CHAPTER 5

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE

5.1 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

One approach to solve fluid mechanics problems is by using dimensional
analysis, a mathematical technique that makes use of the study of dimensions.
Dimensional analysis is related to similitude; however, the approach is quite
different. In dimensional analysis, the prediction of physical parameters will
influence the flow, and then group these parameters into dimensionless
combinations for better understanding of flow phenomena. Dimensional
analysis is particularly helpful in experimental work because it provides a guide
to the things that significantly influence the phenomena; thus it indicates the
direction in which experiment work is important.

The significant of dimensional analysis are;
1. Useful for research study especially in design work by reducing the
number of variables.
2. To express in dimensionless equation to find the significant of each
parameters.
3. To simplify the analysis of complex phenomenon in systematic order.

5.2 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
All physical phenomena are expressible in terms of a set of basic or
fundamental dimensions as shown in Table 6.1.



HYDRAULICS

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Table 5.1
Dimension SI US
Mass (M) Kg Lb
Length (L) M ft
Time (T) S S
Temperature ()
o
C
o
F

All equations related to a physical phenomenon must be dimensionally
homogeneous. This is known as Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity.

5.3 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

An equation which expresses the proper relationship between the variables in a
physical phenomenon will be dimensionally homogenous. This means that
each of additive terms in an equation should have the same dimension. For
example; P (kg/ms) = gh (kg/ms), where both sides are in same units.

There are 2 types of system which are MLT and FLT. In a MLT system, the
fundamental dimensions are mass M, length L, time T, and temperature.
While for FLT system, mass M is replaced by force F. For instance; Area for
rectangular, A = Length, L x width, b = m
2
(SI unit). But in dimensional analysis
principle, value is not important. Thus, Area = Length, L x width, L = L
2
. Table
6.2 shows quantities of fluid mechanics and hydraulic in MLT system.







DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


3
Table 5.2
QUANTITY SYMBOL SI UNIT DIMENSION
FUNDAMENTAL
Mass
Length
Time

GEOMETRIC
Area
Volume
Angle
Strain
Moment of Inertia

DYNAMIC
Force
Weight
Specific weight
Density
Pressure
Shear stress
Modulus of elasticity
Momentum
Angular momentum
Moment of momentum
Torsion
Energy
Work
Power
Dynamic viscosity


Surface tension

KINEMATIC
Linear velocity
Angular velocity
Rotational speed
Acceleration
Angular acceleration
Gravity
Discharge
Kinematics viscosity
Stream function
Circulation
Vorticity

m
L
t


A
V

e
I


F
W


P

E, K
M


T
E
W
P






U,v,u

N
a

g
Q





kg
m
s


m
2

m
3



M
4


N (kgm/s
2
)
N
N/m
3

kg/m
3

Pa (N/m
2
)
Pa

kgm/s


Nm
J

W (J/s)
Pa.s
(N.s/m
2
)
(kg/ms)
N/m


m/s
rad/s (s
-1
)
s
-1

m/s
2

s
-2

ms
-2

m
3
/s
m
2
/s
m
2
/s
m
2
/s
s
-1


M
L
T


L
2

L
3

M
0
L
0
T
0

L
0

L
4



MLT
-2

MLT
-2

ML
-2
T
-2

ML
-3

ML
-1
T
-2

ML
-1
T
-2

ML
-1
T
-2

MLT
-1

ML
2
T
-1

ML
2
T
-1

ML
2
T
-2

ML
2
T
-2

ML
2
T
-2

ML
2
T
-3

ML
-1
T
-1



MT
-2



LT
-1

T
-1

T
-1

LT
-2

T
-2

LT
-2

L
3
T
-1

L
2
T
-1

L
2
T
-1

L
2
T
-1

T
-1

Source: Rajput (1998)
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5.4 METHODS
There are a lot of methods can be used to reduce into a smaller number of
dimensionless parameters such as Bridgman method, Matrix-tenor etc. Two of
the commonly used methods are Raleigh method (basic principle) and
Theorem Pi Buckingham.

