TS.

NGUYN HU CNG











K THUT O LNG













NH XUT BN I HC QUC GIA H NI
1
LI GII THIU

Quyn sch ny nhm mc ch cung cp kin thc c bn v thit b
v phng php o lng cc i lng in. Ni dung gio trnh phc
v cho sinh vin cc ngnh in - in t - My tnh ca cc trng i
hc. ng thi cng gip ch cho sinh vin cc chuyn ngnh khc v
cc cn b k thut c quan tm n lnh vc o in.
Khi vit gio trnh ny chng ti c tham kho kinh nghim ca cc
nh gio ging dy nhiu nm cc trng i hc, ng thi cp
nht nhng ni dung mi, va p ng yu cu nng cao cht lng o
to phc v s nghip cng nghip ho - hin i ho, va m bo tnh
st thc ca cc thit b o cng nh phng php o m cc cn b k
thut ang vn hnh trong thc t.
Tuy cc tc gi c nhiu c gng khi bin son, nhng gio trnh
s khng trnh khi nhng khim khuyt. Chng ti mong nhn c s
ng gp kin ca qu ng nghip v cc bn sinh vin gio trnh
ny c hon thin.
Sau ht chng ti xin chn thnh cm n s ng gp ng k ca
Thc s Nguyn Vn Ch, cm n Khoa in t, Trng i hc K
thut Cng nghip, i hc Thi Nguyn gip v to iu kin cho
chng ti hon thnh quyn sch ny.
Tc gi
2
Chng 1
KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG

1.1. nh ngha v phn loi thit b
1.1.1. nh ngha
o lng l mt qu trnh nh gi nh lng i tng cn o
c kt qu bng s so vi n v.
Vi nh ngha trn th o lng l qu trnh thc hin ba thao tc
chnh: Bin i tn hiu v tin tc.
- So snh vi n v o hoc so snh vi mu trong qu trnh o
lng.
- Chuyn n v, m ho c kt qu bng s so vi n v.
Cn c vo vic thc hin cc thao tc ny ta c cc phng php v
h thng o khc nhau.
Thit b o v thit b mu
Thit b o l mt h thng m i lng o gi l lng vo, lng
ra l i lng ch trn thit b (l thit b o tc ng lin tc) hoc l
con s km theo n v o (thit b o hin s). i khi lng ra khng
hin th trn thit b m a ti trung tm tnh ton thc hin cc
Algorithm k thut nht nh.
- Thit b mu dng kim tra v hiu chnh thit b o v n v
o.
Theo quy nh hin hnh thit b mu phi c chnh xc ln hn t
nht hai cp so vi thit b kim tra.
V d: Mun kim nh cng t cp chnh xc 2 th bn kim nh
cng t phi c cp chnh xc t nht l 0,5.
1.1.2. Phn loi
1.1.2.1. Thit b o lng
C nhiu cch phn loi song c th chia thit b o lng thnh hai
loi chnh l thit b o chuyn i thng v thit b o kiu so snh.
3
Thit b o chuyn i thng
i lng cn o a vo thit b di bt k dng no cng c
bin thnh gc quay ca kim ch th. Ngi o c kt qu nh thang
chia v nhng quy c trn mt thit b, loi thit b ny gi l thit b
o c in. Ngoi ra lng ra cn c th bin i thnh s, ngi o c
kt qu ri nhn vi h s ghi trn mt my hoc my t ng lm vic
, ta c thit b o hin s.
Thit b o kiu so snh
Thit b so snh cng c th l ch th c in hoc l ch th s. Tu
theo cch so snh v cch lp i lng b (b m ho s tng t) ta c
cc thit b so snh khc nhan nh: thit b so snh kiu tu ng (i
lng o x v i lng b x lun bin i theo nhau); thit b so snh
kiu qut (i lng b x bin thin theo mt quy lut thi gian nht
nh v s cn bng ch xy ra ti mt thi im trong chu k).
Ngoi ra cng cn c vo vic lp i lng b ngi ta chia thnh
dng c m ho s xung, tn s xung, thi gian xung. Cn c vo iu
kin cn bng ngi ta chia thnh dng c b khng lch (zero) v dng
c b c lch (vi sai).
Cn c vo quan h gia lng ra v lng vo, ngi ta chia thnh:
thit b o trc tip (i lng ra biu th trc tip i lng vo), thit b
o gin tip (i lng ra lin quan ti nhiu i lng vo thng qua
nhng biu thc ton hc xc nh), thit b o kiu hp b (nhiu i
lng ra lin quan ti nhiu i lng vo thng qua cc phng trnh
tuyn tnh).
1.1.2.2. Chuyn i o lng
C hai khi nim:
- Chuyn i chun ho: C nhim v bin i mt tn hiu in phi
tiu chun thnh tn hiu in tiu chun (thng thng U = 0 10V;
I = 4 20mA).
Vi loi chuyn i ny ch yu l cc b phn p, phn dng, bin
in p, bin dng in, cc mch khuch i... c nghin cu k
cc gio trnh khc nn ta khng xt.
4
- Chuyn i s cp (S: Sensor): C nhim v bin mt tn hiu
khng in sang tn hiu in, ghi nhn thng tin gi tr cn o. C rt
nhiu loi chuyn i s cp khc nhau nh: chuyn i in tr, in
cm, in dung, nhit in, quang in...
1.1.2.3. T hp thit b o
Vi mt thit b c th (mt knh):

Hnh 1.1. Cu trc h thng o mt knh

+ Chuyn i o lng: bin tn hin cn o thnh tn hiu in.
+ Mch o: thu nhn, x l, khuch i thng tin.... bao gm: ngun,
cc mch khuch i, cc b bin thin A/D, D/A, cc mch ph...
+ Ch th: thng bo kt qu cho ngi quan st, thng gm ch th
s v ch th c in, ch th t ghi, v.v...
1.1.2.4. Vi h thng o lng nhiu knh
Trng hp cn o nhiu i lng, mi i lng o mt knh,
nh vy tn hiu o c ly t cc sensor qua b chuyn i chun ho
ti mch iu ch tn hiu mi knh, sau s a qua phn knh
(multiplexer) c sp xp tun t truyn i trn cng mt h thng
dn truyn. c s phn bit, cc i lng o trc khi a vo mch
phn knh cn phi m ho hoc iu ch (Modulation - MOD) theo tn
s khc nhau (th d nh f10, f20...) cho mi tn hiu ca i lng o.
Ti ni nhn tn hiu li phi gii m hoc gii iu ch
(Demodulation - DEMOD) ly li tng tn hiu o. y chnh l hnh
thc o lng t xa (TE1emety) cho nhiu i lng o.
5

Hnh 1.2. H thng o lng nhiu knh

1.2. S cu trc thit b o lng
1.2.1. H thng o hin i thng
Trong h thng o bin i thng, i lng vo x qua nhiu khu
bin i trung gian c bin thnh i lng ra z. Quan h gia z v x
c th vit:
z = f(x)
trong f() l mt ton t th hin cu trc ca thit b o.
6
Trong trng hp quan h lng vo v lng ra l tuyn tnh ta c
th vit:
z = S.x (1.1)
y S gi l nhy tnh ca thit b.
- Nu mt thit b gm nhiu khu ni tip th quan h gia lng
vc v lng ra c th vit:

trong S
i
l nhy ca khu th i trong thit b.
1.2.2. H thng o kiu so snh
Trong thit b o kiu so snh i lng vo x thng c bin i
thnh i lng trung gian y
X
qua mt php bin i T:
y
X
= T.x.

Hnh 1.3. H thng o kiu so snh
Sau y
X
c so snh vi i lng b y
k

Ta c: y = y
X
- y
k

C th cn c vo thao tc so snh phn loi cc phng php o
khc nhau.
1.2.2.1. Phn loi phng php o cn c vo iu kin cn bng
a) Phng php so snh kiu cn bng (Hnh 1.4)
Trong phng php ny, i lng vo so snh: y
X
= const; i
lng b y
k
= const.
Ti im cn bng:

b) Phng php so snh khng cn bng (Hnh 1.5)
7
Cng ging nh trng hp trn song y 0

1.2.2.2. Phn loi phng php o cn c vo cch to in p b
a) Phng php m ho thi gian
Trong phng php ny i lng vo y
X
= const cn i lng b y
k

cho tng t l vi thi gian t:
y
k
= y
0
.t (y
0
= const)

Hnh 1.6. Phng php m ha thi gian

Ti thi im cn bng y
X
= y
k
= y
0
.t
X


i lng cn o y
X
c bin thnh khong thi gian t
X
y php
so snh phi thc hin mt b ngng
8

b) Phng php m ho tn s xung
Trong phng php ny i lng vo y
X
cho tng t l vi i lng
cn o x v khong thi gian t: y
X
= t.x, cn i lng b y
k
c gi
khng i.

Hnh 1.7. Phng php m ho tn s xung

Ti im cn bng c:


i lng cn o x c bin thnh tn s f
X
. y php so snh
cng phi thc hin mt b ngng.

c) Phng php m ho s xung
Trong phng php ny i lng vo y
X
= const, cn i lng b
y
k
cho tng t l vi thi gian t theo quy lut bc thang vi nhng bc
nhy khng i vo gi l bc lng t.
T = const cn gi l xung nhp.
Ta c:

9


Ti im cn bng i lng vo yx c bin thnh con s N
X

y
X
N
X
.y
0
(1-6)
xc nh c im cn bng, php so snh cng phi thc hin
mt b ngng:

Ngoi ra cn phng php m ho s xung ngc, phng php m
xung, phng php trng phng.
1.3. Cc c tnh ca thit b o
1.3.1. nhy, chnh xc v cc sai s ca thit b o
1.3.1.1. nhy v ngng nhy
Ta bit phng trnh c bn ca thit b o l z = f(x). c mt s
nh gi v quan h gia lng vo v lng ra ca thit b o, ta dng
khi nim v nhy ca thit b:

trong : z l bin thin ca lng ra v x l bin thin ca lng
vo.
Ni chung S l mt hm ph thuc x nhng trong phm vi x nh
th S l mt hng s. Vi thit b c quan h gia lng vo v lng ra
l tuyn tnh, ta c th vit: z = S.x, lc S gi l nhy tnh ca thit
10
b o.
Trong trng hp thit b o gm nhiu khu bin i ni tip th
nhy c tnh

=
=
n
1 i
i
S S , vi S
i
l nhy ca khu th i trong thit b.
Theo l thuyt khi xt ti quan h gia z v x th x c th nh bao
nhiu cng c, song trn thc t khi x < no th z khng th
thy c.
V d 1.1: Khi ph ti tiu th qua mt cng t mt pha 10A nh hn
10W (chng hn) th cng t khng quay na.
Nguyn nhn ca hin tng ny rt phc tp, c th do ma st, do
hin tng tr... c gi l ngng nhy ca thit b o.
C th quan nim ngng nhy ca thit b o l gi tr nh nht
m thit b o c th phn bit c.
Tuy nhin ngng nhy ca cc thit b o khc nhau rt khc
nhau n cha c trng cho tnh nhy ca thit b. V vy so snh
chng vi nhau ngi ta phi xt ti quan h gia ngng nhy v
thang o ca thit b.
Thang o (D) l khong t gi tr nh nht ti gi tr ln nht tun
theo phng php o lng ca thit b

T a ra khi nim v kh nng phn ly ca thit b o:

v so snh cc R vi nhau.
1.3.1.2. chnh xc v cc sai s ca thit b o
- chnh xc l tiu chun quan trng nht ca thit b o.. Bt k
mt php o no u c sai lch so vi i lng ng

trong x
i
l kt qu ca ln o th
x

l gi tr ng ca i lng o
11

i
l sai lch ca ln o th i
- Sai s tuyt i ca mt thit b o c nh ngha l gi tr ln
nht ca cc sai lch gy nn bi thit b trong khi o:

- Sai s tuyt i chn nh gi c tnh chnh xc v yu cu cng
ngh ca thit b o. Thng thng chnh xc ca mt php o hoc
mt thit b o c nh gi bng sai s tng i:
+ Vi mt php o, sai s tng i c tnh

+ Vi mt thit b o, sai s tng i c tnh

Gi tr, % gi l sai s tng i quy i dng sp xp cc thit
b o thnh cc cp chnh xc.
Theo quy nh hin hnh ca nh nc, cc dng c o c in c
cp chnh xc: 0,05; 0,1; 0,2; 0,5; 1; 1,5; 2; 2,5; v 4.
Thit b o s c cp chnh xc: 0,005; 0,01; 0,02; 0,05; 0,1; 0,2;
0,5; 1.
Khi bit cp chnh xc ca mt thit b o ta c th xc nh c sai
s tng i quy i v suy ra sai s tng i ca thit b trong cc
php o c th.
Ta c:

trong l sai s tng i ca thit b o, ph thuc cp chnh xc v
khng i nn sai s tng i ca php o cng nh nu D/x dn n 1.
V vy khi o mt i lng no c gng chn D sao cho: D x.
1.3.2. in tr vo v tiu th cng sut ca thit b o
Thit b o phi thu nng lng t i tng o di bt k hnh thc
12
no bin thnh i lng u ra ca thit b. Tiu th nng lng ny
th hin phn tc dng ca thit b o ln i tng o gy ra nhng
sai s m ta thng bit c nguyn nhn gi l sai s ph v phng
php. Trong khi o ta c gng phn u sao cho sai s ny khng ln
hn sai s c bn ca thit b.
- Vi cc thit b o c hc sai s ch yu l phn tc dng ca
chuyn i. Vi cc thit b o dng p, sai s ny ch yu l do nh
hng ca tng tr vo v tiu th cng sut ca thit b.
Tn hao nng lng vi mch o dng p l:

Vy ta tm tnh sai s ph do nh hng ca tng tr vo l:

vi R
A
l in tr ca ampemet hoc phn t phn ng vi dng;
R
V
l in tr ca volmet hoc phn t phn ng vi p;
R
t
l in tr ti.
V d 1.2: Phn tch sai s ph khi o p trn Hnh 1.9.

+ Gi s cn kim tra in p U
A0
.
Theo l lch [ U
A0
] = 50 2 (V).
+ Xt khi cha o (k m), ta c ngay:
U
A0
= 50 V.
+ Xt khi o (k ng).
13
Gi s R
V
= 100 k. Vy in p o c: U
v
= U
A0
= 33,3 V.
Sai s t 33 V tr ln 50 V chnh l sai s ph v phng php do
nh hng in tr ca V sinh ra.
1.3.3. Cc c tnh ng ca thit b o
Khi o cc i lng bin thin ta phi xt n c tnh ng ca
dng c o c tnh ng ca dng c o th hin cc c trng sau:
- Hm truyn t ca thit b o hay nhy ng ca thit b o
K(p) tc l quan h gia i lng ra v i lng vo trng thi ng

c tnh ny th hin di cc dng sau:
+ c tnh qu ng vi tn hiu vo c dng bc nhy:

+ c tnh xung hay tn hiu vo l xung hp:

+ c tnh tn lc tn hiu vo c dng hnh sin:

+ c tnh tn th hin hai dng: c tnh bin tn A() v c tnh
pha tn ().
c tnh cn th hin di dng sai s tn s, sai s ny th hin
sai s bin tn
A
v sai s pha tn

:

trong : A() l bin u ra ph thuc tn s;
A
0
l bin ca khu l tng khng ph thuc tn s;
() l gc pha u ra ph thuc tn s;

0
l gc pha l tng khng ph thuc tn s.
Trong dng c o cc sai s ny phi nh hn mt gi tr cho php
14
quy nh bi nh nc. Gii tn ca dng c o l khong tn s ca i
lng vo cho sai s khng vt qu gi tr cho php.
Thi gian n nh hay thi gian o ca thit b l thi gian k t khi
t tn hiu vo ca thit b cho ti khi thit b n nh c th bit c
kt qu.
Chnh da vo thi gian o ca thit b ny cho php ta t ng ri
rc ho i lng cn o o gi tr tc thi, sau dng cc php gia
cng ton hc hoc dng phng tin phc hi li hon ton hin
tng xy ra.
1.4. Gia cng kt qu o lng
Gia cng kt qu o lng l da vo kt qu ca nhng php o c
th ta xc nh gi tr ng ca php o v sai s ca php o y.

Dng c o no cng c sai s v nguyn nhn sai s rt khc nhau,
v vy cch xc nh sai s phi ty theo tng trng hp m xc nh.
Hin nay dng nhiu phng php khc nhau php o m bo yu
cu k thut ra.
1.4.1. Tnh ton sai s ngu nhin
- xc nh sai s ngu nhin ta da vo phng php thng k
nhiu kt qu o lng. Sai s ngu nhin ca ln o th i c tnh

trong : x
i
l kt qu ln o th i;
M[x] l k vng ton hc ca v s ln o i lng x.

Hnh 1.10. Lut phn b chun
15
- Theo ton hc thng k th s phn b ca sai s ngu nhin xung
quanh gi tr k vng ton hc theo mt quy lut nht nh gi l lut
phn b xc sut.
Trong cc thit b o lng v iu khin thng theo quy lut phn
b chun:

trong l lch qun phng hay phng sai ca sai s ngu nhin.
Ta c cng thc:

vi D l tn x.
Trong k thut ta thng dng khi nim phng sai D = v n
c cng th nguyn vi i lng cn o.

Hnh 1.11. K vng v tn x ca lut phn b chun
Qu trnh gia cng kt qu nh sau:
a) Khi s ln o l rt ln (n > 30)
Sai s ngu nhin c tnh:
x = k. (l-14)
trong k l h s, c tra trong s tay k thut (bng hoc ng
cong).
b) Khi s ln o c hn (n 30)
Qu trnh gia cng c tin hnh nh sau:
16
+ K vng ton hc c ly l trung bnh cng ca n ln o

+ Phng sai ca sai s ngu nhin c tnh theo cng thc BessE1

Nu ta ly kt qu l gi tr trung bnh ca n ln o th phng sai s
gim i n ln

+ Sai s ngu nhin c tnh:

trong k
st
l h s Student, n ph thuc vo s ln thu thp n v xc
xut yu cu p. H s k
st
c tra trong cc s tay k thut: k
st
= f(n,p).
+ Kt qu o c tnh:
( ) 1 n n
x
n
1
x
k
n
x
x x x
n
1 i
2
n
1 i
i i
st
i

= =

= =
(1-18)
Ch : Trong thc t c nhng ln thu thp s liu cho kt qu khng
ng tin cy (v ta thng gi l nhiu ca tp s liu), ta phi loi b
ln o ny nh thut ton sau:
Sau khi tnh ta so snh cc |
i
| vi 3 vi i = 1 n n, nu ln o
no c |
i
| 3 th phi loi b ln o v tnh li t u vi (n - 1)
php o cn li. C th chng minh rng vic loi b m bo
tin cy 99,7%.
V d 1.3: Tnh kt qu o v sai s ngu nhin vi mt xc sut
17
ng tin p = 0,98 ca mt php o in tr bng cu kp vi kt qu nh
sau (n v tnh = m):
140,25; 140,5; 141,75; 139,25; 139,5; 140,25; 140; 126,75; 141,15;
142,25; 140,75; 144,15; 140,15; 142,75. Bit sai s ngu nhin c phn
b chun.
Bi lm:

So snh cc
i
= R
i
- R vi 3. Ta thy ln o th 8 phm phi sai
lm ln (
8
= R
8
- R 3) nn ta b qua ln o ny v tnh li t u vi
13 ln o cn li. Ta lp bng sau:
Bng 1.1. V d v tnh ton sai s ngu nhin
STT R
i
i

i
2
1 140,25 -0,73 0,5329
2 140,5 -0,48 0,2304
3 141,75 0,77 0,5929
4 139,25 -1,73 2,9929
5 139,5 1,48 2,1904
6 140,25 -0,73 0,5329
7 1 40 -0,98 0,9624
8 141,15 0,17 0,0289
9 142,25 1,27 1,6129
10 140,75 -0,23 0,0529
11 144,15 3,71 13,7641
12 140,15 -0,8t3 0,6889
13 142,75 1,77 3,1329
Tng: 0 Tng: 23,64
18



1.4.2. Tnh ton sai s gin tip
Trong thc t c nhiu phng php o m kt qu c tnh t php
o trc tip khc ngi ta gi php o l php o gin tip.
Gi s c mt php o gin tip i lng y thng qua cc php o
trc tip x
1
, x
2
, x
n
: y =f(x
1
, x
2
, x
n
)
Ta c:

Sai s tuyt i ca php o gin tip c nh gi

x
1
,x
2
,x
n
: sai s tuyt i ca php o cc i lng trc tip
x
1
, x
2
, x
n

Sai s tng i ca php o gin tip c tnh l:
19

trong : x
l
, x
2
,.x
n
l sai s tng i ca cc php o trc tip x
1
,
x
2
, x
n
.
Bng 1.2. Bng tnh sai s tuyt i v sai s tng i
ca mt s hm y thng gp

V d 1.4: Ngi ta s dng ampemet v volmet o in tr bng
phng php gin tip. Ampemet c thang o l lA, cp chnh xc l 1.
Volmet c thang o l 150V, cp chnh xc 1,5. Khi o ta c s ch
ca hai ng h l: I = lA, U =100V.
Hy tnh sai s tuyt i v tng i ca php o in tr trn.

