Transformers and Their Performance

Defenition:
A transformer is defined as a static electromagnetic device which transforms an AC
electrical power from one electrical circuit to another with a desired change in the voltage
level without any electrical connection between the circuits.

Classifications of Transformer based on:
1. Change in voltage level
a. Step-up Transformer b. Step-down transformer
2. Construction
a. Core type transformer b. Shell type transformer
3. Number of phases
a. Single phase transformer b. Three phase transformer
4. Method of cooling
a. Natural oil cooled transformer
b. Forced oil cooled transformer


Principle of Operation :
i. Schematic Arrangement



I
2


AC Supply I
1
V
2

Load

V
1



Flux

Above figure shows the schematic arrangement of a Single phase transformer. It consists of a
laminates rectangular magnetic core and two windings wound on it. One winding is
connected to the AC supply and is known as the Primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to the load and is known as Secondary winding (S). There is no electrical
connection between the Primary and Secondary windings. The number of turns of Primary
and secondary windings is denoted be N
1
and N
2
respectively.

ii. Working principle

a. The transformer works on the principle of Electromagnetic induction (mutual
induction). It is according to the Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
b. The two windings of the transformer are electrically separated but they are linked by a
common mutual flux because they are wound on the same magnetic core of very low
reluctance. These windings are highly inductive so they have a very high mutual
inductance.
c. When an AC supply of alternating voltage V
1
is given to the primary winding,
alternating current I
2
is produced in it. The current sets up an alternating flux in the
core. The flux is linked with the secondary winding to produce mutually induced emf
E
1
in it according to the Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
d. When a load is connected across the secondary, the secondary induced emf E
2

circulates current I2 through it. Thus the electrical power is transferred magnetically
or inductively from primary circuit to the secondary circuit without any electrical
connection between them.

iii. Primary and secondary emf:
The common alternating flux is linked with both the windings and hence the emfs E
1

and E
2
are statically induced in the primary and secondary windings respectively. E
1
is self
induced emf which opposes the primary supply voltage V
1
according to the Lenzs law. E
2
is
mutually induced emf, their frequency is same.
If the impedance of load connected to Secondary is Z
L
, the secondary emf E
2
circulates secondary current I
2
through it and produces voltage V
2
across the load. V
2
is
slightly less than E
2
by impedance voltage drop. Similarly the primary emf E
1
is slightly less
than primary supply voltage V
1
by the impedance voltage drop in primary winding.

iv. Unsuitability of Transformer on DC supply
The transformer works only on AC supply because it needs alternating (time varying)
flux for electromagnetic induction of emfs in the transformer windings. The alternating
mutual flux can be produced only by alternating voltage. Such alternating flux and alternating
current can produce emfs for the functioning of the transformer. So, AC supply is must for
the transformer to function.
If instead of AC, DC supply is given to the transformer, it produces direct current in
the primary and steady flux in the core. Such secondary flux cannot induce any emf in
primary and secondary by mutual induction. So secondary cannot deliver electric power to
the load. Due to the absence of primary emf E
1
which normally opposes the primary voltage
V
1
, the primary current I
1
becomes excessively high due to the high value of V
1
and low value
of primary resistance R
1
. This heavy primary current may burn the primary winding
insulation and damage the transformer. So the transformer is never operated on DC supply.



Transformer Construction:



1. Magnetic core
2. Windings
3. Oil
4. Tank
5. Radiator
6. Bushes
7. Output leads
8. Input leads
9. Conservator
10. Breather

1. Magnetic Core:
The purpose of the core is to provide a magnetic path at low reluctance between the
two windings, so that whenever one winding is excited, the flux established by the winding
will link fully with the other winding withous any appreciable leakage. The permeability of
the material used for the coremust have high value (
r
> 1000), since the reductance of the
magnetic path is inversely proportional to . Core is made up of silicon steel or sheet steel
with 4% of silicon. The sheets are laminated and coated with an oxidew layer to reduce the
iron losses.

2. Windings:
A conventional transformer has only two windings. The winding which receives the
electrical energy is called the primary winding and the winding which delivers the electrical
energy is called Secondary winding. Windings are generally made up of high grade copper.
For carrying higher currents standard conductors are used. For large power and distribution
transformers an oil filled tank is necessary for providing cooling for the windings and core.
Heat generated volume of the conductors and core
Heat Dissipated surface area of the conductors and core.
Radiators are used to increase the surface area and also to provide the path for the
circulating of the cooling oil.