5.4.1 RAYLEIGHs METHOD
This method is a basic for a small number of parameters; it becomes rather
cumbersome when a large number of parameters are involved.

n
c b a
A A A CA A .....
4 3 2 1
=
Where
A
1
= dependent variables

n
A A A A .....
4 3 2
= independent variables
C = a dimensionless constant
The dimensions of each quantities,
n
A A A A .....
4 3 2
are written and the sum
exponents of each, which are M, L and T on both sides are equated. Solution of
equations on simplification yields dimensionless groups controlling the
phenomenon.

Example 1:
Express dimensionless equation for the speed V with a wave pressure travels
through a fluid. Consider the physical factors probably influence the speed are
compressibility, K density, dan kinematics viscosity, .

Answer:
1. Write the fundamental dimension for all dimensions given using MLT.

=
T
L
L
M
LT
M
K
T
L
V
2
3 2
, , ,
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


5

2. Let write the equation like this:

d b a
CK V =

3. Insert fundamental dimension into the equation while C is dimensionless
constant.

d
b a
T
L
L
M
LT
M
T
L

=
2
3 2

4. To satisfy dimensional homogeneity, net power of each dimension must be
identical on both sides of this equation. Thus,
For M : 0 = a + b
For L : 1 = -a + (-3b) + 2d
For T : -1 = -2a + (-d)
5. Solve those three equations, we obtain a = , b = - dan d = 0,
6. So the equation will be,

0 2 / 1 2 / 1


= CK V
or

K
C V =

Wave speed is not affected by the fluids kinematics viscosity, v

Example 2:
The drag force
D
F on a sphere in laminar flow is known to depend on its
diameter D, velocity of flow V, density of fluid and coefficient of viscosity.
Obtain an expression for
D
F using Rayleighs method.

Answer:
Using M, L, and T as primary units,
Since

d c b a
D
V CD F = where, C = dimensionless constant.
Thus, [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
d
c b a
T ML ML LT L MLT
1 1 3 1 2
=
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6
Equating the powers of M, L, and T on both sides,
For M: 1 = c + d (1)
For L: 1 = a + b + (-3c) + (-d) (2)
For T: -2 = -b + (-d) (3)
Since there are three equations and four unknowns, three variables can be
expressed in terms of the fourth using substitution method.
From (1) c = 1 - d
From (3) b = 2 - d = 2 d
From (2) a = 1 - b + 3c + d = 1 - (2 - d) + 3 (1 - d) + d = 2 d

d d d d
D
V D F =
1 2 2

d
VD
V D

2 2

=
VD
fn V D F
2 2
D


5.4.2 Pi Buckingham Theorem
When a large number of variables are involved, Raleighs method becomes
lengthy. In such circumstances, the Buckingham's method is useful. This
method expressed the variables related to a dimensional homogenous
equation as:

( )
n
X X X f X ..... ,
3 2 1
=

where, the dimension at each section is the same.
The Buckingham Phi Theorem can also be expressed in terms of as shown
in on the right.

) .... , , ( ) (
3 2 1 k n
phi

=

where, m = the primary dimensions which are M, L, T and
n = dimensional variables such as velocity, discharge and
density.
k = reduction
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


7

Example 3:
Drag force F
D
exerted on a submerged sphere as it moves through a viscous
fluid. Certainly parameters involve are diameter, D, velocity, V, dynamic
viscosity, and density of fluid, . Express dimensionless equation by using Pi
Buckingham theorem.