Hnh 1.12. V d v tnh ton sai s gin tip
Bi lm:
20
+ Sai s tuyt i ca ampemet l:

+ Sai s tuyt i ca volmet l:

+ Gi tr in tr theo php o l:

+ Sai s tuyt i ca php o in tr l:

+ Sai s tng i ca php o in tr

21
Chng 2
CC C CU CH TH

2.1. C cu ch th c in
2.1.1. C s chung
2.1.1.1. Khi nim
C cu ch th l dng c o m s ch ca n l i lng t l vi
i lng o lin tc. Ch th c in l c cu ch th c tn hiu vo l
dng in v tn hiu ra l gc quay ca kim ch th. i lng cn o s
trc tip bin i thnh gc quay ca kim ch th, tc l thc hin vic
chuyn i nng lng in t thnh nng lng c hc lm quay kin
ch th i mt gc : = f(x), x l i lng vo.
C cu ch th c in bao gm hai phn: phn tnh v phn quay.
Ty theo phng php bin i nng lng in t ngi ta chia thnh
c cu ch th kiu t in, in t, in ng, cm ng v tnh in.
2.1.1.2. Cc chi tit c kh chung ca ch th c in
a) Trc v tr
Trc v tr l b phn quan trng trong cc chi tit c kh ca cc c
cu ch th c in, m bo cho phn ng quay trn trc c gn cc chi
tit ca phn ng nh kim ch th, l so phn, khung dy.
b) B phn phn khng
B phn phn khng bao gm l so phn khng hoc dy cng hoc
dy treo. Mc ch to ra mmen phn khng.
c) Kim ch th gc quay
Kim ch th gc quay c gn vi trc quay. di chuyn ca
kim trn thang chia t l vi gc quay . Ngoi ra c th ch th gc
quay bng nh sng.
22

d) Thang chia

Thang chia l mt khc thang o, xc nh gi tr o
e) B phn cn du
B phn cn du c tc dng rt ngn qu trnh dao ng ca phn
ng, xc lp v tr nhanh chng trong c cu ch th. Thng thng c
hai loi cn du c s dng, l cn du kiu khng kh v cn du
kiu cm ng.

2.1.2. Phng trnh c tnh ca c cu c in
23
2.1.2.1. Cc mmen tc ng ln phn c cu
a) Mmen quay
Khi c dng in chy trong c cu ch th, th trong n s tch lu
mt nng lng in t, nng lng ny c bin thnh c nng lm
quay phn ng i mt gc no , c ngha l thc hin mt cng c
hc:
dA = M
q
d
trong : dA l lng vi phn ca cng c hc;
Mq l mmen quay;
d l lng vi phn ca gc quay.
Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng:
dW
e
= dA
dW
e
l lng vi phn ca nng lng in t
Vy
d
dW
M
e
q
=
b) Mmen phn
Di tc dng ca mmen quay, nu khng c g cn li th phn
ng ca c cu s quay i mt gc ln nht c th c c. V vy
ngi ta to ra cc mmen phn t l vi gc quay nh cc b phn
phn khng l l so xon, dy cng hoc dy treo.
Ta c: M
p
= D;
vi D l h s ph thuc vo kch thc vt liu ch to l so, dy cng
hoc dy treo.
Khi mmen quay cn bng vi mmen phn th phn ng ng yn
M
q
= M
p
= D.
c) Mmen ma st
i vi cc dng c dng trc quay ta phi xt n nh hng ca
lc ma st gia trc v , mmen ma st c tnh theo cng thc kinh
nghim
M
ms
= K.G
n
24
trong K l h s t l, G l trng lng phn ng, n = (1,3 l,5)
d) Mmen cn du
Khi trc quay dn n kim ch th quay theo cho ti v tr cn bng
ri mi dng li, do phn ng c qun tnh v l so b ko nn kim s
dao ng ri mi ng yn cho nn phi c b phn n nh dao ng
kim hay b phn cn du.
Mmen cn du c ch to sao cho c tr s t l vi tc quay
ca phn ng

vi p l h s t l ph thuc vo c im
cu to ca b phn cn du. T biu thc
trn ta thy khi phn ng v tr cn bng
th 0
dt
d
= , nh vy mmen cn du khng
lm nh hng n kt qu o.
2.1.2.2. Phng trnh cn bng phn ng ca c cu o
Theo nh lut c hc i vi mt chuyn ng quay, o hm bc
nht ca mmen ng lng theo thi gian bng tng cc mmen tc
ng ln vt quay y.

trong : J l mmen qun tnh phn ng;
M
i
l tng cc mmen tc ng ln phn ng ca c cu,
bao gm:

Thay cc i lng trn vo phng trnh, ta c:
25

Phng trnh ny chnh l phng trnh mmen chuyn ng ca c
cu Gii phng trnh ny ta tm c (t). Tu theo quan h gia J, P,
D m c cu dao ng hay khng dao ng v quyt nh tnh n nh v
thi gian o ca c cu.
2.1.3. C cu o t in
2.1.3.1. Loi c mt khung dy ng
1. Cu to
Phn tnh gm: nam chm vnh cu, cc t, li st non, trong khe
h khng kh gia cc t v li st l u nhau.
Phn ng gm: khung dy, l so phn, kin ch th.

2. Nguyn l lm vic
- Khi ta cho dng in mt chiu I chy vo khung dy, di tc
dng ca t trng nam chm vnh cu trong khe h khng kh, cc cnh
26
ca khung dy s chu tc dng mt lc:
F = BlWI
trong : B l tr s cm ng t trong khe h khng kh; l l chiu di tc
dng ca khung dy; W l s vng dy; I l tr s dng in.
Ta thy hai cnh ca khung dy cng chu tc dng ca lc F nhng
ngc chiu nhau nn s to ra mmen quay:

trong : d l kch thc ngang ca khung dy;
S = dl l thit din b mt khung dy.
Mmen phn ca l so: M
P
= D..
Vy phn ng s cn bng khi:

y S
I
=
D
B.S.W
= const l nhy ca c cu theo dng in.
Ta thy t l bc nht vi I.
3. c im v ng dng
c im:
- u im:
+ Dng c c nhy cao v khng i trong ton thang o;
+ chnh xc cao, t chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi, tiu th
nng lng t;
+ V t l bc nht vi I nn thang chia ca c cu u.
- Nhc im:
+ Ch to kh khn, gi thnh t;
+ Do khung dy phn ng nn phi qun bng dy c kch thc
nh nn kh nng qu ti km;
+ Ch o c dng mt chiu. Tht vy, khi ta cho dng xoay chiu
i = I
m
sint vo khung dy, ta c mmen quay tc thi theo thi gian:
27
m
q
(t) = B.S.W.i

Vy mun o cc i lng xoay chiu ta phi kt hp vi b chnh
lu.
ng dng:
Dng ch to ampemet, volmet, ommet, in k c nhy cao,
dng lm c cu ch khng trong cc ng h vn nng, trong cc cu
o...
2.1.3.2. Loi c hai khung dy ng (Logomet t in)
1. Cu to
Phn tnh ging nh c cu mt khung dy nhng khe h khng kh
gia cc t v li st non l khng u nhau.
- Phn ng ta t hai cun dy cho nhau 60
o
, gn cng trn trc
quay v ln lt cho dng in I
1
v I
2
chy qua sao cho chng sinh ra
hai mmen quay ngc chiu nhau. Phn ng khng c l so phn.

2. Nguyn l lm vic
28
Khi ta cho cc dng mt chiu I
1
, I
2
chy vo cc cun dy ng,
di tc dng ca t trng nam chm vnh cu s to ra cc mmen
quay M
1
, M
2
vi:
M
1
= B
1
.S
1
.W
1
.I
1
M
2
= B
2
.S
2
.W
2
.I
2
V khe h khng kh l khng u nn cm ng t B ph thuc v tr
ca khung dy ng.

V khng c l so phn nn phn ng s cn bng khi M
1
= M
2
. Ta
c:

Vy

Gii phng trnh ny ta tm c quan h:

=
2
1
I
I
f
3. c im v ng dng
c im:
Tng t nh c cu mt khung dy trn khng c chnh xc
cao hn, cng sut tn tht thp, nhy rt cao, t b nh hng ca t
trng ngoi. Gc lch t l vi t s hai dng in i qua cc khung
y, iu ny thun li khi o cc i lng vt l th ng phi cho
thm ngun ngoi. Nu ngun cung cp thay i nhng t s hai dng
in vn c gi nguyn do vy m trnh c sai s.
ng dng:
c dng ch to cc ommet, megommet.
2.1.4. C cu o in t
29
2.1.4.1. Cu to
C cu gm hai loi chnh: kiu cun y dt (c cu ch th in t
loi ht) v kiu cun dy trn (c cu ch th in t loi y). C cu
cun dy dt c phn tnh l cun dy dt cho dng in cn o i qua,
cn phn ng l mt l thp t lch tm c th quay trong khe h cun
dy tnh. Kiu cun dy trn c phn tnh l cun dy trn bn trong gn
mt l thp. Phn ng cng l mt l thp gn trn trc. Ngoi ra cn c
b phn cn du, l so phn, kim ch th
30

2.1.4.2. Nguyn l lm vic
Khi c dng in chy vo cun dy tnh, trong lng cun dy s c
mt t trng. i vi cun dy dt t trng ny ht l thp vo trong
lng cun dy tnh, cn i vi cun dy trn th t trng s t ho hai
l thp, khi hai l thp c cng cc tnh nn y nhau. C hai trng
hp trn s lm cho phn ng quay i mt gc .
31
- Khi cho dng in mt chiu chy vo cun dy:
Ta c mmen quay:

vi W
e
l nng lng in t trng tch lu cun dy

trong L ph thuc .
Vy mmen quay:

- Khi cho dng in xoay chiu vo cun dy:
Gi s i = I
maX
sint. Lc mmen quay M
q
theo t s l:

Mmen quay trung bnh:

vi I l tr hiu dng ca dng hnh sin.
Ti v tr cn bng M
q
= M
P
;

Vy c cu ch th in t c th o c c dng mt chiu v dng
xoay chiu.
2.1.4.3. c im v ng dng
c im:
- u im:
32
+ C cun dy phn tnh nn c th qun bng dy kch thc ln
nn kh nng qu ti tt.
+ D ch to, gi thnh h.
+ C th o c c i lng mt chiu v xoay chiu.
- Nhc im:
+ Gc quay t l vi bnh phng ca dng in v thang o chia
khng u (hnh dng l thp c ch to sao cho
d
dL
gim theo gc
quay thang chia c th tng i u).
+ chnh xc thp do c tn hao trong li thp.
ng dng:
Ch yu o dng, p xoay chiu tn s cng nghip.
2.1.5. C cu o in ng
2.1.5.1. Loi c mt khung dy ng
a) Cu to
C cu gm hai cun y. Cun dy tnh c tit din ln, t vng dy
v thng chia lm hai phn on. Phn ng l mt khung dy c nhiu
vng dy v tit din nh. Ngoi ra cn c kim ch th, b phn cn du,
l so phn.

b) Nguyn l lm vic
33
- Xt khi cho cc dng in mt chiu I
1
v I
2
vo cc cun dy phn
tnh v ng, trong lng cun dy tnh s tn ti mt t trng. T
trng ny s tc ng ln dng in chy trong cun dy ng v to ra
mmen quay:

Nng lng t trng tch lu trong lng cun dy l:

trong L
1
, L
2
l din cm ca cc cun dy v chng khng ph thuc
vo gc quay ; M
12
l h cm ca hai cun dy, thay i khi phn ng
quay. Mmen quay

- Xt khi hai dng in a vo cc cun dy l dng in xoay
chiu th:

Do phn ng c qun tnh m khng kp thay i theo gi tr tc
thi cho nn thc t ly theo gi tr trung bnh trong mt chu k:

Vi l gc lch pha gia hai dng in; I
1
, I
2
l cc gi tr hiu
dng ca dng in ln lt chy trong cc cun dy tnh v ng.
Tm li, trong mi trng hp ta u c:
34



c) c im v ng dng
c im:
- u im:
+ chnh xc cao v khng c tn hao trong li thp.
+ C th o c c i lng mt chiu v xoay chiu.
- Nhc im:
+ D chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi.
+ Kh nng qu ti km v khung dy phn ng kch thc nh.
+ Cu to phc tp, t tin.
+ Thang chia khng u (tr khi ch to wattmet).
ng dng:
+ Ch to cc ng h o dng, p xoay chiu c tn s cao hoc
yu cu chnh xc cao.
+ Ch yu ch to ng h o cng sut tc dng v phn khng.
2.1.5.2. Loi c hai khung dy ng (logomet in ng)
a) Cu to
Phn tnh gm mt cun dy c chia lm hai na. Trong lng cun
dy tnh c hai cun dy ng gn trn trc quay cng vi kim ch th,
khng c l so phn.
b) Nguyn l lm vic
Khi cho hai dng in xoay chiu i, i
1
, i
2
ln lt chy vo cun dy
tnh v cc cun dy ng, trong lng cun dy tnh s c mt t trng.
T trng ny s tc ng ln dng in chy trong cc cun dy ng
35
sinh ra cc mmen M
q1
, M
q2


vi M
1
, M
2
l h s h cm gia cun dy tnh v ln lt cc cun dy
ng.

Ngi ta b tr sao cho cc mmen ny ngc chiu nhau, vy khi
cn bng phn ng, ta c M
q1
= M
q2


vi I
1
, I
2
l cc gi tr hiu dng ca cc dng in i
1
, i
2
;
1

2
l gc lch
pha gia dng in i, i
1
v i, i
2

36
c) c im v ng dng
Ging nh c cu mt khung dy ng nhng ch yu ch to
ng h o cos 1 pha, 3 pha cho li in xoay chiu.
2.1.5.3. C cu st in ng v logomet st in ng
a) C cu st in ng
Gm cun dy tnh, mch t nhm to ra t trng trong khe h
khng kh. Khung dy ng c gn vi trc quay cng kim ch th, l
so phn v b phn cn du.
Gc quay c tnh:

b) Logomet st in ng
Gm mch t c cu to sao cho to nn khe h khng kh khng
u, phn ng gm hai khung dy t cho nhau 60
o
v gn trn trc
quay cng vi kim ch th. Gc quay c tnh:

c) c im ng dng
- C th o dng mt chiu hoc xoay chiu. T trng qua khung
dy ln nn t chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi.
- Tn hao st t ln, chnh xc khng cao.
- Thng dng ch to cc dng c o dng, o p, cng sut v
gc lch pha.
37
2.1.6. C cu o cm ng
2.1.6.1. Cu to
C cu cm ng c cu to nh hnh 2.1 1.

Hnh 2.11. C cu ch th cm ng
1. Cun dy 1 ; 2. Cun dy 2; 3. C cu cn du ; 4. a nhm v trc quay
2.1.6.2. Nguyn l lm vic
Khi cho dng in i
1
vo cun dy 1 th cun dy 1 to ra t thng
1

xuyn qua a nhm, dng in i
2
vo trong cun dy 2 to ra t thng
2

cng xuyn qua a nhm.
T thng
1
cm ng trn a nhm
sc in ng e
1
chm pha hn
1
mt
gc /2.
T thng
2
cm ng trn a nhm
sc in ng e
2
chm pha hn
2
mt
gc /2.
V a nhm c coi nh rt nhiu
vng dy t st nhau, cho nn E
1
, E
2
s
to ra trn a nhm cc dng in xoy
i
X1
v i
X2
chm pha hn so vi e
1
v e
2

cc gc
1
v
2
v ngoi in tr thun
cn c thnh phn cm ng, tuy nhin
do cc thnh phn cm ng rt nh nn ta gi thit cc gc
1
v
38

2
0.
Do c s tng h gia t thng
1
,
2
vi cc dng in i
X1
v i
X2

m sinh ra cc lc F
1
v F
2
v cc mmen tng ng lm quay a nhm.
Ta xt cc mmen thnh phn nh sau:
M
11
l mmen sinh ra do
1
tc ng ln i
X1

M
12
l mmen sinh ra do
1
tc ng ln i
X2

M
21
l mmen sinh ra do
2
tc ng ln i
X1

M
22
l mmen sinh ra do
2
tc ng ln i
X2

Gi tr tc thi ca mmen quay M
1t
do s tc ng tng h gia
1

v dng tc thi i
X1
l:
M
1t
= C
1
i
X1

vi C l h s t l.

vi l gc lch pha gia
1
v i
X1
, ta c:

V phn ng c qun tnh cho nn ta c mmen l i lng trung
bnh trong mt chu k T:

Nh vy mmen quay s l tng cc mmen thnh phn:
M
q
= M
12
+ M
21

39
M
12
v M
21
c du ngc nhau do vy mmen tng s ko a nhm
v mt pha duy nht:

Nu dng in to ra
1
v
2
l hnh sin v a nhm l ng nht
(ch c in tr thun) th cc dng in xoy I
X1
v I
X2
s t l vi tn s
v t thng sinh ra n, tc l:

vi C = C
12
C
4
+ C
21
C
3
l hng s ca c cu ch th cm ng.
2.1.6.3. c im v ng dng
iu kin c mmen quay l phi c hai t trng, mmen quay
cc i khi sin = 1, c ngha l gc lch pha gia hai t thng
1
v
2

l /2.
C cu ph thuc tn s, chnh xc thp v khi lm vic dng in
xoy trong a nhm gy tn hao cng sut.
C cu c ng dng ch yu ch to cng t o nng lng tc
dng v phn khng trong li in xoay chiu.
2.2. C cu ch th s
2.2.1. Khi nim v nguyn l c bn ca c cu ch th s
Trong nhng nm gn y xut hin v s dng rng ri cc ch th
s, u vit ca c cu ch th s l thun li cho vic c ra kt qu, ph
hp vi cc qu trnh o lng xa, qu trnh t ng ho sn. xut, thun
li cho nhng i thoi gia my v ngi
S khi ca c cu ch th s c th tm tt nh sau:

Hnh 2.13. S khi ca c cu ch th s
40
i lng o xin qua b bin i thnh xung (BX), s xung N t l
vi ln x(t) c a vo b m ho (MH), b gii m (GM) v b
hin s. Cc khu m ho, gii m, b hin s to thnh b ch th s.
2.2.2. Ch th s
C nhiu loi ch th s khc nhau nhng ph bin hin nay vn dng
ch th s n phng in nhiu cc v ch th s ghp 7 thanh bng mt
pht quang hoc tinh th lng.
2.2.2.1. Ch th n phng in nhiu cc
Ch th l mt n n ng c mt qut v 10 katot. Anot thng t
in p 220V - 250V. Katot c ch to bng dy Cr-Ni un thnh hnh
cc ch s t 0 - 9. Mi katot l mt con s.
Khi c in p gia qut v mt katot no n s phng in,
katot s sng ln v con s xut hin.
- u im ca ch th ny l hnh dng cc con s p.
- Nhc im: Kch thc cng knh, ngun in p cung cp cao,
ch ph hp trong cng nghip.
2.2.2.2. Ch th s ghp 7 thanh

Ch th ny c ghp bng 7 thanh dng mt pht quang (LED:
Light Emitting Diode) hoc tinh th lng (LCD: Liqui Crystal Display).
41
it pht quang l nhng cht bn dn m pht ra nh sng di tc
dng ca dng in mt chiu. Tinh th lng l nhng mng mng lm
bng cht tinh th lng. l nhng cht di tc dng ca in p mt
chiu chuyn pha t dng lng sang dng tinh th v ngc li. Khi
dng tinh th thanh ny tr nn trong sut, ta c th nhn thy mu sc
nn ng sau. Mt u im c bn tinh th lng tiu th dng in rt
nh: 0,1A/thanh, trong khi mt pht quang c: 10mA/thanh.
Trong thc t cn ch th s 16 thanh, ma trn im...
2.2.3. M v cc mch bin i m
2.2.3.1. M
M s l nhng k hiu v mt tp hp s, t t hp ca cc k hiu
ta c th m t c cc con s khc nhau. C cc loi m s sau:
- M c s 10, l h m thp phn c 10 k t t 0, 1, 2,..., 9.
- M c s 2 l loi m c hai trng thi c k hiu t 0 v 1 (cn
gi l m nh phn).
- M 2 - 10 (cn gi l m BCD) l s lin h gia m c s 2 v m
c s 10 d quan st v d c.
i vi c cu ch th s th hin nay ch yu ngi ta s dng m c
s 2.
2.2.3.2. Cc mch bin i m

