follo(ing a lenis consonant exce+t /d/ road, across, or it is lin2ing /r/ ()en follo(ed by a vo(el far a%ay' 6)en /r/ is +receded by /d/ it is fricative: dri-e, bedroom'

6)en it is +receded by Dp t kD it is com+letely devoiced and fricative D D : pray, tray, cry' (l%eolar tap /r/ occurs in unstressed intervocalic +osition. *t is articulated (it) a single ta+ made by t)e ti+ of t)e tongue on t)e teet) ridgeJ t)e contact )as a s)ort duration : -ery, period' 8he lingual roll /r/ consists of a ra+id succession of ta+s made by t)e ti+ of t)e tongue on t)e alveolar ridge. *t is used on t)e stage and in 8cottis) .nglis) and 3ort)ern .nglis). Linking /r/ : t)e (ord final D rD is +ronounced ()en t)e follo(ing (ord begins (it) a vo(el: near it, far a%ay' &ntrusi%e /r/ occurs by analogy (it) lin2ing /r/ in t)e

1"1 case of / / endings: the idea of it, the Shah of Persia' 8+elling: rG rr F road, merry *n American .nglis) t)ere is retroflex /r/ +roduced (it) t)e middle of t)e tongue lo(er t)an t)e sidesJ t)e ti+ of t)e tongue is curled bac2(ards. *n initial +osition /r/ is less fricative, and some +)oneticians consider it to be a semi=vo(el. *n Am . /r/ is +ronounced in any environment.

&n lo%e

1": Practical Work 1. >ead t)e follo(ing tongue t(ister to +ractise DrD: >obert >o(ley rolled a round roll round, A round roll >obert >o(ley rolled round. 6)ere rolled t)e round roll >obert >o(ley rolled roundO

:. >ead t)e +oem by .... Cummings and +oint out t)e allo+)ones of t)e +)oneme /r/: *t may not al(ays be soJ and * say t)at if your li+s, ()ic) * )ave loved, s)ould touc) anot)er@s, and your dear strong fingers clutc) )is )eart, as mine in time not far a(ayJ if on anot)er@s face your s(eet )air lay in suc) a silence as * 2no(, or suc) great (rit)ing (ords as, uttering overmuc), stand )el+lessly before t)e s+irit at bayJ if t)is s)ould be, i say if t)is s)ould be= you of my )eart, send me a little (ordJ t)at * may go unto )im, and ta2e )is )ands, saying. Acce+t all )a++iness from me. t)en s)all * turn my face, and )ear one bird sing terribly afar in t)e lost lands.

8he semi)%owels /- w/

1"')ey )ave t)e acoustic c)aracteristics of vo(els but are grou+ed (it) consonants because t)ey function li2e consonants, i.e., t)ey cannot be t)e nucleus of a syllable. *n (ords s+elt (it) uG ueG inG ewG eu re+resenting /u:/ , /-/ may be inserted before /u:/ according to t)e follo(ing rules: /-/ is not inserted after / tS dJ r l / +receded in turn by a consonant: che%, >une, rule, blue /-/ is regularly inserted after / p b t k g m n ' % h D: pe%, beauty, tune, due, 2ueue, argue, music, ne%, fe%, -ie%, huge /-/ is regularly inserted after /l/ +receded by a vo(el ()en t)at vo(el is stressed: -alue ()en /l/ is initial or +receded by an unstressed vo(el, /-/ may be inserted or not: lute Dlu:tD DlAu:tD, t)e form (it) /-/ is considered to be more common. After Ds . D t)ere are t(o +ronunciations (it) or (it)out /-D: suit, presume, enthusiasm' 8+elling: yF yes, yac)t iG e )o+inion, )ideous uVconsVvo(el university, %u2e euG ew )eulogy, feud, fe( eau &rare, =beauty

/-/ unroundedG palatalG %oicedG 'rictionless

8+elling: w F (ere, (ant w after consonants= s(eet, t(enty u &es+ecially ()en +receded by M or g, Muic2, language, acMuaint oir = memoir, reservoire .xce+tional& one, once, +ersuade, assuage, suite

/w/ roundedG labio)%elarG non)'ricati%e

Practical Work

1"?

1. >ead t)e follo(ing tongue t(ister: 8(an s(am over t)e sea 8(im s(an s(imJ 8(an s(am bac2 again, 6ell s(um s(an. :. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: dissuasion duration c)oir ya(n s(ord ent)usiasm anguis) sMuas)ed (riggle yield

1"#

8he *omanian Phonemes

9 wel )h nemes
')ere are 1 vo(els in >omanian. Iront /i e/ Central / O M a / $ac2 D u o D Close /i O u/ 4alf=close / e M u D O+en Da/ >ounded /o u/ Unrounded Da M O e i/

Di(hth ngs and +ri(hth ngs

A di+)t)ong is made u+ of: a vo(el and a semivo(el F falling= cai, copii, august, tHu, greu, erou a semivo(el and a vo(el F rising= iad, ieftin, searH, broascH. A tri+)t)ong is made u+ of t(o semivo(les and a vo(el F iau

* ns nants
')ere are :9 consonants /p b t d k g ' % s . P Q h R S m n l r and / k} g} / Boiced / b d g/ Boiceless /p t k/ losives /p b t d k g m n /

1"" Iricatives /' % s . P Q h / Affricates / R S D

lace of articulation $ilabial / p b m / %abio=dental / ' % / Dental / t d n s . l r D re+alatal / P Q R S / alatal / k g / Belar / k g / %aryngal /h/ / m n/ nasal consonants /l/ lateral /r/ dental

+he 0 manian semi" wels

')e front vo(els Di eD and t)e bac2 vo(els D o u D )ave t)e function of semivo(els ()en used (it) anot)er vo(el.

1"1

* m(aris n 7 the s und s%stem 7 English and 0 manian

Bowels and diphthongs 1 vo(els in >omanian 1: vo(els in .nglis) Duration is not a distinctive feature in >omanian. 3evert)eless, vo(els can be lengt)ened in t)e follo(ing instances: =()en a vo(el is t)e result of t)e contraction of t(o ot)er vo(els clasa a doua 3 clasaadoua =for t)e sa2e of em+)asis biiiineI =accented vo(els follo(ed by voiced consonants are slig)tly longer t)an t)e same vo(el follo(ed by a voiceless consonant drag @ drac >omanian /i/ is used for bot) .nglis) / / and /i:/. / / does not exit in >omanian. D. 0ones said t)at s+ea2ers of >omance languages +roduce a sound t)at is too tense. / / does not exist in >omanian, so it may not be o+en enoug) /O: / is made too rounded /a:/ is made too s)ort and central >omanian /o/ is often used for bot) / / and /O: / / / and /u:/ are re+laced by t)e >omanian DuD, ()ic) )as too muc) li+ rounding and t)e lengt) of t)e .nglis) long vo(el is not observed /W :/ )as usually li+ rounding in an attem+t to maintain its lengt). / / is rendered in s+elling by different letters and D. 0ones remar2ed t)at t)e c)ief difficulty for foreigners lies not in ma2ing t)e sound, but in 2no(ing ()en to use it. *t occurs only in unstressed syllables and can re+lace almost all ot)er vo(els and di+)t)ongs in unstressed +ositions.

1"/ ')e (ea2 forms of almost "9 (ords in .nglis) )ave t)is vo(el. >omanians s)ould +ay attention to t)e use of strong and (ea2 forms of t)e function (ords in .nglis). / / resembles t)e >omanian /a/ in capac' %i+ rounding s)ould be avoided. *t s)ould be s)orter and closer t)an t)e >omanian vo(el. *n .nglis) t)ere are only 'alling di+)t)ongs, ()ile in >omanian t)ere are rising di+)t)ongs too. Care s)ould be ta2en to acMuire t)e correct +ronunciation of t)e exce+tional cases of s+elling of t)e .nglis) di+)t)ongs. *n D D care s)ould be ta2en to +roduce a correct nucleus, avoiding li+ rounding. DWuD =>omanians s)ould not re+lace it by /ou/ ')e glides to / / DW EW W / do not exist in >omanian. *n final +osition / / )as an o+en Muality, but it s)ould not be re+laced by D D.

* ns nants
')ere are :: consonants in >omanian and :? in .nglis). ')e distinction fortis F lenis does not o+erate in >omanian. ')e fortis +losives are as+irated in initial accented +osition in .nglis) ()ile >omanian +losives are not as+irated. ')ey )ave a slig)t as+iration in final +osition F cap, pot, tac /t d/ are alveolar in .nglis) and dental in >omanian. ')e +ronunciation of Fed may be faulty not observing t)e Muality of t)e sound before t)is ending. /k gD s)ould not be +alatalised ()en follo(ed by eG i .

1"! /?/ does not exist in >omanian, but >omanians may +ronounce it (it)out being a(are of it, es+ecially in t)e middle of t)e (ord before a stressed vo(el: create, %hereas ')e >omanian /R S D can be follo(ed only by e iJ t)ey are +alatalised, ()ic) s)ould be avoided in .nglis) ()en Dk g/ are follo(ed by De D . D D D do not exist in >omanian. ')ey may be re+laced by D' %D or Ds .D. *t is more difficult to +ronounce t)ese consonants es+ecially ()en t)ey are follo(ed by fricatives. /s ./ are alveolar in .nglis) and dental in >omanian. 8ince t)e letter s may be +ronounced bot) Ds/ and /./ and since a (ide variety of s+ellings re+resent t)ese sounds, learners of .nglis) s)ould 2no( ()ic) sound any +articular s+elling re+resents. /h/ is glottal in .nglis), ()ile in >omanian it is articulated (it) t)e bac2 of t)e tongue raised to t)e soft +alate, t)e friction occurring in t)e mout). >omanian s)ould elide D)D in t)e (ea2 forms of (ords in unstressed +osition: he, him, his, her'

@asal $onsonants
/n/ is dental in >omanian, so >omanians s)ould +roduce it (it) alveolar articulation in .nglis). / / does not exist in >omanian as an inde+endent +)oneme, alt)oug) it occurs in (ords li2e Anca, lJnga'

Lateral $onsonant
Clear Zl[is Muite similar to t)e >omanian /l/. Dar2 Zl[does

119 not exist in >omanian, but it can be +roduced by trying to say /u/ (it)out li+ rounding.

