English Paper II

Biyani's Think Tank
Concept based notes

Elizabethans and Augustans
(MA)

Ms. Jyotsana
Deptt. of Arts
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

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For free study notes log on: www.gurukpo.com

Published by:
Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges

Concept & Copyright:
Biyani Shikshan Samiti
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Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)
Ph : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 Fax : 0141-2338007
E-mail : acad@biyanicolleges.org
Website :www.gurukpo.com; www.biyanicolleges.org

First Edition: 2013

Leaser Type Settled by :
Biyani College Printing Department

While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake or
omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the
publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to
anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.
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Preface

I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students.
The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the
fundamental concepts of the topics. The book is self-explanatory and adopts the Teach
Yourself style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and
understandable based on scientific approach.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and
inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the readers for which the author
shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay Biyani, Director
(Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and main concept provider and also
have been constant source of motivation throughout this Endeavour. They played an active role
in coordinating the various stages of this Endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational
institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of the quality of the book. The
reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned
address.

Author

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Syllabus

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Section A
Plays

Q 1 Describe the revenge tragedy in The Duchess of Malfi
Ans A revenge tragedy is a tragedy, as its name imply in which the tragedy is
brought about by the pursuit and achievement of revenge. It is blood asking for
blood. The Duchess of Malfi, generally considered being John
Webster's masterpiece, It is a tale of incest, jealousy, madness, and murder. It
portrays the result of a young widow's refusal to obey her brothers' command
never to remarry. The Duchess secretly marries Antonio and has three children.
Her brothers put Bosola into her service as a spy. Bosola ultimately discovers
everything and reports this. While trying to flee the Duchess is captured,
imprisoned, mentally tortured and put to death under instructions from
Ferdinand and Bosola's command. This practice combined with a long-standing
sense of injustice and his own feeling of a lack of identity, turns Bosola against the
Cardinal and his brother, deciding to take up the cause of "Revenge for the
Duchess of Malfi" The Cardinal confesses to his mistress Julia his part in the
killing of the Duchess, and then murders her to silence her, using a poisoned
Bible. Next, Bosola overhears the Cardinal plotting to kill him (though he accepts
what he sees as punishment for his actions), and so visits the darkened chapel to
kill the Cardinal at his prayers. Instead, he mistakenly kills Antonio, who has just
returned to Malfi to attempt reconciliation with the Cardinal. Bosola stabs the
Cardinal, who dies. In the scuffle that follows, Ferdinand and Bosola stab each
other to death. Antonio's elder son by the Duchess appears in the final scene, and
takes his place as the heir to the Malfi fortune, despite his father's explicit wish
that his son "fly the court of princes", a corrupt and increasingly deadly
environment.
John Websters The Duchess of Malfi has several features of a revenge tragedy.
There is a free use of rudimentary, physical horrors, like the dance of the mad
men, the appearance of a dead mans hand to the Duchess, the viewing to her of