Hnh 2.15. Mch gii m t m nh phn sang ch th 7 thanh
42
Mch bin i m l thit b dng bin i t m c s 2 hoc m
2 - 10 thnh m c s 10, ngha l th hin di dng s thp phn. Ngy
nay cc b gii m c ch to di dng vi mch. V d nh vi mch
SN74247 c cc u ra h cc gp dng iu khin LED c chung
ant 5V. Cc in tr R
1
, R
2
,, R
7
hn ch dng.
Phn sau y s trnh by nguyn l mt s mch bin i t m.
Da vo nguyn l ca cc mch bin i m ny m ngi ta ch to
thnh cc vi mch chuyn dng.
a) Mch bin i t m thp phn sang nh phn
Tng qut c m u vo tng ng vi m s thp phn t 0, 1, 2...
m-1 v n u ra tng ng vi n bt ca m s nh phn. Ngi ta thng
tng hp b bin i m vi s u vo m = 10 tc l gm x
0
, x
1
,... x
9

ng vi cc s thp phn t 0, 1, 2,... 9. Nh vy b bin i m s c
bn u ra tng ng y
8
, y
4
, y
2
, y
1
ng vi bn bt ca m nh phn c
trng s 8, 4, 2, 1. Ta c bng trng thi nh sau:
Bng 2.1. Bng trng thi bin i t s thp phn sang nh phn
M nh phn
S thp phn
Y
8
Y
4
Y
2
Y
1

X
0
(0) 0 0 0 0
X
1
(1) 0 0 0 1
X
2
(2) 0 0 1 0
X
3
(3) 0 0 1 1
X
4
(4) 0 1 0 0
X
5
(5) 0 1 0 1
X
6
(6) 0 1 1 0
X
7
(7) 0 1 1 1
X
8
(8) 1 0 0 0
X
9
(9) 1 0 0 1
T bng trng thi ta c:
43

Vy ta c th thnh lp mch bin i m t thp phn sang nh phn
nh sau:

Hnh 2.16. Mch tun i m t thp phn sang nhi phn
b) Mch bin i m t nh phn sang thp phn
Nhim v ca mch ny ngc vi mch trn. Vi bng trng thi
2.1 ta c X
0
X
9
l cc bin ph thuc cn Y
1
Y
8
l cc bin c lp.
V vy ta c cc phng trnh logic v s mch logic tng ng:
44

c) Mch bin i t s thp phn sang ch th 7 thanh
u vo l cc s t nhin t 0 9, u ra l trng thi cc thanh
sng ca ch th 7 thanh bng mt pht quang hoc tinh th lng. Xut
pht t thc t ta c bng trng thi nh sau:
Bng 2.2. Bng trng thi bin i t s nhi phn sang thp phn
Trng thi cc phn t
S thp phn
Y
1
Y
2
Y
3
Y
4
Y
5
Y
6
Y
7

X
0
(0) 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
X
1
(1) 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
X
2
(2) 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
X
3
(3) 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
X
4
(4) 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
X
5
(5) 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
X
6
(6) 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
45
X
7
(7) 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
X
8
(8) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
X
9
(9) 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
T bng trng thi ta c th vit c phng trnh nh sau (vi s
th t cc thanh nh phn trc)

T y ta c th thit lp mch logic sau:
46


d) Mch bin i m t m nh phn sang ch th 7 thanh
u vo l m s nh phn (8 4 2 1) ta gn cc tn bin l X
8
, X
4
, X
2
,
X
1
. u ra l trng thi cc thanh sng ca ch th 7 thanh. Ta c bng
trng thi sau:
47
Bng 2.3. Bng trng thi bin i t s nhi phn sang ch th 7 thanh
S thp phn S nh phn Trng thi cc thanh sng
X
8
X
4
X
2
X
1
Y
1
Y
2
Y
3
Y
4
Y
5
Y
6
Y
7

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
5 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
T bng trng thi ta vit c cc phng trnh logic quan h gia
u ra Y
1
,, Y
7
vi cc u vo X
8
,

X
4
, X
2
, X
1
. Tuy nhin cc phng
trnh ny phc tp v i hi phi ti gin bng ba cc n (ti gin
hm).
V d:

48
Chng 3
O DNG IN V IN P

3.1. Nhng yu cu c bn ca vic o dng in v in p
3.1.1. Yu cu v in tr
3.1.1.1. Khi o dng in
Ampemet l mt phn t c trng cho
nhm cc phn t phn ng vi dng in
nh: cun dng ca cng t, wattmet; cc
rle dng in... nn khi xt ti yu cu i
vi ampemet l xt chung cho c nhm.
Khi o dng, ampemet c mc ni tip
vi ti (nh Hnh 3.1) nn in tr ampemet
s nh hng n kt qu o nh sau:
Gi s ph ti c in tr l R
t
, trc khi mc A vo mch th dng
din c tnh:
t
R
U
I = .
Khi mc A ni tip vo mch, do nh hng ca in tr A, dng
in c tnh:
A t
A
R R
U
I
+
= .
Vi I
A
l dng in ch bi ampemet, R
A
l in tr ca ampemet, R
t

l in tr ti. Sai s ph trong qu trnh o lng s c tnh:

Ta thy sai s do A gy ra i vi mch ti cng nh nu in tr ca
ampemet cng nh so vi in tr ti. V th yu cu i vi ampemet o
dng in l in tr ca ampemet cng nh cng tt.
Vi mt ph ti c in tr l R
t
cp chnh xc ca ampemet s dng
l y (hoc chnh xc yu cu ca mch ly tn hiu dng l l th in
tr ca ampemet phi m bo iu kin sao cho:
49

Nu khng m bo iu kin trn, sai s ph gy ra s ln hn sai
s yu cu lc ta phi s dng cng thc hiu chnh:

Trong trng hp in tr trong ca ngun cung cp ng k so vi
in tr ti, th R
t
c tnh l in tr ti cng thm vi in tr ngun.
V d 3.1: Tnh in tr ca (A) khi th nghim o in tr mt chiu
cun dy th cp ca MBA 560KVA, 10/0,4 KV nh Hnh 3.2, bit
chnh xc yu cu % = 0,5%.
Theo l lch, in tr mt chiu ca cun dy th cp l R
t
=50 (m).

Nh vy iu kin cn ca vic ly tn hiu
dng qua ti m bo sai s nh hn 0,5% l
R
A
0,25 (m).
Trong thc t khng c (A) no tho mn nn s th nghim ny
khng c ngha.
3.1.1.2. Khi o in p
Volmet l mt phn t c trng cho nhm cc phn t phn ng vi
in p nh: cun p ca cng t, wattmet; cc rle in p, cc mch
khuch i in p... nn khi xt ti yu cu i vi volmet l xt chung
cho c nhm.
Khi o in p, volmet c mc song song vi ti nh Hnh 3.3.
Nh vy ta thy in tr ca ti c mc song song thm vi in tr
ca volmet v lm thay i in p trn ti v gy ra sai s ph trong qu
trnh o lng. Xt khi cha mc volmet vo mch, in p trn ti c
tnh:
50

trong : E l sc in ng ca
ngun, R
t
l in tr ti, R
n
l ni tr
ca ngun.
Xt khi mc volmet vo mch, in
p U
v
do volmet o c s l:

Sai s ph
P
do volmet gy ra c tnh:

Ta thy sai s ph do volmet gy ra cng nh nu in tr ca n
cng ln so vi in tr ti. V th yu cu i vi volmet l in tr
cng ln cng tt. Thc t trn cc thit b o hin i hoc trn ng h
vn nng ngi ta ghi tng tr vo ca n.
Vi mt ph ti c in tr R
t
t trong mch c in tr ngun R
n

nu dng volmet cp chnh xc (hoc chnh xc yu cu ca mch
ly tn hiu p l ) th in tr ca volmet phi m bo iu kin sao
cho
P
< hay ta c:

Nu khng m bo iu kin trn, sai s ph do vomet gy ra ln
hn sai s ca bn thn c cu ch th v ta phi dng cng thc hiu
chnh.

V d 3.2: Tnh tng tr vo yu cu ca mch khuch i ca mt
my in tim nh Hnh 3.4. Bit u
1
= 7mv, R
d
= 100k. (in tr trung
bnh da ngi), chnh xc yu cu % = 1%.
51

Bi lm:
Ta c % = 1% nn = 0,01.

3.1.2. Yu cu v c tnh tn
Ngoi yu cu v in tr cc ampemet v volmet xoay chiu phi c
c tnh tn thch hp vi di tn s cn o. Lm vic ngoi di tn s
s gy sai s ph do tn s. Sai s ny phi tnh n nh hng ca
cc mch o lng i theo ch th nh Shunt, bin dng, bin p, chnh
lu, khuch i v.v. Cng v vy trong nhiu ampemet v volmet, lc cn
m bo sai s do tn s nh hn gi tr quy nh (thng l b hn cp
chnh xc quy nh cho dng c) ta phi s dng trong mch o c
nhng nhng khu b tn s. C trng hp ngi ta phi s dng
nhng linh kin c bit m bo tn s lm vic ca dng c. Trn
cc dng c o dng v p xoay chiu c ghi tn s hay gii tn s lm
vic.
3.2. o dng in trung bnh v ln bng cc loi ampemet
3.2.1. Phng php s dng
Ngi ta s dng mt s c cu ch th c in ch to ampemet
o trong mch mt chiu v xoay chiu.
Ampemet t in: Ch to da trn c cu ch th t in, c c
im l rt nhy, tiu th t nng lng nn thng dng ch to
ampemet c cp chnh xc t (0,5 2). i vi ampemet t in, khi
nhit thay s lm cho in tr ca cun dy thay i dn ti sai s.
gim sai s ngi ta thng dng phng php b nhit, tc l dng mt
nhit in tr c h s nhit in tr m mc ni tip trong mch ca
52
ampemet, v vy s lm cho in tr ca ampemet gn nh khng thay
i theo nhit . Ampemet t in ch c th o dng in mt chiu.
Ampemet in t. c ch to da trn c cu ch th in t. Loi
ny c chnh xc thp hn nhng n bn chc, d s dng v r tin
nn c s dng rng ri hn trong cng nghip. Ampemet in t c
th o c c dng mt chiu v dng xoay chiu nhng ch yu l o
dng xoay chiu. C nhiu loi ampemet in t, chng ging nhau v
nguyn l lm vic song ch khc nhau v hnh thc, s vng dy v kch
thc cun dy t phn tnh.
Ampemet in ng: C cu to phc tp v t tin nn ch dng
trong nhng trng hp cn chnh xc cao, hoc tn hiu o c tn s
cao hn. Sai s tn s trong di t mt chiu ti 3000Hz c xem nh
khng ng k.
Vi cc ampemet in ng khi dng nh mc I 0,5A th cun dy
ng v cun dy tnh ni tip nhau, cn khi dng nh mc ln hn th
cun dy ng v cun dy tnh mc song song vi nhau nh hnh v:

Ampemet chnh lu: Khi o
dng c tn s cao hng kHz hoc
mch o dng trong cc ng h
vn nng ngi ta thng dng cc
ampemet t in chnh lu. Cc
ampemet chnh lu c th s dng
chnh lu mt na hay hai na chu
k. Tuy nhin s ch ca ampemet
chnh lu l gi tr trung bnh ca dng xoay chiu, nhng thng thng
cc dng c o in t hoc in ng li ch gi tr hiu dng ca ng
53
xoay chiu. V th thng nht s dng ngi ta quy c khc vch cc
dng c chnh lu theo cc gi tr hiu dng, vi iu kin dng in l
hnh sin. Vy nu em dng c chnh lu o dng khng sin s phm
thm sai s v hnh dng, ta phi xc nh hiu chnh.
Nu chnh lu mt na chu k th gi tr dng in trung bnh qua c
cu l:

vi I l gi tr hiu dng ca dng in xoay chiu. Nu chnh lu hai
na chu k th

3.2.2. Cc phng php m rng thang o
3.2.2.1. i vi ampemet mt chiu
Ta bit c cu ch th t in dng ch to cc ampemet cho mch
mt chiu. Khung dy c qun bng dy ng c kch thc nh t
0,02 0,04 mm. V vy dng in chy qua khung dy thng thng nh
hn hoc bng 20mA. V vy khi cn o dng in ln hn ta phi dng
R
s
(in tr Shunt) l in tr c ch to bng hp kim ca magan
c n nh cao so vi nhit . in tr Shunt c mc song song
vi c cu o nh Hnh 3.7 (Shunt = r nhnh).

Ta gi I l dng in cn o, I
0
l dng in chy qua c cu, I
s
l
dng chy qua in tr Shunt R
s
, R
0
in tr ca c cu o.
Ta c:
54

Khi bit R
0
dng in nh mc lch ton thang o I
0
dng cn o I,
ta c th tnh c:

Mt ampemet mt chiu c th c nhiu gii hn o, thay i gii
hn o bng cch thay i gi tr R
s

Cn ch rng trn Shunt c cp chnh xc,
c ghi gi tr dng nh mc, gi tr in tr v
thng phn thnh cc cc dng v cc p
ring nh Hnh 3.8.
V d 3.3: Tnh in tr Shunt cho mt b
in phn c dng cn o l I = 10kA. Bit
dng nh mc qua c cu l I
0
= 20mA, in
tr c cu l R
0
= 1.
Bi lm:

55
3.2.2.2. i vi ampemet xoay chiu
a) Phng php chia nh cun dy
Vi anlpemet xoay chiu m rng thang o ngi ta khng dng
R
s
, v nh th s cng knh, t tin, gy tn tht nng lng, mt an
ton. Thng thng cun dy tnh c cu to thnh nhiu phn on
c s vng nh nhau, thay i gii hn o bng cch i ni cc phn
on y theo kiu song song hoc ni tip, tuy nhin phi m bo iu
kin sc t ng tng trong thit b bng hng s.

b) Phng php dng bin dng in
Bin dng in (B
I
) l mt my bin p
c bit c cun s cp rt t vng cho dng
ph ti trc tip chy qua. Cun th cp
qun rt nhiu vng, dy nh v c ni
kn mch vi mt ampemet (hoc cun
dng ca cng t, wattmet...). V in tr
ca ampemet rt nh cho nn c th coi
my bin dng lun lm vic ch ngn
mch.
Ta c:
56

K
I
gi l h s my bin dng.
Thng thng, d dng cho vic ch to v s dng, W
1
ch c
mt vng, ng vi dng in I
1
ch nh mc theo mt dy s u
tin no ; W
2
nhiu vng hn ng vi dng I
2
ch nh mc l:
I
2m
= 1A hoc I
2m
= 5A.
V d: my bin dng: 100/5 ; 200/5; 300/5...
Trong trng hp ampemet ni hp b vi bin dng in th s ch
ca ampemet c khc theo gi tr dng in I
1
pha s cp.
Cn ch rng bin dng in l phn t c cc tnh, c cp chnh
xc, v phi c kim nh trc khi lp t.
3.3. o dng in nh
o dng in nh c t ra khi dng in cn o nh hn dng
nh mc ca c cu. Cho ti nay vic nng cao nhy ca dng c v
h thp ngng nhy ca dng c v cc mch khuch i l rt kh
khn, sau y l mt s phng php.
Ngi ta s dng phng php
c kh tng nhy ca cc in
k, ng ch nht l in k t
in. in k t in s dng c cu
ch th t in c nhy cao. Bin
php nng cao nhy l tng t
cm trong khe h khng kh v gim
h s phn khng ca dy treo.
Tng t cm trong khe h khng
kh bng cch dng nam chm vnh
cu c kch thc ln, tuy nhin ti nay t cm trong khe h khng
kh ca c cu ch th t in vn cha vt qu 0,1T.
Gim hng s phn khng ca dy treo, tuy nhin nu gim qu dn
57
n ko di thi gian dao ng ca c cu gy kh khn cho vic o
ngi ta tm cch dung ho gia hai yu t trn.
Bin php quang hc: L s dng khong cch t thang chia n
gng quay ca in k tng nhy, gng gn trn trc ca phn
ng, c mt ngun sng chiu vo gng, lia phn x ca gng chiu
ln thang o nh hnh v

a l khong di chuyn ca vt sng trn khong chia ,
l l khong cch t gng ti thang chia .
S dng gng quay s tng quay ca tia phn chiu khi gng
quay i mt gc so vi tia ti, lc tia phn x quay i mt gc 2.
Nh vy nhy c tng ln gp hai ln.
3.4. o in p trung bnh v ln bng cc loi volmet
3.4.1. Phng php s dng
Ngi ta s dng cc ch th c in ch to cc loi volmet o
in p nh volmet t in, volmet in t, volmet in ng.
Volmet t in: Volmet t in c cu to t c cu ch th t in,
loi ny thng dng o cc in p mt chiu, c nhy cao, cho
php dng nh i qua, cng c th s dng km vi b chnh lu o
in p trong mch xoay chiu (trong trng hp cn nng cao chnh
xc hoc nng cao di tn s ca tn hiu o). Tuy nhin ging nh
ampemet ta phi ch ti h s hnh dng ca dng hnh sin.
Volmet in t: Volmet in t c cun dy b tr phn tnh nn c
th qun nhiu vng dy to nn in tr ln kh d dng, tuy nhin
nu qun nhiu vng dy qu m khi o mch xoay chiu th xut hin
dng in cm ng sinh ra bi tn s ca dng in, do s nh hng
n tr s trn thang o ca volmet. Khc phc iu ny bng cch mc
song song vi cun dy mt t in b.
Volmet in ng: Khi o in p tn s cao hn tn s cng
nghip hoc khi cn nng cao chnh xc ca php o ta dng volmet
in ng, trong volmet in ng bao gi cun dy tnh v cun dy
58
ng cng c mc ni tip nhau.

Khi o in p c tn s qu cao, s c nhng sai s ph do tn s, v
vy phi b tr thm t b cho cc cun dy tnh v ng.
3.4.2. Phng php m rng gii hn o
3.4.2.1. Phng php dng in tr ph
Yu cu c bn ca volmet l in tr ca n cng ln cng tt v th
m rng thang o trong cc volmet cch n gin nht l ni thm
in tr ph vo c cu o nh Hnh 3.13.