Answer:

1. List the influence factors and count n.
F
D
= fn (D, V, , )
where F
D
= dependent variable
D,V, and = independent variables
n = 5 (F
D
, D, V, , )
2. Choose dimensional system (MLT or FLT) & list the dimensions of each
variable. Find m.
Choose MLT,
)
L
M
LT
M
,
T
L
(L, fn
T
ML
3 2
=


3. Find k. It is usually equal to m which is cannot exceed but rarely less than m.
Then find n-k or n-m (the number of dimensionless groups needed).
n - m = 5 3 = 2 so we can write f (
1
,
2
) = 0
4. Choose repeating variables which is 3 (number must be same as m). These
variables must contain the entire fundamental dimensions which are L, T and
M. In this question, we choose
D (L), V (L/T), (M/L
3
)
Notes:
Number of repeating variables must same with number of fundamental
dimension and choose from independent variables (in this example choose
3)
m =3 (M, L and T)

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8
To choose these variables must relate to mass, geometry and kinematics.
Make sure that the entire fundamental dimensions (M, L & T) include in the
chosen variable (at least 1).

5. Form the phi group, which are;

1
=
a1
D
b1
V
c1
F
D


2
=
a2
D
b2
V
c2

The repeating variables need to be inserted in the phi group (
1
and
2
).
Equate the exponents on both sides, solve and form dimensionless groups.

6. Since the s are dimensionless, we can replace with M
0
L
0
T
0
in
1

1
=
a1
D
b1
V
c1
F
D

M
0
L
0
T
0
=

2
1
1
1
3
T
ML
T
L
L
L
M
c
b
a

M: 0 = a1 + 1
L : 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1
T : 0 = - c1 2
Solve a1, b1 & c1 a1 = -1, b1 = -2, c1 = -2

7. So
1
=
a1
D
b1
V
c1
F
D


1
=
-1
D
-2
V
-2
F
D


8. Then solve
2

2
=
a1
D
b1
V
c1

M
0
L
0
T
0
=

LT
M
T
L
L
L
M
c
b
a 1
1
1
3

M: 0 = a1 + 1
L : 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 - 1
T : 0 = - c1 1
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


9
Solve a1, b1 & c1 a1 = -1, b1 = -1, c1 = -1

9. So
2
=
a1
D
b1
V
c1


2
=
-1
D
-1
V
-1


10. Rearrange the pi groups as desired and expressed as
( )
n
f ....... ,
3 2 1
=

) (
2 2
V D
F
f
DV
D

=


Example 4:
Show that

=
2 / 3
2 / 3
H g
P
H g q

when flow rate, q (m
3
/s/m) is over the spillway and assume that would affected
by height of water over weir, H (m), height of weir, P (m) and gravity, g (m/s
2
)

Answer:

1. List the influence factors and count n.

q = fn (H, P, g) n = 4
2. Choose dimensional system (MLT or FLT) & list the dimensions of each
variable. Find m.

) , , (
2
3
T
L
L L f
TL
L
=


3. Find k and then find n-k
So k = 2 same as m
m = 2 (L and T)
HYDRAULICS

10
n - m = 4 2 = 2 so there are 2 groups of phi;
1
,
2
= 0
4. Choose repeating variables which is 2 (same as k). These variables must
contain L and T.
Choose: H and g
In this example, the repeating variables can be found easily in the equation
given.

=
2 / 3
2 / 3
H g
P
H g q

=
2 / 3 2 / 3
H g
H
H g
q

5. Form phi group which is 2 groups:

1
= H
a1
g
b1
q

2
= H
a2
g
b2
P
Equate the exponents on both sides, solve its and form dimensionless groups.
6. Since the phi is dimensionless, we can replace with M
0
L
0
T
0
in
1


1
= H
a1
g
b1
q
L
0
T
0
= ( )