the wax figures of her husband and children as if they were dead, the appearance
of the tomb-maker and the executioner with all the apparatus of death. There are
a number of murders, including murders by strangling and poisoning. There is
also a Machiavellian grouch, Bosola, a rascal who also indulges in satiric
reflections on life.
But The Duchess of Malfi differs in a number of ways from the traditional
revenge play. For one thing, the revenge motive is weak in the play. It does not
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become clear why revenge is taken on the Duchess. Her only fault is that she has
married below her rank and status and thus, as the two brothers think, she has
disgraced the family. She has certainly not committed any atrocious crime and the
horrible torture to which she is subjected are unjustified, and far in excess of her
guilt. That the revenge motive is weak is clearly brought out by the fact that for
more than two years Ferdinand and the Cardinal do nothing to chastise the
Duchess. Ferdinand is informed of her marriage as soon as her first baby is born,
and she has two other children before Ferdinand acts to have his revenge. If at all
there is a revenge design, it appears late in the play when Bosola avenges himself
on the Cardinal and Ferdinand for their ungratefulness to him, and also because
he has been touched by the murder of the Duchess and decides to avenge it.
The Duchess of Malfi varies from the conventions in several other important
ways. The revenge tragedy has a hero whose honor has been wronged (often it is
a son avenging his father); in this play, the brothers seek revenge on the Duchess,
who has done them no harm. The Duchess is surely the hero of the play named
for her, and yet she does not seek or win revenge for the harm done to her.
Typically, the hero of a tragedy dies in act 5, often accompanied by more deaths.
Here the Duchess of Malfi seems to break from the five-act structure of Seneca.
.The fact that she is killed in act 4 (and does not die in the act of winning revenge)
deflects attention away from her as the center of the action and moves the play
out of the category of revenge tragedy.
Further, revenge in the play is not taken as a sacred duty as in the Senecan
tragedy, but as satisfaction of personal passion. Ferdinands motif might be greed
for the estate of the Duchess or sexual jealousy resulting from his incestuous
fervor for her, or it may merely result from the morose pleasure which the
brothers take in inflicting pain. In the case of Bosola, the motif is certainly the
ingratitude of the two brothers. It is a satisfaction of personal grudge.
No doubt, Webster has made free use of rough physical horrors, but these horrors
are made an integral part of the tragedy. The sensational and the melodramatic is
seen acting on the soul of the Duchess, and in this way her inner suffering, the
grandeur, magnificence and dignity of her soul, are fully revealed. In this way the
melodramatic is raised to the level of pure tragedy. In this way the horrible is
subordinated to the total artistic effect the artist wants to create. The horror in the
play does not remain something inappropriate as is the case with other writers of
the revenge play.
To conclude, we can say that John Websters The Duchess of Malfi is not a
revenge play in the traditional sagacity of the term. By introducing the manner of
moral justice at the end, Webster raises the original theme of revenge to a higher
plane. With the exception of Shakespeares Hamlet which marks the highest
degree of development that the description of the revenge motif ever attained,
Websters The Duchess of Malfi ranks very high in the evolution of this class of
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tragedy. What raises Webster above the Revenge Tragedy writers is the fact that
whereas no dramatist of the Revenge School succeed in heightening the
tremendous effects of laying exposed the inner mysteries of crime, remorse and
pain, Webster succeeds extremely and he comprehends and reproduces
anomalous elements of spiritual agony in more sophisticated manner than one of
them could do.

