Theory of Metal Cutting

Manufacturing Processes:
Theory of Metal Cutting &

Machine Tools
Lecture Notes
Joyjeet Ghose
Email: joyjeetghose@gmail.com
enior Lecturer!
"e#artment of Pro$uction Engineering!
%irla &nstitute of Technology! 'anchi
MODULE
&
Theory of
Metal
Cutting
Joyjeet Ghose, BIT, Mesra, Lecture notes on PE5005
Definition of Manufacturing
The word manufacturing is derived from Latin:

manus = hand, factus = made
Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services

available to satisfy human wants.
Manufacturing implies creating value to a raw material by applying

useful mental and physical labour.
Whether from nature or industry materials cannot be used in their raw

forms for any useful purpose.
The materials are then shaped and formed into different useful components
through different manufacturing processes to fulfil the needs of day-to-day
work.
Manufacturing converts the raw materials to finished products to be used

for some purpose.
&ntro$uction to Manufacturing Processes
&ntro$uction to Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing processes is a very fundamental subject since it is of

interest not only to mechanical engineers but also to engineers from other
discipline of engineering.
There are various manufacturing processes by which a product can be

made.
ach process however has its own limitation and restriction and due to this
reason a particular process is adopted to certain specific applications.
Thus while a product can be manufactured by two or more processes! the

real problem is to select the most economical out of them.
" detailed understanding of various manufacturing processes is thus very

essential for every engineer. This helps in designing the proper product
re#uired for him.
$e would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his

designs.
$e may find that there are more than one process is available for
manufacturing a particular product and he can make a proper choice of the
process which would re#uire lowest manufacturing cost.
CL(&)&C(T&*N *) M(N+)(CT+'&NG P'*CEE
Manufacturing processes can be grouped as:
%asting! foundry or moulding processes.
&orming or metal working processes.
Machining 'metal removal( processes.
)oining and assembly
*urface treatments 'finishing(.
$eat treating
These groups are not mutually e+clusive. &or e+ample! some finishing
processes involve a small amount of metal removal or metal forming. " laser
can be used for joining,metal removal,heat treating.
Manufacturing Processes and Manufacturing system
Manufacturing system:
" collection of operations and processes used to obtain a desired
product's( or component's( is called a manufacturing system.
The manufacturing system is therefore the design or arrangement
of the manufacturing processes..
Production system:
A production system includes people, money, equipment, materials
and supplies, markets, management and the manufacturing system.
Production System - The Big Picture
Manufacturing *ystem
-eople! Money! #uipment! Materials and *upplies! Markets! Management
Appication of Manufacturing Processes
Appication of Manufacturing Processes !"ears#
Diagrammatic $epresentation of Materia $emo%a Operations
E&ampes of cutting processes
*ource: . Manufacturing -rocesses for ngineering Materials/! 0
th
edition! 1alpakjian! *chmid!
-rentice $all 2334
An 'ntroductory %ideo on Manufacturing Processes
Materia remo%a is essentiay done on machine toos( )hich
may *e Lathe( Miing( Driing( Shaping( Paning( Broaching and
"rinding machines+
The functions of machine toos are,
hoding the )or-piece
hoding the too
mo%ing the too or the )or- piece or *oth reati%e to each

other(
suppy energy re.uired to cause meta cutting+

E%ery machine too has a primary cutting too for meta remo%a+
Machine toos are -ind of machines on )hich meta cutting or
meta forming processes are carried out+
Machine Toos
Machining Parameters
/utting Parameter $eationships
/utting Parameters
Cutting #ee$: /utting speed is the distance tra%eed *y the )or-
surface in unit time )ith reference to the cutting edge of the too+
The cutting speed( v is simpy referred to as speed and usuay
e&pressed in m0min+
)ee$: The feed is the distance ad%anced *y the too into or aong the
)or-piece each time the too point passes a certain position in its
tra%e o%er the surface+
'n case of turning( feed is the distance that the too ad%ances in one
re%oution of the )or-piece+
1eed f is usuay e&pressed in mm0re%+ Sometimes it is aso e&pressed
in mm0min and is caed feed rate+
"e#th of cut , 't is the distance through )hich the cutting too is
punged into the )or-piece surface+
Thus it is the distance measured perpendicuary *et)een the
machined surface and the unmachined !uncut# surface or the
pre%iousy machined surface of the )or-piece+
The depth of cut d is e&pressed in mm+