3. Bushings:
The purpose of the bushings is to provide proper insulations for the leads to be taken
from the transformer tank.

4. Breather:
Transformer oil should not be exposed directly to the atmosphere because it may
absorb moisture and dust from the environment and may lose its electrical properties in a
very short time. The breather completely prevents the moisture and dust from coming into
contact with the oil in the conservator tank.

Working Principle of a transformer:

y A core type transformer consisting of a primary winding with N
1
turns and a Secondary
winding with N
2
turns.
y The two windings are insulated from each other as well as from the core
y The primary winding is connected across an AC voltage of frequency of f Hz., which
causes an alternating current to circulate through the winding
y The AC current I
1
flows through the winding produces an mmf and sets up an
alternating flux in the magnetic core.
y Due to this an induced emf will be developed in the primary winding.
y As secondary winding is wound on the same core, the mutual alternating flux linking
with winding S would also induce an emf in the coil whose frequency f and magnitude
is proportional to the number of turns N
2
of the winding.

E
1
= induced emf in P = N
1
x emf per turn
E
2
= induced emf in S = N
2
x emf per turn
E

y When the secondary winding terminals are open the terminal voltage V
2
is same as the
emf induced in it.
y The current drawn by the primary winding from the supply is very small and induced
emf in the primary winding can be taken as almost equal to the applied voltage V
1
.

y If the load is connected to the secondary winding, power flows from the primary
winding to the secondary winding load circuit. In this case some losses will occur.
y If the losses are neglected then the total power can be taken from the source by the
transformer is transferred to the load side.
V
1
I
1
x Primary power factor = V
2
I
2
x Secondary power factor
y AT full load operating condition primary power factor is approximately equal to the
secondary power factor, then

y When the secondary circuit is open, the primary winding withdraws a very small
current I
1
and mmf in primary winding F
1
= N
1
I
1
AT., produces the flux in the core. The
flux induces emf E
1
in primary winding that is equal and opposite to the applied voltage
V
1
.
y Primary current is called magnetizing current or no-load current of the transformer and
3-5% of full load primary current. AT AmpereTurns
y When load is connected across the secondary terminals, the secondary current I2 flows
to the load, this will cause mmf F
2
=N
2
I
2
at in the magnetic circuit.
y According to the Lenzs Law the current I
2
in the secondary winding will produce flux
in the opposite direction to the main flux
m
.
y Thus the secondary ampere turns have demagnetizing effect on main flux.
Consequently the flux and emf induced in the primary E1 both are slightly reduced.
y The difference between the fixed applied voltage V
1
and the reduced value of emf E
1

caused an increase in primary current and counter mmf is generated to oppose the mmf
produced by the secondary coil.

Ideal Transformer
Assumptions:
An ideal transformer is impossible to obtain in practice. It has no loss. So it is a loss-
less or loss-free transformer and its efficiency is 100%. Its primary and secondary copper
losses are zero. Its core losses such as hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are assumed to be
zero. So there is no heating of the core and windings on load.
Its output power is equal to input power i.e. secondary power P
2
=Primary power P
1

i.e. V
2
I
2
cos
2
= V
1
I
1
cos
1

Secondary and primary power factors are equal i.e. cos
2
= cos
1
,
2
=
1
.
V
2
I
2
= V
1
I
1
i.e.

K
Core loss is zero. So core loss current is zero. The permeability of the core is very
high so that the magnetizing current I
m
required to set up the flux in the core is negligible.
Thus on no load, the primary current I
1
= I
m
and secondary current I
2
= 0.
There is no magnetic leakage flux i.e. all the flux set up in the core completely links
with the primary as well as the secondary.
The primary and secondary resistances are zero. Their leakage reactances are also
zero due to leakage flux i.e. the primary and secondary impedences are zero.
Primary mmf (I
1
N
1
) + Secondary mmf (I
2
N
2
) i.e. primary and secondary ampere turns
are balanced.

There are no voltage drops in the primary and secondary windings.
Primary voltage V
1
= Primary emf E
1
and
Secondary voltage V
2
= Secondary emf E
2
.

The emf ration and voltage ratio are both equal to the turns ratio i.e. primary and
secondary emfs or voltages are directly proportional to their respective turns and primary and
secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

K
In short, the ideal transformer can be imagined as the assembly of two purely
inductive windings wound on the loss less core.
For the ideal transformation, voltage regulation us always zero.
There is no temperature rise on load due to the absence of losses. So, cooling
arrangements are not necessary.