Hnh 3.13. M rng thang o cho volmet
vi: R
0
in tr ca c cu o
R
P
l in tr ph
U
0
in p t ln c cu
U
X
in p cn o.
Ta c:
59

Cc in tr ph thng c ch to bng hp kim ca ma ngan c
chnh xc cao v t thay i theo nhit . ch to volmet nhiu
thang o th ngi ta dng nhiu in tr ph mc ni tip vi c cu cn
o.
V d: S in ca mt volmet c ba gii hn o

3.4.2.2. Phng php dng bin in p
Khi cn o in p c ln hng KV tr ln, nu dng in tr ph s
cng knh v t tin, tn hao cng sut v mt an ton, do ta phi
dng bin in p o lng B
U
. Bin in p o lng l mt my bin
p c bit m cun s cp qun rt nhiu vng c ni vi in p cn
o, cun th cp qun t vng hn c ni vi volmet in t hoc in
ng (hoc cun p ca cng t, wattmet...).
V volmet c in tr ln nn c th coi bin in p lun lm vic
ch khng ti.
Ta c:
60

tin trong qu trnh s dng v
ch to ngi ta quy c in p nh
mc ca bin in p pha th cp bao
gi cng l 100V. Cn pha s cp c
ch to tng ng vi cc cp ca in
p li Khi lp hp b gia bin in p
v volmet ngi ta khc volmet theo
gi tr in p pha s cp.
Ging nh bin dng in, bin in
p l phn t c cc tnh, c cp chnh
xc, v phi c kim nh trc khi
lp t.
3.5. o dng in v in p bng phng php so snh
3.5.1. Khi nim
Cc bin php o dng v p k trn s dng ch th cui cng l
nhng c cu c in lm quay kim ch trn thang chia , nh vy sai
s khng th nh hn sai s ca cc ch th dng vo dng c v cha k
n sai s gy ra do cc mch o s dng. Cp chnh xc cao nht ca
cc dng c o c in hin nay cha vt qu 0,01 nn php o trc
tip trn cng khng vt qua cp chnh xc y.
nng cao chnh xc v
php o in p, tng tng tr
vo, ngi ta dng phng php
so snh hay cn gi l phng
php b tc l so snh in p
cn o vi in p mu. y l
nguyn l ca tt c cc in th
k, cc volmet s c chnh xc
cao nht hin nay.
Nguyn tc c bn ca phng php so snh c tm tt nh sau:
61
in p cn o U
X
c so snh vi in p b U
k
l in p ri trn
in tr R
k
. R
k
l in tr mu c chnh xc rt cao v rt t thay i
theo nhit . Trong qu trnh so snh nu U = 0 ta c so snh cn
bng, nu U 0 ta c so snh khng cn bng hay l so snh kiu vi
sai. U c xc nh bng dng c c nhy cao hay dng c t ng
pht hin s chnh lch hay cn gi l c quan zero.
Cc loi phng php so snh khc nhau ch khc nhau cch to
i lng b U
k
. chnh xc ca in p b v cc yu cu khc cng
vi nhy, ngng nhy ca dng c cn bng hay c quan zero
u do sai s yu cu ca php o quyt nh.
Sau y ta xe tm hiu mt s dng c o dng phng php so snh.
3.5.2. in th k mt chiu
3.5.2.1. in th k mt chiu in tr ln
S ca in th k mt chiu in tr ln nh Hnh 3.17.
R
k
, R
c
l cc bin tr, E
N
l ngun pin mu, U
cc
l in p cung cp
cho mch, U
X
l in p cn o, G in k ch khng.

in th k mt chiu in tr ln gm hai mch chnh l mch to
dng cng tc v mch o. Khi o ta tin hnh hai thao tc:
+ iu chnh dng cng tc
Khi iu chnh dng cng tc ta ng kho K sang v tr 1,1 ni
62
in k vo mch to dng cng tc, ta iu chnh Rc in k G ch
khng, khi xy ra quan h:
E
N
= U
RN
= I
P
.R
c

Gi tr dng cng tc:

+ Tin hnh o in p cn o U
X

Ta ng kho K sang v tr 2,2 ni in p cn o U
X
vo mch
o, sau ta iu chnh con trt trn in tr R
k
cho n kh in k G
ch khng.
Lc ta c quan h sau:

Vy in p U
X
c xc nh theo quan h trn.
Trn s ngun pin mu E
N
c ch to vi chnh xc cc
0,001% 0,01% v c h s nht nh (E
N
= 101863V). Tuy nhin gi t
ca pin mu b nh hng bi nhit ca mi trng xung quanh.
Quan h gia gi tr ca phi mu vi nhit ca mi trng nh
sau:

trong E
N
20
o
C l gi tr ca pin mu nhit chun 20
o
C, thng
E
N
20
o
C = 1,0186V, t l nhit ti ni s dng in th k.
Ch : Thng thng ngi ta iu chnh sao cho R
N
= 10186
dng cng tc I
P
= 0,1A, thun li cho qu trnh tnh in p cn o U
X
.
S in th k mt chiu loi ny gi tr in tr R
k
tng i ln,
in p cn o U
X
c V cho nn nh hng ca in tr tip xc v sc
in ng tip xc khng ng k, ngc li nu o in p c rt nh ta
phi dng in th k mt chiu in tr nh.
3.5.2.2. in th k mt chiu in tr nh
63
in th k mt chiu in tr nh c ch to da trn nguyn tc
gi nguyn gi tr in tr mu R
k
thay i dng cng tc I
P
qua R
k

thay i in p U
k
= I
P
R
k
b li vi in p U
X
.
S nguyn l ca in th k mt chiu in tr nh nh hnh v:

Hnh 3.18. S in thkmt chiu in tr nh
Ngi ta to ngun dng mu I
P
qua in tr mu R
k
bng khuch
i thut ton.
t u vo khuch i thut ton mt gn mu E
N
b vi in
p ri trn cc in tr mc song song u vo khuch i. Nu E
N
v
in p ri trn cc in tr mc song song U
g
b hon ton nhau:

Mt khc t u ra ca khuch i thut ton ta c:

vi g
g
=

=
n
1 i
i
g , g
i
l cc in dn mc song song u vo khuch i.
Vy:

Ta iu chnh cng tc K thay i cc gi tr dng cng tc I
P
cho
n khi kim in k ch khng, ta c:
64

Trong mch to in p b khng c u tip xc cho nn loi tr
c sai s do sc in ng tip xc v in tr tip xc. Sai s ch yu
l do ngng vo v h s khuch i ca b khuch i quyt nh.
3.5.3. in th k xoay chiu
V nguyn l th in th k xoay chiu cng so snh in p cn o
vi in p ri trn in tr mu khi c dng in cng tc chy qua.
Song i vi tn hiu xoay chiu th vic to mu v iu chnh cn bng
kh khn v phc tp.

hiu chnh dng cng tc trong mch xoay chiu ngi ta khng
dng gn mu (v khng c pin xoay chiu) m phi chnh nh nh
ampemet c chnh xc cao. Do cp chnh xc ca in th k xoay
chiu khng th vt qu cp chnh xc ca ampemet, mt khc mun
cho U
X
v U
k
Cn bng th phi iu chnh cn bng c v modun v v
gc pha, tc l tho mn ba iu kin l in p U
X
v in p U
k
phi
cng tn s, cng bng nhau v tr s v U
X
v U
k
phi ngc pha nhau.
thc hin iu kin th nht ngi ta mc in p U
X
v U
k
vo
ngun cng tn s. Dng b ch th khng thc hin iu kin th hai
v phi tch U
k
thnh hai thnh phn lch nhau 90
o
to U
X
ngc U
k

C hai loi in th k xoay chiu l:
- in th k xoay chiu to cc;
- in th k xoay chiu to vung gc ( cc).
3.5.3.1. in th k xoay chiu to cc
65

Trong in th k xoay chiu loi ny, in p cn o U
X
c cn
bng vi in p ri trn in tr R (xc nh bi cc con trt D
1
v D
2
)
Mun U
X
= I
P
R. Dng cng tc I
P
c xc nh nh ampemet chnh
xc cao v in tr R iu chnh (R
c
). B iu chnh pha dng cn
bng v pha, ng thi cng lm ngun cung cp cho mch to dng
cng tc Ip, b iu chnh pha ny chnh l nhc im ca in th k
xoay chiu v kh xc nh chnh xc v tr n nh ca phn quay ng
vi gc quay khi iu chnh pha v dng I
P
thay i lm cho vic iu
chnh cn bng kh khn.
3.5.3.2. in th k xoay chiu to vung gc
Trong in k s dng hai cun dy t gn nhau v dng h cm M
ca chng to U
k
thnh hai thnh phn lch nhau 90
o
v U
X
s cn bng
vi tng hai vc t thnh phn.
66

S gm hai mch cng tc v mt mch o. Mch cng tc th
nht gm bin tr dy qun c chun ho AB c im gia l O,
cun s cp w
1
ca bin p khng li thp, ampemet A v in tr (R
c
).
Dng in I
1
t ngun cung cp xoay chiu (c xc nh nh
ampemet) to trn bin tr AB mt in p U
AB
. in p U
k1
c xc
nh bi dng I
1
v v tr con trt D
1
trn bin tr AB. V dng I
1
khng
thay i trong qu trnh o nn thang chia c khc theo gi tr in
p trn bin tr AB.
Mch cng tc th hai gm bin tr dy qun c chun ho
A'B' c im gia O' ni vi im O gia ca bin tr AB, cun th
cp w
2
ca bin p khng li v hp in tr R
f
b tn s. Dng in
I
2
trong mch cng tc lch pha vi I
1
gc 90
o
(v in cm L
2
khng ln
lm nn c th coi nh I
2
trung pha vi E
2
m E
2
lch pha vi E
1
mt gc
90
o
). Trong mch th nht I
1
c gi tr xc nh nn I
2
cng c gi tr xc
nh:

67
M l h cm ca w
1
v w
2

Ta xc nh U
k2
= I
2
R
2
(R
2
l mt phn in tr ca AB c xc
nh nh v tr ca con trt D
2
trn A'B'). V U
kl
= I
1
R
1
v U
k2
= I
2
R
2
m
I
1
v I
2
lch nhau mt gc 90
o
nn U
kl
v U
k2
cng lch pha nhau 90
o
.
Ch rng khi tn s f thay i = 2f, nh vy khi thay i dn
ti I
2
thay i v gi tr khc trn AB cng thay i. khc phc
ngi ta dng hp in tr ph R
f
b cho tn s khng i (tc l R
f

thay i ph thuc vo s thay i ca tn s ngun cung cp).
Mch o l mch ch yu ca in th k bao gm ngun tn hiu
cn o U
X
, in th k ch khng G, cc phn ca bin tr dy qun
chun D
1
O, D
2
O'.
th biu din cc gi tr U
k
nh Hnh 3.19.
iu chnh cc con trt U
k1
v U
k2
trn cc bin tr dy qun AB v
AB thng qua tnh ton ta s c tr hiu dng v gc pha ca in p
U
X
cn o

Sai s ch yu ca in th k xoay chiu l sai s ca ampemet (nh
nht l 0,1)
3.5.3.3. in th k t ng t ghi
Loi ny thng dng o nhit l ti, ram, nhit luyn, dng nhn
68
dng cc i tng l l gia nhit.
- S tm tt nguyn l nh Hnh 3.23.

S gm cc khi nh sau:
+ Cp nhit in c nhim v bin i t nhit t
x
sang sut in
ng mt chiu E
x
. Vi h thng thc thng c thm mch b nhit
u t do.
+ Cu so snh gm E
P
, R
P
v cc in p mu khc nh: R
0
, R
1
, R
2
,
R
3
, R
4
. Nhim v l to ra cc in p mu mt chiu vi chnh xc
cao (Trong thit b thc t E
P
c ly t ngun in p xoay chiu
220V qua b chnh lu, qua n p mt chiu vi cht lng cao).
+ B bin i mt chiu, xoay chiu c nhim v bin i in p
mt chiu U thnh in p xoay chiu tn s 50Hz. Mch ny c th l
con rung c hc hoc rung in t.
+ Mch khuch i c nhim v khuch i tn hiu xoay chiu vi
cng sut ln cung cp cho cun dy iu khin ng c KB.
Tng cui ca mch khuch i s l khuch i cng sut nhy pha
+ Hai ng c gm mt ng c khng ng b c nhim v ko
con trt trn cc bin tr R
P
, R
0
v mt ng c ng b c nhim v
69
ko bng giy chuyn ng trong ch t ghi.
Qu trnh o c chia lm hai bc:
Kim tra chnh xc ca cc in p mu
Lc ny kho K v tr H trc hp gim tc ca ng c KB c
a vo n khp vi u bin tr R
P
. Khi ngun sut in ng chun
E
c
c so snh vi in p U
4
l in p ri trn in tr R
4

Ta c:
U= E
c
- U
4

trong E
c
l mt ngun chun vi chnh xc rt cao c sn trong
thit b.
U c a vo mch bin i mt chiu, xoay chiu sau c
a ti mch khuch i v tn hiu c khuch i ln vi cng sut
ln cung cp cho cun dy iu khin ca ng c KB. V tng
cui ca mch khuch i l khuch i cng sut nhy pha nn pha ca
in p trn cun dy iu khin s ph thuc vo du ca U.
Tm li, khi U 0, ng c KB s quay ko con trt trn u
bin tr R
P
thay i in p U
k
theo chiu hng sao cho U 0.
Lc mt tn hiu iu khin v dng li. Cc in p mu trn cc
nhnh ca cu coi nh t yu cu v chnh xc.
Qu trnh o nhit
Lc ny kho K v tr X, trc hp gim tc ca ng c KB c
a v n khp vi u bin tr R
0

Nh cp nhit in, nhit cn o bin thnh sut in ng mt
chiu E
x
. Khi o E
x
ta so snh vi U
12
l in p ri trn cc in tr mu
R
1
, R
2
v mt phn R
0
. Ta c: U= E
x
- U
12

Khi U 0 th theo nguyn l phn trn, ng c KB s quay,
ko con trt trn u bin tr R
0
thay i U
12
c xu hng sao cho
U 0 th mt tn hiu iu khin v dng li. Lc ta xc nh c
E
x
= U
12
. Vy cn c vo v tr ca con trt trn bin tr R
0
ta xc nh
c U
12
ri ta suy ra E
x
. Thc t trn R
0
ngi ta c sn cc vch chia
theo n v nhit nn ta c c kt qu.
70
Qu trnh t ghi
Lc ny trn u bin tr R
0
ta gn sn mt ngi ghi, ngi ghi t ln
bng giy (mt cch lin tc hoc gin on hoc bng nhit).
Trong ch t ghi bng giy c ng c ng b ko chuyn
ng vi tc khng i. Nh vy s to ra trc thi gian t.
Ta thy khi to thay i, ngi ghi s chuyn ng t tri sang phi nh
ng c KB, cn bng giy th chuyn ng vi tc khng i t
di ln trn nh ng c ng b nn ngi ghi s v trn bng giy biu
nhit theo thi gian.

3.6. o in p bng cc volmet ch th s
Ngy nay volmet s c s dng rng ri trong o lng v kh
nng chnh xc kh cao, gn nh, thun tin cho ngi s dng. Tu theo
cch bin i in p thnh cc i lng ch th s m ngi ta chia
ra thnh ba loi volmet s nh sau:
- Volmet s chuyn i thi gian;
- Volmet s chuyn i tn s;
- Volmet s chuyn i trc tip (chuyn i b).
3.6.1. Volmet s chuyn i thi gian
Nguyn l chung l bin i in p cn o thnh khong thi gian,
sau lp y khong thi gian bng cc xung c tn s chun (f
0
) sau
dng b m m s lng xung (N) t l vi U
x
suy ra U
x

S cu trc chung ca volmet s nh sau:
71

Hnh 3.25. S cu trc volmet s chuyn i thi gian mt nhp
Biu thi gian:

Nguyn l lm vic:
Khi m my ti thi im t
1
, my pht xung chun qua b chia tn
khi ng my pht xung rng ca, u ra my pht xung rng ca c
U
rc
(U
k
) i tin b so snh so snh vi in p U
x
cn o u vo.
ng thi cng t u ra ca b pht in p rng ca c xung th nht
n trig v t trig trng thi kch hot m kho K cho php cc
xung mang tn s chun (f
0
) t pht xung qua kho K n b m v ch
th s. Ti thi im t
2
khi U
x
= U
rc
thit b so snh pht xung th 2 tc
ng vo trig v kho kho K, thi gian t t
1
n t
2
tng ng vi t
x
. T
y ta c mi quan h:
72

Vi mt my pht in p rng cn c nh th t v tr l hng s, v
vy U
x
t l vi t
x
s lng xung n b m trong khong thi gian t
x
s
l:

S lng xung i qua kho K trong mt chu k ca in p rng ca
t l vi in p cn o.
Sai s ch yu l do my pht in p rng ca gy ra, tc l t v tr
khc hng s, tip theo l sai s lng t.
Ch : Khi U
x
bin thin vi mt tc no th khng th o
c v ng cong in p rng ca khng ct U
x
. Do vy s bin thin
ca in p U
x
Phi m bo iu kin sau:

3.6.2. Volmet s chuyn i tn s
Nguyn l lm vic ca volmet s chuyn i tn s da trn nguyn
tc bin in p thnh tn s ri dng cc my o tn s ch th theo
in p.
S cu trc ca volmet s chuyn i tn s nh sau
73

in p cn o U
x
c a n u vo, qua khu tch phn s c
in p U
1
. U
1
c so snh vi in p U
2
(in p U
2
c n nh cao
Khi U
1
= U
2
thit b so snh pht xung qua khuch i 2 (ti thi im t
thng kho K
1
v K n b m, ch th s. Khi K
1
thng, in p U
0

(ngc du vi U
1
) qua K
1
n b vi in p U
1
(y l mch phng
in ca t C) trong khong thi gian T
k
(t t
1
n t
2
) ti t
2
in p U
0
b
hon ton U
1


74


Vy tn s f
x
t l vi in p cn o U
x

ch th s ta dng phn to gc thi gian v cc kho, b m v
ch th s ging nh mt my o tn s nhng hin th theo in p. C
th b to gc thi gian l my pht xung chun T
0
to thi gian
T
c
= kT
0
iu khin kho cho cc xung mang tn s f
x
qua n. S lng
xung mang tn s f
x
qua kho K trong khong thi gian T
c
n ch th s
c xc nh nh sau:

m bo chnh xc th ngun to in p U
0
phi n nh, sai s
ca volmet loi ny c hai loi l sai s do chuyn t in p sang tn
s khong 0,2% v sai s lng t khong 0,01%.
3.6.3. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip
75
Ta so snh in p cn o U
x
vi in p chun U
k
ph thuc vo
vic gia cng i lng b U
k
v quy trnh so snh vi U
x
m ngi ta
phn ra thnh volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu b qut v volmet s
bin i trc tip kiu tu ng.
3.6.3.1. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu b qut
in p b U
k
thay i lp li theo chu k, trong mi chu k bin
thin ca U
k
ta ly s do mt ln tc l ti thi im U
x
, U
k
ta c kt
qu ca php o. in p b U
k
c th thay i tuyn tnh hoc thay i
theo bc thang. Nu thay i theo bc thang th c bc thang bng nhau
v bc thang khng bng nhau.
S cu trc gm hai phn: phn chuyn i in p U
x
thnh
khong thi gian T
x
v phn o khong thi gian. Thc cht gm hai
phn l phn bin i in p cn o thnh s lng xung N
1
v phn
tip theo lm nhim v bin i s lng xung N
1
thnh m thp phn
N
10
iu khin cc phn t hin s.


76
Nguyn l lm vic:
Khi m my, b pht xng chun bt u lm vic, cc xung f
0
n
b m 1 v kho K; sau mt tp xung f
0
tng ng vi thi im t
0
th
b m 1 pht xung n thng kho K, trong thi gian K thng cc xung
mang f
0
qua K n b m 2 v ch th s. ng thi c mi xung f
0
n
D/A s tng in p ra ca n U
k
ln mt mc U (cc mc U bng
nhau). Qu trnh tip tc cho n khi U
k
U
x
(ti thi im tr b so snh
tc ng vo b khuch i to tn hiu kho kho K. Qu trnh o kt
thc v b phn ch th hin kt qu. Nu tt c cc mc in p U to
nn U
k
liu bng nhau th s lng xung N
1
s t l vi in p cn o
U
x
tc l U
x
U
k
= N
1
U. y l gi tr tc thi ca in p cn o ti
thi im t
1
. Nu mun o U
x
ti thi im khc th qu trnh o s lp
li t u.
i vi volmet ch th b qut vi i lng U
k
thay i theo cc bc
thang khng bng nhau. Trong cc volmet ny cc mc bc thang U
khng nh nhau, c th to cc U theo tng hng m ca con s h
m nht nh. Do c th da vo h m nh phn, nh thp phn v
thp phn gia cng in p b U
k.

V d 3.4: Qu trnh gia cng in p b U
k
theo h m thp phn.

77
Hnh 3.31. Qu trnh gia cng in p b
Qu trnh so snh t hng ln nht, vi U
x
= 43V. Con s thp phn
c hai hng m l hng chc v hng n v. Nguyn l ca qu trnh so
snh nh sau:
+ Nu U
k
> U
x
th m s ghi l 0.
+ Nu U
k
U
x
th m s ghi l mt s tng ng vi hng m ca
U
k
v khi hiu |U
k
- U
x
| < U (mc ca hng m) th qu trnh so snh
s chuyn sang hng m nh hn). C th y ta bt u so snh U
x

vi U
k
= 90 ta s c m ra l 0, U
k
= 80 ta s c m ra l 0,... cho
n khi U
k
= 40 tc l:

Lc ny m ra s l 4 ( hng chc nn ghi l 40) tip tc qu trnh
so snh s din ra hng n v vi gi tr ln nht ca hng l 9 v mi
mc U = 1

Qu trnh gia cng U
k
kt thc ta s c tng gi tr

y U
k10
l m hng chc, U
k1
l m hng n v.
3.6.3.2. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng
Trong cc volmet ny i lng b U
k
thay i lun bm theo s
bin thin ca i lng cn o U
x
. V vy trong cu trc ca n c b
chuyn i A/D, D/A tc ng theo hai chiu thun nghch. c im c
bn ca dng c o l kh nng cho kt qu lin tc ti thi im bt k.
Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng c hai loi bao gm loi
gia cng i lng b U
k
thay i theo bc thang bng nhau v loi gia
78
cng i lng b U
k
thay i theo bc thang khng bng nhau.
a) Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng c U
k
thay i theo bc
thang bng nhau.
Nguyn l c bn

in p U
x
c so snh vi in p b U
k
bt u t thi im t
1

in p U
k
tng lin tc, mi mc tng l U
k
(l nhng bc thang bng
nhau) cho n thi im t
2
khi U
x
U
k
. Xut hin bt phng trnh
U
x
- U
k
< U
k
s kt thc qu trnh o v cho ra kt qu ch th s.
Thi gian gia cng c xc nh bi s mc lng t ln nht (N
dm
)
v thi gian t ca mt mc lng t.
t
0
= N
dm
t
Da vo sai s lng t yu cu xc nh N
dm
.

+ Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng vi b m thun
nghch c cu trc nh sau:
79

Khi bt u lm vic b pht xung chun pht lin tc n ch
kho (K). Ti thi im U
x
= 0 hoc U
x
= U
k
th kho (K) kho, cc xung
mang tn s f
0
khng th n b m thun nghch. Khi U
x
> U
k
tc l
U
x
- U
k
= U > 0, tn hiu U qua khuch i c lch n thng kho K
v iu khin b m lm vic ch cng. M ra ca b m iu
khin b chuyn i D/A tng dn U
k
cho n khi U
x
U
k
th kho K s
kho, kt thc qu trnh o, b phn ch th s cho kt qu o. Khi
U
x
< U
k
tc l U
x
- U
k
= U < 0 th khuch i c lch to xung thng
kho K, iu khin b m lm vic ch tr. M ra ca b m iu
khin chuyn i A/D gim U
k
cho n khi U
x
U
k
th kho K s kho,
b phn ch th s cho kt qu o.
+ Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng vi ng c thun
nghch.
S khi nh sau:

Ta m ho gc quay ca ng c (tc l U c bin thnh
80
gc ca ng c). Dng c thng c hai u ra, mt u l m s,
mt u khc l tn hiu tng t (sau ng c) c th ghi hoc ch th
bng kim trn thang chia . Khu A/D ca dng c l chuyn i khng
gian dng mt n hoc thc m ho bin i gc quay thnh m
Gray ri t m Gray thnh m nh phn, gii m, ch th s.
b) Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng c U
k
thay i theo bc
thang khng bng nhau.
Volmet gm hai loi vi hai php gia cng U
k
nh sau:
+ Gia cng U
k
t hng m ln nht
Trng thi ban u, tt c cc hng m ( cc) u bng 0 tc l
U
k
= 0. Trong mi hng bt u t s nh nht ca hng m tng dn U
k

cho n khi hiu U
x
- U
k
< U
k
ca hng th chuyn sang hng m
nh hn v qu trnh lp li nh trn. Qu trnh o (gia cng) kt thc
khi:

hng nh nht, thit b so snh s thng bo iu ny.
Nu U
x
= const th U
k
s tng lin tc hoc gim lin tc, s mc
lng t khng ln lm. Nu U
x
bin thin, U
k
s thay i cho ph hp
vi s bin thin ca U
x
s iu khin s phc tp hn, s lng nhp
thc hin gia cng U
k
c xc nh:

trong : n l s lng nhp; a
1
, a
2
a
3
, l s mc ca cc cc to
thnh gi tr s ca i lng cn o.
Thi gian cc i gia cng theo phng php ny:
t
0
= k.9.t
k l s cc, 9 l ch s trong mt cc.
+ Gia cng U
k
t hng nh nht
Trng thi ban u U
k
= 0 v bt u t gi tr nh nht ca hng nh
nht. V d hng n v: U
k
= 0, 1, 2, 3,..., 9. Nu gia cng ht hng nh
81
m hiu U
x
- U
k
> U
k1
(U
k1
l mc gi tr ca hng nh nht) th tip
tc gia cng n hng ln hn khi xut hin U
k
> U
x
tc l hiu U
x
- U
k

i du th quay tr v hng m nh nht v gim dn tng mc U
k1

gim U
k
cho n khi U
k
U
x
. Qu trnh o kt thc v kt qu hin ra
ch th s. u im ca phng php ny l s iu khin tng i
n gin, nhc im l thi gian gia cng di, nht l trng hp dng
bn cc m s 9090 phi thc hin 90 nhp. Thi gian gia cng s
c bn ch s:
t
0
= 90.t.
82
Chng 4
O CNG SUT V NNG LNG

4.1. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch mt pha
4.1.1. o cng sut tc dng bng wattmet in ng
4.1.1.1. o cng sut trong mch mt chiu
o cng sut ngi ta thng dng wattmet in ng, wattmet in
ng c ch to da trn c cu ch th in ng, gc quay ca c cu
ch th in ng c tnh nh sau:

vi l gc lch pha gia cc dng I
1
v I
2

S mc wattmet in ng nh Hnh 4.1.
Wattmet in ng c hai cun dy, cun dy tnh cn gi l cun
dng c cun bng dy c kch thc ln, t vng, cho dng ph ti
trc tip chy qua hoc ni vi th cp ca bin dng in, n ng vai
tr nh mt ampemet. Cun dy ng hay cn gi l cun p thng
c ni tip vi R
P
, c ot trc tip ln in p ca ph ti hoc ni
vi th cp ca bin in p o lng, n ng vai tr nh mt volmet.

Xt vi mch mt chiu ta c:
cos = 1, I
1
I
83

vi R
u
l in tr mt chiu ca cun dy ng.
Thay gi tr I
2
vo (4-1) ta c:

vi P l cng sut tc dng m ph ti tiu th qua W v
u p
1
R R
K
K
+
=

Kt lun: Gc quay t l bc nht vi cng sut tiu th trn ti,
vy c th dng wattmet in ng o cng sut trong mch mt
chiu.
4.1.1.2. o cng sut trong mch xoay chiu
Gi s mch xoay chiu c in p u = U
m
sint v dng ph ti
i = I
m
sin(t - ) = i
1

y l gc ti.
V c cu khng c mch t nn dng i
2

ch chm pha hn so vi in p u mt gc
kh nh no . Ta c th vc t nh
Hnh 4.2.


Vn t cng thc (4-1) ta c:

vi
u
l gc lch pha gia in p v dng in trong cun dy ng.
Cui cng ta tnh c:
84

Ta xt hai trng hp:
- Coi gc
u
rt nh: u 0 (X
u
<< R
u
)
Khi gc quay = K
1
Scos = K
1
P
Thc t gc
u
tuy kh nh nhng khc 0 v vy dn n nhng sai
s trong qu trnh o lng

Sau khi bin i biu thc v thay: sin
u
u, sin
2

u
0, ta c
kt qu:

Kt lun: Sai s khi dng wattmet in ng ph thuc vo cu trc
ca wattmet (
u
) v tnh cht ca ph ti (tg).
Ch :
- Gc quay = K
1
Scos, nu ta i u 1 trong 2 cun dy dng
hoc p th gc lch pha

Wattmet s quay theo chiu ngc li, v vy ta ni rng wattmet c
cc tnh, cc u dy cng cc tnh thng c nh du (*) ni
chng vi nhau.
Gc quay ca wattmet t l vi cng sut tc dng trn ph ti song
thang chia ca wattmet khng chia theo n v cng sut m chia
thnh mt s vch nht nh. Gi tr ca mi vch chia c c trng
bi h s ca wattmet C
w
:
85

trong U
nk
, I
nk
l in p v dng in nh mc ng vi thang o
th k no . an l s vch trn chia trn ton thang o. Wattmet in
ng c th c nhiu gii hn o (Ti sao?) mi gii hn c mt h s
C
w
tng ng. Cng sut o c tnh bng tch ca h s C
w
trn thang
o tng ng vi s vch chia m kim ch th th hin.

4.1.1.3. o cng sut phn khng
Ta s dng wattmet in
ng cng vi in tr, cun
cm. S mc nh sau: Cun
dy dng in c mc ni tip
vi ph ti. Cun dy in p
c mc song song vi mt
in tr R
1
, sau c mc ni
tip vi mt cun cm L v in
tr R, ta iu chnh tr s R
1
, L,
R sao cho U v I vung gc vi
nhau. Khi o gc quay ca
wattmet l:

4.1.2. Wattmet s dng nhng phn t phi tuyn
4.1.2.1. Wattmet nhit in
a) C s l lun chung
Wanmet in ng ch o cng sut trong mch in tn s thp v
mt di tn nht nh. Khi cn o cng sut tn s cao hoc c trong
mt di tn rng no ngi ta dng wattmet nhit in. Phn t c
bn c s dng trong wattmtt nhit din l hai cp nhit in ging
86
nhau A, B c mc nh Hnh 4.4.
Gi cng sut sinh ra trn cc in tr nhit r l: p
a
, p
b
. R rng sut
in ng trn cc cp nhit ngu s t l vi p
a
, p
b

E
a
= K.p
a
; E
b
= K.p
b
vi K l h s t l.

Gi thit ngi ta b tr sao cho dng in qua in tr r
1
bng tng
ca hai ng i
1
, i
2
cn dng in qua ra bng hiu i
1
, i
2

i
a
= i
1
+i
2
, i
b
=i
1
- i
2

Khi c th tnh c cng sut nhn c tin cc in tr r nh
sau:

Vi cch ni cc cp nhit ngu nh hnh v s ch ca m s bng:
87

R rng s ch ca mV t l vi

T
0
2 1
dt i i
T
1
. Vn y ta cn phi
o cng sut tiu th trn ti. M ta bit cng sut tiu th trn ti s
bng

T
0
u.idt
T
1
.
V vy ta phi xy dng s sao cho cc dng in i
a
, i
b
l tng v
hiu ca cc dng i
1
, i
2
Mt khc cc dng i
1
, i
2
li phi t l vi dng
in v in p trn ti tc l

S ch ca m s l:

vi C = 4abKr.
Tc s ch ca m t l vi cc cng sut tc dng trn ph ti b
b) Wattmet nhit in
Trn c s l thuyt nu trn, ta xy dng s nguyn l nh hnh
v
88

Trn s A, B l cc cp nhit in, r
1
l in tr c gi tr rt nh,
l dng in ph ti, ta c: i
u
i.
Vi cch b tr mch nh trn ta c:


Tng t

Trn s thng chn r
a
= r
b
= r. Kt hp vi c s l lun ban u
s ch ca m trong s ny s t l vi cng sut tc dng P ln ph
ti.
4.1.2.2. Wattmet s dng phn t bnh phng
a) C s l lun chung
Ta bit trong thit b in c nhng phn t m u ra (dng, p) t
l vi bnh phng u vo v nh vy gi t trung bnh u ra cng t
l vi bnh phng gi tr trung bnh u vo. Nhng phn t nh vy c
th s dng o cng sut tc dng P trong mch. Loi thng dng l
dit bn dn.
Gi thit i lng u ra A t l bnh phng vi in p vo u
A = n.u
2
.
89
S cu trc tng hp s dng hai phn t phi tuyn B
1
, B
2
nh
hnh v:

Ngi ta tng hp sao cho

vi U, I l in p v dng in cn s dng o cng sut P. Lc ta
c:

vi l gc lch pha gia in p v dng in trn ph ti.
T c th vit:

vi C l h s t l, P l cng sut cn o.
Vy c th o A ri suy ra cng sut cn o.
b) Warttmet s dng phn t bnh phng - it bn dn
S c th o cng sut s dng B
1
, B
2
nh sau:
90

Trn s r
1
l in tr Shunt. Ta bit vi mt bn dn dng in t
l vi bnh phng in p tc l

T ta c:


Lc gi tr trung bnh ca in p ri trn in tr ra l:

Tng t, nu trn phn t B
2
xut hin in p U
b
vi gi tr hiu
dng U
b
lc ta cng c:

T hnh v ta c:

91
Trn thc t thng chn r
a
= r
b
= r, lc in p trn mV s bng

Ch : Wattmet ny s dng trong di tn rt rng, ti hng nghn
Hz c sai s t 1 3 % v tiu th mt cng sut rt nh.
4.3.1. o nng tng tc dng bng cng t cm ng mt pha
C rt nhiu cch o nng lng, song cng t cm ng mt pha
c ng dng rng ri nht trong k thut v mmen quay ln, lm
vic tin cy, sai s nm trong phm vi cho php.
4.1.3.1. Cu to
Cu to ca cng t mt pha nh Hnh 4.8 gm hai nam chm in A
v B.

- Nam chm in A gi l cun dng, thng c cun bng dy c
kch thc ln, t vng v cho dng ph ti trc tip chy qua hoc ni
vi th cp ca my bin dng in.
- Nam chm in B c gi l cun p, thng c cun bng y
c kch thc nh, rt nhiu vng, t trc tip ln in p li hoc ni
92
vi th cp ca bin in p o lng.
- a nhm c kp cng trn trc quay, ngoi ra cn nam chm
vnh cu M, thanh dn t G v h thng c cu m.
4.1.3.2. Nguyn l lm vic
Xt khi cun dng c dng in xoay chiu i chy qua s xut hin t
thng i xuyn qua a nhm hai ln, khi t in p xoay chiu u ln
cun p s to ra dng in iu chm pha hn so vi in p mt gc 90
o
.
Dng i
u
sinh ra t thng
u
. T thng
u
gm hai thnh phn:
+
up
ch khp mch qua mch t cun p gi l t thng ph;
+
uc
xuyn qua a nhm gi l t thng lm vic.

i
v
uc
s cm ng trn a nhm nhng dng in xoy. Theo
nguyn l ca c cu ch th cm ng, a nhm s chu tc dng ca
mmen quay c xc nh:

vi l gc lch pha gia hai t thng
i
v
uc

Ta coi mch t cha bo ho, nn t thng
i
t l vi I:

i
=

c
1
.I
vi c
1
= const.
Ta coi tn s l khng i nn
uc
t l vi U:

uc
=

c
2
.U
vi c
2
= const.
vy mmen quay c tnh:
M
q
= Kfc
1
c
2
UIsin = K
1
UIsin vi K
1
= Kfc=1c
2

Ta xt hai trng hp:
* Trng hp l tng
Coi cc t thng trng pha vi dng in kch thch tng ng, ta c
th vc t nh Hnh 4.9.
93

T th vc t ta thy:

vi l gc lch pha gia dng in v in p trn ti. Vy:

* Trng hp thc t
Cc t thng ny u chm pha hn so vi dng in kch thch
tng ng mt gc no (tuy kh nh). Ta c th vc t nh Hnh
4.10

Ta xt gc:
94

vi
1
l gc lch pha gia dng in v
1
v I. Vy

Do vy ta phi iu chnh gc ai sao cho tho mn iu kin trn.
Khi c mmen quay a nhm s gia tc ti tc rt ln nu khng
c g cn li, v vy ngi ta t nam chm vnh cu M to ra mmen
hm.
Khi a nhm quay ct ngang t trng ca nam chm vnh cu, trn
a nhm xut hin nhng dng in xoy, nhng dng in ny li tc
dng vi chnh t trng ca nam chm vnh cu to ra mmen hm:

a nhm quay tc n nh khi cn bng hai mmen, do ta
c:

Tch phn hai v ta c:

V tri ca phng trnh t l vi nng lng m ph ti tiu th qua
cng t trong khong thi gian t t
1
n t
2
cn v phi t l vi lng
gc quay ca a nhm cng trong khong thi gian . Ta c:

95
(N: s vng quay ca a nhm)
Vy
W' = C
m
N (4-24)

vi C
m
l h s nh mc ca cng t.
Kt lun: Nh vy ta chng minh c rng s vng quay ca a
nhm t l bc nht vi nng lng in m ph ti tiu th qua cng t.
4.1.3.3. C cu m v cc thng s c bn ca cng t
- C cu m: Gm h thng bnh vt, trc vt, cc con ln v cc
bnh rng ch th s.
- Thng s c bn ca cng t:
+ H s truyn ti ca cng t

l lng in nng truyn ti qua cng t khi a nhm quay ht mt
vng.
+ H s nh mc ca cng t

l s vng quay ca a nhm khi truyn ti qua cng t 1 kWh in.
4.1.3.4. Sai s v cch khc phc
Do tn ti ca ma st, do nh hng ca t thng ph, do sai lch
hng s ca cng t (mmen cn ln hoc nh) do cng t sai s t
nhiu.
Trc khi s dng bt buc phi hiu chnh li tc l tin cch khc
phc sai s.
a) B ma st
- Khi ph ti nh, mmen ma st s ng k so vi mmen quay.
V vy ngi ta phi ch to b phn b ma st trn c s nguyn l
chung l phn chia t thng cun p thnh cc t thng ph bng cc vt
96
chia t thng hoc vng ngn mch khng i xng (cha th hin trn
hnh v).
- Khi iu chnh v tr vng ngn mch khng i xng hoc vt chia
t thng ta s b c ma st (tuy nhin nu iu chnh qu sang tri
hoc sang phi th cng t s t quay thun hoc quay ngc khi khng
c ti).
b) Chng hin tng t quay ca cng t
Khc phc hin tng t quay khi mmen b ln hn mmen ma st
ngi ta ch to b phn chng t quay bng cch trn mch t ca
cun p v trn trc quay ngi ta gn hai l thp non T
1
v T
2
. Khi a
nhm quay ti thi im hai l thp i din nhau th chng s tc ng
tng h v to ra mmen hm (tuy nhin ch vi mmen kh nh).
c) iu chnh gc lch pha
1
gia
1
v I
Ta c:

Mong mun rng

coi nh khng i i vi mi loi cng t sau khi ch to. V vy
ta phi iu chnh gc ai bng cch trn mch t ca cun dng ngi ta
cun vi vng dy ni qua mt in tr R c th iu chnh c. Khi
iu chnh gi tr R s lm thay i tn hao t trong mch t cun dng,
tc l ai thay i.
d) Kim tra hng s ca cng t
Ta iu chnh sao cho cos = 1, cho dng in I = I
n
, U = U
n
lc
ta c P = U
n
I
n
; o thi gian quay ca cng t bng ng h bm giy,
m s vng quay N ca cng t quay trong khong thi gian t.
Ta tnh c hng s ca cng t nh sau:
97

Ta so snh C
p
vi gi tr nh mc ghi trn cng t, nu khc nhau ta
phi iu chnh v tr ca nam chm vnh cu tng hay gim mmen
cn cho n khi C
p
bng gi t nh mc ca cng t. Thc t hin nay,
vic hiu chnh cng t thng da vo cng t mu.
4.2. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch ba pha
4.2.1. o cng sut tc dng trong mch ba pha i xng
i vi mch ba pha i xng ta c cng sut tng ca c mch l:
- Theo i lng pha:

P
A
, P
B
, P
C
l cng sut tng pha A, B, C.
- Theo i lng dy:

U
d
, I
d
l in p v dng in dy.
4.2.1.1. Mch ba pha bn dy - Phng php mt wattmet
Theo (4-28) ta ch cn o cng sut mt pha bng mt wattmet ri
ly ch s ca wattmet nhn 3 ta s c cng sut ca c ba pha: Gi
s wattmet mc vo pha A nh sau:

S ch ca wattmet l:

98
Do vy cng sut ca ba pha l:

Tng t c th mc wattmet vo pha B hoc pha C.
4.2.1.2. Mch ba pha ba dy - Phng php dng kho chuyn i
S mc wattmet nh sau:

Cun dng c dng in khi kho K v tr 1 cun p c in p U
AC
;
khi kho K v tr 2 cun p c in p U
AB
.
Vy khi ng kho K v pha 1, s ch ca wattmet l:

Khi ng kho K v pha 2, s ch ca wattmet l:


Hnh 4.12. th vc t ca phng php o cng sut
dng kho chuyn i
99
Theo th vc t ta c:

Tng t ta cng c th mc wattmet pha B hoc C o cng
sut theo cch trn.
4.2.2. o cng sut tc dng trong mch ba pha khng i xng
4.2.2.1. Mch ba pha bn dy - phng php ba wattmet
Vi mch ba pha khng i xng, ta c

Do vy ta dng ba wattmet mt pha hoc mt wattmet ba pha ba
phn t o cng sut cc pha A, B, C. Sau cng i s cc s ch
ca ba wattmet (hoc ba phn t) ta c cng sut ca mch ba pha.

Ta c:

100
Trong thc t ngi ta ch to wattmet ba pha ba phn t. N gm ba
cp cun dy tnh tng ng c ba phn ng gn trn cng mt trc
quay. Mmen lm quay phn ng l tng mmen ca ba phn t

4.2.2.2. Mch ba pha ba dy Phng php dng hai wattmet
Xt cng sut tc thi trong mch ba pha l:

i vi mch ba pha ba dy, v khng c dy trung tnh nn dng
in trung tnh bng khng ngha l:

Vy cng sut tc dng ca ba pha l:

Nh vy ta c th dng hai wattmet mt pha c s nh Hnh 4.14
o cng sut trong mch ba pha. Thc t cng da trn nguyn tc
ny ngi ta ch to wattmet ba pha hai phn t. Cch mc nh sau:

4.2.3. o nng lng tc dng trong mch ba pha
101
- i vi mch ba pha bn dy c th dng cng t ba pha ba phn t
hoc ba cng t mt pha. S mc ging nh mc wattmet o cng
sut tc dng.
- i vi mch ba pha ba dy c th dng cng t ba pha hai phn t
hoc hai cng t mt pha. S mc ging nh mc wattmet o cng
sut tc dng.
- Vi mch h p cng sut ln ta kt hp gia bin dng in v
cng t ba pha o nng lng tc dng.
V d 4.1: S kt hp gia B
I
v cng t o nng lng tc dng
pha h th.