Seection of cutting speed and feed
5
The selection of cutting speed and feed is based on the following
parameters:
5
Workpiece material
5
Tool Material
5
Tool geometry and dimensions
5
Size of chip cross-section
5
Types of finish desired
5
igidity of the machine
5
Types of coolant used
Seection of cutting speed and feed
/utting toos 2 its characteristics
%utting tool is a device! used to remove the unwanted material from given
workpiece. &or carrying out the machining process! cutting tool is
fundamental and essential re#uirement. " cutting tool must have the
following characteristics:
5
!ardness: The tool material must be harder than the work piece material.
$igher the hardness! easier it is for the tool to penetrate the work material.
5
!ot hardness: $ot $ardness is the ability of the cutting tool must to
maintain its $ardness and strength at elevated temperatures. This property is
more important when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds! for increased
productivity.
5
Toughness: 6nspite of the tool being tough! it should have enough toughness
to withstand the impact loads that come in the start of the cut to force
fluctuations due to imperfections in the work material. Toughness of cutting
tools is needed so that tools don7t chip or fracture! especially during
interrupted cutting operations like milling.
/utting toos 2 its characteristics
5
Wear esistance: The tool-chip and chip-work interface are e+posed to
severe conditions that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. Wear
resistance means the attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to
be replaced.
5
"ow friction: The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should
be low. This would lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.
5
Thermal characteristics: *ince a lot of heat is generated at the cutting
8one! the tool material should have higher thermal conductivity to dissipate
the heat in shortest possible time! otherwise the tool temperature would
become high! reducing its life.
/utting Too Materias
5
#arbon and Medium alloy steels : These are the oldest of the tool materials
dating back hundreds of years. 6n simple terms it is a high carbon steel 'steel
which contains about 3.9 to :.4; carbon(. 6ne+pensive! easily shaped!
sharpened. <o sufficient hardness and wear resistance. Limited to low cutting
speed operation
5
!igh Speed Steel $%&''(: The major difference between high speed tool steel
and plain high carbon steel is the addition of alloying elements 'manganese!
chromium! tungsten! vanadium! molybdenum! cobalt! and niobium( to harden
and strengthen the steel and make it more resistant to heat 'hot hardness(.
They are of two types: Tungsten $** 'denoted by T(! Molybdenum $**
'denoted by M(.
5
#emented #arbides or Sintered #arbides $%&)*-+'(: These tools are
produced by powder metallurgy. %arbide tools are basically of three types:
tungsten carbide 'W%(! tantalum carbide 'Ta%(! and titanium carbide 'Ti%(.
The carbides or combined carbides are mi+ed with a binder of cobalt. They
are able to retain hardness to a temperature of about :333
3
%. *o they can be
used at high speeds. %arbide tool are available as bra8ed tip tools 'carbide tip
is bra8ed to steel tool( and inserts 'inserts are of various shapes- triangular!
s#uare diamond and round(.
Typica car*ide inserts
&6=>?: 'a( Typical
carbide inserts with various
shapes and chip-breaker
features. ?ound inserts are
also available. The holes in
the inserts are standardi8ed
for interchangeability.
Source: %ourtesy of
1yocera ngineered
%eramics! 6nc.! and
Manufacturing Engineering!
*ociety of Manufacturing
ngineers. 'b( Methods of
attaching inserts to a tool
shank by clamping! 'c( with
wing lockpins! and 'd( with
a bra8ed insert on a shank
&6=>?: ?elative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts with various
shapes. *trength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles. Source: 1ennametal!
6nc.
Car,i$es are no- so #o#ular that
&* has $e.elo#e$ an a##lication
chart.
The chart is $i.i$e$ into three main
areas: &* / P! M an$ 0.
&* P: is for the machining of long
chi# formation materials.
&* M: is for the machining of
$ifficult to machine materials such as
austenitic stainless steel.
&* 0: is for the machining of short
chi# formation materials such as
cast iron! har$ene$ steel.
5
#oated cemented carbide $%&*'(: Tool life to about 233 to 433 ; or
more. " thin! chemically stable! hard refractory coating of Ti%! Ti< or
"l
2
@
4
is used. The bulk of the tool is tough! shock resistant carbide that
can withstand high temperatures. Aecause of its wear resistance! coated
tool can be used at still higher speeds.
5
#ast cobalt alloys or Stellites $%&%,(: 6t is a non-ferrous alloy consisting
mainly of cobalt! tungsten and chromium '4B; to C4; %obalt! 43; to
44; %hromium! and 0; to 23; Tungsten(. @ther elements added in
varying proportions are molybdenum! manganese! silicon and carbon. 6t
has good shock and wear resistance properties and retains its harness up to
933
3
%. *tellite tools can operate at speed about 2C; higher than that of
$** tools .
5
#emented o-ides or #eramic #utting Tools $%&,'s(: .on-metallic
materials made of pure "luminum o+ide by powder metallurgy. The
application ceramic cutting tools are limited because of their e+treme
brittleness. The transverse rupture strength 'T?*( is very low. This means
that they will fracture more easily when making heavy interrupted cuts.
$owever! the strength of ceramics under compression is much higher than
$** and carbide tools. 6t has high hot hardness 'up to :233 degree %(! so
capable of running at high speeds.
5
#ermets: %ermets are ceramic material in metal binders. Ti%! nickel! Ti<!
and other carbides are used as binders. %ermets have higher hot hardness
and o+idation resistance than cemented carbides but less toughness. They
are used for finishing operation. The main problem with cermets is that
due to thermal shock the inserts crack.
5
Diamond: They are of two types - industrial grade natural diamonds! and
synthetic polycrystalline diamonds. Aecause diamonds are pure carbon!
they have an affinity for the carbon of ferrous metals. Therefore! they can
only be used on non-ferrous metals. &eeds should be very light and high
speeds ?igidity in the machine tool and the setup is very critical because
of the e+treme hardness and brittleness of diamond.
5
#ubic /oron .itride $%&*)(: %ubic boron nitride '%A<( is similar to
diamond in its polycrystalline structure and is also bonded to a carbide
base. With the e+ception of titanium! or titanium-alloyed materials! %A<
will work effectively as a cutting tool on most common work materials.
$owever! the use of %A< should be reserved for very hard and difficult-to-
machine materials.
Properties of /utting Too Materias
PROPERTY CARBIDES
HIGH-
SPEED
STEEL
CAST
ALLOYS
WC TiC CERAMICS CUBIC
BORON
NITRIDE
SINGLE-
CRYSTAL
DIAMOND*
Hardness 83-8 HRA 8!-8" HRA
"-! HRC
#$-#% HRA
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H'
#&-#3 HRA
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#&-#% HRA
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*ource . Manufacturing -rocesses for ngineering Materials/! 0
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-rentice $all 2334
/utting too materia and recommended speed range,
&6=>? : The range of applicable cutting speeds and fees for a variety of tool materials.
Source: Dalenite! 6nc.
&igure from: . Manufacturing -rocesses for ngineering Materials/! 0
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edition! 1alpakjian!
*chmid! -rentice $all 2334
(a) Hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature. (b)
Ranges of properties of various groups of materials.
/utting too materias hardness and strength
*ource: 0eorge Schneider12r3 #Mfg41 %utting Tool "pplications
Operating /haracteristics of /utting too materias
Single Point #utting Tool 0eometry
$ight hand singe point cutting too
FIGURE : (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally
been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of
various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).
th
-rentice $all 2334
Singe Point /utting Too "eometry
i$e ra1e angle
23
s
4
En$ relief angle 2E'(4
Nose 'a$ius 2N'4
En$ cutting e$ge angle 2ECE(4
i$e cutting e$ge angle 2CE(4
i$e 5ie-
)ront 5ie-
To# 5ie-
Li# angle
/ack rake angle $5
,
4
i$e relief angle 2'(4
Geometry of #ositi.e ra1e single #oint cutting tool
Singe Point /utting Too "eometry
Geometry of negati.e ra1e single #oint cutting tool
i$e ra1e angle 23
s
4
En$ relief angle 2E'(4
Nose 'a$ius 2N'4
En$ cutting e$ge angle 2ECE(4
i$e cutting e$ge angle 2CE(4
i$e 5ie-
)ront 5ie-
To# 5ie-
Li# angle
/ack rake angle $5
,
4
i$e relief angle 2'(4
ignificance of 'a1e an$ 'elief (ngles
The 'a1e (ngle Click for video
%ac1 ra1e angle:
The *ac- ra-e ange is the ange *et)een the face of the too and a ine
parae to the *ase of the shan- in a pane parae to the side cutting edge+
The *ac- ra-e ange affects the a*iity of the too to shear the )or- materia
and form chip+
i$e 'a1e (ngles:
't is the ange *y )hich the face of the too is incined side )ays+
The 'a1e (ngle,
The ra-e ange is a)ays at the topside of the too+
The side ra-e ange and the *ac- ra-e ange com*ine to form the effecti%e
ra-e ange+ This is aso caed true ra-e ange or resutant ra-e ange of the
too+
The *asic too geometry is determined *y the ra-e ange of the too+
$a-e ange has t)o ma3or effects during the meta cutting process+
One ma3or effect of ra-e ange is its infuence on too strength+ A too )ith
negati%e ra-e )i )ithstand far more oading than a too )ith positi%e ra-e+
The other ma3or effect of ra-e ange is its infuence on cutting pressure+ A
too )ith a positi%e ra-e ange reduces cutting forces *y ao)ing the chips to
fo) more freey across the ra-e surface+
Cutting tool angles an$ their significance
The rake angle has the following function:
5
6t allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.
5
6t reduces the cutting force re#uired to shear the metal and conse#uently
helps to increase the tool life and reduce the power consumption. 6t
provides keenness to the cutting edge.
5
6t improves the surface finish.
Positi6e ake:
5
-ositive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression! the forces! and
the friction! yielding a thinner! less deformed and cooler chip.
5
Aut increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section! and heat
conduction capacity.
5
*ome areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are!
when cutting tough! alloyed materials that tend to work-harden! such as
certain stainless steels! when cutting soft or gummy metals! or when low
rigidity of workpiece! tooling! machine tool! or fi+ture allows chatter to
occur.
5
The shearing action and free cutting of positive rake tools will often
eliminate problems in these areas.
Negati.e 'a1e:
To pro%ide greater strength at the cutting edge and *etter heat