LT
L
T
L
L
b
a
3
1
2
1

L : 0 = a1 + b1 + 2
T : 0 = - 2b1 - 1

Solve a1, b1 & c1 a1 = -3/2, b1 = -1/2

7. So
1
= H
a1
g
b1
q
1
= H
-3/2
g
-1/2
q
8. Repeat step 6 7 for
2

9. Rearrange the pi groups as desired and expressed as
( )
2 1
fn =

=
g H
P
fn
g H
q
2 / 3 2 / 3

=
g H
P
fn g H q
2 / 3
2 / 3

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


11

5.5 SIMILARITY
In hydraulic and aeronautical engineering valuable results are obtained at
relatively small cost by performing tests on small scale models of full size
systems (prototypes). Similarity laws help us to interpret the results of model
studies. The relation between model and prototype is classified into three:
1. Geometry Similarity
2. Kinematics Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity

5.5.1 MODEL (m)
Model is similar with object/structure required in certain scale ratio. It is need to
be tested in laboratory with similar condition in real phenomenon. The size of
model is not necessary smaller than prototype.

5.5.2 PROTOTYPE (p)
Prototype is an object/actual structure in full size. It is need properly tested in
actual phenomenon, example: spillway structure in open channel, ship etc

5.5.3 GEOMETRY SIMILARITY
The prototype and model have identical shapes but differ only in size. Ratio of
corresponding length in prototype and model show as,
Length, r
m
p
L
L
L
=

Area,
2
2
2
r
m
p
m
p
L
L
L
A
A
= =

Volume,
3
3
3
r
m
p
m
p
L
L
L
V
V
= =


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12
5.5.4 KINEMATICS SIMILARITY
In addition to geometric similarity, ratio of velocities at all corresponding points
in flow are the same.
Velocity scale ratio,
m
p
r
V
V
V =

As time, T is dimensionally L/V. By that
Time scale ratio,
r
m
p
T
T
T
=
and
r
r
r
V
L
T =

While, for discharge and acceleration scale ratio
Discharge scale ratio,
r
r
m
p
m
p
m
m
p
p
m
p
r
T
L
T
T
L
L
T
L
T
L
Q
Q
Q
3 3
3
3
3
= = = =
Acceleration scale ratio,
2
2
2
2
2
r
r
m
p
m
p
m
m
p
p
m
p
r
T
L
T
T
L
L
T
L
T
L
a
a
a = = = =

5.5.5 DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
Two systems have dynamic similarity if, in addition to dynamic similarity,
corresponding forces are in the same ratio in both. The force scale ratio is
r
m
p
F
F
F
=

Basically, if the geometric and kinematics similarities exist, it shows two
systems are dynamically similar. The ratios of these systems of all
corresponding forces are the same. The respective forces includes;

a) Gravity =
G
F
b) Viscosity =
v
F
c) Elasticity =
E
F
d) Surface tension =
T
F
e) Inertia =
I
F
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


13

Resultant = + + + + =

T E V P G
F F F F F F
and F
I
= - Resultant

Then, strict dynamic similarity means;

= = = = =
Ip
Im
Tp
Tm
Ep
Em
vp
vm
Gp
Gm
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
Constant

5.5.6 ADVANTAGES USING SIMILARITY
The advantages are;
1. Performances of object can be predicted.
2. Economy and easy to build, where design of model can be done many
times until reach a certain values.
3. Nonfunctional structure also can be measured such as dam.

5.5.7 NON-DIMENSIONAL PARAMETER

By using Raleighs Method or the Buckingham Phi Theorem, the number of
dimensional variables such as mass, length and time used in an analysis of
flow is reduced to a few non-dimensional variables.

There are the five non-dimensional parameters that represent the ratio of
forces per unit volume.

1. Reynolds Number
2. Froude Number
3. Mach Number
4. Euler Number
5. Weber Number

thus 0 = + + + + +
I T E V P G
F F F F F F
HYDRAULICS

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Table 5.2

5.5.7.1 Reynolds Number
Reynolds number is a non-dimensional parameter that is used when viscous
force is dominant. Reynolds number represents the ratio between inertia force
F
I
and viscosity force F
V
.