- Vi mch cao p, ta kt hp gia B
U
, B
I
v cng t ba pha o
nng lng tc dng
4.2.4. o nng lng phn khng trong mch ba pha
4.2.4.1. Dng cng t phn khng ba pha ba phn t
S mc cng t nh sau:
102

Hnh 4.16. S u dy v th vc t ca cng t
phn khng ba pha ba phn t
im o m thng l u ngun nn ta coi mch ba pha c ngun
i xng, ph ti mang tnh cht cm.
Ta c mmen quay tng ca cng t l:

Ta thy mmen quay t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch ba
pha cho nn s ch ca cng t s t l vi nng lng phn khng tiu
th trong mch ba pha.
4.2.4.2. Dng cng t phn khng ba pha hai phn t c cun dy ni
tip ph
S mc nh Hnh 4.17.
im o m l u ngun nn ta coi mch ba pha c ngun i
xng, ph ti mang tnh cht cm. Xt tng phn t, ta tnh c mo
men quay nh sau:
103


Mmen quay t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch ba pha vy
s ch ca cng t t l vi nng lng phn khng trong mch ba pha.
4.2.4.3. Dng cng t phn khng ba pha hai phn t c R
0
to gc lch
pha 60
o

104

Trong s cng t ny, cc cun p c mc ni tip vi in tr
mu R
0
. in tr ny c tnh ton sao cho dng in trong cun p ch
chm pha so vi in p tng ng mt gc 60
o
. Ta c th vc t nh
hnh v
Ta c m men quay ca cc phn t l:

Hn na ta c:

Thay vo ta c:

Tng t

Vy m men quay tng l:
105

Vy: M men quay tng t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch
ba pha nn s ny thng c dng o nng lng phn khng
trong mch ba pha. Nu vi mch ba pha khng i xng th c sai s
nht nh.
4.2.5. V d s o m cao th
Thc t c rt nhiu s o m cao th: Tc l s kt hp B
U
,
B
I
v cng t ba pha o nng lng tc dng v phn khng cho mch ba
pha cao th.

+ Cng t tc dng ba pha hai phn t c cun dng cc pha A, B.
+ Cng t phn khng ba pha ba phn t.
+ Cc cun dng ca cng t tc dng v phn khng u ni pha
th cp ca my bin dng, vy dng nh mc qua cc cun dng l 5A.
+ Cc cun p ca cng t tc dng v phn khng u ni pha
th cp ca bin in p, vy in p nh mc trn cc cun p l 100V
106
Chng 5
O GC PHA V TN S

5.1. o gc pha v h s cng sut cos
5.1.1. Phng php o cos gin tip
5.1.1.1. Phng php V - A - W
H s cng sut cos quan h vi dng in v in p trong mch
qua cng thc:

Do :

Vy dng cc ng h V, A, W o U, I, P trn ti ta tnh c cos.
Sai s:

5.1.1.2. Phng php xc nh cos
TB

Ta c:

Vi W
pk
l in nng phn khng ch bi cng t phn khng trong
khong thi gian xt;
W
td
l in nng tc dng ch bi cng t tc dng trong khong
thi gian xt.
Dng cng t o nng lng tc dng v phn khng trong mt
khong thi gian no (thng l mt thng) ta xc nh c cos
TB

ca ph ti theo cng thc (5.2).
5.1.2. Phng php o cos trc tip
Thng dng cos met in ng v st in ng.
107
5.1.2.1. Cos met in ng mt pha
Ngi ta s dng c cu ch th logomet in ng ch to dng
c o cos trong mch mt pha.
Cun tnh ca cos in ng c mc ni tip vi mch cn o
cos (hoc ni vi th cp ca my bin dng), hai cun dy ng c
mc ni tip vi R, L v c t ln in p trn ti (hoc ni vi th
cp ca bin in p o lng).
V c cu khng c mch t nn vic ni cc cun dy ng nh vy
s to nn cc dng i
1
v i
2
l vung pha vi nhau. Ta c s u dy
v th vc t nh Hnh 5.1.

Theo cng thc ca c cu logomet in ng ta c:

vi gc:

Vy

Ch : Trn thc t khi tn s thay i dn ti L thay i vy I
2

108
thay i do t s
1
2
I
I
khc hng s nn s c sai s. khc phc, nh
sn xut ci tin s nh sau (xem
Hnh 5.2):
Cun dy ng c chia lm hai
nhnh 2 v 2. Hai nhnh ny mc
ngc cc tnh nhau, mt nhnh ni vi
L, mt nhnh ni vi C. Ta thy cc
dng i
2
' v i
2
" ngc pha nhau, mt khc
hai cun dy li mc ngc cc tnh nn
s to ra m men ca cun dy ng th
hai l tng ca hai m men cng du:
M
2
= M
2
" + M
2
". V vy khi tn s thay
i lm X
L
, X
C
thay i ngc nhau hay
I
2
' v I
2
" thay i ngc nhau. Vy M
2
= const. Tc l nhnh ny khng
ph thuc tn s
5.1.2.2. Cos met in ng ba pha
S mc nh Hnh 5.3.
Cun tnh c mc ni tip vo pha A, hai cun dy ng c mc
vi hai in tr R v c t vo cc in p U
AB
v U
AC
.

Gc quay ca c cu l:
109

Ch :
+ Trong s ny, cc cun p u ni tip vi in tr R nn
khng ph thuc tn s, hay
1
2
I
I
= const.
+ Cun dng c th mc vo cc pha B, C ty .
5.1.3. Phazomet in t
5.1.3.1. C s l thuyt
Xt hai in p cng bin , tn s nhng lch pha nhau mt gc :

Vy

Ta xt tr hiu dng ca u:

V vy bit U, o U ta xc nh c gc .
5.1.3.2. Phazomet in t
Ta a ra s n gin ca phazomet in t nh sau:
110

Hai tn hiu in p cn so snh gc pha c a vo hai u ca
hai mch khuch i qua hai bin tr R
l
v R
2
. Khi o, ta iu chnh cc
v tr con trt trn cc bin tr R
1
v R
2
sao cho in p u ra ca hai
mch khuch i l bng nhau, v c kim tra bng cc volmet V
1
V
2
.
Sau khi kim tra U
V1
= U
V2
= U, ta o U bng volmet V ri suy ra
gc theo (5.5).
trnh phi so snh hai in p u
1
v u
2
ngi ta thng bin
chng thnh nhng xung vung sau a vo b cng i s in p
hay dng in nh Hnh 5.5. Gin thi gian nh Hnh 5.6.

Tu theo gc lch pha gia hai tn hiu, in p hay dng in ra t
mch cng thay i. in p ny c o bng dng c o chnh lu

111

Da trn nguyn tc ny nhiu hng trn th gii ch to dng c
o gc lch pha trong khong t (0 180
o
) vi sai lch nh hn 1%.
5.1.4. Phazomet ch th s
Da trn nguyn tc bin i gc lch pha thnh m, c ngha l gc
lch pha cn o gia hai tn hiu c bin thnh khong thi gian, sau
lp y khong thi gian bng cc xung vi tn s bit trc.
Cu trc bao gm: b bin i gc pha thnh khong thi gian, b
to xung TX1, TX2, TX3, b m, ch th s, my pht xung chun, kho
K
1
, K
2

S cu trc nh sau:
112





113


Cc tn hiu u
1
, u
2
c dng hnh sin cng bin , tn s c a
vo b to xung TX1, TX2. Cc xung xut hin khi tn hiu i qua mc
"0", cc xung ny s c a n cc u vo ca trig to ra u ra
mt xung m di ca n t l vi gc lch pha cn o
x
.Kho K
c m trong khong thi gian t
x
. T my pht xung chun f
0
c tn s
n nh (hay T
0
= 1/f
0
) c a qua K
1
khi K
1
m trong khong thi
gian t
x
. Mt khc b to xung TX3 pht ra xung c di c nh l T
n

v kho K
2
c m trong khong thi gian . Vy cc xung t cc
khong thi gian T
n
s i qua K
2
vo b m v ch th s.
S xung m c l:
114

vi T
n
=KT
0
.
Vy s xung N t l vi gc lch pha
x

Nhc im :
- Nu tn s nh, v T
x
cha trong khong T
n
nh, do vy ta phi m
rng T
n
.
- Nu tn s ln, dn n sai s lng t ho trong khong T
x
tng
ln, dn n sai s tng.
Thng thng lm vic trong khong mt vi Hz n vi MHz, c sai
s = 0,1 0,2%.
5.2. o tn s
5.2.1. Phng php gin tip
Dng volmet, ampemet, wattmet kt hp vi in cm mu, ta c th
xc nh c tn s:

Bit L
0
, cn c vo s ch ca cc ng h o, ta xc nh c tn
s.

5.2.2. Tn s met cng hng
115

Nguyn l hot ng:
Tn s met cng hng gm mt nam chm in, to ra bi cun dy
in qun trn li st t hnh ch U, mt ming thp nm trong t trng
ca nam chm in, gn cht vo thanh l cc l thp rung c tn s dao
ng ring khc nhau. Tn s dao ng ring ca hai l thp k nhau hn
km nhau l 0,25 hoc 0,5Hz. in p ca tn hiu cn o tn s s c
a vo cun dy ca nam chm in s to ra s dao ng ca tt c cc
l thp. Tuy nhin l thp no c tn s dao ng ring bng tn s f th
s dao ng cc i do cng hng ring, cn cc thanh khc khng
cng hng th khng dao ng cc i. Nh vy chng ta s c kt
qu ti tr s tng ng vi thanh rung cc i.
116
5.2.3. Tn s met in t
5.2.3.1. Nguyn tc chung
Tn s met loi ny da trn
nguyn tc chung l s dng phng
php m xung n gin bng cch
phng np mt t in C t mt
ngun in p khng i U
0
no .
Tn hiu cn o c tn s f
x
c
a vo khng ch mt kho in t
K, kho ny c thit k sao cho trong mt chu k ca in p u
k
, kho
K ng t 1 sang 2 mt ln.
Xt khi kho K v tr 1, in tch np vo t tnh nh sau:
q = C.U
0

in tch np vo t trong thi gian mt giy l:
Q = q.f
x
= C.U
0
.f
x
.
in tch ny chy qua ch th khi kho K v tr 2 to ra dng in
trung bnh

(K
1
= const)
I
TB
c ch bng c cu t in G. Thang chia c khc trc
tip theo n v tn s v ta c th c ngay tn s trn ch th G. Mun
m rng gii hn o, ta thay i gi tr ca t C.
5.2.3.2. Tn s met in t
Tn s met in t c thit k nh Hnh 5.12. Kho i ni K thc
hin bng mt n bn dn T. in p u
x
cn o tn s c a vo cc
gc ca T.
na chu k m ca in p U
x
(so vi cc gc ca T), n T kho,
t C c np t ngun U
0
qua D
1
, qua ch th g cho ti khi U
c
= U
0
.
na chu k dng ca in p U
x
n T m, t C phng qua n,
qua D
2
cho ti khi U
C
= U
B
.
117
in tch m t in np trong mt ln ng m ca T l:

Lng in tch phng np trong thi gian mt giy chnh l dng
in i qua ch th

Vy dng in trung bnh chy qua ch th t l bc nht vi f
x
. Ta c
th khc vch thang chia theo n v tn s.

5.2.4. Tn s k ch th s
Nguyn l: m s xung N tng ng vi s chu k ca tn s cn
o f
x
trong khong thi gian gi l thi gian o T
0
.
Trong khong T
0
ta m c N xung t l vi tn s o f
x
. S
khi ca mt tn s k ch th s nh sau:
Mch to xung c nhim v bin tn hiu hnh sin hoc tn hiu xung
c chu k thnh mt dy xung c bin khng i (khng ph thuc
vo bin ca tn hiu vo) nhng tn s bng tn s ca tn hiu vo.
My pht xung chun f
0
= 1MHz.
B chia tn s vi cc nc c h s chia l 10
n
. Tn s chun f
0
=
1MHz c chia n 0,01 Hz. Ngha l u ra ca mch iu khin
theo 10
n
(n = l,2,,8) ta c th nhn c khong thi gian T
0
= 10
-6
,
10
-5
, 10
-4
, 10
-3
, 10
-2
, 10
-1
, 1, 10, 100s.
118

Khong thi gian ny s iu khin m kho K (kho c hai u
vo). Tn hiu f
x
theo u vo th hai s i vo b m ra c cu ch th.
S xung m my m m c s l:

Nu thi gian o c gi tr l 1s th s xung N (tc l s cc chu k)
s chnh l tn s cn o f
x
ngha l: f
x
= N.
Mch iu khin ph trch vic iu khin qu trnh o: Bo m
thi gian biu th kt qu o c t 0,3 5s trn ch th s, xo kt qu o
119
a v trng thi 0 ban u trc mi ln o; iu khin ch lm vic;
t ng, bng tay, hay khi ng bn ngoi; chn di o tn s (cho ra
xung m kho K) v cho ra xung iu khin my v s. Sai s ca php
o tn s:

vi

f
x
l tn s cn o (Hz)
Ta thy rng sai s ca php o tn s t l nghch vi ln ca tn
s o.
5.3. ng dng my hin sng in t trong o lng
5.3.1. M u
My hin sng in t hay cn gi l dao
ng k in t (electronic oscilloscope) l mt
dng c hin th dng sng rt thng ng. N
ch yu c s dng v dng ca tn hiu
in thay i theo thi gian. Bng cch s dng
my hin sng ta xc nh c:
+ Gi tr in p v thi gian tng ng ca tn hiu;
+ Tn s dao ng ca tn hiu;
+ Gc lch pha gia hai tn hiu;
+ Dng sng ti mi im khc nhau trn mch in t;
+ Thnh phn ca tn hiu gm thnh phn mt chiu v xoay chiu
nh th no;
+ Trong tn hiu c bao nhiu thnh phn nhiu v nhiu c thay
i theo thi gian hay khng.
120

Mt my hin sng ging nh mt my thu hnh nh nhng c mn
hnh c k v c nhiu phn iu khin hn TV. Di y l panel
ca mt my hin sng thng dng vi phn hin th sng; phn iu
khin theo trc X, trc Y, ng b v ch mn hnh; phn kt ni u
o...

Mn hnh ca my hin sng c chia , 10 theo chiu ngang v 8
theo chiu ng. ch hin th thng thng, my hin sng hin
dng sng bin i theo thi gian: trc ng Y l trc in p, trc ngang
X l trc thi gian. chi hay sng ca mn hnh i khi cn gi l
trc Z.
My hin sng c th c dng rt nhiu lnh vc khc nhau ch
khng n thun ch trong lnh vc in t. Vi mt b chuyn i hp
l ta c th o c thng s ca hu ht tt c cc hin tng vt l. B
121
chuyn i y c nhim v to
ra tn hiu in tng ng vi i
lng cn o, v d nh cc b cm
bin m thanh, nh sng, cng,
rung, p sut hay nhit
Cc thit b in t thng c
chia thnh hai nhm c bn l thit
b tng t v thit b s, my hin
sng cng vy. My hin sng
tng t (Analog oscilloscope) s
chuyn trc tip tn hiu in cn o thnh dng electron bn ln mn
hnh. in p lm lch chm electron mt cch t l v to ra tc thi
dng sng tng ng trn mn hnh. Trong khi , my hin sng s
(Digital osciloscope) s ly mu dng sng, a qua b chuyn i tng
t/s (ADC). Sau n s dng cc thng tin di dng s ti to li
dng sng trn mn hnh.

Tu vo ng dng m ngi ta s dng my hin sng loi no cho
ph hp. Thng thng, nu cn hin th dng tn hiu di dng thi
gian thc (khi chng xy ra) th s dng my hin sng tng t. Khi
cn lu gi thng tin cng nh hnh nh c th x l sau hay in ra
dng sng th ngi ta s dng my hin sng s c kh nng kt ni vi
my tnh v cc b vi x l.
122
Phn tip theo ca ti liu chng ta s ni ti my hin sng tng
t, loi dng ph bin trong k thut o lng in t.
5.3.2. S khi ca mt my hin sng thng dng

Tn hiu vo c a qua b chuyn mch AC/DC (kho K ng
khi cn xc nh thnh phn DC ca tn hiu cn khi ch quan tm n
thnh phn AC th m K). Tn hiu ny s qua b phn p (hay cn gi l
b suy gim u vo) c iu khin bi chuyn mch nm xoay
VOLTS/DIV, ngha l xoay nm ny cho php ta iu chnh t l ca
sng theo chiu ng. Chuyn mch Y-POS xc nh v tr theo chiu
ng ca sng, ngha l c th di chuyn sng theo chiu ln hoc xung
tu bng cch xoay nm vn ny. Sau khi qua phn p, tn hiu vo s
c b khuch i Y khuch i lm lch a ti iu khin cp lm
lch ng. Tn hiu ca b K Y cng c a ti trigo (khi ng
b), trng hp ny gi l ng b trong, kch thch mch to sng
rng ca (cn gi l mch pht qut) v a ti iu khin cp lm lch
ngang ( tng hiu qu iu khin, mt s mch cn s dng thm cc
b khuch i X sau khi to in p rng ca). i khi ngi ta cng
cho mch lm vic ch ng b ngoi bng cch ct ng tn hiu
t K Y, thay vo l cho tn hiu ngoi kch thch khi to sng rng
ca.
123
i vo khi to sng rng ca cn c hai tn hiu iu khin t nm
vn TIME/DIV v X-POS. TIME/DIV (c nhiu my k hiu l
SEC/DIV) cho php thay i tc qut theo chiu ngang, khi dng
sng s dng trn mn hnh vi n chu k nu tn s ca sng ln gp
n ln tn s qut). X-POS l nm iu chnh vic di chuyn sng theo
chiu ngang cho tin quan st
ng phng tia in t CRT c m t phn trc.
Sau y ta s xem xt phn iu khin, vn hnh v cc ng dng
thng dng nht ca mt my hin sng.
5.3.3. Thit lp ch hot ng v cch iu khin mt my hin
sng
5.3.3.1. Thit lp ch hot ng cho my hin sng
Sau khi ni t cho my hin sng ta s iu chnh cc nm vn hay
cng tc thit lp ch hot ng cho my.
Panel trc ca my hin sng gm ba phn chnh
l VERTIAL (phn iu khin ng), HORIZONTAL
(phn iu khin ngang) v TRIGGER (phn iu
khin ng b). Mt s phn cn li (FOCUS - nt,
INTENSITY - sng...) c th khc nhau tu thuc
vo hng sn xut, loi my, v model.
Ni cc u o vo ng v tr (thng c k hiu CH1, CH2 vi
kiu u ni BNC (xem hnh bn). Cc my hin sng thng thng s
c hai que o ng vi hai knh v mn hnh s hin dng sng tng ng
vi mi knh.
Mt s my hin sng c ch AUTOSET hoc PRESET thit
lp li ton b phn iu khin, nu khng ta phi tin hnh bng tay
trc khi s dng my.
Cc bc chun ho nh sau:
1. + a tt c cc nt bm v v tr OUT
+ a tt c cc thanh trt v v tr UP
+ a tt c cc nm xoay v v tr CENTRED
124
+ a nt gia ca VOLTS/DIV, TIME/DIV, HOLD OFF v v
tr CAL (cn chnh)
2. Vn VOLTS/DIV v TIME/DIV v v tr 1V/DIV v 2s/DIV.

3. Bt ngun.
4. Xoay Y-POS iu chnh im sng
theo chiu ng (im sng s chy ngang
qua mn hnh vi tc chm). Nu vn
TIME/DIV ngc chiu kim ng h (theo
chiu gim) th im sng s di chuyn
nhanh hn v khi v tr c s trn mn hnh s l mt vch sng thay
cho im sng.
5. iu chnh INTENS thay i chi
v FOCUS thay i nt ca vch sng trn
mn hnh.
6. a tn hiu chun kim tra chnh
xc ca my.
a u o ti v tr ly chun (hoc l t my pht chun hoc ngay
trn my hin sng v tr CAL 1Vpp, lkHz). Vi gi tr chun nh trn
nu VOLTS/DIV v tr 1V/DIV v TIME/DIV v tr 1ms/DIV th trn
mn hnh s xut hin mt sng vung c bin nh mt trn mn
hnh v rng xung cng l mt trn mn hnh (xoay Y-POS v X-
POS m mt cch chnh xc).
Sau khi ly li cc gi tr chun trn, tu thuc ch lm vic m
ta s dng cc nt iu khin tng ng nh s ni phn tip theo.
5.3.3.2. Cc phn iu khin chnh
a) iu khin mn hnh
125
Phn ny bao gm:
+ iu chnh sng - INTENSITY - ca dng sng. Thng thng
khi tng tn s qut cn tng thm sng tin quan st hn. Thc
cht y l iu chnh in p li.
+ iu chnh nt - FOCUS - ca dng sng. Thc cht l iu
chnh in p cc anot A1, A2 v A3.
+ iu chnh lch ca trc ngang - TRACE - (khi v tr ca my
nhng im khc nhau th tc dng ca t trng tri t cng khc nhau
nn i khi phi iu chnh c v tr cn bng).
b) iu khin theo trc ng
Phn ny s iu khin v tr v t l ca dng sng theo chiu ng.
Khi tn hiu a vo cng ln th VOLTS/DIV cng phi v tr ln v
ngc li.

Ngoi ra cn mt s phn nh:
INVERT: o dng sng;
DC/AC/GD: hin th phn mt chiu/xoay chiu/t ca dng sng;
CH I/II: chn knh 1 hoc knh 2;
DUAL: chn c hai knh;
ADD: cng tn hiu ca c hai knh.
126
Khi bm nt INVERT dng sng ca tn hiu s b o ngc li
(o pha 180
o
).
Khi gt cng tc v v tr GD trn mn hnh s xut hin mt ng
ngang, dch chuyn v tr ca ng ny xc nh v tr t ca tn
hiu.