/r/
*n .nglis) /r/ is not a vibrated sound. 'o ac)ieve t)e correct +ronunciation of t)is sound >omanians can start by +ronouncing DJ/ t)en retract t)e tongue, lo(er it slig)tly, (it) t)e Aa(s a+art and t)e li+s rounded. One can also start by +ronouncing DW: / (it) exaggerated lengt), a (ea2 breat) effort, (it) rounded li+s and retracted tongue. ost vocalic /r/ must not be +ronounced in (ords li2e : arm, horse, bird'

Semi%owels /w -/
/-/ occurs in >omanian (ords li2e ea, ieKire /w/ must not be re+laced by /%/

Stonehenge

111

Sarmisegetu.a *egia

11: Spelling 8+elling is a conscious deliberate +rocess ()ic) reMuires 2no(ledge of linguistic structure and t)e ability to master exce+tions from regular +atterns. 8+ellers s)ould re+roduce all letters. ')e difficulty in acMuiring correct s+elling arise also from t)e fact t)at t)ere are more gra+)emic alternatives for a +)oneme t)an t)ere are +)onemic alternatives for a gra+)eme. One study s+ecifies t)at t)ere are 6CG4 spellings +er sound, but only CG0 sounds per letter. 'o be a good s+eller it is necessary to )ave good +)onological a(areness and good visual a(areness. A com+uter analysis s)o(ed t)at 11,999 .nglis) (ords +roved t)at /?K (ere s+elled according to a regular +attern, and only -K (ere un+redictable. On t)e ot)er )and, many of ?99 irregular s+ellings are among t)e most freMuently used (ords in language. Causes of s+elling irregularities: ! *n t)e Anglo=8axon +eriod, an al+)abet of t(enty= four gra+)emes &t)e %atin al+)abet and four ne( symbols, )ad to co+e (it) about forty +)onemes, t)at is many sounds )ad to be (ritten (it) combinations of letters ! After t)e 3orman conMuest, Irenc) scribes re=s+elled a great deal of t)e language, introducing suc) combinations as Lu for cw &2ueen,, gh for h &night,, and c instead s before e or i in circle and cell' ! ')e +rinting +rocess caused com+lications. ;any early +rinters (ere foreign and t)ey used t)eir o(n s+elling norms. ! .s+ecially after +rinting, t)e (riting system did not 2ee+ +ace (it) t)e sound c)anges t)at (ere affecting t)e language. *n ;iddle Ages letters t)at (ere +ronounced in Anglo=8axon became silent: k in !no% and !night, or t)e final e in stone, lo-e. ')ere

11(ere also many c)anges in t)e +ronunciation of vo(els in t)e 1#t) century *n t)e 1"t) century t)ere (as t)e tendency to ma2e s+elling reflect (ord )istory. Ior exam+le, g (as added in reign to s)o( t)at it came from %atin regno, and a b (as added to debt to s)o( it came from debitum' *n t)e late 1"t) and 11t) centuries many ne( loans entered .nglis) from Irenc), %atin, Gree2, 8+anis), *talian and ortuguese, resulting in (ords (it) strange s+elling suc) as FLue grotes2ue, .. in pi**a' %ater centuries sa( ot)er borro(ings from C)inese, 0a+anese, Arabic, *ndian and African languages

')e result is a system t)at is an amalgam of Anglo=8axon, Irenc), Classical and ot)er sources. ')e system is basically +)onemic, but t)ere +)onemes re+resented by letter +atterns as (ell as single letters.

Spelling *e'ormers ')ere )ave been numerous attem+ts to eradicate irregular s+ellings in .nglis). Fohn !art in 1##1 com+lained of t)e Qvices@ of .nglis) (riting. *n 1/1" t)e Spelling *e'orm (ssociation (as founded in t)e U8A follo(ed by Simpli'ied Spelling Board &1!9", and in $ritain t)e Simpli'ied Spelling Society &1!9/,. A system of Lue Spelling (as devised. ;any ot)er attem+ts follo(ed in t)e :9t) century. Advantages of s+elling reform: ! c)ildren (ould learn correct .nglis) in less time and (it) less effort ! it (ould be easier for foreigners learning .nglis)

11? ! savings in t)e time and costs of ty+ing and +rinting (it) fe(er letters & about 1#K fe(er letters, Disadvantages: ! brea2 in continuity bet(een old and ne( s+elling ! inertia and conservatism (ould ma2e a transition difficult ! t)e saving costs mig)t be over(eig)ed by t)e need to re+rint im+ortant (or2s. Disadvantages are more numerous t)an advantages.

11#

Sources o' mistakes

8+elling +ronunciation .xce+tional s+ellings lural mor+)eme 6ords ending in D D D in t)e +lural ast tense Fed 8ilent letters Ds .D and t)eir s+elling *ntrusive /r/ Combination of sounds in t)e syllable structure. 8ome clusters are difficult to be +ronounced by >omanians. ')e transition bet(een sounds is Muite clear cut in >omanian ()ile in .nglis) it is slo(, sounds are +ronounced lin2ed toget)er. >omanians may )ave difficulties not only in rendering t)e correct .nglis) (ords but also in understanding t)em in t)e continuum of s+eec). >omanians can ma2e allophonic substitutions of t)e .nglis) +)onemes: = unas+irated fortis consonants, +lural mor+)emes = slig)t mis+ronunciations : DeD too o+en, / / too rounded phonemic substitutions : >omanian /i/ for t)e .nglis) DD

11"

Practical Work 1. >ead t)e follo(ing +oem and +ay attention to t)e relations)i+ bet(een s+elling and +ronunciation:

8ounds and %etters

6)en t)e .nglis) tongue (e s+ea2, 6)y is brea2 not r)ymed (it) (ea2O 6ill you tell me ()y it@s true, 6e say se(, but li2e(ise fe(O And t)e ma2er of a verse Can@t r)yme )is )orse and (orse. $eard sounds not t)e same as )eard. Cord is different from a (ord. Co( is co(, but lo( is lo(, 8)oe is never r)ymed (it) toe, 6)erefore done, but gone and lone. *s t)ere any reason 2no(nO And in s)ort it seems to me 8ounds and letters disagree. :. 6)ic) of t)e follo(ing statements are true, ()ic) are falseO a. Duration is a distinctive feature in >omanian. b. ')e vo(el / / is common to bot) .nglis) and >omanian. c. ')e distinction fortis=lenis does not exist in >omanian. d. ')e >omanian Dt dD are alveolar sounds. e. ')ere are no silent letters in .nglis) (ords.

111

:.*ndicate t)e first sound in t)e follo(ing (ords: enemy usual elastic university icy urea even c)emist occu+y identify ounce c)auffeur idea c)alet unreason onion exc)ange Mua2e

?. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e last (ord in eac) line. Comment on t)e relations)i+ bet(een s+elling and +ronunciation regarding t)e grou+ of letters gh . ')ere (as an old (oman so toug) 8)e )ang all )er clot)es on a boug) And s)e s(am even t)oug) ')ere (as ice on t)e sloug) Pet didn@t develo+ a coug)

11/ #. Underline t)e (ord in t)e last t)ree columns ()ic) )as t)e same vo(el sound as t)e one in t)e first column: s)ould )o( (ound dro(se breat)e eig)t salmon guest se( eye boo2 root blood ro( grou+ co( eat <eit) laisto( cler2 gna( 2ey

so(&n, cro( cloud t)ro( earn veil +salm says ne( aisle courage fo(l breat) fiend calm +lait 2no( )ail

". >ead t)e follo(ing (ords bac2(ards ignoring t)e s+ellingJ (rite t)e (ords in .nglis): mass seen +ot cod +at dog face 7one

11! +ool tool

1. 6rite do(n )o( many sounds you can find in t)e follo(ing (ords: 2no( s(arm bouMuet nouris) )eig)t +seudo tomb breat)ed )eart) roug) sei7ure because s(ord t)roug) %ondon brooc) debt listen t)ermometer scarce conscience ve)icle

1/9 /. Underline t)e (ord in t)e second and t)ird column t)at ends (it) t)e same sound as t)e first (ord: (al2ed )arm increase nose run )ymn toe no( boy sin2 sto++ed )ang breat)e tease t)umb )im doug) blo( buoy sing robbed comb lass fuss autumn (arn soug) +loug) toys sin

!. 6rite in t)e s+ace after eac) (ord t)e silent consonant&s,. 3ot all (ords )ave silent consonants. tem+t iron gna( muscle 2nig)t tomb )eir 2nob )ustle c)amois recei+t mnemonic calf fasten island

1/1 demesne scissors anni)ilate )olm balm rende7vous )our 4ug) Iaul2ner colonel isle debris )onest s)ould (omb

19. Underline t)e (ords t)at )ave t)ree sounds: lo( dro+ (ry itc) c)eese sig)t gna( free7e box fig)t t)ro( sign +alm (rec2 mix does coug) c)urc) cre( guide

11. Give t)e number of sounds in t)e s+ace after eac) (ord: once ()ale 6orcester sleig)t )iccoug) suite bomb t)yme boug) ex)aust Muic2 roug)en %eicester bureau )eat)en

1:. Underline t)e (ords t)at )ave t)e /s/ sound:

1/: geese yout)s asset c)iefs ex+osure scissors +ossess (oods limbs +ronounce to close scyt)e )ussar deals com+lex

1-. Underline t)e (ords t)at )ave t)e DtD sound: em+ty .st)er bruised ')omas brus)ed ')eresa as)amed lat)e +roved s)oc2ed )o+ed glisten fourt)s C)ristmas as2ed castle de+ot moisten