The Reynolds number can be expressed as:
Re =
V
I
F
F
=
Force Viscosity
Force Inertia

LV LV
LV
V L
= = =
2 2

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


15
Below is the equation for dynamic similarity where viscous forces are
predominant.
p
p m
m
LV LV

= = =

Re Re


Reynolds number is used for the following types of flow:
Completely submerged flow
Completely enclosed flow through pipes and plates
Viscous flow as in settling of particles in fluids
Flow in flow meter in pipes, venturi meter, or orifice meter

Example 5:
An oil (density = 917 kg/m
3
, dynamic viscosity = 0.29 Pa.s) flows in a 15 cm
diameter pipe at a velocity of 2 m/s. What would be the velocity of water flow in
a 1 cm diameter pipe, to make the two flows dynamically similar? The density
and viscosity of water can be taken as 998 kg/m
3
and 1.31 x 10
-3
Pa
respectively.

Answer:
Reynolds similarity law is applicable,

p
p m
m
LV LV

= = =

Re Re


r r
r
r
r
p
m
r
L L V
V
V

= = =
0623 . 0
917
998
15
1
1
.
29 . 0
10 31 . 1 1
3
=

=

x
L
L
V
V
p
m
p
m
p
m
p
m

s m x V
m
/ 1246 . 0 0623 . 0 2 = =

HYDRAULICS

16
Example 6:
A 1:6 scale model of a passenger car is tested in a wind tunnel. The prototype
velocity is 60 km/h. If the model drag is 250 N, what is the drag force and
power are required for prototype. The air in the model and prototype can be
assumed to have the same properties.

Answer:

Reynolds similarity law is applicable

p
p m
m
LV
R R
LV

= = =

then
r
r
r
L
V

=

If ) , . . ( 1
p m p m r
e i = = = then
r
r
L
V
1
=
100m/s km/h 360
6 / 1
60
= = = =
r
p
m
L
V
V


5.5.7.2 Froude Number

The Froude number represents the ratio between inertia force and gravity
force. Froude number is expressed as:
Fr =
gL
V


The Froude number is applied where gravity forces are predominant. The
number is used in the analysis of:
Wave action such as breakwaters and ships
Free surface flow in open-channels
Hydraulic structures, such as spillways, stilling basins, weirs, and notches
Forces on bridge piers and offshore structures

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


17
The equation for dynamic similarity where gravity forces is predominant is given
below.
p
p m
m
gL
V
Fr Fr
gL
V

= = =

) ( ) (


Example 7:
A spillways model with 1:50 scale can manage discharge of 1.25 m
3
/s, find the
discharge of prototype? If flood scenario takes only 12 hours in prototype, how
long should it take in the model?

Answer:

( ) ( )
m
m
m
p
p
p
gL
V
Fr
gL
V
Fr = = =

Graviti g is same for model and prototype.
The length scale ratio, L
r
=L
p
/L
m
, when
r r
L V =
Discharge scale ratio, Q
r
= V
r
L
r
2
= L
r
5/2
As L
r
=1/50 ,
5 . 2
1
50
25 . 1

= =
p
m
p
Q
Q
Q

s m Q
p
/ 22097
3
=
Time ratio,
r
r
r
r
L
V
L
T = =
50 1
12
= =
m
p
m
T
T
T

hours 697 . 1
50
12
= =
m
T
Example 8:
A model boat 1/100 size of its prototype has 0.12 N of resistance when
simulating a speed of 5 m/s of the prototype. What is the corresponding
HYDRAULICS

18
resistance in the prototype? Water is the fluid in both cases and frictional forces
can be neglected.