Ideal Transformer on no load:
When no load is connected on the secondary circuit of an ideal transformer, secondary
circuit is open and I
2
= Zero.
Primary side supply voltage V
1
circulates a current I
1
through the primary and
produces a flux in the core. Flux links with the primary winding P if N
1
turns and
induces self-induced emf E
1
in it. Similarly the flux links with the secondary winding S of
N
2
turns and induce mutually induced emf E
2
in it.
The primary current I
1
is completely utilized to produce the flux i.e. to magnetize the
core. So it is called magnetizing current I
m
.
According to the Lenzs law, the primary emf E
1
opposes the primary voltage
V
1
which is the real cause of its production.
Thus for ideal transformer, V
1
= -E
1
.
By the property of the ideal transformer, secondary voltage is equal to secondary emf
i.e. V
2
= E
2

K


Phasor Diagram:
The mutual flux which is responsible for the transformer action may be taken as the
reference phasor or positive xaxis. The current I
1
(=I
m
) produces flux . So I
1
is in phase with
.
The primary and secondary emfs E
1
and E
2
lag behind the flux by 90. Assuming
step-down transformer, the transformation ratio k<1.

K E
2
< E
1

Secondary voltageV
2
lags the flux by 90. As primary voltage V
1
= -E
1
, phasor V
1

is drawn reverse to E
1
i.e. V
1
leads flux by 90 and V
2
< V
1
.
The lengths of the phasors should be such that E2 = KE
1
and V
2
= KV
1
and V
1
= E
1

and V
2
= E
2
.

Ideal Transformer on load:
A load of impedance Z
L
is connected across the secondary. The secondary voltage V
2

(=E
2
) circulates a secondary current I
2
through the load.
Assuming inductive load, the current I
2
would lag the voltage V
2
by angle
2
where
cos
2
lagging would be the power factor of the load.
The magnetizing current I
m
is in phase with the flux and emfs E
1
and E
2
lag the flux
by 90. V
2
=E
2
and V
1
= -E
1
.
So V
1
leads flux by 90. V
2
=KV
1
and E
2
=KE
1
.
Initially the primary takes magnetizing current I
m
from the supply to produce flux in
the core. During the on load operation of the transformer, the secondary current I
2
produces
opposing mmf I
2
N
2
to oppose flux according to Lenzs law. So the flux momentarily
decreased and hence the primary induced emf E
1
is momentarily decreased below the value
of primary voltage V
1
. The vector difference (V
1
-E
1
) causes additional current I
2
to flow in
the primary. The magnitude of I
2
is such that it produces additional mmf I
2
N
1
to increase
the flux back to its original value in the core is always kept constant. In this way the
transformer is a constant flux machine. There is ampere turn balance on primary and
secondary sides, i.e. primary mmf and secondary mmf. In short, the secondary ampere-turns
are always balanced by the primary ampere-turns. I
2
N
1
= I2N
2


The secondary current I
2
is shown to be lagging
V
2
by an angle
2
assuming the power factor cos
2
of
the load. The counter balancing primary current I2 is
given by: I
2
N
1
= -kI
2
.
The ve sign indicates that I
2
produces the flux
which opposes the flux produced by I
2
. So I
2
is drawn
reverse to I
2
.
The total primary current I
1
is the phasor sum of
the magnetizing component I
m
and the counter balancing
loading componenu I
2
. Current I
1
lags voltage V
1
by
phse angle
1
. Thus the primary power factor is cos
1

lagging.
As the magnetizing current I
m
is very small, I
1

I
2
= KI
2
and
1
=
2
i.e. primary power factor cos
1
=
secondary power factor cos
2
.

Practical transformer on NO load:
On no load condition, the secondary is open i.e. I
2
=0
Secondary voltage V
2
= Secondary emf E
2
.
The primary takes very small no load current I
0
from the supply. Therefore the
impedance voltage drop I
0
Z
1
in the primary is negligible and hence primary emf E
1
is nearly
equal to the primary voltage V
1
. The no load primary copper loss I
0
2
R
1
is very small and
hence neglected.