conducti%ity( 4ero or negati%e ra-e anges are empoyed on car*ide(
ceramic( poycrystaine diamond( and poycrystaine cu*ic *oron
nitride cutting toos+
These materias tend to *e *ritte( *ut their a*iity to hod their superior
hardness at high temperature resuts in their seection for high speed
and continuous machining operation+
5egati%e ra-es increases too forces *ut this is necessary to pro%ide

added support to the cutting edge+ This is particuary important in
ma-ing intermittent cuts and in a*sor*ing the impact during the initia
engagement of the too and )or-+
5egati%e ra-es are recommended on too )hich does not possess

good toughness !o) trans%erse rupture strength#+
Thus negati%e ra-e !or sma ra-e# causes high compression( too
force( and friction( resuting in highy deformed( hot chip+
The ra-e ange for a too depends on the foo)ing factors,
Ty#e of material ,eing cut, A harder materia i-e cast iron may *e
machined *y smaer ra-e ange than that re.uired *y soft materia
i-e mid stee or auminum+
Ty#e of tool material, Too materia i-e cemented car*ide permits

turning at %ery high speed+ At high speeds ra-e ange has itte
infuence on cutting pressure+ Under such condition the ra-e ange
can minimum or e%en negati%e ra-e ange is pro%ided to increase
the too strength+
"e#th of cut, 'n rough turning( high depth of cut is gi%en to remo%e
ma&imum amount of materia+ This means that the too has to
)ithstand se%ere cutting pressure+ So the ra-e ange shoud *e
decreased to increase the ip ange that pro%ides the strength to the
cutting edge+
'igi$ity of the tool hol$er an$ machine, An impropery supported

