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TYPES OF DAMAGES ON FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT FOR MALAYSIAN FEDERAL ROAD
Nurul Elma Kordi
1
*, Intan Rohani Endut
1,2
, Bahardin Baharom

1,2

ABSTRACT:

Flexible pavements in Malaysia are designed until ten to fifteen years design life to support load.
However, sometimes these roads not able to carry the load with the specified design life especially in
industry areas because heavy lorries always using these road to move their goods. A lot of distress on the
flexible pavement and it become uncomfortable feelings to the driver. A lot of factors contribute the
problem of failure to flexible pavement either internal or external factors. Among the heavy trucks'
operators, they want to raise the axle loads limit for all trucks to avoid delivery delays and meet higher
storage chargers; in fact Road Transport Development (RTD) had given special permission to some 1000
lorries since August 2007 to carry the new maximum load. In order to quantify flexible pavement
damages, the impacts of increase axle load on Federal road must identify and evaluate. This paper
discusses a type of damages on the flexible pavement, causes of failure to flexible pavement and
appropriate structural requirements for pavement performance that can carry the load on a routine basis.
With the best understanding of the causes of failure and process to rehabilitation, the responsibilities'
authorities will know well the key to proper maintenance of flexible pavement in order to design, manage
and maintain the highways.
Keywords: Axle Load, Distress, Flexible Pavement, Rehabilitation















1
Malaysia Institute of Transport (MITRANS), Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA
2
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah AlamSelangor, MALAYSIA

* Correspondence Author: Nurul Elma Kordi, Malaysia Institute of Transport, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
Tel: +6003 5521 1492, Fax: +603 5544 2344. E-mail: ema_nuelko@yahoo.com
Proceeding of Malaysian Universities Transportation Research Forum and Conferences 2010
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INTRODUCTION

Road has played an important role in the trade and transportation system throughout the world,
and it become rapid increase in the pavement infrastructure development in Malaysia. Gazette under
Federal Roads Ordinance is usually roads linking the state capitals, airports, railway stations and ports.
Currently, Malaysia has more than 80,300km roads. The road is divided into three main categories
namely toll expressway (1,700km), federal roads (17,500km) and state roads (61,100km) and the life
spans are between 10 to 15 years (Zakaria and Hassan, 2005). Local authority road (city mall, municipal
or local council) or kampong (district office) road is depending upon jurisdiction and normally maintained
by the responsibility local authority (Haron, 2004).
In Malaysia, Federal road use the flexible pavement that constructed with asphaltic cement and
aggregates and consist of several of layers with the lowest called the subgred which natural soil itself. The
next layer is the subbase, which consist of crushed aggregate. The next layer is called road base, which
can be made of crushed aggregates with a cementing material. The top layer is called surfacing layer. It is
usually made of asphaltic concrete. The structural strength depends on individual material strength
characteristic and thickness layer. Some form of deflection within the elastic limit is allowed. Surface
readability is good but relatively less durable or susceptible to high temperature (Haron, 2004).
Federal road at Malaysia almost used the flexible pavement compare to rigid pavement because
flexible pavement more comfortable to the user. Furthermore, flexible pavement can be use by users once
ready. Table 1 shows the differences between flexible and rigid pavement. With best design and proper
construction method, adequate routine and periodic maintenance are necessary to achieve the determined
design life spans and even beyond. The main factors of pavement deterioration due to increasing the
number of vehicle and load traffic by the run which is five percent per annum.

Table 1: The differences between flexible and rigid pavement
No. Flexible Rigid
1 Last for 20 years Last for more than 40 years
2 High cost and schedule maintenance More economic maintenance, no schedule
3 Cheap and easy to get the material Material shortage problem always occurs
4 Low initial cost Higher initial cost
5 Easy to upgrade / stage construction Cannot upgrade / no stage construction
6 Rutting and potholes may occur Free from rutting, potholes and corrugation
7 Less economic for the long duration More economical for the long duration
8 Can be used once ready Traffic disturbance, wait for maximum
strength (28 days)
(Source: Haron, 2004)
As a part of the study by research, this paper discusses on failure on flexible pavement, sources
failure of flexible pavement and appropriate structural requirements for pavement performance that can
carry the loads on a routine basis. This is a preliminary study before conduct the actual study which
mapping all the damages along Federal road number one after this.