Gt cng tc v v tr DC ngha l trong tn hiu bao gm c thnh
phn mt chiu v xoay chiu, gt v v tr AC l hin dng sng tch
thnh phn mt chiu. Xem hnh di y: (bn tri l ch DC v
bn phi ch AC).

Khi n nt DUAL chn c hai knh th trn mn hnh s xut hin
hai th ca hai dng sng ng vi 2 u o. ADD cng cc sng
vi nhau. Ni chung v tr ca ba nt CH I/II, DUAI v ADD s cho cc
ch hin th khc nhau tu thuc vo tng loi my.
c) iu khin theo trc ngang
Phn ny iu khin v tr v t l ca dng sng theo chiu ngang.
Khi tn hiu a vo c tn s cng cao
th TIME/DIV phi cng nh v ngc
li. Ngoi ra cn mt s phn sau:
X-Y: ch ny knh th 2 s
127
lm trc X thay cho thi gian nh ch thng.
Ch : khi my hot ng ch nhiu knh th cng ch c mt
phn iu khin theo trc ngang nn tn s qut khi s l tn s qut
chung cho c hai dng sng.
5.3.4. ng dng ca my hin sng trong k thut o lng
My hin sng hin nay c gi l my hin sng vn nng v
khng n thun l hin th dng sng m n cn thc hin c nhiu
k thut khc nh thc hin hm ton hc, thu thp v x l s liu v
thm ch cn phn tch c ph tn hiu...
Trong phn ny chng ta ch ni ti nhng ng dng c bn nht ca
mt my hin sng.
5.3.4.1. Quan st tn hiu
quan st c tn hiu ch cn thit lp my ch ng b
trong v iu chnh tn s qut v trigo dng sng ng yn trn mn
hnh. Khi ny c th xc nh c s bin thin ca tn hiu theo thi
gian nh th no. Cc my hin sng hin i c th cho php cng mt
lc hai, bn hoc tm tn hiu dng bt k cng mt lc v tn s quan
st c th ln ti 400MHZ.

5.3.4.2. o in p
Vic tnh gi tr in p ca tn hiu c thc hin bng cch m
s trn mn hnh v nhn vi gi tr VOLTS/DIV.
V d: VOLTS/DIV ch 1V th tn hiu cho hnh trn c:
Vp = 2,7 x 1V = 2,8V
Vpp = 5,4 x 1V = 5,4V
Vrms = 0,707Vp = l,98V.
128
Ngoi ra, vi tn hiu xung ngi ta cn s dng my hin sng
xc nh thi gian tng sn xung (rise time), gim sn xung (fall time)
v rng xung (pulse width) vi cch tnh nh hnh bn.
5.3.4.3. o tn s v khong thi gian
Khong thi gian gia hai im ca tn hiu cng c tnh bng
cch m s theo chiu ngang gia hai im v nhn vi gi tr ca
TIME/DIV.
Vic xc nh tn s ca tn hiu c thc hin bng cch tnh chu
k theo cch nh trn. Sau nghch o gi tr ca chu k ta tnh c
tn s.

V d: hnh di s/div l 1ms. Chu k ca tn hiu di 16 , do vy
chu k l 16ms => f = 1/16ms = 62,5Hz.

5.3.4.4. o tn s v lch pha bng phng php so snh
Ngoi cch o tn s thng qua vic o chu k nh trn, c th o
tn s bng my hin sng nh sau: so snh tn s ca tn hiu cn o f
x

129
vi tn s chun f
0
. Tn hiu cn o a vo cc Y, tn hiu tn s chun
a vo cc X. Ch lm vic ny ca my hin sng gi l ch X-
Y mode v cc sng u c dng hnh sin. Khi trn mn hnh s hin
ra mt ng cong phc tp gi l ng cong Lissajou.
iu chnh tn s chun ti khi tn s cn o l bi hoc c nguyn
ca tn s chun th trn mn hnh s c mt ng Lissajou ng yn.
Hnh dng ca ng Lissajou rt khc nhau tu thuc vo t s tn s
gia hai tn hiu v lch pha gia chng (xem hnh di).

Ta c:

vi n l s mi theo chiu ngang v m l s mi theo chiu dc (hoc c
th ly s im ct ln nht theo mi trc hoc s im tip tuyn vi
hnh Lissajou ca mi trc).
Phng php hnh Lissajou cho php o tn s trong khong t 10Hz
ti tn s gii hn ca my.
Nu mun o lch pha ta cho hai tn s ca hai tn hiu bng
nhau, khi ng Lissajou c dng elip. iu chnh Y-POS v X-POS
sao cho tm ca elip trng vi tm mn hnh (gc to ). Khi gc
lch pha c tnh bng:
130

vi A, B l ng knh trc di v ng knh trc ngn ca elip.
Nhc im ca phng php ny l khng xc nh c du ca
gc pha v sai s ca php o kh ln (5 - 10%).
131
Chng 6
O CC THNG S CA MCH IN

6.1. o in tr
6.1.1. ngha v yu cu ca vic o in tr
a) ngha
in tr l mt thng s rt quan trng ca mch in v cc h
thng cung cp in, tuy nhin phn ln cc gi tr ca chng thay i
theo nhit theo iu kin mi trng. V vy khi lp rp, vn hnh cc
mch in, khi th nghim, nghim thu cc mch in, cc h thng cung
cp in, cc h thng t ng ho... ta phi tin hnh o v kim tra cc
gi tr in tr.
b) Phn loi
in tr thng thng c phn ra thnh ba nhm:
+ in tr nh l cc in tr c gi tr R < 1;
+ in tr trung bnh l cc in tr c gi tr l 1 R < 0,1 M
+ in tr ln cc in tr c gi tr R 0,lM
c) Yu cu khi o in tr
+ Khi o cc gi in tr nh cn tm mi bin php loi tr nh
hng ca in tr dy ni, in tr tip xc, sc in ng tip xc.
khc phc mt phn, trn cc in tr mu ngi ta phn thnh cc cc
dng v cc p ring.
+ Khi o cc gi tr in tr ln cn trnh s nh hng ca in tr
khi v in tr b mt.
+ Khi o in tr ca cc vt c m cao ngi ta thng dng
ngun xoay chiu trnh hin tng in phn.
+ Khi o in tr ca cc vt liu rn ta nn dng ngun mt chiu
trnh s nh hng ca in dung k sinh.
6.1.2. o in tr bng phng php gin tip
6.1.2.1. Phng php dng ngun mt chiu
132
Nguyn tc
Dng ampemet v volmet o dng v p trn in tr ri suy ra R
x
' =
A
V
I
U
thng qua hai s :

Phn tch sai s ph
- Xt Hnh 6.1a

Vy sai s ph trong qu trnh o:

Nhn xt: Nu R
A
cng nh th
p
cng nh cho nn phng php
ny dng o in tr ln.
- Xt Hnh 6.1b

Vy sai s ph trong qu trnh o l:

V d 6.1: Tnh sai s ph khi tin hnh o in tr mt chiu ca
133
cun dy th cp MBA 100KVA 10/0,4KV, bit theo l lch:[R
2A
] =
[R
2B
] = [R
2C
] = [R
X
] = 120(m).
Cho: R
A
= 0,1,l; R
v
= 100k
Bi lm
Theo s Hnh 6.1a

Theo s Hnh 6.1b

Kt lun: Dng Hnh 6.1a o cc in tr ln;
Dng Hnh 6.1b o cc in tr nh.
6.1.2.2. Dng ngun xoay chiu

Yu cu :
+ Ngun in p th nghim phi tht hnh sin;
+ Cc ng h V, A, W phi m bo iu kin v sai s ph v sai
s gin tip.
in tr R
x
c xc nh nh sau:

vi P
w
v I
A
ln lt l s ch ca wattmet v ampemet.
134
Trong trng hp cn xc nh tng tr th mc thm volmet v tng
tr c xc nh nh sau:

6.1.2.3. o in tr bng phng php so snh vi in tr mu

Gi s c s mch nh trn, khi c th xc nh in tr R
x

theo cng thc tng ng vi hai s nh sau:
S a : in tr o v in tr mu R
0
mc ni tip
in p ri trn in tr mu l U
0
, in p ri trn in tr o l U
x
.
Khi nu dng qua cc in tr khng i ta c:

S b : in tr o v in tr mu mc song song
Dng in qua in tr mu l I
0
, dng qua in tr o l I
X
. Vi
in p cung cp n nh ta c:
135

6.1.3. o in tr bng phng php trc tip
Thng dng ommet t in, c hai loi nh sau:
6.1.3.1. C cu mt khung dy ch s ph thuc in p
Loi ny thng c hai s mc:
- Mc ni tip o R ln;
- Mc song song o R nh.

+ S mc ni tip nh Hnh 6.4.
Khi o ta m kho K, ta c:

vi R
x
l in tr cn o, R
0
l in tr trong ca c cu.
Vy = f(R
x
) nu U.C
I
= const;
+ S mc song song nh Hnh 6.5.
Khi o ta ng kho K. Ta c gc quay

136
Ch : Thc t th UC
I
c th b thay i. V vy ta phi iu chnh
C
I
hoc R
p
trc khi o. T cc biu thc trn ta thy mun iu chnh v
tr '0' ca kim ta phi ng kho K trong s ni tip v m kho K
trong trng hp s song song. Sau ta iu chnh Shunt t v R
p

sao cho kin ch '0'.
6.1.3.2. C cu hai khung dy ch s khng ph thuc in p
C cu ch th l logomet t in, ngun in p mt chiu c gi tr
l 500V; 1000V; 1500V; 2500V; 6000V c pht ra t my pht quay
tay hoc ngun nhn in p.

Khi o, ta c:

vi R
l
v R
2
l in tr hai cun dy ng; R
0
l in tr mu lp sn
trong thit b; R
x
l in tr cn o. i vi c t in c hai khung dy
ng th gc quay l:

vi R
0
; R
l
; R
2
= const v

6.1.4. o in tr bng phng php so snh
6.1.4.1. o in tr trung bnh bng cu n
137
Cu n v d nh cu P333 ca Nga theo s hai dy, cu QJ ca
Trung Quc... thng dng o nhng in
tr ln hn hoc bng 1 (Nhng trng
hp in tr nh hn cng c th o c
nhng s tng sai s).
S nguyn l ca cu n nh Hnh
6.7, trong :
R
l
l in tr cc c th thay i t 0
n 9999, bc 1.
R
2
, R
3
l cc in tr c nh. Cc in
tr R
l
, R
2
, R
3
l cc in tr mu lm bng
hp kim ca mangan c chnh xc cao,
R
x
l in tr cn o.
Ch th G l c cu t in c nhy cao, ngng nhy rt nh.
Khi o ta iu chnh cho cu cn bng, lc ta c quan h sau:

Vy:

Thng thng
3
1
R
R
l bi s ca 10 v thng bng (0,001; 0,01; 0,1;
1; 10; 100)
Cn c vo v tr ca con trt trn R
4
ta xc nh c R
x
.
Nhn xt: Cu n c mt nhc im l khng loi tr c in
tr dy ni nhng c u im l d cn bng.
6.1.4.2. o in tr nh bng cu kp
Cu kp v d nh cu P333 ca Nga theo s bn dy thng
dng o cc in tr ln hn hoc bng 5m. Cc in tr nh hn cng
c th o c nhng s tng sai s.
138
S cu kp nh Hnh 6.8.
Khi o ta iu chnh cho cu cu cn bng, tc kim in k ch 0,
dng qua ch th bng 0, ta c:
+ Dng qua R
l
, R
2
l dng I
1
, dng qua R
3
, R
4
l dng I
2
.

+ Theo vng 1 ta c:

+ Theo vng 2 ta c:

Vy:

Vi iu kin:

139
Th

Nh vy nu trong qu trnh o lun gi c t s R
1
/R
2
= R
3
/R
4
th
ta s tnh c R
x
thng qua t s trn.
Ch :
- Cc in tr R
l
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
, R
0
l cc in tr mu lm bng hp
kim ca mangan c chnh xc cao; R
0
l in tr cc c th thay
i t 0 9999,9 bc 0,1; R
x
l in tr cn o.
- Cc in tr R
l
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
c gi tr 10. T s R
l
/R
2
c th thay
i v thng bng: 10
-4
, 10
-3
, 10
-2
, 10
-1
, 1, 10. Cn t t s R
1
/R
2
sao
cho ph hp nht vi R
x
cn o.
- Cu kp c mt u im ni bt l c th loi tr c in tr dy
ni, nhng c nhc im l kh cn bng nu R
x
l cc cun dy my
in.
6.1.5. o in tr cch in ca li v thit b in
6.1.5.1. Nhn xt v in tr cch in
in tr cch in l cc gi tr in tr ln (vo khong vi M tr
ln v d nh in tr cch in ca vt liu cch in), do vy phng
php o in tr cch in l cc phng php o c th in tr ln.
in tr cch in cng ln tng ng vi cp in p lm vic ca thit
b in cng ln.
Khi o in tr c tr s ln thng thng s c hai thnh phn in
tr:
+ in tr khi R
v
(Volume Resistance), y l thnh phn in tr
cn o.
+ in tr r b mt R
s
(Surface Leakage Resistance).
Hai thnh phn in tr ny xem nh song song vi nhau, nh vy
hai in tr ny c th so snh c th s nh hng ng k n in
tr khi cn o.
6.1.5.2. Phng php o in tr cch in dng volmet v
140
microampemet

Gi s cn o in tr cch in gia lp v bc dy dn v dy dn
ca dy dn kim loi ng trc c v bc bn ngoi.
Dng in i qua microampemet bao gm hai dng in l dng I
V

v dng I
s
. Dng in I
V
l dng in i qua lp cch in, cn dng I
s
l
dng r i qua b mt ca dy dn v lp cch in.
Do vy in tr xc nh c thng qua volmet v ampemet R
d
l
in tr ca khi ca lp cch in v in tr r b mt mc song song:

Nh vy do nh hng ca dng I
s
cho nn in tr o c bao gi
cng nh hn in tr khi cn o. Nh vy kt qu o chnh xc
ngi ta cn phi loi b dng in I
s
qua microampemet th khi in
tr o c s chnh l in tr khi cn o. S o loi b dng in
d nh sau:
141

trnh nh hng ca R
s
bng cch loi b dng in I
s
qua
microampemet, ngi ta dng dy dn in (khng c v bc cch in)
qun quanh lp v cch in v ni trc microampemet. Nh vy dng
in I
s
i qua R
s
lc trc s i qua dy dn ny o nh hng ca R
s

vo R
v
b loi b. Vng dy ny gi l dy bo v.
Ch : Tuy nhin khng phi trng hp no khi o in tr cch
in chng ta cng s dng vng dy bo v, khi o in tr cch in
no chng ta phi xc nh xem in tr cch in c b nh hng
bi in tr b mt hay khng, nu c mi s dng vng dy bo v.
6.1.5.3. Phng php o in tr cch in dng megommet chuyn
dng
Megommet l thit b chuyn dng o in tr cch in, c
cu to bi c cu ch th logomet t in.
S megommet nh sau:
142

Trong megommet ngun c to ra t my pht quay tay (i vi
cc megommet loi c) hoc t mch in t dng pin (i vi cc
megommet mi sau ny).
Dng in I
1
qua cun dy kim sot:

Dng in qua cun dy lch:

trong : R
1
, R
2
l cc bin tr mu; r
1
, r
2
ln lt l in tr ca cc
cun dy kim sot v cun dy lch; E l ngun.
Theo nguyn l ca c cu ch th logomet t in ta c gc quay ca
megommet l:

Khi R
x
0 gc quay t cc i, kim ch th lch v pha phi (tr
s 0)
Khi R
x
gc quay t cc tiu, kim ch th lch v pha tri (tr
s )
143
Thay i thang o bng cch thay i tr s R
2
.
Trong megommet c u G dng ni dy bo v loi b in
tr r b mt.
6.1.5.4. o in tr cch in ca li in v thit b in
a) Nhn xt
Mi li in c th xem nh hng lot on dy c chiu di mt
n v mc ni tip vi nhau. Cc thng s ca chng l cc thng s di
mc song song vi nhau nh Hnh 6.12.

Trong tnh ton ngi ta thng coi chng nh nhng thng s tp
trung. in tr cch in ca ng dy thng b thay i hoc c th
ng dy b s c. V vy khi vn hnh, hoc khi th nghim, nghim
thu cc ng dy v cc thit b cch in th bt buc phi o in tr
cch in. Gi tr in tr ny khng c nh hn mt gi tr no
theo quy trnh, quy phm hin hnh (v d in tr cch in c o vi
megommet k c E = 1000V hoc 2000V v in tr cch in ti thiu
c quy nh l 1M).
in tr cch in ca li trn on c xt thng c o gia
hai u dy dn in vi nhau hoc tng dy dn in vi dy trung tnh.
b) o in tr cch in ca li v thit b in khi tt ngun in
144

o in tr cch in thng dng ngun mt chiu tng cao hoc
dng megommet. Megommet c mc nh hnh v. Gi s ta cn o
in tr cch in ca pha A, kt qu o c l s l in tr ca hai
nhnh: mt nhnh l R
A
v mt nhnh l cc in tr tng ng song
song, thng thng nh hn R
A
. Ta thy kt qu o c ca pha A s
nh hn in tr cch in tht ca pha A so vi t do nh hng ca
cc in tr mc song song.
Tng t nh vy ta o c: R
B
; R
C
; R
AB
; R
BC
; R
CA
. Sau ta xc
nh c gi tr nh nht trong s { R
A
; R
B
; R
C
; R
AB
; R
BC
; R
CA
} l gi
tr cch in ca ng dy.
Khi ng dy c ti, ba pha s c ni vi nhau bng mt tng tr
rt nh so vi in tr cch in do in tr cch in ca c h thng
so vi t c tnh:

c) o in tr cch in ca li v thit b in khi c in p lm vic
(kim tra nng)
Xut pht t s Hnh 6.14: dng volmet o U
A
, U
B
, U
AB
= U, ta
xc nh c in tr cch in nh sau:
+ Xt khi kho K v tr A. Dng in qua R
B
c tnh
145


+ Xt khi kho K v tr B. Dng in qua R
A
c tnh:


T (6-12) v (6-13) ta c:
146

Gii h phng trnh trn ta c kt qu:

Thng thng R
A
, R
B
>> R
v
lc dng qua volmet chnh l I
1
, I
2
.
V vy:

d) Kim tra cch in ca li hai dy bng hai volmet
S kim tra cch in c m t trn Hnh 6.16. Khi cch in
bnh thng s ch th hai volmet nh nhau, khi cch in mt pha no
gim th s ch ca cc volmet thay i (6-14) c ngha l bt k s
gim in tr cch in ca mt trong hai dy dn s lm gim in p
ca volmet ny v tng ch s ca volmet kia.

e) Kim tra cch in ca li ba pha in p thp theo nguyn tc trn
147
dng ba volmet
Khi cch in bnh thng s ch ba volmet l nh nhau. Khi cch
in mt pha no gim th s ch ca cc volmet thay i theo h thc
(6-14) trn

f) kim tra cch in ca li cao p trung tnh khng ni t
Ngi ta thng dng my bin p ba pha nm tr

Khi cch in bnh thng, u ra ca cun tam gic h c mt
ngng in p nh no , khi c mt pha chm t, in p u ra ca
cun tam gic h s vt qu ngng, tc l c tn hin bo chm t
mt pha.
6.1.5.5. o in tr cch in ca my bin p (MBA) in lc v
phn phi
148
o in tr cch in cho MBA nhm nh gi cch in dy qun
v cht lng cch in trong MBA. o in tr cch in ca dy qun
cho bit thng tin v hm lng m v ccbon. Trong gio trnh ny ch
trnh by cch o gi tr cch in ca dy qun, cn phn o gi tr cch
in ca du cch in sinh vin c th tm hiu thm cc ti liu khc.
o in tr cch in c tin hnh trc hoc sau khi sa cha
hoc bo dng MBA. Kt qu o c ghi li dng cho mc ch so
snh v sau. Quy tc chung c s dng i vi cc gi tr nghim thu
dng cho ng in an ton l tr s cch in 1M/1KV ca gi tr nh
mc ghi trn nhn my v cng thm 1M.
Trnh t o in tr cch in dy qun MBA nh sau:
+ Khng ct ni t v v li MBA v m bo v v li c tip
t tt.
+ Tho tt c cc u ni cao p, h p v trung tnh, chng st, h
thng qut, dng c o hoc h thng iu khin ni vi dy qun MBA.
+ Trc khi bt u o ni tt c cc s xuyn cao p, m bo cu
ni cc b phn kim loi v dy t sch. i vi dy qun h p tin
hnh tng t.
+ S dng megommet c thang o nh nht 20M.
a) o cch in ca MBA mt pha
149

c) o cch in ring r tng dy qun stator

6.1.6. Phng php xc nh v tr chp cp (chm mass)
Khi cp b s c, ta cn xc nh v tr xy ra s c loi tr s c
thng gp nht l chp cp ra v. Phng php xc nh v tr chp cp
150
da trn cn cn bng hay cn gi l vng muray o in tr chm
mass.