too on od or )orn out machine cannot ta-e up high cutting
pressure+ So )hie machining under the a*o%e condition( the too
used shoud ha%e arger ra-e ange+
$eief anges are pro%ided to minimi4e physica interference or ru**ing
contact )ith machined surface and the )or- piece+
$eief anges are for the purpose of heping to eiminate too *rea-age and
to increase too ife+
'f the reief ange is too arge( the cutting too may chip or *rea-+ 'f the
ange is too sma( the too )i ru* against the )or-piece and generate
e&cessi%e heat and this )i in turn( cause premature duing of the cutting
too+
Sma reief anges are essentia )hen machining hard and strong materias
and they shoud *e increased for the )ea-er and softer materias+
A smaer ange shoud *e used for interrupted cuts or hea%y feeds( and a
arger ange for semi-finish and finish cuts+
i$e relief angle: The Side reief ange pre%ents the side fan- of the too
from ru**ing against the )or- )hen ongitudina feed is gi%en+ Larger feed
)i re.uire greater side reief ange+
En$ relief angle: The End reief ange pre%ents the side fan- of the too
from ru**ing against the )or-+ A minimum reief ange is gi%en to pro%ide
ma&imum support to the too cutting edge *y increasing the ip ange+ The
front cearance ange shoud *e increased for arge diameter )or-s+
'elief (ngles
'elief (ngles

i$e cutting e$ge angle:
The foo)ing are the ad%antages of increasing this ange,
't increases too ife as( for the same depth of cut6 the cutting force is
distri*uted on a )ider surface+
't diminishes the chip thic-ness for the same amount of feed and
permits greater cutting speed+
't dissipates heat .uic-y for ha%ing )ider cutting edge+
The side cutting edge ange of the too has practicay no effect on the
%aue of the cutting force or po)er consumed for a gi%en depth of cut
and feed+
Large side cutting edge anges are ighty to cause the too to chatter+
En$ cutting e$ge angle:
The function of end cutting edge ange is to pre%ent the traiing front
cutting edge of the too from ru**ing against the )or-+ A arge end
cutting edge ange unnecessariy )ea-ens the too+
't %aries from 7 to 89 degrees+
Nose ra$ius:
The nose of a too is sighty rounded in a turning toos+
The function of nose radius is as foo)s,
"reater nose radius cears up the feed mar-s caused *y the

pre%ious shearing action and pro%ides *etter surface finish+
A finish turning too ha%e greater nose radius than rough turning
toos+
't increases the strength of the cutting edge( tends to minimi4e the
)ear ta-ing pace in a sharp pointed too )ith conse.uent increase
in too ife+
Accumuation heat is ess than that in a pointed too )hich permits

higher cutting speeds+
/utting too anges and their significance
Too signature
6t is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point cutting
tool.
The signature is the se#uence of numbers listing the various angles! in
degrees! and the si8e of the nose radius.
There are several systems available like "merican standard system '"*"(!
@rthogonal rake system '@?*(! <ormal rake system '<?*(! and
Ma+imum rake system 'M?*(.
The system most commonly used is "merican *tandard "ssociation
'"*"(! which is:
Aake rake angle! *ide rake angle! nd relief angle! *ide relief angle! nd
cutting dge angle! *ide cutting dge angle and <ose radius.
1or e&ampe a too may designated in the foo)ing se.uence, 1or e&ampe a too may designated in the foo)ing se.uence,
7-8:-;-;-;-89-8
<+ Ba-e ra-e ange is 7
=+ Side ra-e ange is 8:
:+ End reief ange is ;
9+ Side reief ange is ;
;+ End cutting Edge ange is ;
>+ Side cutting Edge ange is 89
7+ 5ose radius is 8 mm
Too signature
Designations for a $ight-?anded /utting Too
&6=>?: 'a( Eesignations and symbols for
a right-hand cutting toolF solid high-speed-
steel tools have a similar designation. 'b(
*#uare insert in a right-hand toolholder for
a turning operation. " wide variety of
toolholder is available for holding inserts at
various angles. Thus! the angles shown in
'a( can be achieved easily by selecting an
appropriate insert and toolholder. Source:
1ennametal! 6nc.
T6E*'7 *) MET(L C+TT&NG
T6E*'7 *) MET(L C+TT&NG
5
The process of metal removal! a process in which a wedge-shaped tool
engages a workpiece to remove a layer of material in the form of a chip!
goes back many years.
5
ven with all of the sophisticated e#uipment and techni#ues used in
today7s modern industry! the basic mechanics of forming a chip remain the
same.
5
"s the cutting tool engages the workpiece! the material directly ahead of
the tool is sheared and deformed under tremendous pressure. The
deformed material then seeks to relieve its stressed condition by fracturing
and flowing into the space above the tool in the form of a chip.
Video showing the wedge-
shape of different tools.
*rthogonal an$ *,li8ue Cutting
The t)o *asic methods of meta cutting using a singe point too are
the orthogona !< D# and o*i.ue !=D#+ Orthogona cutting ta-es pace
)hen the cutting face of the too is @A degree to the ine of action of
the too+ 'f the cutting face is incined at an ange ess than @A degree
to the ine of action of the too( the cutting action is -no)n as o*i.ue+
7rthogonal #utting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the
direction of tool feed or work feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal
to the cutting edge of the tool.
$ere only two components of forces are acting:
%utting &orce and Thrust &orce. *o the metal
cutting may be considered as a two dimensional
cutting.
7bli8ue #utting:
5 The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute
angle to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
5 The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with
the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is
known as chip flow angle.
5 $ere three components of forces are acting: %utting &orce!
?adial force and Thrust &orce or feed force. *o the metal
cutting may be considered as a three dimensional cutting.
The cutting edge being obli#ue! the shear force acts on a
larger area and thus tool life is increased.
1eed
Too
Bor-
O*i.ue cutting
1eed
Too
Bor-
Orthogona cutting
*,li8ue Cutting
*,li8ue Cutting
&6=>? 'a( *chematic illustration of cutting with an obli#ue tool. 'b( Top view!
showing the inclination angle i. 'c( Types of chips produced with different inclination
angles
th
edition!
1alpakjian! *chmid! -rentice $all 2334
Mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting
Mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting
Euring metal cutting! the metal is severely compressed in the area in
front of the cutting tool.
This causes high temperature shear! and plastic flow if the metal is ductile.
When the stress in the workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches a
value e+ceeding the ultimate strength of the metal! particles will shear to
form a chip element! which moves up along the face of the work.
The outward or shearing movement of each successive element is arrested
by work hardening and the movement transferred to the ne+t element.
The process is repetitive and a continuous chip is formed.
The plane along which the element shears! is called shear plane.
%lick for video
(ssum#tions in orthogonal metal cutting
(ssum#tions in orthogonal metal cutting
5
<o contact at the flank i.e. the tool is perfectly sharp.
5
<o side flow of chips i.e. width of the chips remains constant.
5
>niform cutting velocity.
5
" continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.
5
The chip is considered to be held in e#uilibrium by the action of the two
e#ual and opposite resultant forces ? ? and ? ?, and assume that the
resultant is collinear.
Metal cutting Terminologies
Metal cutting Terminologies
*chematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting
process 'also called orthogonal cutting(.
*ource: . Manufacturing -rocesses for ngineering
Materials/! 0
th
edition! 1alpakjian! *chmid! -rentice
$all 2334
Chi# thic1ness ratios
Chi# thic1ness ratios
The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after the
separation from the parent metal. That is the chip produced is thicker than
the depth of cut.
(-)
( cos'
sin