TYPES OF DAMAGES
According to Highway Research Board, 1970 cited by Pavement Interactive, 2010, pavement
distress is "any indication of poor or unfavourable pavement performance or signs of impending failure;
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any unsatisfactory performance of a pavement short of failure". The causes of pavement failures are
divided into two categories, which are an internal and external failure. Internal failures of pavement are
usually because of the lack pavement mixture, weaknesses of component materials and poor construction.
Meanwhile, external failures are due to overloading, diesel spillage, flooding, sink holes and other
unforeseen cause such as earthquake, volcanoes and others. The failures of flexible pavement are divided
into four categories, which are surface deformation, surface defects, cracking and patching and potholes
(Rani, 2007). Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 below shows the lists the pavement distress groups, possible causes,
and the probable treatments that summarized by Rani, 2007 and PFI, 2010.
Table 2: Surface deformation
No. Possible Causes Probable Treatments
Shoving
1 Instability mixture of asphalt (course or fine
aggregate too rounded or too smooth textured)
Remove surface and base as necessary and
replace with a more stable material
2 Low modulus bases course Reconstruction of base
3 Thin wearing course Bituminous overlay
4 Dragging of pavers during laying when
bituminous mix temperatures were low
Remove surface and base as necessary and
replace with a more stable material
5 High stress due to braking and acceleration
movements
Bituminous overlay with the stiffer mix or use
the high compaction mix.
Corrugations
1 Inadequate stability of bituminous
surface (excessive moisture)
Replace bituminous surface
2 Compaction of base in wave form Base reconstruction
3 Faulty paver behaviour with some
mixes (contamination caused by oil spillage)
Replace the faulty mixes and correct the
faulty behaviour
4 Heavy traffic on steep downgrade or upgrade Mill off the corrugated surface and replace
with the stiffer mix or use hot mix asphalt
5 Stopping at intersection stop lights or
roundabout
Mill off the corrugated surface and replace
with the stiffer mix or use hot mix asphalt
6 Inadequate stability of base course Base construction.
Rutting
1 Inadequate pavement thickness Strengthening overlay or reconstruction
2 Inadequate compaction of structural layers Reconstruction
3 Unstable bituminous mixes Replace or recycle bituminous surfacing or
use the stiffer mix
4 Unstable shoulder material which does not
provide adequate lateral support
Shoulder improvement and overlay rutted
area with bituminous surfacing
5 Overstressed subgrade which deforms
permanently
Reconstruction
6 Unstable granular bases or subbases Base or sub base strengthening
Depression
1 Differential settlement of
subgrade or base materials
Subgrade or base reconstruction

2 Settlement of services and / or
widening trenches
Reconstruction of services and/or widening
trenches
3 Volume change of subgrade
due to environmental influences
Improve sub-soil drainage and
reconstruct
4 Settlement due to instability of embankment Embankment stabilization
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(Source: Rani, 2007 and PFI, 2010)
Table 3: Surface defect
No. Possible Causes Probable Treatments
Bleeding / Flushing
1 Excessive asphalt in the surface layer. On hot
days the binder expands into air voids; if the
volume of air voids is too low, continued
expansion results in lower stability of the mix
with the consequence that traffic will force out
excess binder to the surface.
Apply hot sand to blot up the excess binder to
the stone size.
2 Paving over flushed surfaces. The excess
bitumen on the old surface may be pumped up
through the new paving over period of time.
Apply hot sand or aggregate seal coat.
3 Paving over excessively primed surfaces Apply hot sand
4 Lack of proper rolling during placement Resurfacing the asphalt
5 Failure to protect a newly constructed surface
from traffic until the asphalt cured sufficiently.
Resurfacing the asphalt
Ravelling
1 Insufficient bitumen content Thin bituminous overlay
2 Poor adhesion of bitumen binder to aggregate
particles due to wet aggregate
Thin bituminous overlay
3 Inadequate compaction or construction during
wet weather
Thin bituminous overlay
4 Deterioration of binder and/or aggregate Thin bituminous overlay
Polishing
1 Inadequate resistance to polishing of surface
aggregates particularly in areas of heavy traffic
movements or where high stresses are
developed between surface and tyres
The bituminous overlay of use of stiffer mix