Q-2 Give the character sketch of Ferdinand and Bosola in Duchees of Malfi
Ans The character Ferdinand, the Duchess's brother, is distinguished for his
overstated feelings and violent and abusive language. Some may feel that his
characterization is so extreme that it makes it difficult to take The Duchess of
Malfi seriously, but he plays a central role in the dynamics of the play, and
represents a personality-type which could just as simply exist today as in
Webster's time. His double-entendre shows Ferdinand's dark side. His persistent
sexual innuendo intended at his sister all through the play shows that he has an
rasping temperament and unstable emotions. But discourteous and revolting as
his behavior is, he plays a pivotal role in the play.
Ferdinand is a younger repressed twin, and his wish for the death of The Duchess
can be interpreted in many ways, his intentions towards his sister having been the
source of much conjecture by critics. He obviously wants to dominate her and
control her, but his wish appears somewhat futile, as she has been married before,
and has thus gained her powerful status.
Ferdinand appears to lack the freedom of both of his siblings, as not only is his
sister in a more powerful position than he is, but also his brother The Cardinal
has the authority to practice politics on a much wider scale and can be present
wherever he chooses. Ferdinand is torturously inhibited, and his brother's
profane affair and following murder of his lover is painful to him, as is his
menacing on his sister

Webster has given Ferdinand the ability for extreme love and hate. He is
not married and appears to be lacking a mistress, which adds to his sense of
hostility and inability to relate to women. Therefore he turns upon his sister who
with her new-found freedom is an evident target. Powerful women were
considered unnatural and dangerous at the time, and Ferdinand is used as a
representative for the public's judgments.
A modern day parallel to the marriage of The Duchess and Antonio might be a
couple marrying with a large age gap, or a homosexual relationship. As with the
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relationship between the Duchess and Antonio these relationships are completely
legal, but in the eyes of a narrow-minded and rigid society are seen as awful
In Webster's time most widows did not remarry, frequently because they found
themselves in a state of freedom and those left wealthy had the means to enjoy it.
Webster brings his background in the legal profession to bear on the issues,
showing the loopholes in the law of verbal contracts as an adequate form of
marriage.
Ferdinand is totally officially wrong to label his sister's children as 'bastards':
Ferdinand: For though our national law distinguishes bastards
And he exasperates her further by his doubt about their naming Ferdinand
constantly torment his sister with his madness. He is the converse of the cruel and
coldly-calculating Cardinal, whose deeds is less menacing than Ferdinand's
which is aggravated by his wild and scorching spirit. Ferdinand carousing in the
dark and in the play it is mentioned that he suffers with lycanthropia, a disease
that makes the host believe he is a werewolf. The Duchess in contrast shuns the
dark that Ferdinand operates in around her.
Bosola, whose character puts him in the category of the Renaissance dramatists'
'type', 'the malcontent', is in the service of Ferdinand, acting as a detective on The
Duchess. He provides a great comedy element to the play, even though he is
actually repulsively distasteful
Bosola: She resembled an abortive hedgehog. [Act 2, Scene I]
He is the character who appeals to the working class in the audience who go to
plays to see a blood-bath as entertainment. Webster also enjoys a pun on his name
as 'Bos' can mean a bulge on the body, or be vernacular for masterfulness.
Ferdinand may be acknowledging the downfall of his family by the dust in
relation to the blood tie. His termination is a slide into separation where every last
light is extinguished.

Q-3 Give an Account of the Contrast between Ariel and Caliban in The Tempest
Ans In Shakespeare's play The Tempest there are two more stridently contrasted
characters Ariel and Caliban. Both are equally prenatural, Ariel is the air spirit,
Caliban the earthy spirit. Ariel's very being is spun of melody and fragrance; if a
feeling soul and an intelligent will are the distort these are the woof of his superb
texture. He has just enough of human-heartedness to know how he would feel
were he human and a relative sense of that appreciation which has been
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appropriately called the memory of the heart; therefore he needs to be frequently
reminded of his obligations, but he is consistently true to them so long as he
remembers them. His delicacy of nature is nowhere more obvious than in his
sympathy with right and good; the immediate he comes within their touch he
follow them without preserve, and he will suffer any torment rather than "act the
earthy and abhorred commands" that go against his moral morsel. And what a
merry little dignitary he is withal; as if his being were cast together in an impulse
of play, and he would spend his whole life in one continuous skip little wonder
that Prospero calls him "my tricky spirit," In his fondness for mischievous sport
Ariel is strongly reminiscent of Puck. With what gusto he relates the trick he
played on Caliban and his confederates, when they were proceeding to execute
their conspiracy against the hero's life:

I told you, sir, they were red-hot with drinking;
So full of valour that they smote the air
For breathing in their faces; beat the ground
For kissing of their feet; yet always bending
Towards their project. Then I beat my tabor;
At which, like unback'd colts, they prick'd their ears,
Advanced their eyelids, lifted up their noses
As they smelt music: so I charm'd their ears
That calf-like they my lowing follow'd through
Tooth'd briers, sharp furzes, pricking goss, and thorns,
Which enter'd their frail shins: at last I left them
I' th' filthy-mantled pool beyond your cell.
There dancing up to Th' chins.