= =
s
s
c
o
l
l
t
t
r
( cos'
sin

= r
$earranging,
Chi# thic1ness ratio Chi# thic1ness ratio
c
r
r
:
=
sin %
cos
tan
r
r
=
) cos
sin
t
t
c
o

= =
Chi# thic1ness ratio
Chi# thic1ness ratio
(-)
5elocity 'elationshi#
&6=>? 'a( *chematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. 'b(
Delocity diagram in the cutting 8one
th
-rentice $all 2334
5
c
5
f
Anayticay(
( 93 sin' sin (( ' 93 sin'
= =

s
f
c
v
v
v
cos sin ( cos'
s
f
c
v
v
v
= =
) cos
sin v
v
c
f

=
r v v
c f
=

=
) ! cos
sin
r

) cos
cos v
v
c
s

=
c
c f
c f
t
t
r v v
w t v w t
3
3 c
r "s!
v
chip the up flowing material of Dolume unit time per material of Dolume
= =
=
=
The force system in general case of con.entional turning #rocess
Cutting forces
Cutting forces
The argest magnitude is the %ertica
force 1
c
)hich in turning is arger than
feed force 1
f
( and 1
f
is arger than radia
force 1
r
+
1or orthogona cutting system 1
r
is made
4ero *y pacing the face of cutting too at
@A degree to the ine of action of the too+
Cutting forces
Cutting forces
Cutting forces in o,li8ue cutting
Cutting forces in o,li8ue cutting
&rom De0armo1 43 P31 23 T3 /lack1 and 3 93 :ohser! Materials and processes in Manufacturing, PHI.
The forces in orthogonal cutting 2turning4
The forces in orthogonal cutting 2turning4
)orces acting on Chi# in t-o/$imensional cutting
)orces acting on Chi# in t-o/$imensional cutting
th
-rentice $all 2334
F
s
= Shear Force, which acts alon the shear !lane, is the resistance to shear o" the #etal in
"or#in the chi!$
F
n
= Force actin nor#al to the shear !lane, is the %ac&in u! "orce on the chi! !ro'i(e( %y the
wor&!iece$
F = Frictional resistance o" the tool actin aainst the #otion o" the chi! as it #o'es u!war( alon
the tool$
) = )or#al to the chi! "orce, is !ro'i(e( %y the tool$
" #
$
% % &
% " &

+ =
+ =
't is assumed that the resutant forces $ 2 $0 are e.ua and opposite in magnitude and 't is assumed that the resutant forces $ 2 $0 are e.ua and opposite in magnitude and
direction+ Aso they are /oinear+ Therefore for the purpose of anaysis the chip is regarded as direction+ Aso they are /oinear+ Therefore for the purpose of anaysis the chip is regarded as
an independent *ody hed in mechanica e.uii*rium *y the action of t)o e.ua and opposite an independent *ody hed in mechanica e.uii*rium *y the action of t)o e.ua and opposite
forces $( )hich the )or-piece e&erts upon the chip and $0 )hich the too e&erts upon the chip+ forces $( )hich the )or-piece e&erts upon the chip and $0 )hich the too e&erts upon the chip+
The forces acting on the chi# in orthogonal cutting
The forces acting on the chi# in orthogonal cutting
The foo)ing is a circe diagram+ Cno)n as MerchantDs circe diagram( )hich is con%enient to
determine the reation *et)een the %arious forces and anges+ 'n the diagram t)o force
trianges ha%e *een com*ined and $ and $0 together ha%e *een repaced *y $+ the force $
can *e reso%ed into t)o components 1
c
and 1
t
+
&c and &t can *e determined *y force dynamometers+
t c
F F R

