PE 5662 Teknologi Manufaktur Lanjut (Advanced Manufacturing Technology)

BAB : Abrasive Processes

Abrasive machining
A material removal process that involves the use of abrasive cutting tools

The concept of undefined cutting edge in abrasive machining

Principle types of abrasive cutting tools:

bonded abrasive tools: abrasive grains are closely packed into different shapes the most common is the abrasive wheel. shapes, wheel Grains are held together by bonding material. Abrasive machining process that use bonded abrasives include grinding, honing, superfinishing; coated abrasive tools: abrasive grains are glued onto a flexible cloth, paper or resin backing. Coated abrasives are available in sheets, rolls, endless belts. Processes include abrasive belt grinding, abrasive wire cutting; free abrasives: abrasive grains are not bonded or glued. Instead, they are introduced either in oil-based fluids (lapping, ultrasonic machining), or in water (abrasive water jet cutting) or air (abrasive jet machining), or contained in a semisoft binder (buffing).

GRINDING
A material removal process in which abrasive particles arc contained in a bonded grinding wheel that operates at very high surface speeds.

Cutting conditions in grinding

The geometry of surface grinding showing the cutting conditions

The cutting velocity V in grinding is very high V = DN

where d is the wheel diameter, and N is the rotational speed of the grinding wheel

Depth of cut d is called infeed and is defined as the distance between the machined and work surfaces The crossfeed is actually the width of cut w. The crossfeed multiplied lti li d b by i infeed f dd determines t i th the cross-sectional ti l area of f cut, CSA: CSA = crossfeedinfeed = wd

The workpart moves past the wheel at a certain linear or rotational t ti l velocity l it called ll d a feed f d Vw.

The material removal rate, mrr, is defined by mrr = VwCSA

Wheel Wear
Three mechanisms are recognized as the principal causes of wear in grinding wheels: Grain fracture, Attritious wear Bond fracture

Grain fracture occurs when a portion of the grain breaks off but the rest of the grain remains bonded in the wheel. The edges of the fractured area become new sharp cutting edges on the grinding wheel. Attritious wear involves dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat spots and rounded edges. Attritious wear is analogous to tool wear in a conventional cutting tool. Bond fracture occurs when the individual grains are pulled out of the bonding material. Bond fracture usually occurs because the grain has become dull due to attritious wear and the resulting cutting force is excessive.

Surface finish
Abrasive operations are performed to achieve a surface finish, which cannot be achieved by conventional machining processes. Abrasive grain size: smaller grit size will produce lower surface roughness; Structure: more dense structure of the grinding will, i.e., more abrasive grains per cubic millimetre will increase the number of active grains in contact with the work surface thus improving the surface finish; Cutting velocity: The surface finish will be improved by increasing the number of abrasive grains per unit time, therefore by increasing the cutting speed.

Effects of cutting temperature

The heat generated and conducted into the workpiece expands the workpart and causes dimensional errors
Tempering: excessive temperatures can temper and soften the material on the surfaces, which is often ground in the hardened state. Burning: if the temperature is excessive the surface may burn. Burning produces a bluish color on steels, which indicates high temperature oxidation with all the negative changes in the surface material properties. Thermal cracks: high temperatures may also lead to thermal cracking of the surface of the workpiece. Cracks are usually perpendicular to the grinding direction; however, under severe grinding conditions, parallel cracks may also develop. Residual stresses: temperature change and gradients within the workpiece are mainly responsible for residual stresses in grinding.

Grinding wheel
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material. The bonding material holds the particles in place and establishes the shape and structure of the wheel.

The structure of a grinding wheel showing the cutting action of abrasive grains

The rake angle of a single grain can be zero or positive but usually is highly negative

Parameters of the grinding wheel : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Abrasive material, Grain size, Bonding material, Wheel grade, and Wheel structure.

1. Abrasive materials
The abrasive materials of greatest commercial importance today are listed in the table:

2. Grain size
Small grit sizes produce better finishes while larger grain sizes permit larger material removal rates

3. Bonding Materials
The bonding material holds the abrasive grains and establishes the shape and structural integrity of the grinding wheel.