2 Use of naturally smooth uncrushed aggregates Thin bituminous overlay.
Delimitation / Surface Lifting /Seal Break
1 Inadequate cleaning or inadequate tack cot
before placement of upper layers
Mill off and re-lay upper layers.
2 Seepage of water through asphalt, especially in
cracks, to break the bond between surface and
lower layers.
Replace wearing course or thin bituminous
overlay

3 Weak, loose layer immediately underlying seal Reconstruction of weak layers
4 Adhesion of surface binder to vehicle tyres Thin bituminous overlay
(Source: Rani, 2007 and PFI, 2010)





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Table 4: Cracking crack
No. Possible Causes Probable Treatments
Fatigue (alligator/crocodile) crack
1 Inadequate pavement thickness Strengthen the pavement or reconstruction
2 Low modulus base Strengthen the base or reconstruction
3 Brittle base Base recycling or reconstruction
4 Poor base drainage Improve the drainage and reconstruct
5 Brittle wearing course Replace or treat wearing course
Block cracking
1 J oints in underlying layer Crushed aggregate overlay
2 Shrinkage and fatigue of underlying
cemented materials
Replace underlying cemented
materials
3 Shrinkage cracks (due to bitumen
hardening) in bituminous surfacing
Seal cracks or replace bituminous surfacing
4 Fatigue cracks in embrittled
bituminous wearing course
Cut and patch or crushed aggregate overlay
Longitudinal cracking
1 Reflection of shrinkage cracks Cut and patch
2 Poorly Constructed paving lane in bituminous
surfacing
Replace bituminous surfacing
3 Displacement of joints at pavement widening Reconstruction of joints
4 Differential settlement between cut and fill Crushed aggregate overlay or reconstruction
of joints.
Transverse (Thermal) Crack
1 Reflection of shrinkage cracks Cut and patch
2 Construction joint in bituminous surfacing Crack sealant
3 Structural failure of Portland Cement Reconstruction of base
4 Shrinkage crack bituminous surfacing Seal cracks or replace bituminous surfacing
5 Reflection of joints in the underlying base Crushed aggregate overlay or reconstruction
of joints
Edge cracks
1 Excessive traffic loading at the pavement
edge
Widen the pavement or strengthen the
pavement edge
2 Poor drainage at pavement edge and shoulder Improve drainage and shoulder
3 Inadequate pavement width which forces
traffic too close to the pavement edge
Widen treatment
4 Insufficient bearing support Reconstruction
Edge breaks
1 Inadequate pavement width Widen the pavement
2 Alignment which encourages drivers to
travel on the pavement edge.
Pavement widening and realignment
3 Inadequate edge support Shoulder strengthening
4 Edge drop-off Strengthening and leveling of shoulder with
road surface
5 Loss of a adhesion to base Cut and patch or bituminous overlay.
Edge drop-offs
1 Inadequate pavement width Widen the pavement
2 Shoulder material with inadequate resistance Replace shoulder material and reconstruct
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to erosion and abrasion.
3 Resurfacing of pavement without
resurfacing of shoulder
Leveling of shoulder with road surface
Crescent shaped cracks / parabolic / slippage / shear cracks
1 Lack of bond between wearing course and
the underlying layers
Cut and patch
2 Low modulus bases course Reconstruction of
base
Reconstruction of base
3 Thin wearing course Bituminous overlay
4 Dragging of pavers during laying when
bituminous mix temperatures were low
Cut and patch
5 High stress due to braking and acceleration
movements
Bituminous overlay with the stiffer mix or use
the high compaction mix.
(Source: Rani, 2007 and PFI, 2010)

Table 5: Patching and Potholes
No. Possible Causes Probable Treatments
Patch/Patch Deterioration
1 Inadequate cleaning or inadequate tack cot
before placement of upper layers
Mill off and re-lay upper layers.
2 Seepage of water through asphalt, especially in
cracks, to break the bond between surface and
lower layers.
Replace wearing course or thin bituminous
overlay

3 Weak, loose layer immediately underlying seal Reconstruction of weak layers
Pothole
1 Loss of surface course Patching
2 Moisture entry to base course through a
cracked pavement surface
Cut and patch
3 Load associated disintegration of base Base reconstruction
(Source: Rani, 2007 and PFI, 2010)
From the table, it shows most of the possible causes damages of pavement are due to of
imperfection during construction. This failure will give uncomfortable to the users during their driving.
Either responsibility contractor does their work perfectly or not during construction of the road need to
investigate.