Components of no load current I
0
:
It has two components as follows:
i. Magnetizing component (I
m
): The primary takes magnetizing component I
m
of the
current to magnetize the core i.e. to produce the flux in the core I
m
is in phase with the
flux and lags the voltage by 90. It is the purely reactive or inductive current. It is also
known as wattles component.
ii. Core loss component (I
c
): The primary takes core loss component I
c
of the current to
supply the core losses viz. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss in the core. I
c
is the active
current and it is in phase with the voltage V
1
. It is also known as wattful component.

Phasor Diagram :








In the phasor diagram, E
1
and E
2
or V
2
lag the flux by 90 and V
1
(= -E
1
) leads flux
by 90.
I
m
is in phase with the flux but lags voltage V1 by 90 and Ic is in phase with V
1
.
The phasor sum of I
m
and I
c
gives no load current I
0
which lags voltage V
1
by phase angle
o
.
I
0
=

and o tan

I
c
= I
o
cos
o
and I
m
= I
o
Sin
o

The no load primary power factor is given by
cos
o
=

lagging
The power factor of the transformer at no load is always very poor and lagging
because the no load current I
o
lags the voltage V
1
by the large angle
o
due to the large value
of the magnetizing current I
m
relative to the small value of core loss current I
c
.



Practical transformer on load:
The effect of loading on the transformer operation can be studied by referring the
below figures. The winding resistance and the
leakage flux are neglected. Therefore winding
reactances and impedances are not considered
here.
When transformer is on no load, the
secondary side is opened so the secondary
current I
2
is zero. The no load primary current
I
0
produces mmf I
0
N
1
and sets up flux in t e
core as shown in (A).
When the transformer is
loaded as shown in (B), the
secondary emf E
2
(=V
2
) circulates
current I
2
in the secondary circuit
such that I
2
=

where Z
L
is the
load impedance. The phase angle
2
between the voltage V
2
and current I
2

depends on the nature of the load. I
2

lags V
2
by angle
2
if the load is
inductive, I
2
is in phase with the
voltage V
2
if the load is purely
resistive and I
2
leads V
2
by angle
2

if the load is capacitive.








So the momentary voltage difference (vector) V
1
-E
1
Circulates additional current I
2

in the primary. This additional current is known as the load component of the primary
current. It is in phase opposition to secondarycurrent I
2
. So it is also known as counter
balancing primary current. This current produces additional mmf I
2
N
1
to set the flux
1
such
that
1
is equal to and in opposition to the secondary flux
2
. The total primary current I
1
is
given by I
1
= I
0
+I
2
as shown in (C).Thus primary current varies with the secondary load
current.
As the secondary current I
2
and the load component I
2
of the primary current are in
phase and opposite in direction,their mmfs are balanced i.e. I
2
N
1
=I
2
N
2
.
a
b
c


The fluxes
1
and 2 produced by the mmfs I
2
N
1
and I
2
N
2
respectively are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. So they get cancelled and the resultant flux in the core is
the same flux which is produced at no load condition. This is shown in (D).
Thus when the transformer is loaded from no load to full load, the common mutual
flux in the core remains approximately constant. Therefore the transformer is said to be in
constant flux machine.
At full load condition, the no load component I0 is negligible in comparision with the
full load component I
2
. Hence I
0
is neglected and the total primary current I
1
(vector) is
taken as I
2
.
i.e. vectorially I
1
= I
0
+ I
2
I
2
But I
2
= KI
2
I
1
KI
2
But I
2
N
1
=I
2
N
2

. I
1
N
1
=I
2
N
2
.
i.e. the primary ampere turns are balanced by the secondary ampere turns. As the core flux
is practically constant from no load to full load, the core losses of the transformer are always
constant for all conditions of the load.

Phasor diagram:

As the winding resistances and reactances are neglected, the phasors of flux, emfs,
voltages and no load current are same as that for the no load phasordiagram. I
0
lags V
1
by
phase angle
0
.