1?. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion only of t)e (ords t)at )ave t)e semivo(el /w/ in t)eir +ronunciation: ()is+er ()irled d(ell acMuaint o(l reservoir (ary linguistic (ren memoir

1/one (ar+ t(in2le +e( anguis) sc)(a c)oir (arned re(ard 2no( Muarter 6ar(ic2 (rat) seMuel

1#. Add t)e +)onetic symbol so t)at to +luralise t)e follo(ing (ords: D)ed D Dm sl Dd"em D D leg D D )a7 D D eg D D D

D)a:f D D si:t

D ssd" D D gest D

1#.6rite t)e first sound in t)e follo(ing (ords: xylo+)one )eifer c)amois err aye e+oc) scent 6olsey gaol *an aest)etic yac)t oo7e Peats +syc)ology

1/? ')ames sc)edule t)umb excited genre (anted ')eresa s)eat) c)ivalry )ysterical C7ec) sna2e soot)e (retc)ed )ourly

11. 6rite in t)e s+ace after eac) (ord t)e letter&s, by ()ic) t)e sound DeD is rendered in s+elling: D)edD DlendD Ds(et D Dle D Dsed D DberiD D meniD D 2li:n7D D ges D D tem7 D

1/. *ndicate in t)e s+ace after eac) (ord if it ends in /i:/ or D D: Muay )a++y simile 0ersey Iriday see *rene reci+e t)irsty Dante easy city em+loyee guarantee bee

1/#

1!. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion only of t)e (ords t)at )ave t)e vo(el /u:/ : cus)ion broo2 canoe loot blood cuc2oo soot 6ool(ic) 8usan curry

:9. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing sentences: 8)e +ut t)e coo2ies next to t)e coo2ery boo2. A grou+ of +eo+le tasted t)e cool sou+. ')ere are bus)es close to t)e sc)ool.

:1. *dentify t)e / / or /u:/ sounds in t)e follo(ing (ords: good s)oo2 )umour trut) bre( (ood foot )oo2 clue boon +udding rule soot) move toot)

1/"

::. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e (ords containing t)e sound /-/: yac)t years yield reMuest as2e( t)ey ears lovely Auice visual (ay feud yard o+inion onion

:-. >ead and give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing sentences: 8)e boug)t t)e (as)ing mac)ine in t)is s)o+. ')e 8)a) of ersia )ad a +assion for t)e ocean. 8)irley sa( t)e fres) radis)es in 8)effield.

1/1 :?. >ead t)e +oem by >abindranat) 'agore and at t)e end of t)e +oem give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e (ords containing t)e sounds D s . S J D. 6O;A3, you are not merely t)e )andi(or2 of God, but also Of menJ t)ese are ever endo(ing you (it) beauty from t)eir )earts. oets are (eaving for you a (eb (it) t)reads of golden imagery: +ainters are giving your form ever ne( immortality. ')e sea gives its +earls, t)e mines t)eir gold, t)e summer gardens t)eir flo(ers to dec2 you, to cover you, to ma2e you more +recious. ')e desire of men@s )earts )as s)ed its glory over your yout). Pou are one )alf (oman and one )alf dream.

Flowers

1// :#. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords and read t)em aloud: birt) myt) oat) (rit)e t)umb rat)er ')ane +at)s t)(art soot)ed t)eft teet)ing clot)e )eat)en loat)ed

:". >ead and give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing sentences: C)arles, t)e c)a+ in t)e next c)amber, eats c)eese. 0ac2, t)e Audge, enAoyed reading t)e 0a+anese legend.

:1. Give t)e s+elling of t)e follo(ing (ords: D #k D D (#2D D #$l D Ds%r#kl# D D l#$D D :d"# D D #klD D d&#kD

:/. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords: ton flouris) alone

1/! mon2ey (onder allo( dinner blood nouris) annoy agree front

Sounds in $onnected Speech

1!9

Sound $hange
G .nglis), li2e all living languages, c)anges from generation to generation: slig)t and im+erce+tible as t)e differences in t)e +ronunciation of fat)er and son may a++ear to be, t)ere is al(ays some c)ange under ordinary normal conditions. 4ence +ronunciations ()ic) are vulgar in one century may become fas)ionable in t)e next, sounds ()ic) are distinct in one generation may be confounded in anot)er, and ne( distinctions may be made, ne( sounds may arise.H &4enry 8(eet G')e 8ounds of .nglis)H,. 8ound c)anges are: =gradual F t)ey occur over long +eriods of time =predictable, t)e same c)anges occur in different +laces and at different times follo(ing certain directions

auses of Sound hange Physiological

')ere are limitations of t)e )uman s+eec) mec)anism because +eo+le do not )ear sounds ali2e, t)ey do not re+eat t)em accurately = t)e memory of t)e s+eec) sounds may fade a(ay = t)e +rinci+le of economy of effort leads to sim+lification of sounds and sound combinations

Sociological

1!1 =+o+ularity or un+o+ularity of a +rominent individual or grou+, ()ose s+eec) mig)t become a model for imitation, or an exam+le of ()at to imitate =+o+ularity or un+o+ularity of a dialect c)ance

)rin!i(les 7 S und *hange

')ey are classified according to t)e domain in ()ic) t)ey o+erate: (ord structure syllable structure consonant clusters consonantal segments vo(el segments :ord Structure olysyllabic (ords consist of seMuences of stressed and unstressed syllables, often in alternation. Unstressed syllables are more li2ely to be lost or s)ortened. rinci+le 1: Unstressed syllables are more vulnerable t)an stressed syllablesJ (ords of t)ree syllables , li2e: family, dangerous may lose t)eir medial, unstressed syllable in ra+id s+eec). An unstressed syllable in initial +osition may be lost: from t)e Gree2 epis!opos t)e .nglis) bishop , from t)e Gree2 historia t)e .nglis) history One conseMuence of sound c)ange is assimilation and elision'

1!:

(ssimilation
GAssimilation is t)e +)enomenon t)roug) ()ic) a sound assimilates one or more of its features to a neig)bouring sound.H &Maurice "re-isse/ Assimilation re+resents t)e +rocess of re+lacing one sound under t)e influence of a t)ird sound :ad Msimulation Assimilation may be: allo+)onic or +artial if only some features of t)e assimilated +)oneme are re+laced: devoicing of /l/ under t)e influence of DfD in fly' +)onemic or total F t)e re+lacement of a +)oneme (it) anot)er +)oneme:Ddd AuD becomes D }dd'uD, this shop +ronounced DD(p D. labiali7ation &contextual assimilation, involves t)e +osition of t)e li+s: a final consonant of t)e first element is labiali7ed under t)e regressive influence of t)e follo(ing initial bilabial consonant of t)e next (ord: St PaulDs Dsm }+}&:l7D, t%ice = DtD is rounded under t)e influence of t)e semivo(el D(D.

>omanian linguists use t)e term assimilation for t)e +)onemic assimilation and accommodation for t)e +artial or allo+)onic assimilation. &Se,til Puscariu/ )istorical: in t)e )istorical develo+ment of a language a c)ange occurs by ()ic) a sound is re+laced by anot)er one, e.g. mutation or umlaut in Old .nglis) F t)e result being t)e irregular +lural in some nouns man @ men, foot3 feet. ')e +resent day +ronunciation of hand!erchief is t)e result of )istorical assimilation. *t (as +ronounced D }"nd#W:$S D, /d/ in t)e medial consonant cluster (as dro++ed and /n/ came in

1!close vicinity (it) t)e velar /kDJ in regressive assimilation /n/ (as re+laced by t)e velar nasal DN D, resulting /}"N#W$S / contextual F ()en (ords are +ut toget)er in sentences, or in com+ound (ords ()en one sound is influenced by anot)er one or it is re+laced by one ()ic) resembles itJ e.g. cum, t)e %atin +re+osition, occurs (it) all t)e t)ree nasal consonants because of t)e follo(ing consonant as in: combine, contact, congress' Assimilation may affect t)e (or2s of t)e vocal cords and t)e result is eit)er a voiceless consonant ()ic) becomes voiced or a voiced consonant becoming voiceless under t)e influence of a neig)bouring soundJ e.g. voicing of t)e +ossessive mor+)eme /s/ as /./ after vo(els or voiced consonants: AmyDs car, my husbandDs hat' ')e same +rocess ta2es +lace in devoicing of suc) mor+)emes after voiceless consonants: Patric!Ds mother, ()ere t)e genitive mor+)eme s is +ronounced DsD ')e same rule a++lies to t)e +lural mor+)eme s in nouns and t)e +resent tense, t)ird +erson singular in verbs. *n >omanian a voiceless consonant may be voiced in t)e vicinity of a voiced one: DT D is re+laced by D- D before Dd %/: aK -rea +ronounced ZaA vrea[, aK dori +ronounced ZaA dori[. >omanian consonants +reserve t)eir Muality better in initial +osition, in final +osition t)e voiced consonants are +artially devoiced: calm, mal and +losives are slig)tly as+irated lot, pat' *t is s+ecific to >omanian t)e devoicing of vo(els in unstressed +ositions: rH*boi, plopi, -ulpi or after dentals or bilabials: pantH, bumbi' According to t)e direction in ()ic) t)e +rocess ta2es +lace assimilation is: +rogressive = t)e assimilated +)oneme is influenced by t)e +receding +)onemeJ e.g. t)e +ast tense ending ,ed is +ronounced /d/ after vo(els and voiced consonants: played, begged and DtD after voiceless consonants: ba!ed' ')e devoicing of /l/ and /r/ is also s+ecific for >omanian in similar contexts as in plantH, plasH, produsJ