Bonding g materials: Vitrified bond: vitrified bonding material consists chiefly of ceramic materials. They are strong and rigid, resistant to elevated temperatures, and relatively unaffected by cutting fluids; rubber bond: rubber is the most flexible of the bonding materials. This bond is made of various thermosetting resin materials. They have very high strength and are used for rough g grinding g g and cutoff operations; p ; Shellac bond: shellac-bonded grinding wheels are relatively strong but not rigid. They are often used in applications requiring a good finish; Metallic bond: metal bonds, usually bronze, are the common bond material for diamond and CBN grinding wheels. Diamond and CBN abrasive grains are bond material to only the outside periphery of the wheel

Wheel grade
Wheel grades indicates the wheel bond strength. Scale ranging from soft to hard: o Soft wheels loose grains easily and are used for low material removal rates and grinding of hard materials. o Harder grades are preferred for high productivity and grinding of relatively soft materials,

Structure
o The wheel structure indicates spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel. It is measured on a scale that ranges from open to dense. o Open structure means more pores and fewer grains per unit wheel volume, and vice versa. o Open structure is recommended for work materials that tend to produce continuous chips, while denser structure is used for better surface finish and dimensional precision.

Grinding Chips

Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm in diameter

Grinding Chips

Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.

Grinding Wheel Surface

The surface of a grinding wheel (A46-J8V) showing abrasive grains, wheel porosity, wear flats on grains, and metal chips from the workpiece adhering to the grians. Note the random distribution and shape p of abrasive g grains. Magnification: 50X.

Surface Grinding and Plowing

Schematic illustration of the surface grinding process, showing various process variables. Th figure The fi d depicts i t conventional ti l( (up) ) grinding. i di

Approx. l = D d
Surface grinding

Undeformed chip thickness :

l=

Dd 1 + (D ) DW

t=

4v d VCr D

External cyl. grinding

l=

Dd 1 (D ) DW

External cyl. grinding D = wheel diameter d = depth of cut V = tangensial velocity (wheel moving) v = workpiece velocity l = undeformed chip length DW = Diameter of workpiece r = chip ratio w to t (average) r : 10 20 C = number of cutting points C : 0,1 per mm2 10 per mm2

Chip dimension : (surface grinding)

Data : Tabel slide 28. v = 0,5 m/s V = 30 m/s d = 0,05 mm D = 200 mm Solution : C = 2 per mm2 r = 15

Approx. l = D d Approx. l = 200 0.05 = 3,2 mm

t=

4v d VCr D

4 0,5 0,05 30 2 15 200 t = 0,006mm t=

Actual : length shorter - thickness greater (plastic deformation)

Surface Grinding and Plowing

Chip formation and plowing of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasive wear.

Force :
Re lative grain force v d V C D

Actual force = relative grain force + the strength of metal

The Specific Energy (u):

(Produced by grinding chip)

u = uchip + uplowing + usliding

uchip = specific energy by plastic deformation chip formation uplowing = specific energy by plastic deformation - without chip removal usliding = spec. energy by friction of sliding large wear flat

Approximate Specific Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding

Speed and Feed Ranges and Grinding Wheel Recommendations

Assume :
Material = low carbon steel D = 254 mm d = 0.05 mm N = 4000 rpm v = 1524 mm/min w = 25 mm u = 42 Ws/mm3

Calculate :

- FC (the force tangensial to the wheel) - The thrust force - Fn (the force normal to the workpiece)

Solution :
MRR = dwv = 0.05251524 = 1905 mm3/min Power = uMRR Power = 421905/60= 1333,5 watt

254 1333,5 = (FC ) (2)(4000) 60 2 FC = 144 N

Temperature
affect surface properties

Temperature rise
cause residual stress

Difficult to control d dimensional l accuracy

Peak temperature in chip generation during grinding 1650o C

M l cutting Metal i the h chips hi carry away of fh heat generated d Grinding energy (heat generated) conducted to workpiece

Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide and Silicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives

Grinding operations
The basic type of grinding: Surface grinding, Cylindrical grinding Centerless C t l grinding. i di

Surface grinding

Cylindrical grinding

Centerless grinding
Centerless grinding is a process for continuously grinding cylindrical surfaces in which the workpiece is supported not by centers or chucks but by a rest blade. The workpiece is ground between two wheels. The larger grinding wheel does grinding, while the smaller regulating wheel, which is tilted at an angle i, regulates the velocity Vf of the axial movement of the workpiece.

General Recommendations for Grinding Fluids

Economics of Grinding and Finishing Operations

Increase in the cost of machining and finishing a part as a function of the surface finish required. This is the main reason that the surface finish specified on parts should not be any finer than necessary for the part to function properly.