For inductive load i.e. for lagging power
factor load, I
2
lags V
2
by phase angle
2
. The load
component I
2
of primary current is KI
2
and it is in
phase opposition to the current I
2
. So the phase
angle between I
2
and V
1
is
2
. The resultant
primary current is the phasor sum of no load
component I
0
and load component I
2
.
The phase angle between I
1
and V
1
is
1
and
hence the primary power factor is cos
1
.

d
Equivalent Circuits:
Primary and Secondary Parameters:

1. Primary Parameters:
N
1
= Number of primary turns
V
1
=Primary Supply Voltage
E
1
= Primary emf
I
0
= No load current = I
c
+I
m

I
c
= Core loss current
I
m
= Magnetising current
I
1
= Primary current = I
0
+I
2
= I
0
+KI
2

R
c
= Core loss resistance
X
m
= Magnetising reactance
R
1
= Primary Winding resistance
X
1
= Primary leakage reactance
2. Secondary Parameters
N
2
= Number of secondary turns
V
2
=Secondary load terminal Voltage
E
2
= Secondary emf
I
2
= Secondary load current
R
2
= Secondary winding resistance
X
2
= Secondary leakage reactance
Z
L
= Load impedance = R
L

jX
L

R
L
= Load resistance
X
L
= Load reactance

Transformation ratio : K = N
2
/N
1





Equivalent Resistances:

1. The primary and secondary windings of
the transformer have their own individual
resistances R
1
and R
2
respectively. For
simplicity, they are shown external to the
windings in the figure. They carry the respective
winding currents I
1
and I
2
and produce copper
losses.
2. Secondary resistance R
2
carries current I
2
and produces copper loss I
2
2
R
2
. Suppose R
2

is transferred to primary, then its equivalent resistance R
2
referred to primary must
produce the same copper loss while carrying primary current I
1
.
i.e. I
1
2
R
2
= I
2
2
R
2

R
2
= (I
2
2
R
2
)/ I
1
2
= (I
2
/I
1
)
2
. R
2
= (N
1
/N
2
)
2
.R
2
= R
2
/K
2

This resistance R
2
is known as the secondary resistance referred to primary and is given
by:
R
2
R
2
/K
2


3. Now primary resistance R
1
carries current I
1
and produces copper loss I
1
2
R
1
. Now
suppose R
1
is transferred to secondary, then its equivalent resistance R
1
referred to
secondary must produce the same copper loss while carrying secondary current I
2
.
i.e. I
2
2
R
1
= I
1
2
R
1

R
1
= (I
1
2
R
1
)/ I
2
2
= (I
1
/I
2
)
2
.R
1
= K
2
R
1

R
1

is known as the primary resistance referred to secondary and is given by R
1

=K
2
R
1
.
4. Equivalent resistance referred to
primary: After transferring secondary
resistance R
2
to the primary, the total
equivalent resistance of transformer
(referred to primary) becomes the sum of
R
1
and R
2
and it is denoted by R
01.
R
01
= R
1
+ R
2
= R
1
+ (R
2
/K
2
)




5. Equivalent Resistance referred to
secondary: Similarly the total resistance
of the transformer (referred to secondary)
is denoted by R
02
and is obtained by
transferring the primary resistance R
1
to the secondary and then adding it into the secondary
resistance R
2
.
i.e. R
02
=R
2
+R
1
= R
2
+K
2
R
1

6. Copper losses: The total copper losses of the transformer can be expressed as:

P
cu
= P
cu1
+P
cu2
= I
1
2
R
1
+I
2
2
R
2

i.e. P
cu
= I
1
2
R
1
+I
1
2
R
2
= I
1
2
(R
1
+R
2
) = I
1
2
R
01

or P
cu
= I
2
2
R
2
+ I
2
2
R
1
= I
2
2
(R
2
+R
1
) = I
2
2
R
02

R
01
/R
02
= (I
2
/I
1
)
2
= I/K
2
R
01
= R
02
/K
2
and R
02
= K
2
R
01


Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer:
An equivalent circuit of the transformer can be developed by considering the basic
primary and secondary electrical circuit coupled magnetically. R
1
, X
1
and Z
1
are the primary
winding parameters and R
2
, X
2
and Z
2
are the secondary winding parameters.
Shunt branch of R
C
and X
m
represents core parameters to accounts for core loss and
magnetization of core.