1!? regressive = t)e sound uttered is influenced by t)e a++roac)ing one because t)e organs of s+eec) antici+ate t)e follo(ing sound, e.g. ne%s DnAu:7D )as /./ c)anged to /s/ in ne%spaper D }n)u:spepWD as D+D devoices /./ *n >omanian (ords li2e obser-aNie, abstinent DbD is devoiced and becomes D+D under t)e influence of t)e voiceless /s/J reci+rocal or double F t)e mutual modification of t(o adAacent sounds, e.g. tree DtD devoices /r/ and /r/ c)anges t)e +lace of articulation of t)e alveolar DtD to(ards t)e bac2 +art of t)e alveolar ridge. *f double assimilation results in a ne( sound, assimilation is called coalescence: Ddd AuD (ill be D}dd"u:DJ nasalisation is also t)e result of assimilation. ')ere is +rogressive assimilation in landlord, sand%ich ()ere t)e nasal consonant /n/ nasalises t)e follo(ing /d/ and regressive assimilation in madness, blindness, %here /d/ may be dro++ed from t)e consonant cluster and t)e +ronunciation can be /}%l&nns DJ +artial nasalisation occurs ()en a vo(el is in t)e vecinity of a nasal consonant Dm n #D: lamb, sing, cotton' ')ere is nasalisation in >omanian too in (ords li2e: OnsH, m3am dus, rampH' >oger %ass & )onology, An Introduction to Basic oncepts, Cambridge Univ. ress., 1!!1, + 11:, distinguis)es bet(een contact assimilation, ta2ing +lace bet(een segments t)at are adAacent and distant assimilation, in ()ic) Geit)er +rogressively or regressively, t)e influence moves across some intervening segments.H *n >omanian /n/ is labiali7ed in t)e vicinity of /m/ in a OnmulNi +ronounced D\mmul]iD. As a result of )istorical assimilation /n/ from On M pare )as

1!# become /m/ =OmpartJ OnMbun )as become a Ombuna1 fronting and bac2ing occur ()en t)e tongue rises eit)er at t)e front or at t)e bac2 of t)e mout): drop +ronounced Ddr +D, children +ronounced D }t(ldrWnDJ unrounding F rounded vo(els are +ronounced (it) unrounded li+s, li2e in Am. good DgWdD, boo2 DbW2 D ')e o++osite of assimilation is dissimilation ()ere similar or identical sounds c)ange to become similar or differentJ a sound may even be dro++ed because it is difficult to be +ronounced %atin pelegrinus F +ilgrim, purpur F +ur+le, turtur F turtle, *talian colonello F8+anis) coronel *n >omanian delinc-ent may be +ronounced delic-ent,

Practical Work

1!" 1. Iind cases of +rogressive assimilation in t)e follo(ing (ords: fly dro++ed remained extended des2s dro+s brings catc)es it@s t)is )e@s come

:. Iind cases of regressive assimilation in t)e follo(ing (ords: curtain cotton )and2erc)ief little of course comfort subtle t(o+ence )orse s)oe sevent)

-. .x+lain t)e assimilative +rocess in t)e follo(ing (ords: Muite tune try actual nods +lace Mueue tissue

1!1 education situation

?. 4o( (ould you +ronounce t)e follo(ing (ord +airs in ra+id colloMuial s+eec)O .x+lain t)e +rocess ta2ing +lace. ten boats second c)ance don@t you sad +erson fis) and c)i+s fis) slice did you ten 2ings

?. .x+lain t)e realisations of t)e +refix in3 in t)e follo(ing (ords: im+ortant incom+lete indecent inMuire inadeMuate im+ossible intrusive illiterate

". Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing +)rases as

1!/ t)ey are +ronounced in ra+id colloMuial s+eec): ()at (ill you do don@t you 2no( ()ere is )e give me all rig)t t)in 2nife yours and mine )e sat do(n actually not

1!!

.lision
Consonant clusters in unstressed +osition or t)ose difficult to be +ronounced may be dro++ed from +ronunciation. G')e dro++ing of one sound ()ic) once existed or ()ic) still exists in +recise s+eec)H is t)e definition of elision given by Daniel 0ones. 8ypes o' elision: )istorical F a sound t)at existed in an older (ord disa++eared in a later formJ e.g. t)e sound DtD in (ords li2e listen, glisten, often +ronounced in Old .nglis) began to be omitted after t)e 3orman ConMuest, surviving only in +resent day s+elling. *n ;iddle .nglis) unstressed vo(els (ere (ea2ened or even lost in unstressed +ositionsJ e.g. t)e ending DanD in verbs became DenD OE sin>an ;. singen and (e )ave sing today. ')e inflection of t)e nominative +lural =as became Fes: stanas Fstones and e (as dro++ed. /l/ (as dro++ed in t)e +ronunciation of (ords li2e: half, calf, %al! final /r/ in final +osition is no longer +ronounced: car, far contextual elision occurs in ra+id s+eec) ()en D / or / / are omittedJ e.g. / / temperature D }$empWr$SW D becomes D}$empr$SWD, anni-ersary Dn}'W:sWr D also Dn}'W:sr D parade DpWred D and Dpred D, suppose D sW}pWz D and DspWz D

:99 Consonants are elided in clusters t)at are difficult to be +ronounced: dar2 /l/ in ra+id s+eec) in (ords li2e alright, already final DtD and /d/ in com+ound (ords : DpWs}bks D, in +)rases : last time Dla:s tamD, stand by D }st nbaD. ')e (ea2 forms of certain grammatical (ords are affected by elision es+ecially in ra+id or colloMuial s+eec): and DndD may be +ronounced Dnd Wn nD must DmUstD may be /mWsD can DknD may be /knD

7orello $herries

:91

Practical Work 1. .x+lain t)e +ronunciation of t)e follo(ing (ords: acts D2s D +ostman D%s*n D scri+ts Ds2r+s D )andbag D)mbg D soft +eas D s&fpf+i:7D best manD besmnD left 2nob Dlefn&b D 2ind 2nig)t D 2annat D old +eo+le Dl+i:+l D

:9:

:. ')e vo(el / / is often omitted in t)e follo(ing environments: after as+irated / p t D (it) syllabic consonants / n l r D Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords observing elision: +olice today +otato tonig)t believe +er)a+s terrific connect career beneat)

:9-

8yllable
A syllable is a unit of +ronunciation ()ic) consists of one or more sounds, it is larger t)an a +)oneme and smaller t)an a (ord. )onetically, a syllable is +roduced (it) a single +uff of air +ressure from t)e lungs. ')e contractions of some c)est muscles determine an increased +ressure of t)e air ()ic) +roduces a syllable. GA syllable is a single unit of movement of t)e lung initiator ()ic) includes but one crest of s+eed. )ysilogically, syllables may also be called c)est +ulses.H &<ennte) i2e, ')e +)onological syllable )as t(o functions: = it is t)e domain of linguistically relevant +ro+erties suc) as +itc) = it gives a basis for organising and ex+ressing constraints on +ossible +)oneme seMuences *n +)onology, t)e syllable is defined by t)e (ay in ()ic) vo(els and consonants combine to +roduce combinations recognised in a certain language. ')e restrictions regarding t)e combinations of +)onemes in a language re+resent t)e phonotactics& 7Gree2 phone ^sound, ta,is^ order,. Bo(els and syllabic consonants &nasals, laterals, can form syllables.

8yllable structure = t)e onset F t)e o+ening segment, ()ic) can consist of u+ to t)ree consonants = t)e coda F t)e closing segment, ()ic) can )ave u+ to four consonants = t)e nucleus or t)e +ea2 F t)e central segment

:9? =t)e r)yme F t)e nucleus and any consonant follo(ing it ')e +ossible configuration of a syllable: &CCC,B&CCCC, * Da D nucleus s+ray D spreD CCCB glim+sed / }glmpst D BCCCC *m+ossible at t)e beginning of t)e onset: / / and combinations of /l r/ or /w -/ (it) ot)er consonantsJ Dh w -/ and > /r/ cannot occur in a coda. D D never a++ears (ord initially in native .nglis) (ordsJ it can occur in Irenc) or >ussian borro(ings: gendarme, Phi-ago D DD occurs initially only in grammatical (ords li2e the, this, that, then, there, thee 8yllable types: = o+en ending in a vo(el: ro%, too 3 closed ending in a consonant: red, cup = lig)t )aving a s)ort vo(el in t)e nucleus and no coda = )eavy )aving a long vo(el or di+)t)ong in t)e nucleus and coda

:9# Practical Work 1. Give t)ree exam+les of syllables beginning (it) t)ree consonants, 2no(ing t)at only /s/ is +ermitted at t)e beginning of suc) clusters.

:. ')ere follo(s a Muotation from David Crystal@s boo2 G4o( language (or2sH. >ead it and t)en give your comments and ans(er t)e Muestions +laced after it: G')ere is, moreover, evidence for t)e +syc)ological reality of syllables from t)e study of s+eec) errors. 6)en (e ma2e a Qsli+ of t)e tongue@, (e mix u+ t)e +arts of t(o successive (ords, substituting one sound for anot)er. ')e 2inds of substitutions usually dis+lay t)e influence of syllabic structure: for exam+le, initial consonants tend to re+lace eac) ot)er. 6e often say suc) t)ings as fea! and %eeble &for %ea! and feeble/, s(o++ing t)e initial consonantsJ but it (ould be most unusual to say lea! and !eeble, +utting an end consonant in an initial +osition. ')is suggests t)at a sli+ of t)e tongue is really a sli+ of t)e +)onological +art of t)e brain. G &+.1:, a. 6)at can you say about t)e (ay vo(els and consonants are organi7ed (it)in a sound unit O b. .x+lain ()at is a sli+ of t)e tongue. Give t)ree exam+les of sli+s of t)e tongue. c. 6)at is s+oonerismO Give exam+les.