But the main ingredient of Ariel's waft-like constitution are shown in his leading
preference as he obviously has most likeness for that of which he is framed.
Ethical ties are annoying to him; they are not his appropriate element when he
enters their specialty he feels them to be holy deed, but, were he free, he would
keep out of their reach and follow the circling seasons in their course, and always
dwell cheerfully in the fringes of summer. Prospero quietly intimates his
instinctive dread of the cold by threatening to make him "howl away twelve
winters." And the chief joy of his promised release from service is that he will
then be free to live all the year through under the soft rule of summer, with its
flowers and fragrancies and melodies. He is indeed an arrant little epicure of
perfume and sweet sounds.
A mark commendable attribute of Ariel is that his power does not stop with the
physical forces of nature, but reaches also to the hearts and consciences of men, so
that by his music he can stimulate or assuage the authentic griefs of the one, and
strike the keenest pangs of repentance into the other. This comes out in the
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different effects of his art upon Ferdinand and the culpable king, as related by the
men themselves:
Where should this music be? I' the air or the earth?
It sounds no more: and, sure, it waits upon
some god o' Th' island. Sitting on a bank,
Weeping again the king my father's wreck,
This music crept by me upon the waters,
Allaying both their fury and my passion
With its sweet air: thence I have found it,
Or it hath drawn me rather. But 'tis gone.
No, it begins again. [I, ii, 388-396.]
Such is the effect on Ferdinand; very different is the effect of Ariel's art upon the
king:
O, it is monstrous, monstrous!
Methought the billows spoke, and told me of it;
The winds did sing it to me; and the thunder,
That deep and dreadful organ-pipe, pronounc'd
The name of Prosper: it did bass my trespass.
Therefore my son i' the ooze is bedded; and
I'll seek him deeper than e'er plummet sounded.
And with him there lie mudded. [III, iii, 95-102.]

Ariel, too, has some of the magic potency of old god Cupid. It is through some
witchcraft of his that Ferdinand and Miranda are surprised into a mutual rapture
so that Prospero notes at once how "at the first sight they have changed eyes," and
"are both in either's power:" All which is indeed just what Prospero wanted, yet
he is startled at the result; that fine issue of nature outruns his thought, and he
takes care forthwith lest it work too fast:
These swift businesses
I must uneasy make, lest too light winning
Make the prize light. [I, ii, 451-453.]

Ariel's powers and functions entide him to be called Prospero's prime minister.
Through his agency Prospero's opinion become things, his volitions events. And
yet, weirdly and diversely as Ariel's nature is elemented and collected, with
touches similar to several orders of being, there is such a self-steadiness about
him, he is so cut out in individual clarity and so rounded in with personal
attribute that consideration liberally and easily rests upon him as an object. He is
by no means a conceptual idea personified, or any sort of rational diagram, but a
genuine person; and we have a personal feeling towards the dear creature, and
would fain knit him into the living circle of our human affection and make him a
recognizable playfellow of the heart.
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If Caliban strikes us as a more wonderful creation than Ariel, it is almost certainly
because he has more in ordinary with us, without being in any appropriate sense
human. He represents, both in body and soul, a sort of transitional nature
between man and monster Though he has all the attribute of humanity from the
moral downwards, so that his nature touches and borders upon the sphere of
moral life, the consequence but approve his omission from such life in that it
brings him to distinguish moral law only as making for self. He has intelligence of
apparent wrong in what is done to him, but no ethics of what is wrong in his own
doings. But the magical presence of spirits has shed into the caverns of his brain
some faint reflection of a better world; he has taken in some of the epiphanies that
throng the charmed island. It is a most singular and momentous stroke in the
demarcation that sleeps seems to loosen the restraints of his soul and lift him
above himself. It seems as if in his inert state the voice of truth and good vibrate
down to his soul and stopped there, being unable to kindle any answering tones
within, so that in his waking hours they are to him but as the memory of a dream:
Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments
Will hum about mine ears, and sometime voices
That, if I then had wak'd after long sleep,
Will make me sleep again: and then, in dreaming,
The clouds methought would open, and show riches
Ready to drop upon me, that, when I wak'd,
I cried to dream again. [III, ii, 133-139.]