Hai u b, b ca li cp nguyn v cp hng c ni vi nhau, cn
hai u a, a c ni qua 1 b in tr in k, khi o ta iu chnh cho
cu cn bng. Khi ta c:
R
l
.R
x
= R
2
(R + R
y
)
R
1
.R
x
= R
2
(2R - R
x
) v R = R
x
+ R
y

Vy

Sau khi bit R
x
t tit din S ca li cp, in tr xut ca vt liu
lm li tnh theo cng thc:

Vy

Trong cc biu thc trn: l l chiu di on cp; S l thit din cp;
l in tr sut ca vt liu ch to cp.
kim tra kt qu o ta tin hnh o li ln hai bng cch i hai
u aa cho nhau, lc ta xc nh c l
y

151

Nu php o chnh xc ta c: l
x
+ l
y
= l.
6.1.7. o in tr tip t
6.1.7.1. Cc khi nim
Thut ng "tip t" hay "ni t" y c hiu ng ngha vi
vic ni mt mch in hoc thit b in xung t. Cch ni nh vy
c s dng cho vic bo dng thit b in khi in th ca chng
bng in th t, v i vi nhng hin tng t nhin nh st, t c
tc dng lm ng phng in nhm trnh hin tng b in git v
trnh h hng thit b ti sn.
in tr tip t bao gm tng in tr ca dy dn ni t, b u
ni, cc ni t v phn t tip xc vi cc cc ni t.
V in th cm ng do s c h thng in vi mch vng qua t,
in tr tip t nh s lm gim in th ny v trnh nguy him cho
ngi cng nh trnh cho h thng in b h hng.
Trn l thuyt, duy tr in th chun cho thit b an ton, bo
v an ton in tr tip t phi bng 0. Trong thc t iu ny khng th
t c. Tuy nhin tu theo mc quan trng ca cng trnh v thit
b in th in tr tip t tun theo cc yu cu ca TCVN, NEC,
OSHA v ca nhng tiu chun an ton in khc.
6.1.7.2. in tr cc tip t
Hnh 6.25 m t cc tip t. in
tr tip t ny bao gm nhng thnh
phn sau:
+ in tr ca bn thn cc v in
tr tip xc ca phn u ni;
+ in tr tip xc ca t xung
quanh cc;
+ in tr ca t bao st xung
quanh cc tip t hoc in tr sut ca t. y l thnh phn quan
152
trng nht.
Cc cc tip t thng lm bng kim loi (ng hoc m ng) vi
tit din thch hp in tr l khng ng k. Nh vy thnh phn cn
li chnh l in tr ca t xung quanh. C th coi cc c bao quanh
bi nhng lp t ng tm. Tt c nhng lp ny c dy nh nhau.
Cc lp gn cc c din tch nh hn cho nn c in tr ln hn, cn
cc lp xa th din tch ln cho nn in tr s nh hn. Cc lp xa
cc qu s khng nh hng n in tr t xung quanh cc.
in tr cc t n c tnh theo cng thc do H.R.Dwight ca
Vin k thut Massachusetts a ra nh sau:

trong : R
d
l in tr cc t tnh bng ca cc ni t;
L l chiu di ca cc (m); R l bn knh ca cc (m);
l in tr sut trung bnh, tnh bng /cm.
T cng thc ny cho thy rng in tr ca cc t ph thuc vo
kch thc, su ca cc v in tr sut ca t.
Khi tng ng knh ca cc ln gp i thng s lm gim 10%
in tr t ca cc, cn khi tng gp i chiu di ca cc s lm gim
40% in tr ca cc tip t. i vi in tr sut ca t thay i theo
vng v theo ma. in tr t c xc nh theo cht in phn ca
n, bao gm m, khong cht v mui ho tan.
6.1.7.3. o in tr ni t bng phng php volmet, ampemet
Khi cn o in tr ni t ca mt cc A bt k ngi ta dng thm
mt cc ph B ng cch cc A chng (50 60)m v mt cc ph C.
Cc volmet v ampemet mc nh hnh v. Khi cho dng in chy t cc
n t, dng in s chy theo hng tm ca cc lp hnh cu, thng
c gi l hiu ng hnh tr ca t xung quanh cc.
Sau khi dng cc d C cho thay i t A B, cn c vo kt qu
ca volmet ta v c ng phn b th nng trn mt t t A B,
m phng trng dng trong t nh Hnh 6.26. Ta c nhn xt sau. Ta
153
c:
AD = DE = EB ( 20m)
trong vng DE in th hu nh khng i:
E
=
D
= 0.

Ti on AD: U
AD
=
A

D
=
A
;
BE: U
BE
=
B

E
=
B
.
V vy ta xc nh c in tr ni t ca cc A:

v in tr ni t ca cc B:

Tm li: Khi cn o R
A
ca cc A ta dng thm mt cc B cch cc
A t (50 60)m v 1 cc ph C. Cc cc ph ny phi c in tr xp x
154
hoc nh hn in tr ca cc cn o. Cc ng h (V) v (A) mc nh
hnh v; thay i C ti vng DE th dng li v ta xc nh c

vi U, I l ch s ca volmet v ampemet.
Ch : V mt l thuyt, in tr t ca h thng ni t phi c
o khong cch v hn k t cc ni t. Tuy nhin i vi mc ch
thc hnh, hiu ng hnh tr ca t th khong cch gia cc cc gn
nhau bng hai ln di.ca cc cn o in tr l . Ngun cung cp
cho mch o l ngun tn hiu xoay chiu dng sin hoc xung vung.
Chng ta trnh dng ngun mt chiu do nh hng ca in phn s
lm tng sai s do in th in cc. Nu dng in li ca in lc th
phi dng bin p cch ly trnh nh hng ca dng trung tnh (nu c
do in th li mt i xng) v cc t ca dy trung tnh.
6.1.7.4. o in tr ni t bng dng c chuyn dng teromet
S cu to teromet chuyn dng loi M1103 ca Lin X c nh
Hnh 6.27.
Ngun cung cp nh my in xoay chiu tay quay. My bin dng
TT, cun th cp ni vi R
ns
; c cu o l c cu t in ni vi cun
th cp my bin p UT qua b chnh lu.

155
Qu trnh o:
Khi dng cho my pht lm vic cc cc A, B, C ni nh hnh v.
Lc ny c dng I
1
, qua s cp bin dng in qua cc A, qua t v cc
B tr v my pht to nn mt st p trn R
x
cn o l:

Mt khc st p trn R
u
do dng I
2
ca my bin dng in TT sinh
ra:

Khi hai in p cha cn bng U
1
U
2
s c tn hiu vo cun s cp
my bin p v c cu ch th quay i mt gc no . Trong qu trnh o
ngi ta dch chuyn con trt trn R
2
sao cho kim ch 0 ch dng li U
1

= U
2
. Vy:

Vy cn c vo v tr con trt trn bin tr R
2
ta xc nh c R
x

cn o (thc t c ngay kt qu).
Qu trnh kim tra:
kim tra chnh xc ca dng c trc khi o, ngi ta ng K
2

ln H, cc cc A, B, C cha ni, lc ny gi tr o c chnh l R
k
, nu
dng c chnh xc gi tr bng 10 v R
k
l in tr mu c gi tr l
10. M rng thang o, t 10 50 nh R
3
thng qua vic ng K
1
.
Ngy nay nhiu hng ch to dng c o to ra cc loi teromet
gn nh da trn nguyn l ca phng php volmet - ampemet, s dng
ngun l phi, cc ch th s. u ra a ra ba u ni ni vi cc cn
o in tr t, v hai cc ph.
6.1.7.5. o in tr ni t bng teromet - Phng php hai im
Phng php ny c th s dng o in tr ca cc ni t n
bng s dng cc ni t ph c in tr bit hoc c th o c.
156
in tr ca cc ni t ph ny c gi tr rt nh so vi gi tr in tr
ca cc ni t cn o v gi tr o c coi nh in tr ni t. V d
nh ngi ta tin hnh o in tr ca cc ni t n cho to nh khi
vic ng thm hai cc ph l kh khn, th ng ng nc c th s
dng nh cc ni t ph c gi tr in tr nh c 1. Gi tr ny tng
i nh so vi in tr ca cc tip t n. Gi tr o c l tr s ca
hai cc ni tip nhau. in tr ca cc dy dn ni s c tr vo kt
qu o c. S phng php ny cho trn Hnh 6.28.

6.2. o in cm
6.2.1. o in cm v h s phm cht cun dy (Q) dng cu xoay
chiu
6.2.1.1. iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu
Cu xoay chiu l dng c da trn cu n o in cm, in
dung, gc tn hao v h s phm cht
Q.
Ngun cung cp l ngun xoay
chiu tn s cng nghip (50 60Hz),
m tn hoc cao tn t my pht tn.
Ch th zero l dng c xoay chiu
nh in k in t, my hin sng...
Gi thit tng tr phc cc nhnh
c vit nh sau:
157

trong Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
, Z
4
tng ng l modul ca ln lt cc nhnh v

1
,
2
,
3
,
4
ln lt l cc gc pha ca cc nhnh cu.
Khi cu cn bng ta c:

hay:

Do ta c iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu sau:

Nhn xt: T iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu ta thy cu cn
bng nu hai nhnh i nhau l thun tr th hai nhnh cn li phi
ngc tnh cht (mt nhnh c tnh cht cm v mt nhnh c tnh cht
dung), cn nu hai nhnh k nhau l thun tr th hai nhnh cn li phi
c cng tnh cht. Da trn nhn xt ny ngi ta a ra cc s o
in cm, in dung bng cu xoay chiu.
6.2.1.2. o in cm v h s phm cht cun dy (Q) bng cu xoay
chiu
Cun cm l tng l cun dy ch c thnh phn in khng X
L

=L hoc ch thun khit l in cm L, nhng trong thc t cc cun
dy bao gi cng c mt in tr nht nh. in tr cng ln phm cht
ca cun dy cng km. Q l thng s c trng cho phm cht ca cun
dy, n c tnh bng:

a) o in cm bng cu xoay chiu dng in cm mu
Mch cu so snh cc i lng cn xc nh L
x
, R
x
vi i lng
mu L
m
v R
m
.
Hai nhnh R
1
, R
2
l cc bin tr thun tr c chnh xc cao.
158
Khi o ngi ta iu chnh R
m
, L
m
(v c th c R
1
, R
2
) cu t
gi tr cn bng.

Khi cu cn bng ta c:

vi:

T tnh c h s phm cht ca cun dy:

b) o in cm bng cu in cm Maxwell
Trn thc t vic ch to t in chun d hn nhiu so vi vic to
cun dy chun, do vy ngi ta s dng t in trong cu Maxwell
o in cm
159

Khi cu t cn bng ta c:

trong :


T tnh c

Cu Maxwell ch thch hp o cc cun cm c h s Q thp.
c) o in cm bng cu in cm Hay
Mch cu ny c s dng cho vic o cc cun cm c h s phm
160
cht cao.

Ta c:

Khi :

Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn dng cc bin th khc ca mch cu nh
mch cu Owen, Shering... in cm.
6.2.2. o in cm bng phng php gin tip
C th dng cc volmet, ampemet, wattmet o in cm v in
tr ca cun dy theo s sau, tuy nhin phng php ny mc phi sai
s ln.
161

Ta c:

Ngun cung cp cho mch o l ngun xoay chiu hnh sin.
Nu nh bit trc R
x
ta ch cn volmet v ampemet nn khng phi
s dng wattmet.
6.3. o in dung v tn tht in mi ca t in bng cu xoay
chiu
T in l tng l t khng tiu th cng sut (dng in mt chiu
khng qua t) nhng trong thc t vn c thnh phn dng r i qua lp
in mi v vy trong t c s tn hao cng sut. c trng cho s tn
hao ny ngi ta s dng thng s gc tn hao tg. C hai s thay th
tng ng ca t:
Vi t c tn hao nh tg = RC
Vi t c tn hao ln tg =
C j
1

trong R, C l hai thnh phn i din cho phn thun tr v phn
thun dung ca t in.
6.3.1. Cu o in dung ca t in tn hao t
T in c tn hao nh c biu din bi mt t in l tng mc
162
ni tip vi mt in tr. Khi ngi ta mc cu nh Hnh 6.34.

C
x
, R
x
l nhnh t in cn o;
C
m
, R
m
l nhnh t mu iu chnh c;
R
1
, R
2
l cc bin tr thun tr.
Khi cu cn bng ta c mi quan h:

vi:

Vy:

Gc tn tht in mi l:
163

6.3.2. Cu o in dung ca t in tn hao nhiu
Khi t c tn hao nhiu, ngi ta biu din n di dng mt t in
l tng mc song song vi mt in tr.

Cu cn bng ta c iu kin:
Z
x
Z
2
= Z
1
.Z
m

vi:

Do vy ta c:

164

Gc tn tht in mi l:

6.4. o h s h cm ca hai cun dy
6.4.1. Phng php dng volmet v ampemet (phng php vol -
ampe)

Sc in ng E
2
l:

Do vy ta c:

trong U
V
v I
A
l s ch o bi volmet v ampemet.
Nhn xt: Phng php ny n gin tuy nhin nhc im l mc
phi sai s ln.
6.4.2. Phng php mc ni tip cc cun dy
Phng php ny dng cch mc ni tip thun nghch cc cun dy
xc nh h s h cm ca chng. S mc thun v nghch nh
Hnh 6.37a v 6.37b.
165

Gi L
1
, L
2
l in cm ca cun dy 1 v cun dy 2; M l h cm
gia chng.
Xt Hnh 6.37a, ta c in cm tng ca nhnh l:

Xt Hnh 6.37b, ta c in cm tng ca nhnh l:

Xt hiu ca hai trng hp:

Cho nn:

Cc gi tr L
a
, L
b
c xc nh theo cc s ch ca volmet v
ampemet trong tng trng hp nh sau:

trong : U
Va
, I
Aa
l s ch ca volmet v ampemet trong s (a), U
Vb
,
I
Ab
l s ch ca volmet v ampemet trong s (b), R
1
, R
2
l in tr
cc cun dy 1 v 2.
166
Ph lc 1
H n v o lng hp php
(cc n v thng dng trong k thut in)

n v trong h hp php S
th
t
Tn i lng
Tn K hiu
Ghi ch
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Chiu di
Khi lng
Thi gian
Cng dng in
Lc
Tn s
Cng, nng lng
Cng sut
in tch
in th, in p, sc in
ng
Cng in trng
in tr
in dn
in dung
in cm
Cng t trng
T cm
T thng
Sc t ng
Mt
Kilogam khi
Giy
Ampe
Niutn
Hec
Jun
Ot
Culng
Vn
Vn trn mt
m
Simen
Fara
Henri
Ampe trn mt
Tesla
Vebe
Ampe vng
M
Kg
S
A
N
Hz
J
W
C
V
V/m

S
F
H
A/m
T
Wb
Avg



167
Bi s v c s theo n v tnh

Tn K hiu
H s chuyn
n v
Tn K hiu
H s chuyn
n v
Pico
Nano
Mili
Micro
Xenti
p
n
m

c
10
-12

10
-9

10
-3
10
-6

10
-2

Deci
Hecto
Kilo
Mega
d
h
k
xM
10
-1

100
1.000
1.000.000

168
Ph lc 2
K hiu quy c dng c o lng in
v cc b phn b sung

K hiu quy c trn
thang chia ca
dng c
Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung
K hiu theo nguyn l tc ng ca dng c

Dng c kiu in t vi khung dy ng

Logomet in t vi hai khung dy ng

Dng c t in vi nam chm ng

Logomet t in vi nam chm ng

Dng c in t

Logomet in t

Dng c in t phn cc

Dng c in ng

Logomet in ng

Dng c st ng
169

Logomet st ng
K hiu quy c trn
thang chia ca
dng c
Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung

Logomet cm ng

Logomet cm ng

Dng c cm ng t

Dng c tnh in

Dng c c h thng rung (li rung)

Dng c nhit (c si nung)

Dng c c thanh kim loi kp
K hiu b sung theo hnh thc bin i

B bin i nhit c cch ly

B bin i nhit khng cch ly

B chnh lu bn dn

B chnh lu c in

B bin i in t

My bin i rung kiu xung

B bin i kiu b
K hiu b sung v bo v t trng v in trng
170

Bo v t trng bn ngoi (cp bo v loi 1)

Bo v in trng ngoi (cp bo v loi 1)
K hiu quy c trn
thang chia ca
dng c
Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung
600 Hz Tr s tn s f
k
khi cng t trng th nghim
bng 400 A/M, v d f
k
= 600Hz

Dng c in t (cp bo v loi 1 v nh hng
ca t trng)

Dng c tnh in
K hiu v dng in

Mt chiu

xoay chiu (1 pha)

Mt chiu v xoay chiu

Dng in ba pha (k hiu chung)

Dng in ba pha vi ti trng khng u cc
pha

Dng c vi c cu o mt phn t

Dng c vi c cu o hai phn t

Dng c vi c cu o ba phn t i vi li
in 4 dy
K hiu cp chnh xc, cch b tr thit b bn cch in, v.v...
1,5
Cp chnh xc vi sai s nh mc theo phn
trm ca gii hn o, v d 1,5
171

Cp chnh xc vi sai s nh mc theo phn
trm chiu di ca thang chia , v d 1,5

t mt chia nm ngang

K hiu quy c trn
thang chia ca
dng c
Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung

t mt chia nm ng

nghing ca mt thang chia t nghing
mt gc xc nh so vi mt phng nm
ngang, v d 60
o


Hng ca dng c theo t trng ca Tri
t
500 Hz Tr s tn s nh mc
400 - 500 Hz Vng tn s nh mc
20 - 50 - (120) Tr s tn s nh mc v vng m rng tn s


172
Ph lc 3
H phn b Student theo gi tr xc sut

H s phn b Student (k
st
) theo cc gi tr xc sut P
N
0,500 0,900 0,950 0,980 0,990 0,999
2 1,000 6,310 12,700 31,800 63,700 637,000
3 0,816 2,920 4,300 6,960 9,920 31,600
4 0,765 2,350 2,350 4,540 5,840 13,000
5 0,741 2,130 2,780 3,750 4,600 8,610
6 0,727 2,020 2,570 3,360 4,030 6,860
7 0,718 1,940 2,490 3,140 3,710 5,960
8 0,711 1,900 2,360 3,000 3,500 5,400
9 0,706 1,860 2,310 2,900 3,360 5,040
10 0,703 1,830 2,260 2,820 3,250 4,780
12 0,697 1,800 2,200 2,720 3,100 4,490
14 0,694 1,770 2,160 2,650 3,010 4,220
16 0,691 1,750 2,130 2,600 2,990 4,070
18 0,689 1,740 2,110 2,570 2,900 3,960
20 0,688 1,730 2,090 2,540 2,860 3,880
25 0,684 1,710 2,060 2,490 2,800 3,740
31 0,683 1,700 2,040 2,460 2,750 3,650
41 0,681 1,680 2,020 2,420 2,700 3,550
61 0,679 1,670 2,000 2,390 2,660 3,460
121 0,677 1,650 1,980 2,360 2,620 3,370
0,674 1,640 1,960 2,330 2,580 3,290

173
MC LC
Trang
Chng 1 KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG........................................... 2
1.1. nh ngha v phn loi thit b............................................................... 2
1.2. S cu trc thit b o lng............................................................... 5
1.3. Cc c tnh ca thit b o...................................................................... 9
1.4. Gia cng kt qu o lng..................................................................... 14
Chng 2 CC C CU CH TH.................................................................. 21
2.1. C cu ch th c in............................................................................ 21
2.2. C cu ch th s .................................................................................... 39
Chng 3 O DNG IN V IN P..................................................... 48
3.1. Nhng yu cu c bn ca vic o dng in v in p...................... 48
3.2. o dng in trung bnh v ln bng cc loi ampemet ....................... 51
3.3. o dng in nh................................................................................... 56
3.4. o in p trung bnh v ln bng cc loi volmet ............................... 57
3.5. o dng in v in p bng phng php so snh ............................ 60
3.6. o in p bng cc volmet ch th s................................................... 70
Chng 4 O CNG SUT V NNG LNG......................................... 82
4.1. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch mt pha ................................. 82
4.2. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch ba pha.................................... 97
Chng 5 O GC PHA V TN S......................................................... 106
5.1. o gc pha v h s cng sut cos.................................................... 106
5.2. o tn s.............................................................................................. 114
5.3. ng dng my hin sng in t trong o lng................................ 119
Chng 6 O CC THNG S CA MCH IN.................................. 131
6.1. o in tr........................................................................................... 131
6.2. o in cm......................................................................................... 156
6.3. o in dung v tn tht in mi ca t in bng cu xoay chiu .. 161
6.4. o h s h cm ca hai cun dy ...................................................... 164
Ph lc 1 H n v o lng hp php......................................................... 166
Ph lc 2 K hiu quy c dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung.. 168
Ph lc 3 H phn b Student theo gi tr xc sut ........................................ 172