CHARACTERISTICS EFFECTING FAILURE OF PAVEMENT
Truck factors
Most comment from the users of the road about the vehicle that carries the heavy load that makes
the pavement damage. On behalf of heavy truck operators, they want to increase the axle load limit to
avoid delivery delays and meet higher storage chargers. Table 6 below shows the comparison weight limit
of the truck among various countries.

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Table 6: Comparison Weight Limit of Truck among Various Countries
Country Type (load+vehicle) Weight
limit (maximum)
Malaysia Two-axle-fixed truck
Three-axle-fixed truck
Four-axle-fixed truck

16 tons
21 tons
25 tons

Thailand Two-axle-fixed truck
Three-axle-fixed truck
Five-axle-fixed truck

12 tons
21 tons
39 tons

Singapore Two-axle-fixed truck
Three- axle-fixed truck
Four-axle-fixed truck
Articulated truck

16 tons
24 tons
-
24 tons

ASEAN Standard Two-axle-fixed truck
Three-axle-fixed truck
Four-axle-fixed truck
Articulated truck
16 tons
21 tons
-
38 tons
(Source: MRTV3, 2010)

Table 7 show the comparison of axle load among various countries. Axle load and total truck load
limits are also an important factor, which can determine the efficiency of the road system and
competitiveness of the countrys logistics system. Thailands maximum axle load limit is 8.2 tons while
the truck limit had increased to 25 tons from 21 tons in 2006. Thailands axle load limit is lower than
other countries. Truck load limit and axle load limit will have impact on Thailands long-run freight
transport cost and road maintenance cost, which need to be balanced. Different load limits among
Thailand and neighboring countries might also cause problems for transshipment of goods across national
borders and complicate international trade negotiations (Transport Sector, 2008).

Table 7: Comparison of Axle Load among Various Countries
Country Axle Load Limit (Ton)
Malaysia 12
Thailand 8.2
Singapore 10
J apan 11
Europe 10-13
The Peoples Republic of China 10
ASEAN member countries 10
(Source: Transport Sector, 2008)
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Heavy vehicle also contributed to deterioration of the road, there were 19.3 million registered
vehicles on the Malaysias road, and the government spent RM5 billion between 2001 and 2010 to keep
sustaining all the Federal roads (New Strait Times, June 2010). Heavy vehicle has been banned during
morning peak hours started 2 August 2010 from certain stretches to avoid traffic congestion on the North-
South Expressway. Federation of Malaysian Manufacturer presidents, Tan Sri Mustafa Mansur (2010)
said the move would not cause much impact as lorries could still use other alternative roads to get their
destination. This rule is applied after investigations have been done. The result shows the total of heavy
vehicle breakdown three times more than light vehicles and this situation will give big impact on traffic
congestion (Berita Harian, 2010). However, Pan Malaysia Lorry Drivers Association president, Er Sui
See, unhappy with the ban because it unfair and absurd to expect them apply for temporary permits each
time they need to use the highway during the ban time (The Star, J uly 2010).
Pavement and environmental factors
The other factor of pavement damages is due to extra ordinary weather such as heavy rain and
flooding. It is bringing on water absorption to pavement and weakened the structural pavement base. The
pavement will weaken and fail due to increasing moisture content of the subgrade. Therefore, drainage is
very important in the roads' system to keep the low water table. In Malaysia, RM220 million was spent
every year on repairing road damages by rains and floods (New Strait Times, 2010). In general,
conventional asphalt easy to damage when exposed to water and high incidences of flooding. The used
less quality of material, non effective construction, construction procedure without control and
overweight commercial transports also as sources of failure pavement.
Tolled expressways are better maintained than Federal roads because government has to take care
of more roads, which are 16,500km of federal roads compared only 1,360km that managed by private
highway concessionaires (The Star, 2010).