+ =
The ra-e ange !E# can *e measured from the too( and forces 1 and 5 can then *e
determined+ The shear ange !# can *e o*tained from itDs reation )ith chip reduction
coefficient+ 5o) 1s 2 1n can aso *e determined+
M+ Eugene Merchant
Merchant9s Circle "iagram
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
(learance Angle
The #roce$ure to construct a merchants circle $iagram
'ork
Tool
(hip
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
&
5 *et up +-y a+is labeled with forces! and the origin in the centre
of the page. The cutting force '&c( is drawn hori8ontally! and
the tangential force '&t( is drawn vertically. 'Eraw in the
resultant '?( of &c and &t.
5 Locate the centre of ?! and draw a circle that encloses vector
?. 6f done correctly! the heads and tails of all 4 vectors will lie
on this circle.
5 Eraw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand #uadrant!
taking care to draw the correct rake angle 'G( from the vertical
a+is.
5 +tend the line that is the cutting face of the tool 'at the same
rake angle( through the circle. This now gives the friction
vector '&(.
5 " line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector!
to the head of the resultant vector '?(. This gives the normal
vector '<(. "lso add a friction angle ';( between vectors ? and
<. Therefore! mathematically! ? H &c I &t H & I <.
5 Eraw a feed thickness line parallel to the hori8ontal a+is. <e+t
draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting face.
5 Eraw a vector from the origin 'tool point( towards the
intersection of the two chip lines! stopping at the circle. The
result will be a shear force vector '&s(. "lso measure the shear
force angle between &s and &c.
5 &inally add the shear force normal '&n( from the head of &s to
the head of ?.
5 >se a scale and protractor to measure off all distances 'forces(
and angles.
C6&P
:*'0
T**L
5
5
;
)
N
)
c
)
t
)
n
)
s
'
)
n
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&

sin cos
cos sin
t (
t (
% % "
+, -. (. -. A/ "
% % %
+/ ,. +/ (+ (/ -A %
=
= = =
+ =
+ = + = = =
)rictional )orce ystem )rictional )orce ystem
angle %riction 'here
"
%
tan
friction of t coefficien The
=
= =

'elationshi# of .arious forces acting on the chi# -ith the hori;ontal an$ 'elationshi# of .arious forces acting on the chi# -ith the hori;ontal an$
.ertical cutting force from Merchant circle $iagram .ertical cutting force from Merchant circle $iagram
%
t
%
c
%
"
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
)
)
)
01!))
01!))
7
9
#
/
0
4
D
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
hear )orce ystem hear )orce ystem

cos sin
sin cos
t !
!
t S
S
F F F
"E # "E $" $E F
F F F
" %# $# %# %$ F
+ =
+ = + = =
=
= = =
Aso,
( tan' + =
S !
F F
'elationshi# of .arious forces acting on the chi# -ith the hori;ontal an$ 'elationshi# of .arious forces acting on the chi# -ith the hori;ontal an$
.ertical cutting force from Merchant circle $iagram .ertical cutting force from Merchant circle $iagram
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
%
t
%
c
9
7
%
n
%
s
)
)
* ! ))
&
/
#
D
4
(90-)
(90-)
( tan$
cos sin
sin cos
sin cos
cos sin

+ =
+ =
=
=
+ =
# "
t ( "
t ( #
t (
t (
% %
% % %
% % %
% % "
% % %
'elationshi# of .arious forces acting on the chi# -ith the hori;ontal an$
.ertical cutting force from Merchant circle $iagram
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
The Po-er consume$< -or1 $one #er sec in cutting:

v F P =
The Po-er consume$< -or1 $one #er sec in shear:
s s s
v F P =
The Po-er consume$< -or1 $one #er sec in friction:
f F
v F P =
The total Po-er re8uire$:
velocit& feed F v
t c
& -
sec per feeding in spent work sec per cutting in consumed Work -
motor by the supplied -ower -
c
+ =
+ =
=
'n comparison to the cutting %eocity the feed %eocity is %ery nomina+ Simiary 1c is %ery
sma compared to 1c+ So the )or- spent in feeding can *e considered negigi*e+
There"ore, total !ower re*uire( in cuttin
f s c
P P P P + = =
Po-er re8uire$ in Metal cutting
Po-er re8uire$ in Metal cutting
#ecific Energy
#ecific Energy
*pecific nergy! u
t
!is defined as the total energy per unit volume of material
removed.
Therefore is simply the cutting force to the projected area of cut.
6f u
f
and u
s
be specific energy for friction and specific energy for shearing !
then
"s the rake angle increases! the frictional specific energy remains more or less
constant! where as the shear specific energy rapidly reduced.
3 3
wt
F
v wt
v F
u
c
c
t
= =
c
s s
c
s s
c
f
s f t
v wt
v F
wt
Fr
v wt
v F
v wt
Fv
u u u
3 3 3 3
+ = + = + =
Appro&imate specific-energy re.uirements in cutting operations+ Appro&imate specific-energy re.uirements in cutting operations+
MATERIAL SPECIFIC ENERGY
*
W-s/mm
3
hp-min/in
3

Aluminum alloys
Cas i!ons
Copp"! alloys
#i$h-"mp"!au!" alloys
Ma$n"sium alloys
Ni%&"l alloys
R"'!a%o!y alloys
Sainl"ss s""ls
S""ls
Tianium alloys
()*-+)+
+),--)-
+)*-3)3
3)3-.)-
()*-(),
*)/-,).
3).-/),
3)(--)0
0)1-/)3
3)(-*)+
()+--()*
(),-0)(
()--+)0
+)0-3)+
()+--()0
+).-0)-
+)+-3)-
+)+-+)/
+)(-3)*
+)+-+)-
* A 2!i3" moo!4 %o!!"%"2 'o! .(5 "''i%i"n%y6 muliply h" "n"!$y
7y +)0- 'o! 2ull ools)
th
-rentice $all 2334
Ernest an$ Merchant ga.e the relation
)
2
3
4