Miranda seek to educate him the result is to augment his grossness and malignity
of temperament. Caliban's most astonishing characteristic is the perfect originality
of his thoughts and manners. Though his disposition is framed of grossness and
malignity, present is nothing offensive or commonplace about him. His whole
character is urbanized from within, not scared from without, the effect of
Prosperous orders having been to make him all the more himself, and there being
perhaps no loam in his nature for conservative vices and knaveries to take root
and grow in. Hence the almost classic dignity of his behavior compared with that
of the drunken sailors. In his simplicity, indeed, he at first mistakes them for gods
who "bear celestial liquor," and they wax merry enough at the "gullible monster,"
but in his vitality of thought and purpose he soon conceive a contempt of their
immature interest in jewels and gewgaws, and the savage of the woods seems
nobility itself beside the savages of the city.

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Section B
Essays and Poems

Q-1 Describe the ethical Dimensions in bacons thoughts
Ans The ethical dimension of Bacon's thought has been underrate by generations of
scholars. Time and again a basic utilitarianism has been derived from Book I,
Aphorism 1 of the Novum Organum; this cannot, however, withstand a closer
analysis of his consideration. Since Bacon's philosophy of science tries to answer
the query of how man can conquer the deficiencies of earthly life ensuing from
the fall, he enters the dominion of ethical reflection. The enhancement of
mankind's lot by way of philosophy and science does not initiate from a slender
practical point of view, involving complete ruthless for profit and supporting the
power or manipulate of select groups of men, but in its place emphasizes the
construction of a better world for mankind, which might come into survival
through the ascertaining of truths about nature's workings Thus, the position of
the universal in Bacon's ethical thought is given pervasiveness The variety of
science and technology in their ethical meaning transcend the authority of the
application of tools and/or instruments, in so far as the aim is the adaptation of
whole systems. Since causality and conclusiveness can interrelate on the basis of
human will and knowledge, a plurality of worlds becomes viable Moral
philosophy is closely connected to decent reflections on the association between
the nature of qualitieshabitual or innate?and their use in existence,
confidentially and communally. Any application of the principles of virtue
presupposes for Bacon the education of the mind, so that we study what is high-
quality and what should be attain
The major and prehistoric division of ethical knowledge seemeth to be into the
paradigm or Platform of Good, and the schedule of Culture of the Mind; the one
relating the nature of good, the other prescribe rules how to restrain, apply, and
contain the will of chap thereunto So, already in his Advancement of Learning
Bacon deliberate the nature of good and distinguished various kinds of good. He
insisted on the individual's responsibility to the public. Private moral self-control
and the attendant obligations are relevant for behavior and action in society.
One's ethical persona is connected to morality by reference to suitable behaviour.
Though what we can do may be incomplete, we have to gather our psychological
powers and manage our passion when dealing with ourselves and with others.
We need to be relevant self-discipline and rational assessment, as well as
preventive our passion in order to escort an vigorous moral life in society.Thus,
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for Bacon, the ahead of knowledge does not just tally with the chance of exerting
power. Scientific knowledge is a event for the enlargement and development of
civilization. Therefore, knowledge and assist cannot be set aside segregate.
Finally, the view that Bacon's Nova Atlantis concern a utopian society that is
cautiously organized for the purpose of scientific research and righteous living
holds true for his complete life's work. In Nova Atlantis, social, political, and
scholarly life are all prearranged according to the adage of efficiency; but the
House of Solomon is a split and highly valued institution for research, which
however is intimately connected to the in general system of Bensalem. In his
utopian state, Bacon presents a thoroughgoing collective life in society and
science, both of which are based on revealed religion. faithChristian in
essenceis not rigid but it instills keen on the people of Bensalem adoration for
the shrewd and morally exemplary members of society, andwhich is of the
chief importancethe strictest sense of discipline is vital for those involved in the
religious life as well as for the researchers, since both must carry on methodically.
The isomorphic structures of nature and science, on the one hand, society and
religion, on the other, set down patterns of political procedure, social processes,
and religious attitudes, which overcome any craving for individuality. If religion
and scientific research are both shown as truthful in Bensalem, then, according to
Bacon, the imagination functions as a means of illustrating scientific exposure
Bacon's purpose is to show that scientific research properly pursue is not
inconsonant with religious propriety and social stability. The scientists in
Bensalem are respected searchers for truth: attitude religion, and science merge
Bacon's parabolic strategy, which we should not split from the power of the idols,