:9"

8he status o' sounds in a syllable:

rinci+le 1 Consonants before a vo(el are in a stronger +osition t)an t)e final consonantsJ final consonants are more vulnerable to being lost. ')e consonant most li2ely to be c)anged, or lost, are t)ose ()ic) are located furt)est from t)e +ea2 of t)e syllable. ')e first consonant of an initial cluster and t)e last one of a final cluster are most vulnerable. *f t)e consonant next to t)e vo(el is an a++roximant D( A rD t)e a++roximant is more vulnerable Iinal consonant clusters )ave been affected by loss in t)e )istory of .nglis): t)e loss or /r/ in (ords li2e: %ords, farm, heard, and t)e loss of /l/ in calm, tal!, should rinci+le : *n consonant clusters, a++roximants and outer consonants are vulnerable. Boicing of consonants may be affected by t)e +osition in t)e syllable. An intervocalic voiceless sound becomes voiced, and a final voiced consonant becomes voiceless. rinci+le -: osition: a, in final +osition, voiced sounds are more vulnerable t)an voiceless sounds b, intervocalically, voiceless sounds may become voiced c, in initial +osition voiceless +losives are as+irated lace of articulation: assimilation, usually regressive assimilation,may influence t)e +lace of articulation of sounds ;anner of articulation

:91 A consonant may c)ange its manner of articulation, e.g. a +losive may G(ea2enH to a fricative, a fricative to a glide, a glide to a vo(elJ t)e o++osite +rocess is also +ossible: an initial consonant may become stronger. Unstressed vo(els may be reduced to DW D

8+lits and ;ergers

8ome c)anges may lead to t)e creation of ne( +)onemes ^ s+littingJ ot)ers to t)e loss of old +)onemes ^ merging

)oneme 8+litting
Until t)e 11t) centuryD / (as an allo+)one of /n/, today t)ere are t(o different +)onemes ')e glides DW EW W D (ere originally allo+)ones of Di E D and no( t)ey are se+arate +)onemes as in t)e +airs: bee3 beer, pay3pair, too3tour

)onemic mergers
')e o++osite +rocess to s+litting is merging of one +)oneme out of t(o. ;ergers affect vo(els / / and / / fall toget)er %ar @%ore, la% @ lore DOW D mono+)t)ongised to /:/ door, floor

Practical Work

:9/ 1. .x+ain t)e terms splitting and mergingJ give t)ree exam+les for eac). :. 6)y are consonants furt)er from t)e +ea2 of t)e syllable more vulnerableO

-. Give five exam+les of syllables beginning (it) a vo(el. &note t)at D D and D D cannot occur initially in a syllable,. ?.Give five exam+les of syllables )aving t)e follo(ing structure: CCCB and t)ree syllables (it) t)e structure: BCCCC.

#. Consider t)e follo(ing one syllable (ords and ans(er t)e Muestions: scre( ant sMua( false fox clay t(in s+ring fait) edge

a. 6)ic) (ords )ave only t)e +ea2O b. 6)ic) (ords )ave an onset made u+ of one consonantO c. 6)ic) (ords )ave an onset made u+ of t(o consonantsO

:9! d. 6)ic) (ords )ave an onset made u+ of t)ree consonantsO

". Consider t)e follo(ing one syllable (ords and ans(er t)e Muestions: see act tas2 ris2 dog mil2 mould toast too rose false cor+se

a. 6)ic) (ords )ave a 7ero codaO b.. 6)ic) (ords )ave one consonant in t)e codaO c. 6)ic) (ords )ave t(o consonants in t)e codaO d. 6)ic) (ords )ave t)ree consonants in t)e codaO

)onological C)anges in resent Day .nglis)

:19 Bowels 1. Centring: t)e vo(els in li!e, bit, sin and in good, push tend to be +ronounced to D / :. %o(ering: t)e first element in t)e di+)t)ong DeD in raid, -ague is +ronounced (it) a lo(er first element and slig)t centering -. >aising and lo(ering: t)e vo(el in bad, match )as become more o+en. ?. Ironting: t)e first element in go, load )as s)ifted from a bac2 advanced +osition of articulation to a fully central or even= retracted region c)aracteristic for D /. / / from a )alf=o+en bac2(ards articulation in former stages of t)e .nglis) language )as moved to a central +osition. #. >etraction t)e fully o+en element of t)e di+)t)ong in lie, high )as moved to a slig)tly bac2 area of articulation. ". Di+)t)ongisation: at t)e beginning of 1!t) century t)e vo(el in tea, read, please (as a +ure mono+)t)ong ()ile at +resent it tends to be di+)t)ongised 1.;ono+)t)ongisation: about #9 or "9 years ago (ords li2e sure, poor, cure (ere +ronounced (it) t)e di+)t)ong DuD and door, four, score (it) D D $onsonants Consonants are less affected by c)anges t)an vo(els. 3evert)eless (e can mention t)e follo(ing c)anges: D)(D in (ords li2e %hich, %hale (as re+laced by DwD ')ere is t)e tendency to glottalise t)e sto+s /p t k/ es+ecially bet(een an accented vo(el and anot)er consonant as in topmost, mutton, smo!ing'

:11 Syllabi'ication 8yllabification or syllable division is not easy to ma2e in .nglis) because .nglis) )as stress timing and not syllable timing. ;any .nglis) dictionaries indicate syllable division according to certain conventions: = +refixes and suffixes form se+arate syllables: mis3 understand, child3hood, %or!3ing = different treatment of vo(els. ')e five vo(els a, e, i7y/, o, u may )ave a s)ort +ronunciation li2e in& fat, set, pit, symbol, spot, such1 or a long +ronunciation li2e in: sa-e, be, fine, try, no, music' 6)en t)e vo(el is s)ort, (ords are divided after t)e follo(ing consonant&lem3on, -ic3ar, moth3er, com3ic 6)en t)e vo(el is long, (ords are divided before t)e follo(ing consonant: ma3;or, na3-y, cli3mate, no3tice 3 in inflected (ords ending in a single consonant follo(ed by silent e, t)e consonant goes to t)e stem of t)e (ord: debat3 ed, lat3er = if t(o vo(els occur in seMuence, t)e syllable division is bet(een t)e vo(els &B=B,: cha3os, cru3el = if one consonant occurs bet(een t(o vo(els and t)e second is strong, ()et)er stressed or not, t)e consonant is +art of t)e second syllable: re3pent, -a3ca3tion = if t(o vo(els are se+arated by a consonant cluster, syllable division de+ends on ()at consonants are in t)e cluster. *f t)e cluster is of t)e ty+e ()ic) can occur (ord initially and t)e follo(ing vo(el is strong, t)e ()ole cluster is +art of t)e syllable (it) t)e strong vo(el: Pa3tri3cia, de3cline, re32uire, di3stress =if t)e consonant cluster is one ()ic) cannot occur in initial +osition, t)e consonants are divided in suc) a (ay t)at t)e

:1: second syllable begins (it) a single consonant or a cluster ()ic) can occur initially: can3dy, shel3ter, car3pen3ter

8he Sea o' Uellow

Practical Work

:11. 4o( many syllables are t)ere in t)e follo(ing (ords: bi+lane interesting modification Austification im+enetrable :. 8yllabic Consonants 8yllabic /n/ occurs after consonants li2e/ t d s . S J tS dJD as in button, %ooden, listen, cousin, !itchen, -irgin, motion, -ision' ')e liMuids Dl rD may be syllabic as in total, rubber' 8yllabic consonants occur only in unstressed syllables. Divide into syllables t)e follo(ing (ordsJ 2itten sudden candle muscle little reason saddle brig)ten ()istle $ritain midnig)t understand command reconsideration inclination

:1?

-. >ead and translate 4amlet@s soliloMuy. ic2 u+ t)e (ords made u+ of t(o or more syllables and divide t)em into syllables: 'o be, or not to be, t)at is t)e Muestion: 6)et)er Qtis nobler in t)e mind to suffer ')e slings and arro(s of outrageous fortune, Or to ta2e arms against a sea of troubles,

And by o++osing end t)emO 'o die, to slee+J 3o more: and by a slee+ to say (e end ')e )eart=ac)e and t)e t)ousand natural s)oc2s ')at fles) is )eir toJ Qtis consummation Devoutly to be (is)ed. 'o die, to slee+J 'o slee+Y +erc)ance to dream: ay, t)ere@s t)e rub,

Ior in t)at slee+ of deat) ()at dreams may come, ()en (e )ave s)uffled off t)is mortal coil,

:1# ;ust give us +ause: t)ere@s t)e res+ect ')at ma2es calamity of so long life, Ior ()o (ould bear t)e ()i+s and scorns of timeJ ')e o++ressor@s (rong, t)e +roud man@s contumely,

')e +angs of des+ised love, t)e la(@s delay, ')e insolence of office, and t)e s+urns ')at +atient merit of t)e un(ort)y ta2es, 6)en )e )imself mig)t )is Muietus ma2e 6it) a bare bod2inO ()o (ould fardels bear, 'o grunt and s(eat under a (eary life, $ut t)at t)e dread of somet)ing after deat)

')e undiscover@d country, from ()ose bourn 3o traveller returns, +u77les t)e (ill, And ma2es us rat)er bear t)ose ills (e )ave ')an fly to ot)ers t)at (e 2no( not ofO ')us conscience does ma2e co(ards of us allJ And t)us t)e native )ue of resolution

:1"

*s sic2lied o@er (it) t)e +ale cast of t)oug)tJ And t)e enter+rises of great +it) and moment, 6it) t)is regard t)eir currents turn a(ry, And lose t)e name of action.

!amlet ) b% L rd 0 nald Sutherland # wer

:11

')e 8yllable in >omanian

')e +ea2Dnucleus of a syllable is al(ays a vo(el in >omanian. &nitial segment: C bar CC clasa CCC scriu Final segment: CC clovn, tim+ CCC bilingv

?!K are monosyllabic (ords in >omanian :1K are bisyllabic (ords ')e maAority of syllables are o+en in >omanian. 4ave a loo2 at t)e +oem by ;i)ai .minescu:

Ce te le=geni, co=dru=le, I=r +loa=ie, f=r vWnt, Cu cren=gi=le la +=mWntO De ce nu m=as le=g=na Da=c tre=ce vre=mea meaO

O+en syllables

-# syllables out of ()ic) -1 are o+en.