=
Theory of Ernst and Merchant !8@::#
"ssumptions of the theory:
5
Tool edge is sharp.
5
The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear
plane.
5
There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the
shear plane.
5
The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
5
The shear angle adjusts itself to give minimum work.
5
The friction angle J remains constant and is independent of .
5
The chip width remains constant.
M+ Eugene Merchant
3
3
3
sin ( cos' ( sec'
sin
( cos' ( sec'
sin
!
( cos' ( sec'
( sec'
( cos'
wt
F
wt
F
wt
$ where
$
F
F F
F R
R F
c
s
c
s
s
s
s
s
c s
c
s

+
=
+
=
=
=
+ =
=
+ =
They ha%e assumed that ad3usts itsef to gi%e minimum )or-+ And for a gi%en set of cutting
condition( to( ) and E are a constants+ They aso assumed that F is independent of +
)
Theory of Ernst an$ Merchant 2=>??4
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
Be can either ma&imi4e
s
or minimi4e
c
%
Therefore in the a*o%e e.uation the term sin ( cos$ +
contains ony one %aria*e +
( $
)
%
<
)
(
)
tan$ ( tan$
cot ( tan$
cos ( cos$ sin ( sin$
'
y of 6alue ma-imum for
cos ( cos$ sin ( sin$
sin ( cos$

=
= +
= +
= +
+ = +
=
+ + + =
+ =
d
dy
d
dy
y let
E&perimenta %erification re%eaed that the a*o%e e.uation is an
o%er estimate+
Merchant ater modified this e.uation and ga%e another e.uation
( = + )
Bhere / is the machining constant+ Usuay
)
(
According to Merchant( / is a property of )or- materia unaffected *y cutting conditions( *ut
grain si4e and micro structure ha%e an affect on /+
depends upon the )or- materias+
'ork
Tool
(hip
(learance Angle
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
Merchant attempted an aternati%e soution assuming that the effect of deformation and friction are
refected through a change of norma force 1
n
( acting in a direction perpendicuar to the pane of
shear+ 'n turn the norma stress( G
n
( of the shear pane affects the shear stress( H
s
( in the direction of
shear+
't )as assumed that this is commony -no)n as BridgemanDs reation and - is the sope
of H
s
- G
n
characteristic
n 1 s
k + =
K
s
K
o
L
n
Sope
-
[ ] ( tan' : sin ( cos'
( cos'
get we '0(! and '4( e#uation
( 0 '
sin ( cos' ( sec'
1now!
( 4 '
( tan' :
( tan'
get we '2(! and ':( e#uation
( 2 ' ( tan'
get we !
( tan' & 1now We
?elation diagram %ircle Merchant the &rom
( : '
3
3
3
3
n
n
3

+ +

=
+
=
+
=
+ + =
+ =
+ =
+ =
'
t w
F Fro(
t w
F
)e
'
'
Fro(
plane shear the of area the *& "ividing
F
'
c
c
s
s
s s
s
s
n s
MerchantDs second soution !Modified MerchantDs Theory#

MerchantDs second soution !Modified MerchantDs Theory#
'ork
Tool
(hip
%
t
%
c
%
"
%
n
%
s
)
)
*
* ! ))
&
[ ]
[ ]
constant machining is % where
2
cot 2
( 2 cot'
( 2 sin' ( 2 cos'
sin ( cos' cos ( sin'
sin ( sin' cos ( cos'
sin ( cos' cos ( sin' sin ( sin' cos ( cos'
3
y
sin ( sin' sin ( cos' y
( tan' : sin ( cos' y if Therfore
ma+imum. is r denominato when minimum! is energy! minimun of principle
:
'
'
'
'
' '
d
d
'
'
F Fro(
c
= +
= = +
= +
+ = +
+ + + =
+ +
+ + + + =
=
+ + =
+ + =

Merchant9s secon$ solution 2cont$..4
Merchant9s secon$ solution 2cont$..4

sin ) cos
cos
therefore ,
) cos
cos
v
v
/ut
sin
3
v
v
v w t
sin
w t
%
v %
v w t
A
%
v %
v w t
v %
v w t
v %
strain shear stress shear metal the of volume unit shearing in done 'ork
5now, 'e
shearing during work of loss no g (onsiderin
. be strain shear The
A
%
stress normal Mean
A
%
stress shear Mean
c
s
c
s
c 1
1
s
s s
c 1
s
s
s s
c 1 s
s s
s
c 1
s s
s
n
s
s
s
s
=
=

=
=

=
=
=
tress an$ train acting on the chi#
+
,
+
B
D
D
0
A
A
0
/
E
Too
Bor-
!+-,#
!-.-+#
Shearing of chip
/hip
strain shear of magnitude The
/,
, A
/,
A,
/, A tan A/, tan
$
$
+ = +
) cos sin
cos
) cos sin
) cos
) cos sin
) sin sin ) cos cos
) cos
) sin
sin
cos
) tan cot
) 01 01 /, A
/,
, A
/,
A,
$
$