Contact condition and configuration of tire

The consensus is clear which the details of the contact conditions such as the exact area, pressure
and pressure distribution, effect stresses and strains near to the surface of the pavement, whereas the
response in the lower layers depends mainly on the overall load. Haas and Papagiannakis, 1986 (as cited
in Cole & Cebon, 1997) showed that increasing the tyre inflation (contact) pressure from 415 kPa to 830
kPa at constant load will increase the theoretical vertical compressive strain near to the surface of a
200mm thick asphalt layer by up to a factor of eight, but hardly affected the strain at the bottom of the
layer. In 1963, Zube and Forsyth (as cited in Cole & Cebon, 1997) performed an experimental
comparison of the vertical deflections and transverse strains of a flexible pavement surface, to wide-base
single tyres and dual wheels. Their results indicated that pavement deflection was equivalent to 27 kN
carried on a single tyre or 40 kN carried on a dual pair.
Cole and Cebon, 1997, conclude that fatigue cracking failed due to wide single tyres cause up to
seven times more damage than dual tyres carrying the same total load for the relatively thin asphalt
pavements (minor roads). For thicker pavements, where permanent deformation is the main mode of
failure, wide single tyres are likely to cause one and half to two times more damage than dual tyres.
Dadoo and Thorpe (2005) identify the main factors responsible for pavement damage caused by heavy
vehicle such as dynamic axle load, number and type of axles (e.g. single, tandem), tyre properties (e.g.
wide-base, dual) and pavement properties (e.g. pavement type, thickness, temperature and roughness).
This research will discover which these factors have the greatest influence on pavement response.
Marshek et al. (1986) lists of the possible damage or defect on the pavement are shown in Table 8. It can
be concluded that, pavement damage will be increased due to less of contact area of tires to road. The
higher pressure of tires is one of the factor's pavement damages because small of contact area between
tires and pavement.
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Table 8: Summary of characteristics influencing pavement damage
Characteristic Decrease in Pavement Damage Increase in Pavement Damage
No. of Tires per Axle
More Tires per Axle (Tandem Axle)
Less Load per Tire
Less Load per Unit Contact Area
Decrease in Pavement Damage
Fewer Tires per Axle
Greater Load per Tire
Greater Load per Unit Contact
Area
Increase in Pavement Damage
No. of Axles
More Axles
Less Load per Axle
Less Load per Unit Contact Area
Decrease in Pavement Damage
Fewer Axles
Greater in Load per Axle
Greater Load per Unit Contact
Area
Increase in Pavement Damage
Load Distribution
Load Distributed Evenly Among
Axle
Less Load for the Most Heavily
Loaded Axle Group
Decrease in Pavement Damage
Load Not Distributed Evenly
Among Axles
Greater Load for the Most
Heavily Loaded Axle Group
Increase in Pavement Damage
Speed / Congestion
Higher Speeds
Decrease in Load Duration
Decrease in Pavement Damage
Lower Speeds
Greater Load Distribution
Increased Pavement Damage
Tire Pressure
Lower Tire Pressure
Greater Surface Contact Area
between Tire and Pavement
Less Load per Unit Contact Area
Decrease in Pavement Damage
Higher Tire Pressure
Smaller Surface Contact Area
between Tire and Pavement
Greater Load per Unit Area
Increase in Pavement Damage