8yllabification in >omanian
')e transition from one sound to t)e next one is gradual in .nglis), t)erefore, it is Muite difficult to establis) ()ere a syllable ends and ()ere t)e follo(ing one begins. *n >omanian t)is transition is better mar2ed and so t)e end and beginning of syllables are easier to establis).

:1/

7ihai Eminescu , +he >ati nal ) et

:1! Practical Work 1. ;ar2 stress in t)e follo(ing (ords: reading, +ersonnel, tomorro(, suggestion, multi+lication, domestic, res+onsibility, university, sout)ern, de+endent, forget=me=not, fifty=fifty, (indscreen, good=loo2ing, anticlimax, misre+resentation, malformation, insincere, im+erce+tible, (aste=+a+er=bas2et , nig)t=dress, forerunner, old=fas)ion.

::9

6ord 8tress
Stress is t)e relative degree of force used by a s+ea2er on t)e various syllables )e is uttering. A stressed syllable is more +rominent t)an t)e ot)ers. %exical stress: being +rominent, a syllable is more sonorous, it is longer because of t)e greater breat) force and so, t)e constituent sounds, es+ecially t)e onset consonants are more forcefully +ronounced. *n +)onetic terms, a stressed syllable is +ronounced (it) stronger burst in initiatory energy. Acoustically t)is increased energy results in greater loudness, increased duration and often in a c)ange of +itc). 8tressed syllables are louder t)an t)e unstressed ones and voiced sounds in suc) syllables are louder t)an t)e voiceless ones. ')e freMuency of t)e vibrations of t)e vocal cords is t)e +itc) of t)e voice, ()ic) may be lo( or )ig). A stressed syllable is uttered on a different +itc) t)an t)e ot)er syllables in t)e (ord on a falling or rising direction. 8tressed syllables are longer t)an t)e unstressed ones. %ong vo(els and di+)t)ongs are longest follo(ed by s)ort vo(els. 8tress may be: +rimary secondary tertiary (ea2 8econdary stress is less +rominent t)an t)e +rimary stress but more +rominent t)an t)e (ea2 stress or lac2 of stress. supposition D +sUpW}zSnD.

::1 *t is common to deal only (it) t)e first t(o ty+es of stress, i.e. +rimary and secondary stress entertain D+ entW}ten D. %onger (ords and com+ounds )ave t(o fully stressed syllables, and a limited number may )ave even t)ree or more. %onger (ords dis+lay an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables giving a certain r)yt)m to (ords. 8tress is +)onemic as it distinguis)es meanings : }abstract ab }stract

::: ractical 6or2 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords and mar2 t)eir +rimary stress: comedy tobacco di+lomatic uncertain eleven remar2able establis) (anderer abstraction defensive

:. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords and mar2 t)eir +rimary and secondary stress: im+ossibility aMuamarine intelligibility underestimate met)odology identification incredibility administrative under=secretary o++ortunity

::-

Stress and types o' languages

Acording to t)e +lacement of stress languages )ave: Iixed stress = t)e same syllable is stressed in all (ords : Irenc) )as usually stress on t)e last syllable in all (ords C7ec) and Iinnis) )ave stress on t)e initial syllable Iree stress = can fall on any syllable in t)e (ord: >omanian, .nglis), 8+anis). ')e maAority of 'eutonic languages )ave stress to t)e beginning of t)e (ord, ()ile in >omance languages stresses fall to t)e final syllable. 8tress is im+ortant in maintaining t)e r)yt)m in connected s+eec): ')ere are stress=timed languages F stresses occur at roug)ly eMual timing intervals = .nglis) ')ere are syllable=timed languages, li2e >omanian, ()ere eac) (ord is given almost t)e same amount of stress in an utterance. ')is eMuality in time is called isoc)rony. 8tress isoc)rony is ac)ieved by variation in t)e delivery rate of individual syllables. ')e )ig)er +)onological unit is t)e foot ^a stretc) of +)onetic material t)at begins at t)e onset of a stressed syllable and ends at t)e onset of t)e next stressed syllable. ')e foot is a +)onetic unit c)aracterised by its isoc)rony.

::?

8tress >ules
8tress rules are based on syntactic, mor+)ological and +)onological information. 8yntactic information: t)e +lace of stress de+ends +artly on ()at +art of s+eec) t)e (ord belongs to: }insult&n, in}sult&vb,

;or+)ological information: every (ord )as a mor+)ological structure: A (ord may be: simple = consisting of a single base: arm, baby, manage compound F consisting of t(o bases, (ritten as one (ord, or (it) a )y+)en, or (it) a s+ace: hothouse, t%enty3one, attorney general comple9 F consisting of a +refixVbase: disarm, rene%J or a baseVsuffix: happiness1 +refixVbaseVsuffix: unhappiness baseVbaseVsuffix: babysitting )onological information ')e +lace of stress may de+end on t)e nature of t)e last t(o syllables, t)e ultimate and t)e +enultimate and occasionally on t)e nature of an earlier syllable. 6e )ave to consider ()et)er a syllable )as a free vo(el or not &one t)at can occur at t)e end of a one=syllable (ord, and t)e number of consonants, if any, ()ic) close t)e syllable.

::#

8im+le (ords
8wo)syllable words Berbs: =if t)e second syllable )as a long vo(el or di+)t)ong, or if it ends (it) more t)an one consonant, t)en t)e second syllable is stressed apply DW}pla D, assist DW}sst D =if t)e final syllable )as a s)ort vo(el and one or no final consonant, stress falls on t)e first syllable ente r0 }entWD , open D}Wpn D =if t)e final syllable )as DW D it is unstressed borro% /}brW D

AdAectives are stressed according to t)e same rules t)at a++ly to verbs ,lo-ely D }lUvl D hollo% D }hlWD correct DkW}rektD. 3ouns )ave stress on t)e second syllable unless t)e second syllable contains a s)ort vo(el in ()ic) case stress falls on t)e first syllable idea Da}dW D money D}mU D

::" 8hree)syllable words: Berbs )ave stress on t)e +enultimate syllable if t)e last syllable )as a s)ort vo(el and ends (it) a consonant encounter D }ka tW D e,amine D!}zm D AdAectives )ave stress on t)e +enultimate syllable if t)e last syllable contains a s)ort vo(el and ends (it) one consonant dynamic Dda} mk D. *f t)e last syllable )as a s)ort vo(el or di+)t)ong, or a vo(el follo(ed by t(o consonants, stress falls on t)e first syllable paranoid D}prW d D, prominent D}prm W t D 3ouns )ave stress on t)e +enultimate syllable if t)e last syllable contains a s)ort vo(el or DW D, if t)e +enultimate syllable contains a long vo(el or di+)t)ong, or if it contains more t)an one consonant tomato DtW}ma:tW D, disaster Dd}za:stW D, museum Dm"u}zWm D.

::1 (''i9ation and stress refixes t)at )ave lost t)eir meaning are not stressed: a)G be)G 'or) as in about, before, forgi-e' A +refix of more t)an one syllable added to a root ()ic) does not give u+ its stress, )as a secondary stress, multilateral D #mUlt}ltWrWl D . *f t)e +refix is im+ortant for t)e meaning of t)e (ord it can )ave +rimary stress too, malpractice D}ml}prkts D

8uffixes ')ere are suffixes (it) no effect on t)e +lacement of stress: =edG )edlyG ) edness ) }%ished, }stored, }readiness' *n certain adAectives ending in ,en not +receded by t or d t)e suffix is +ronounced as an extra syllable F na!ed D} ekd D,%ic!ed D}$kd D, learned D}lW: d D. 8uffixes ,ly or F ness added to (ords ending in Fed (ill form a se+arate syllable F mar!edly D}ma:kdl D, ad-isedly DWd}vasdl D, unconcernedly DU kW}sW: dl D. ')ere are suffixes ()ic) ta2e t)e stress on t)emselves or t)ro( it on one of t)e syllables before t)em: yahoo D"a}hu: D, pioneer DpaW} W D and medicinal Dme}ds Wl D, bra-ado DbrW}va:dWD. ')e suffix F'ul added to a rece+tacle to ex+ress measure ta2es a secondary stress : armful D}a:m#flD, mouthful D}ma,#fl D.

::/ Affixes of Gree2 origin retain more of t)eir original meaning t)an affixes of >omanic origin, t)us a +refix may ta2e a +rimary stress arc)bis)o+ D}a:t(}-(Wp D or a secondary stress if it is disyllabic t)eromostatic D#,WmW}sttk D.

3ouble Stress in words o' 'oreign origin

8ome (ords of foreign origin )ave been anglici7ed and )ave t)e stress +attern of .nglis), ot)ers may retain t)e stress from t)eir language of origin and add a second one according to t)e .nglis) +attern: a} men, _ ty} phoon, bourgeoi} sie, medi} e-al, haemo} globin, Labra}dor

Com+ound 6ords
')ere are t)ree main ty+es of com+ounds: =t)e *omanic type consists of a root to ()ic) +refixes and suffixes may be added (it)out being recognised as inde+endent elements. 8uc) affixes )ave lost t)eir meaning, ()ic) is common to inflexional languages =t)e #reek type consists of t(o or more roots, ()ic) cannot stand alone. Affixes remain recogni7able roots. ')is is t)e case of agglutinating languages =t)e English type consists of t(o or more inde+endent (ords

::! combined to form a com+oundJ t)e elements retain t)eir status of roots. ')is is t)e isolating ty+e of languages.