Answer:

( ) ( )
m
m
m
p
p
p
gL
V
Fr
gL
V
Fr = = =
If L
p
/L
m
= L
r
,
r r
L V = and ( ) ( )
3 2 2
) (
) (
r r r
m
p
r
L V L
Daya
Daya
F = = =
The density of fluid is same, by that,

p
=
m
and
r
= 1,
Maka,
3
r
L
F
F
m
p
=
F
p
= Prototype force = (100/1)
3
x (0.12) = 120 kN

5.5.7.3 Mach Number
The Mach number represents the ratio between inertia force and
compressibility or elastic force. The ratio is mathematically presented as
below.
Mach Number =
1/2
1/2
force) bility (Compressi
force) (Inertia


The Mach number is used where compressibility effects are predominant in the
flow and can be expressed as:
M =
C
V
/ E
V
=

Where:
C = velocity of sound in medium
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


19
The equation for dynamic similarity where compressibility effects are
predominant is given on the right.
p
p m
m
C
V
M M
C
V

= = =

Example 9:
An airfoil moves at 650 km/h through still air at 20
o
C. If the elastic stress and
density of air at this temperature is 21 kg/cm
2
and 0.216 kg/m
3
, find Machs
number.

Answer:

V = 650 km/h = 180.6 m/s
K = 21 kg/cm
2
= 21 x 10
4
kg/m
2

= 0.216 kg/m
3

14 . 0
126 . 0
10 21
6 . 180
4
= = =
x K
V
M

5.5.7.4 Euler Number

The Euler number represents the ratio between inertia force and pressure force
as shown on the right. When pressure dominates flow, dynamic similarity is
obtained using the Euler number for both prototype and model.

Example 10:
A prototype spillway has a characteristic velocity of 2 m/s, 996 kg/m
3
of density
and surface tension is 0.0712. What is corresponding length of prototype if
Weber number of model is 5.03 x 10
5
?



HYDRAULICS

20
Answer:
m
m p
m
L V
W W
L V

= = =

2 2

5
2 2
10 03 . 5
0712 . 0
) 2 ( 996
x
L L V
W
p
= = =

5.5.7.5 Weber Number

The Weber number represents the ratio between inertia force and surface
tension as displayed on the right. When surface tension dominates flow,
dynamic similarity is obtained using the Weber number for both prototype and
model.
m
m p
m
L V
W W
L V

= = =

2 2
















m L
p
9 =
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY


21
EXERCISE
1. The capillary rise, h of a fluid of density, and surface tension in a
tube of diameter D depends upon the contact angle and gravity g.
Obtain an expression for h by Rayleighs method.
2. The stagnation pressure, p
s
in an air flow depends upon the static
pressure, p
o
, the velocity, V of the free stream and density, of the air.
Derive a dimensionless expression for p
s
by Rayleighs method.
3. The velocity of flow, u is very near to the rotating disk depends on the
angular velocity, of the disk, the radial distance r, vertical distance z
and kinematics viscosity of the fluid, . Derive a relationship for u in
dimensionless form by using Pi Theorem.
4. The shear stress,
o
at the bed of a rough channel depends upon the
depth of flow, y, velocity of the fluid, V, roughness of the bed, and fluid
density, and viscosity, . Derive an expression for
o
in dimensionless
form by using Pi Theorem.
5. Obtain expressions for the velocity and force ratio similitude for a model
which obeys Machs law similarity.
6. If a 1.0 m diameter of pipe carrying air at a velocity 3.8 m/s is to be
modeled for dynamic similarity by 10 cm diameter of water pipe, what
would be the velocity of water?
7. The resistance offered to the movement of a 2.0 m long ship model in a
towing tank full of fresh water while moving with a speed of 1.5 m/s was
450 N.
(a) If the prototype is 60 m in length, what will be the corresponding
velocity?
(b) What would be the force required to drive at a corresponding
velocity for a prototype of 80 m length in seawater (relative
density 1.025)?

REFERENCES:
HYDRAULICS

22
1. Franzini J.B. and Finnermore E.J. 2006. Fluid Mechanics. Mc Graw Hill,
10
th
Edition.
2. Subramanya, K (1993). Theory and Application of Fluid Mechanics. Mc
Graw Hill. New Delhi.
3. Zarina Md Ali and Ishak Baba (2003) E-module Hidraulics. UTHM