facilitate him to make much of his dishonesty of introducing new ideas like a
smuggler: his colored create are smuggled into the mind of his readers by being
envisage in terms of sacred and tremendously symbolic rituals Science and
religion are estranged in Nova Atlantis, but they are also consistent through the
offices of the society of Bensalem. What Bacon perceptibly wants to make obvious
to his readers is that the example of Bensalem should free them from any panic
that scientific progress will escort to disorder and turmoil.
Q.2 Francis bacons thought depicts Science and philosophy in his writings.
Explain with references
Ans In Bacon's contemplation we meet a relation between science and social
philosophy, since his ideas concerning a utopian transformation of society
suppose an addition into the social framework of his program in relation to
natural philosophy and technology as the two forms of the maker's acquaintance
From his point of view, which was prejudiced by Puritan conceptions, early
modern society has to make sure that wounded caused by the Fall are
compensated for, primarily by man's extension of knowledge, providing the
preconditions for a new form of society which combines scientia nova and the
millennium, according to the prophecy of Daniel 12:4 (Hill 1971, 85130). Science
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as a social endeavor is seen as a communal project for the progress of social
structures. On the other hand, a strong communal spirit in society may function
as a conditio sine qua non for reforming natural philosophy. Bacon's renowned
spat that it is shrewd not to stun the Book of Nature with the Book of God comes
into focus, since the latter deals with God's will (inscrutable for man) and the
previous with God's work, the scientific elucidation or appreciation of which is a
form of Christian divine service. Successful operations in natural philosophy and
technology help to advance the human lot in a way which makes the hardship of
life after the fall archaic It is important to note that Bacon's idea of ato a certain
scope Christian society by no means conveys Christian pessimism in the vein of
patristic thinkers but rather displays a clear optimism as the consequence of
compounding the problem of truth with the compass of human freedom and
sovereignty
With regard to Bacon's Two Booksthe Book of God and the Book of Nature
one has to keep in mind that man, when given free admittance to the Book of
Nature, should not content him with just reading it. He also has to find out the
names by which things are called. If man does so, not only will he be restore to
his condition a noble and powerful being, but the Book of God will also lose
significance from a traditional point of view, in comparison to the Book of Nature.
This is what Blumenberg referred to as the asymmetry of readability But the
process of reading is an open-ended activity, so that new knowledge and the
expansion of the system of disciplines can no longer be restricted by concepts
such as the completeness and eternity of knowledge
According to Bacon, the Book of God refers to his will, the Book of Nature to his
works. He never gives a hint in his works that he has concealed any message of
unbelief for the sophisticated reader; but he emphasized:that religion and science
should be kept separate and, that they were nevertheless complementary to each
other. For Bacon, the attack of theologians on human curiosity cannot be founded
on a rational basis. His statement that all knowledge is to be limited by religion,
and to be referred to use and action does not express a general verdict on
theoretical curiosity, but instead provides a normative framework for the tasks of
science in a universal sense. Already in the dedicatory letter to James I in his
Advancement of Learning, Bacon attacks the zeal and jealousy of divines and in
his manuscript Filum Labyrinthi of 1607, he thought how great opposition
and prejudice natural philosophy had received by superstition, and the
immoderate and blind zeal of religion As Calvin had done long before him in
the Institutes, Bacon stated that since God created the physical world, it was a
legitimate object of man's knowledge, a conviction which he illustrated with the
famous example of King Solomon in The Advancement of Learning Bacon praises
Solomon's wisdom, which seems to be more like a game than an example of
man's God-given thirst for knowledge:
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The glory of God is to conceal a thing, but the glory of the king is to find it out; as
if, according to the innocent play of children, the Divine Majesty took delight to
hide his works, to the end to have them found out; and as if kings could not
obtain a greater honour than to be God's playfellows in that game, considering
the great commandment of wits and means, whereby nothing needeth to be
hidden from themFrom this perspective, the punishment of mankind on account
of the very first disobedience by Adam and Eve can be seen in a different light
from that of theological interpretations. In Bacon's view, this disobedience and its
consequences can be remedied in two way by religion and moral imperatives, by
advancement in the arts and sciences: the purpose in advancing arts and
sciences is the glory of God and the relief of man's estate
The two remedies, which are interconnected with the moral dimension, refer to
the advancement of learning and religion. All three together (the advancement of
learning, religion, and morality) are combined in such a way that they promote
each other mutually; consequently, limited outlooks on coping with life and
knowledge are ruled out completely in these three fields.