8he *omanic 8ype

A large number of t(o syllable (ords made u+ (it) a %atin +refix )ave s)ifting stress according to t)e +art of s+eec) t)ey belong to: @oun } concord } defect } discount } abstract Berb fre}Muent di}rect frus}trate Berb con }cord de }fect dis }count ab } stract (d-ecti%e }freMuent }direct }frustrate

*oma)8he Batican

:-9

#reek 8ype
Affixes of Gree2 origin retain more individual meaning t)an t)ose of >omanic origin and )ave some semantic function, for exam+le a monosyllabic first element may ta2e t)e +rimary stress if t)is is not reMuired by t)e second element: =anthrope philan Q thrope, )archic anarchic, =cide sui cide, -bi

}bicycle

(thens)(cropolis

English 8ype $ompounds

')ey consist of t(o or more inde+endent (ords combined to form a com+ound according to t)e system of 'eutonic languages.

* m( unds 7 tw elements

:-1 ')ey re+resent !9K of .nglis) com+ounds. nounVnoun }roc!Q plant ,head } 2uarters, lord } mayor 8ingle stress for t)e sa2e of contrast: } day time } bed time nounVgerund = single stress } fo, hunting t)e first element )as +redicative functionJ double stress Q summer } lightning t)e first element )as attributive function +ossessive nounVnoun = single stress }birdDs nest, }catDs pa%, } to%nspeople J double stress: # ba!erDs } do*en, sailorsD Q sailorsD } home, Q ?ingDs ?ingDs } ouncil adAectiveVnoun single stress: }gentleman, } %hite%ash double stress: #_ fancy } dress, Q easy } chair adverb &+re+osition, V noun "!K of t)ese com+ounds )ave single stress: }byproduct, } bypass but also double stress # after} noon, Q o-er} estimate verbVadverb also called com+ound verbsJ t)ey are transitive verbs, t)eir obAect being usually +laced bet(een t)e verb and t)e +articleJ t)ese verbs are double stressed }put} on, } loo! } after

:-:

* m( unds ! nsisting 7 three elements

all t)ree com+onents stressed :} Lord } } #ural } district } council hief }>ustice,

first and second com+onents stressed: } %ild } goose Q chase _picture } post Q card first and t)ird com+onents stressed: } butter3and3} eggs, } } mother3of3} pearl, } (ouse of } ommons

8he British 7useum

:--

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords and mar2 t)eir stress. fifty=fifty (indscreen good=loo2ing anticlimax misre+resentation malformation insincere im+erce+tible (aste=+a+er=bas2et

:-? nig)t=dress forerunner old=fas)ion reading +ersonnel tomorro( suggestion multi+lication domestic res+onsibility university sout)ern de+endent forget=me=not

:-#

8he Statue o' Liberty

Word Stress in (merican English

Americans use t)e secondary stress more often }birth day, }mil! man 6ords ending in Fate and F ment )ave one stress in $ritis) .nglis) and t(o stresses, one +rimary and one secondary, in American .nglis) $ritis) .nglis) }alternate de}liberate }com+liment American .nglis) } alter# nate de}liber#ate }com+li#ment

:-" ')e same situation occurs in longer (ords ending in , aryG ) eryG )ory $ritis) .nglis) }adversary } monastery } dictionary American .nglis) }advers # ar% } monast #ery } diction #ary

6ord 8tress in >omanian

')e maAority of >omanian (ords )ave t)eir stress on t)e last syllable. ;any verbal forms: infiniti-e, imperati-e, participles, and Rgerun*iuD )ave t)e stress on t)e last syllable. ')e maAority of (ords ending in t)e vo(els /e/ and /M/ )ave t)eir stress on t)e last but one syllable: uni-ers} itate, ma} KinH' 8tress is said to be Epermanent. because t)e forms of t)e (ord in declension or conAugation 2ee+ accent on t)e syllable accented in t)e initial form. ')us t)e maAority of nouns bear t)e

:-1 stress on t)e root in all forms of t)e declension: 3. } masH, G. } mesei, D.} mesei, Ac. } masH *n t)e declension of ad-ecti%es and pronouns t)e stress remains on t)e same syllable in all t)e various forms: O} nalt, O} naltH, O} naltului, but OnHl} Nime a} cest, a} ceasta, a} cestuia, a} cestora *n some +olysyllabic (ords t)ere may be a secondary stress: buQ nH} -oinNH'

6ord 8tress in .nglis) and >omanian

>omanians )ave t)e tendency to stress t)e last syllable of (ords ending in: =ute } prosecute a persecu} ta =ise } crticise a criti} ca %ong .nglis) (ords )ave a secondary stress usually on t)e second syllable: adQ minis} tration, afQ fili} ation >omanians )ave t)e tendency to move t)e secondary stress on t)e first syllable, mainly because t)ese (ords )ave t)e stress on t)e first syllable in >omanian 8ome .nglis) (ords (it) double stress are +ronounced (it) one stress by >omanians plum } pudding .

:-/

8he (rt 7useum) Bucharest *omania

Practical Work 1. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords and +ay attention to t)eir accentual +attern: slee+less secretary +ersonnel suggestion +er+endicular amateur

:-! +)ilant)ro+ist domestic o++ortunity vulnerability res+onsibility sout)ern )os+ital meteorological underneat) multi+lication examination de+endent (it)out university because 6as)ington +ronunciation millionaire

:. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing com+ound (ords and +ay attention to t)eir accentual +attern: green)ouse good=loo2ing forget=me=not (indscreen

:?9 man=of=(ar (aste=+a+er=bas2et )ot=(ater=bottle lodging )ouse2ee+er four=in=)and boo2ing=office ginger beer=bottle cross=Muestion first=class foot+rint

-. ')e follo(ing (ords )ave a +refix in t)eir structure. Give t)eir +)onetic transcri+tion +aying attention to t)e role t)e +refix +lays in t)e accentual +attern of t)e (ords: anticlimax overestimate non=smo2er malformation non=conformist overcoat

:?1 ex=+resident disagreement illogical undivided +ro=Canadian re=establis) unfruitful misMuote insincere min=s2irt non=+ayment underestimate sub=(ay vice=c)ancellor

?. Give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e follo(ing (ords +aying attention to t)e (ay t)e suffix influences t)e accentual +attern: +ossibility de+artmental engineer taboo electrician refugee bamboo .li7abet)an

:?: cigarette 2indness

#. ;a2e u+ a list of ten .nglis) (ords made u+ of eig)t and nine syllables and indicate t)eir accentual +attern.

". *ndicate t)e accentual +attern of t)e follo(ing (ords observing t)e (ord class indicatedJ translate t)em into >omanian. nounDadAective abstract cement verb

:?concert contest digest dis+ute nounDadAective ex+loit freMuent im+ort obAect +ermit +resent +rogress refill nounDadAective se+arate subAect transfer torment verb verb

:?? 1. Derive an adAective or a noun from t)e follo(ing verbs and indicate t)e accentual +attern of all forms: +ersist deceive de+end

com+lete

conclude

remember

vary

grieve

aut)ori7e

/. >ead t)e follo(ing sentences and give t)e +)onetic transcri+tion of t)e underlined (ords ()ic) s)o( t)e r)yt)mic variations of stress: 8)e is fourteen. 8)e is fourteen years old. * li2e C)inese food. 4e gave some a++les to t)e C)inese. * met my son at t)e 6aterloo station. 3a+oleon (as defeated at 6aterloo. %eave t)e luggage on t)e +latform at 6aterloo. ')ey s+o2e about 'rafalgar. %et@s go to 'rafalgar 8Muare.

:?# ')is car is second )and. ')is second )and car is almost ne(.

8entence 8tress
3ot all (ords in a sentence are given t)e same amount of stress, t)ey do not )ave t)e same +rominence in an utterance. *@ll see you to morrow. 6)en t)e sentence stress falls on a (ord of more t)an one syllable, it falls on t)e syllable t)at is accented. Accents or stresses in a sentence tend to recur at regular

:?" intervals: ')e }girl is }eager to }learn )er }+oem. ')is eMuality in time is called isochrony. 6)en sentence stresses occur at roug)ly eMual intervals t)e language )as stress ,timeG li2e English' 6)en eac) (ord in an utterance is given almost t)e same amount of time t)e language is syllable ) timed, li2e #omanian

>)yt)m
>)yt)m means to give em+)asis to stressed syllables and ma2e t)em recur at regular intervals. Correct r)yt)m can be ac)ieved ()en (e = (ea2en unstressed (ords and syllables, and obscure t)e vo(els in most of t)em = grou+ (ords into t)oug)t grou+s = ma2e a slo( transition from t)e final sound of eac) (ord and syllable to t)e initial sound of t)e one follo(ing (it)in t)e same t)oug)t grou+.

6ords t)at are normally stressed in .nglis)

$ontent words )ave a meaning in t)emselves mother, forget Function words )ave little or no meaning but ex+ress a grammatical idea : to, from, %ill' $ontent words are normally stressed, t)ey are:

:?1 nouns, verbs &not auxiliaries,, adAectives, adverbs, demonstratives, interrogatives. About fifty +ercent of t)e total number of (ords in a sentence are stressed.

*hythm and 7usic

Practical Work 1. Com+are t)e follo(ing sentences and ex+lain t)eir meaning according to t)e s)ift of stress. >ead t)em aloud. Fohn (as reading a text. 0o)n (as reading a text.

:?/ 0o)n (as reading a te9t.

:. Ior t)e sa2e of em+)asis, or contrast or to ex+ress some feelings, normal stress may be not observed and any (ord in a sentence may be given +rominence. >ead t)e follo(ing sentences and indicate t)e reason for t)e stress mar2ed: *t (as his car. She (as absent=minded. *t (as not t)e window t)at (as bro2en. * (as really angry.

Iunction 6ords
Iunction (ords: auxiliaries, articles, +re+ositions, +ersonal +ronouns, +ossessive adAectives, relative +ronouns, conAunctions are normally not stressed: 4e is }s+ea2ing. 4e must re}sign. .ven ()en auxiliaries are t)e main verb in t)e sentence t)ey

:?! are unstressed: }4elen )as a }nice }car.