EFFECTS OF INCREASED LEGAL LOAD LIMITS
Studies of the effect of increasing the legal load limit from 18,000 to 20,000 pounds for single
axles and from 32,000 to 36,000 pounds tandem axles were made by the California Transportation
Department. According to a study by Smith (1973) cited by Matthews and Baumeister (1976), if half load
trucks which hauled legal limit loads were to increase axle loads to the proposed limits, the decrease in
fatigue life of existing pavements is predicted to be between 20 and 25%. The effect of this decrease in
pavement life will be to increase maintenance costs on existing pavements considerably over what they
have been in the past and require reconstruction and rehabilitation at an earlier date. Findings from the
study indicate that an 11% increase in legal load limits appears to reduce service life in years
approximately 20% (Matthews and Baumeister, 1976).
J arviss (2008) opinion the increasing of truck Gross Vehicle Weights (GVW) on the federal
highway system, while keeping individual axle weight limits at the current level, will improve
productivity, fuel conservation, air quality, infrastructure conservation, and public safety, while reducing
carbon emissions and traffic congestion. While Eason and Greene (2008) explained by providing fuel-cost
savings, increasing the allowable GVW also would streamline trucking across national borders. Current
maximum GVWs allowed by Mexico and Canada are 106,920 pounds and 95,900 pounds, respectively.
According to the Americans for Safe and Efficient Transportation (ASET), the payload increase would
make trade more parallel and obtain $14.5 billion of potential savings in shipping costs. For an individual
truck, ASET also states that tractor-trailers (with six axles rather than five) can reduce vehicle miles
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travelled (VMT) by 11% and reduce fuel usage by 6%. Accidents would decrease as well, as fewer trucks
driven by a smaller pool of more highly qualified drivers would be on the road. With the increasing
prices of fuel, the haulier needs to improve their trucking system because fuel costs will reduce the profit
margins on every industry in the economy, and logging is certainly no exception.


APPROPRIATE STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENT
The rehabilitation of flexible pavements encompasses a broad range of activities, which could be
grouped into three categories namely; restoration, resurfacing (structural) and reconstruction (Caltrans,
2000). In order to prevent failure flexible pavement, the polymer-modified asphaltic (PMA) concrete has
started used in several project road upgrading by Work Ministry. The National Economic Action Council
had agreed that PMA be used on five per cent of new projects as a part of the 10
th
Figure 1 below illustrates the alternatives of pavement maintenance and rehabilitation. This
figure is helpful in understanding the aim for which a given treatment.
Malaysia plan. PMA is
a mixture of natural or synthetic polymer materials with conventional bitumen. Their rubberlike surfaces
are highly resistant against rutting and cracking and absorb little water, which is the cause of cracks in
roads. PMA has a lower life cycle cost and can admit the higher axle load, also, with using PMA it can
save until RM200,000 for every kilometer of the road in yearly maintenance work, although the cost
PMA is 1.7 times more than conventional (New Strait Times, 2010). A study was completed for the
Affiliate Committee of the Asphalt Institute on the use of PMA for reducing distress in flexible
pavements and hot mix asphalt (HMA) overlays. The results from that study found that the use of PMA
reduced pavement distress and increased the life of flexible pavements by two to ten years (Asphalt
Institute IS-215, 2005).












Figure 1: Alternatives of Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation
(Source: Monismith, 1979)
Pavement maintenance and
Rehabilitation
Maintenance Rehabilitation
Surface Subsurface
Overlays
Recycling Reconstruction
Combination of
recycling and overlays
- Preventive
- Corrective
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There are differentiated between preventive and corrective approaches preventive strategies for
pavement surface include fog-seal asphalt, rejuvenators, joint sealing, seal coat (with aggregate) and thin
blanket. For surface corrective there are patching, crack filling, joint sealing, seal coat, friction course,
grooving, thin blanket, surface recycling, cold planning and drainage. For subsurface, there have drainage
for preventive maintenance and sub-sealing, in-situ stabilization and drainage for corrective maintenance.


CONCLUSSION
The failures of pavement have increased significantly over the year. The effect of axle load plays
an important role in the deterioration of flexible pavements. Although the Association of Malaysia
Hauliers (AMH) and truck operators want to raise the lorry load limit for all as similar size vehicles have
been transporting heavier loads at overseas, the responsibilities' authority still needs to investigate
carefully the effect to the road and users. Damaged roads need to repair immediately as they can cause
accidents and traffic congestion. The study that was conducted and discussed in this paper show that the
possible causes of flexible damages mostly did not cause by heavy truck. Therefore, the further research
needs to conduct to check whether the responsible contractor done their work properly or not and the
other factor of flexible pavement easy to damage need to consider and investigate. New road construction
will involve big investment. Therefore, to ensure life span of the road that constructed more durable,
comfortable and safe to the user, construction and maintained of the road need to be done effectively.

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