+
=
+
=
+ =
+ =
= =
+ =
tress an$ train acting on the chi# 2cont$..4
tress an$ train acting on the chi# 2cont$..4
+
,
+
B
D
D
0
A
A
0
/
E
Too
/hip
Bor-
!+-,#
!-.-+#
Shearing of chip
Thrust )orce .s 'a1e (ngle
Thrust )orce .s 'a1e (ngle
FIGURE Thrust force as a function of rake
angle and feed in orthogonal cutting of AISI
1112 cold-rolled steel. Note that at high rake
angles, the thrust force is negative. A
negative thrust force has important
implications in the design of machine tools
and in controlling the stability of the cutting
processes. Source: After S. Kobayashi and
E. G. Thomsen.
th
-rentice $all 2334
hear an$ Normal )orce
&6=>? *hear force and normal force as a function of the area of the shear plane and the rake angle
for BC-:C brass. <ote that the shear stress in the shear plane is constant! regardless of the magnitude of
the normal stress. Thus! normal stress has no effect on the shear flow stress of the material. Source:
"fter *. 1obayashi and . =. Thomsen! /. Eng. Ind.! B:: 2C:-2M2! :9C9.
th
-rentice $all 2334
&6=>?: *chematic illustration of the distribution of normal and shear stresses at the tool-chip
interface 'rake face(. <ote that! whereas the normal stress increases continuously toward the tip
of the tool! the shear stress reaches a ma+imum and remains at that value 'a phenomenon know
as stic'ing(.
th
-rentice $all 2334
Tem#erature "istri,ution in the Cutting @one
Tem#erature "istri,ution in the Cutting @one
FIGURE: Typical temperature distribution in
the cutting zone. Note that the maximum
temperature is about halfway up the face of the
tool and that there is a steep temperature
gradient across the thickness of the chip. Some
chips may become red hot, causing safety
hazards to the operator and thus necessitating
the use of safety guards. Source: After G.
Vieregge.
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-rentice $all 2334
Tem#erature "istri,ution in Turning
Tem#erature "istri,ution in Turning
FIGURE : Temperature distribution in turning: (a) flank temperature for tool shape (b) temperature of the
tool-chip interface. Note that the rake face temperature is higher than that at the flank surface. Source:
After B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.
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-rentice $all 2334
6ar$ness "istri,ution in the Cutting @one
6ar$ness "istri,ution in the Cutting @one
FIGURE : (a) Hardness distribution in the
cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that
some regions in the built-up edge are as
much as three times harder than the bulk
metal. (b) Surface finish in turning 5130
steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface
finish on 1018 steel in face milling.
Magnifications: 15X. Source: Courtesy of
Institute of Advanced Manufacturing
Sciences, Inc.
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-rentice $all 2334
'eferences
'eferences
:alpak=ian1 Schmid1 Manufacturing -rocesses for ngineering Materials! 0th
edition,, Prentice Hall 1..2
De0armo1 43 P31 23 T3 /lack1 and 3 93 :ohser! Materials and processes in
Manufacturing, PHI.
P3.3 ao1 Manufacturing Technology N Metal %utting and Machine Tools, 3MH.
0eorge Schneider12r3 #Mfg41 %utting Tool "pplications
9mstead1 /3 !31 P3 >3 7stwald1 and M3 "3 /egeman! Manufacturing -rocesses!
Bth ed., )ile&, !ew Oork! :9BB.
9mitabha /attacharya , Metal %utting Theory and -ractice
Shaw1 M3 #31 Metal %utting -rinciples, %4ford 5niversit& Press, %4ford, 6-70.
Schey1 23 9.! 6ntroduction to Manufacturing -rocesses, Mc8raw-Hill, !ew 9or',
6-::.
"indberg1 3 9.! Processes and Materials of Manufacture,
William 2 Patton! Machine tool @perations! Reston pu*lishing co(pan&
7 W /oston! Metal -rocessing! 2nd edition :9C:! /ohn )ile& and Sons
/3S3aghuwanshi1 " course in Workshop Technology-"hanpat Rai ; Sons.
!a=ra #houdhury1 lements of Workshop TechnologyNDol.-66! Media Pro(oters
and Pu*lishers.
7 P :hanna! -roduction Technology-'Dol. 66(
: 2ain! -roduction Technology
!MT! -roduction Technology! HM3

Theory of Metal Cutting

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Theory of Metal Cutting

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Manufacturing Processes:

Theory of Metal Cutting &

The word manufacturing is derived from Latin:

Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services

Manufacturing implies creating value to a raw material by applying

Whether from nature or industry materials cannot be used in their raw

Manufacturing converts the raw materials to finished products to be used

Manufacturing processes is a very fundamental subject since it is of

There are various manufacturing processes by which a product can be

Thus while a product can be manufactured by two or more processes! the

" detailed understanding of various manufacturing processes is thus very

$e would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his

%asting! foundry or moulding processes.

&orming or metal working processes.

Machining 'metal removal( processes.

)oining and assembly

*urface treatments 'finishing(.

hoding the )or-piece

hoding the too

mo%ing the too or the )or- piece or *oth reati%e to each

suppy energy re.uired to cause meta cutting+

To pro%ide greater strength at the cutting edge and *etter heat

5egati%e ra-es increases too forces *ut this is necessary to pro%ide

5egati%e ra-es are recommended on too )hich does not possess

Ty#e of tool material, Too materia i-e cemented car*ide permits

'igi$ity of the tool hol$er an$ machine, An impropery supported

't dissipates heat .uic-y for ha%ing )ider cutting edge+

"reater nose radius cears up the feed mar-s caused *y the

Accumuation heat is ess than that in a pointed too )hich permits

MerchantDs second soution !Modified MerchantDs Theory#

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