Exact Equivalent Circuit:

1 Basic Magnetically Coupled Circuit
The secondary circuit of the above figure may be combined with the primary circuit
by transferring all secondary parameters to the primary side. The resulting circuit is known as
the exact equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the primary side. That is shown in
the below figure:

2 Exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary
In the similar way, the primary circuit of the first figure can be combined with the
secondary circuit by transferring all the primary parameters to the secondary side. The
resulting circuit is called as the exact equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the
secondary of the transformer referred to secondary. That is shown in below figure:

3 Exact equivalent circuit referred to the Secondary
Simplified equivalent circuit:
4 Simplified equivalent circuit referred to the Primary
The exact equivalent circuit is difficult to analyze due to the central shunt branch of
R
c
and X
m
. So this branch is shifted to the supply side without loosing much accuracy. Now
the primary and secondary winding parameters can be added together. Thus a simplified
equivalent circuit is derived for the primary and secondary winding parameters.
The shunt branch of R
c
and X
m
of second figure is shifted to the supply side to get a
simplified equivalent circuit referred to primary as shown in the below figure:
Now, the voltage across R
c
and X
m
is V
1
instead of E
1
and V
1
E
1
. Similarly, the
current in R
1
and X
1
or Z
1
is I
2
instead of I
1
and I
2
I
1
. So this approximation is tolerated.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit:
The series parameters of primary and secondary windings of the simplified equivalent
circuit of the fourth figure may be added together to derive the approximate equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to primary as shown in below figure:

Approximate equivalent circuit referred to the Primary
Total winding parameters referred to primary are given by
R
01
= R
1
+R
2
, X
01
= X
1
+ X
2
and Z
01
= Z
1
+ Z
2
(vectorially)
Similarly approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to secondary may
be derived by following same procedure, transferring all the primary parameters to the
secondary. This is shown in the below figure:

Approximate
equivalent circuit
referred to the
Secondary


The total
winding
parameters
referred to secondary are given by:
R
02
= R
2
+ R
1
, X
02
= X
2
+ X
1
and Z
02
= Z
2
+ Z
1
(vectorially)
Losses in A Transformer:
A practical transformer has very smack power losses due to absence of moving parts
and friction loss. So it is a highly efficient device. The total power losses of the teansformer
are classified as below:

Core losses:
y In core, the cyclic flux density variations are caused due to je sinusoidal current.
y The cyclic flux density variations give rise to losses which appear in the form of heay.
y These losses are referreds to as core losses or iron losses.
y Iron losses are of two types:
1. Hysterisis Losses
2. Eddy current losses
y In all electromagnetic equipment, core losses play a significant role in determining the
equipment rating, efficiency and temperature rise.
1. Hysterisis losses :
a. When core is energized from an AC source, the magnetizing current varies
sinusoidally with the time. Hence the magnetizing force H applied on the
magnetic circuit is also alternating.
b. The variation of B when plotted against H for one cycle of AC extraction is in
the form of a loop.
c. In each cycle hysteresis losses appears as heat.
P
h
= K
h
vfB
m
16
watts
K
h
Steinmetz constant, depends on the material of the core and range of
the flux density. It lies between 1.5 2.0 (generally taken as 1.6)
v Volume of the core in m
3

B
m
Maximum flux density
d. Hysteresis losses reduced by using core materials that have a narrow hysteresis
loop. Eg: iron alloys, silicon steel

2. Eddy Current losses:
a. The time varying flux in core induces emf in it and causes circulating currents in
closed paths within the body of the material.
b. These currents are called Eddy currents and gives rise to i
2
R losses.
c. These losses are called Eddy current losses.
d. It is dependent upon the effective rsistance and length of the eddy current
paths.
e. If the magnetic circuit is made up of solid iron, then circulating currents are high
where as resistance is small. Hence the power loss is appreciable.
P
e
= K
e
f
2
B
m
2
t
2
v watt
t Thickness of the core in meters.
v Volume of the core in m
3

f. Finally core losses are minimized by using high steel silicon content for the
core.
g. The input of the transformer when on no load measures the core losses.

Copper losses:
1. This is due to the ohmic resistance of the transfgormer windings.
2. Total Copper losses = I
1
2
R
01
+I
2
2
R
02

3. It is clear that copper losses are proportional to square of the current or kVA
2
.

Efficiency ():
The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of the output power to the
ratio of the input power at a specified load and its power factor.
The input power is the primary power taken from the supply and output power is the
secondary power delivered to the load. Due to the power losses in the transformer, output
power is less than input power.

Output power P
0
= Secondary power P
2

= Input power P
i
Losses P
L
= Primary power P
1
Losses P
L
Input power P
i
= Primary power P
1

= Output power P
0
+ Losses P
L

= Secondary power P
2
+ Losses P
L

Condition for maximum efficiency :
Considering primary winding :
Primary input = V
1
I
1
cos
1

Differentiating on both sides by I
1

u
uI

cos

cos

For maximum ,

u
uI