Iunction 6ords are stressed:

=()en t)ey come at t)e end of a sentence: I }!no% him to be }more in }telligent than she }is, =()en t)ey are used in tag Muestions: She is }beautiful, }isn:t sheC =()en used in t)e negative form (it) t)e (ea2 form of not: Sou }sh uldn:t ha-e said }that' =()en introducing a Muestion and it is not follo(ed by a stressed (ord: 2a"e you }read itC

6ther w rds that are stressed 8

6)en two nouns are used toget)er, t)e first noun is normally stressed: }business affairs an a}partment house *n a two)word %erb made u+ of a verb and an adverb, it is t)e ad%erb ()ic) is normally stressed:

:#9 to put }on, to gi-e }up 6)en a %erb is follo(ed by a preposition, t)e verb is stressed: I am }loo!ing at him' 6)en t)e ad%erb occurs bet(een t(o stressed (ords it is not stressed: (e }too! off his }coat' 6)en a stressed noun occurs bet(een t)e verb and t)e adverb, t)e adverb is not stressed: (e }too! his }coat off' but (e }too! it }off' because t)e obAect is a +ronoun.

ronunciation of unstressed (ords

About ?9 function (ords &some +)oneticians )ave counted "9 suc) (ords, )ave different +ronunciations according to ()et)er t)ey are stressed or unstressed. ')ere are ten one syllable (ords ()ic) are normally unstressed: the, of, and, to, a, in, that, it, is' ')ey re+resent :#K of all t)at is (ritten and s+o2en in .nglis), t)at is, one out of every four (ords (e use (ill be one of t)ose.

:#1 A good r)yt)m in .nglis) is ac)ieved by alternating t)e stressed and unstressed syllables, and by obscuring t)e unaccented vo(els, t)at is /W / and /i/. Full and *educed Forms and DndD full form DWnd Wn nd n D reduced or (ea2 forms Fish and chips' Df( W! t(ps D Bread and butter' 0bred Wn btW 0 $ontractions include: auxiliaries can, am, %ill, %ould , shall, should, are, is, ha-e, has, do I:ll be there' (e:s been there for t%o months' )o you !no% himC0d/ may, might, ought do not )ave reduced forms. had and %ould )ave t)e same reduced form /d/ had is follo(ed by ast artici+le and %ould by t)e *nfinitive (e came bac! home after heDd told him to' (eDd ha-e come sooner if he had !no%n you %anted him bac! +ronouns: "i-e him the boo!. )im /im/ As! her out for dinner, her 1W1 +re+ositions: at, for, of, from'

:#: A cup 1W 0 coffee' :here do you come fromC /"r( / full form (e comes from London. /"rW( / reduced form ')e +re+ositions: by, do%n, in, off, on, out, through, up do not )ave reduced forms' conAunctions: and, or, as but, than, that. All t)ese function (ords do not c)ange t)eir meaning ()en t)ey c)ange t)eir form. ')ese c)anges are: %owel reduction Fa++lies to vo(els in unstressed syllables (e is a good boy. )e /hi:/ full formJ /# / reduced form because t)e +ersonal +ronoun is normally not stressed in a sentence. %owel loss occurs in ra+id casual s+eec). A (ord = initial unstressed vo(el may be deleted, es+ecially after a (ord=final vo(el: "o7a/%ay I7e/,pect so' A sc)(a &DWD, may be deleted in an initial unstressed syllable if t)e remaining consonants can form a cluster: police D+liisD, baloon DbluunD *t is common for a vo(el to be lost in a medial syllable after stress: especially Dspe(l D, family 0fml D

:#consonant loss occurs for sim+lification = in consonant clusters as in as!s, ris!ed, si,ths =in +)rases: Ar7 c /tic, san7d/%itch, frien7d/ly 30t d 0 are freMuently deleted: ne,t time, last $ctober

Winter in Fagaras 7ountains *omania

Practical Work 1. >ead t)e +oem given belo( and +ic2 u+ t)e (ords t)at can )ave a full and a reduced form and give t)eir +)onetic transcri+tion to illustrate t)is c)aracteristic:

Give a ;an a 4orse )e Can >ide 0ames ')omson

Give a man a )orse )e can ride,

:#? Give a man a boat )e can sail: And )is ran2 and (ealt), )is strengt) and )ealt), On sea no s)ore s)all fail. Give a man a +i+e )e can smo2e, Give a man a boo2 )e can readJ And )is )o+e is brig)t (it) a calm delig)t, ')oug) t)e rooms be +oor indeed. Give a man a girl )e can love, As *, O my %ove, love t)eeJ And )is )and is great (it) t)e +ulse of Iate, At )ome, on land on sea.

Prosody
rosody is concerned (it) t)ree as+ects: 1.t)e (ays in ()ic) an utterance is bro2en into segments or tone units. ')e sentence: :e donDt %ant any' may consist of one tone unit or it may )ave four tone units:

:## 6eD don@tD (antD any. :. (it)in a tone unit t)e position o' accent, t)e em+)asis t)at ma2es one syllable more +rominent t)an t)e ot)er syllables, ma2ing one (ord more +rominent. *n t)e follo(ing sentence t)e +lacement of stress c)anges t)e meaning of t)e tone unit: 6e don@t (ant those. 6e don@t want t)ose. We don@t (ant t)ose. 6e don+t (ant t)ose.

')ese sentences differ in t)eir 'ocus o' tonicity -. intonation or melody of t)e tone or t)e (ay in ()ic) t)e +itc) of t)e voice c)anges its direction in t)e utterance. :e donDt !no%' 0D0 :e donDt !no%C0C0 *n t)e first exam+le t)e voice dro+s at t)e end indicating t)at t)e s+ea2er )as finis)ed )is communicationJ in t)e second sentence t)e voice rises because t)e s+ea2er is as2ing.

rosodic elements can +erform t)e follo(ing 'unctions: 'ocus F +rosody can +ut into evidence a +articular (ord in an utterance because it is more im+ortant t)an t)e ot)ers role in discourse F +rosodic elements can indicate t)e role of an utterance (it)in a larger discourse: :henC as a reMuest for re+etition and :henC as a reMuest for information not yet +rovided intention o' speaker= +rosody can indicate t)e ty+e of sentence or t)e function of t)e elements in a sentence

:#" t)e sentence: Sou donDt !no% may be a Muestion: Sou donDt !no%C or a statement: Sou donDt !no%. This is my son, - hn, >ohn may be an a++osition to my son or a form of address.

8tress 'iming
.nglis) )as Stress 8iming ()ic) means t)at t)e stressed syllable of eac) content (ord stands out, and ot)er syllables are relatively (ea2 belonging to function (ords or being t)e unstressed syllables of content (ords. *n eac) tone unit one accented syllable is most +rominent, ot)er stressed syllables are less +rominent, and unstressed syllables are least +rominent. ')e vo(el of a stressed syllable is long, t)e vo(el of an unstressed syllable is s)ort and is often sc)(a. 8ometimes unstressed syllables are obscured in +ronunciation. *n languages (it) syllable timing &>omanian, Irenc), t)e amount of time reMuired to +roduce an utterance de+ends on )o( many syllables it )as. *n English t)e time and t)e r)yt)m of an utterance de+ends on t)e number of stressed syllables, ()ic) is stress timing. *n t)e follo(ing sentences t)ere are only t(o tone units because t)ere are only t(o stressed (ords: The b ' 0 is big'

:#1 The (a!!age 0 is big' The (a!kage 0 is hea"y' The (a!!ages 0 are hea"ier' ')e unstressed syllables are GsMuee7edH toget)er into t)e same amount of time. 8entences (it) t)e same number of syllables and t)e same arrangements of accented syllables, strong syllables and (ea2 syllables, )ave t)e same r)yt)m.

Practical Work 1. >ead t)e follo(ing ex+anded clauses observing t)eir r)yt)m. ay attention to t)e fact t)at eac) of t)ese sentences )as t)e same stressed (ord. 8)e is seen. 8)e (as seen. 8)e (ill be seen. 8)e is being seen. 8)e )as been seen.

:#/ 8)e (ill )ave been seen. :. >ead as fast as +ossible observing stress timing: $etty batter boug)t some butter, And s)e said my butter@s bitter, *f * +ut it in my batter *t (ill ma2e my butter bitter. *f * buy some better butter *t (ill ma2e my batter better, 8o s)e boug)t some better batter And it made )er butter better.

-. >ead t)e +oem &' by 0.>.<i+ling observing t)e (ea2 forms of function (ords *f you can 2ee+ your )ead ()en all about you Are losing t)eirs and blaming it on youJ *f you can trust yourself ()en all men doubt you $ut ma2e allo(ance for t)eir doubting tooJ *f you can (ait and not be tired by (aiting, Or being lied about, don@t deal in lies, Or, being )ated, don@t give (ay to )ating, And yet don@t loo2 too good, nor tal2 too (ise *f you can dream= and not ma2e dreams your master, *f you can t)in2= and not ma2e t)oug)ts your aim, *f you can meet (it) trium+) and disaster And treat t)ose t(o im+ostors Aust t)e sameJ *f you can bear to )ear t)e trut) you@ve s+o2en '(isted by 2naves to ma2e a tra+ for fools, Or (atc) t)e t)ings you gave your life to bro2en And stoo+ and build@em u+ (it) (ornout toolsJ *f you can ma2e one )ea+ of all your (innings

:#! And ris2 it on one turn of +itc)=and=toss, And lose, and start again at your beginnings And never breat)e a (ord about your lossJ *f you can force your )eart and nerve and sine( 'o serve your turn long after t)ey are gone, And so )old on ()en t)ere is not)ing in you .xce+t t)e 6ill ()ic) says to t)em:H4old onHJ *f you can tal2 (it) cro(ds and 2ee+ your virtue, Or (al2 (it) 2ings=nor lose your common touc)J *f neit)er foes nor loving friends can )urt youJ *f all men count (it) you, but none too muc)J *f you can fill t)e unforgiving minute 6it) sixty seconds@ (ort) of distance run= Pours is t)e .art) and everyt)ing t)at@s in it And=()ic) is more= you@ll be a ;an, my sonY

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