Q.3 Write the Biography of Francis Bacon
Ans Francis Bacon was born January, 22, 1561, the second child of Sir Nicholas Bacon
(Lord Keeper of the Seal) and his second wife Lady Anne Cooke Bacon, daughter
of Sir Anthony Cooke, tutor to Edward VI and one of the leading humanists of
the age. Lady Anne was highly erudite: she not only had a perfect command of
Greek and Latin, but was also competent in Italian and French. Together with his
older brother Anthony, Francis grew up in a context determined by political
power, humanist learning, and Calvinist zeal. His father had built a new house in
Gorhambury in the 1560s, and Bacon was educated there for some seven years;
later, along with Anthony, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge (15735), where
he sharply criticized the scholastic methods of academic training. Their tutor was
John Whitgift, in later life Archbishop of Canterbury. Whitgift provided the
brothers with classical texts for their studies: Cicero, Demosthenes, Hermogenes,
Livy, Sallust, and Xenophon (Peltonen 2007). Bacon began his studies at Gray's
Inn in London in 1576; but from 1577 to 1578 he accompanied Sir Amias Paulet,
the English ambassador, on his mission in Paris.
During his stay in France, perhaps in autumn 1577, Bacon once visited England as
the bearer of diplomatic post, delivering letters to Walsingham, Burghley,
Leicester, and to the Queen herself.
When his father died in 1579, he returned to England. Bacon's small inheritance
brought him into financial difficulties and since his maternal uncle, Lord
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Burghley, did not help him to get a lucrative post as a government official, he
embarked on a political career in the House of Commons, after resuming his
studies in Gray's Inn. In 1581 he entered the Commons as a member for Cornwall,
and he remained a Member of Parliament for thirty-seven years. He was admitted
to the bar in 1582 and in 1587 was elected as a reader at Gray's Inn. His
involvement in high politics started in 1584, when he wrote his first political
memorandum, A Letter of Advice to Queen Elizabeth. Right from the beginning
of his adult life, Bacon aimed at a revision of natural philosophy andfollowing
his father's examplealso tried to secure high political office. Very early on he
tried to formulate outlines for a new system of the sciences, emphasizing
empirical methods and laying the foundation for an applied science (scientia
operativa). This twofold task, however, proved to be too ambitious to be realized
in practice. Bacon's ideas concerning a reform of the sciences did not meet with
much sympathy from Queen Elizabeth or from Lord Burghley. Small expectations
on this front led him to become a successful lawyer and Parliamentarian. From
1584 to 1617 (the year he entered the House of Lords) he was an active member in
the Commons. Supported by Walsingham's patronage, Bacon played a role in the
investigation of English Catholics and argued for stern action against Mary
Queen of Scots. He served on many committees, including one in 1588 which
examined recusants; later he was a member of a committee to revise the laws of
England. He was involved in the political aspects of religious questions,
especially concerning the conflict between the Church of England and
nonconformists. In a tract of 1591, he tried to steer a middle course in religious
politics; but one year later he was commissioned to write against the Jesuit Robert
Parson (Jardine and Stewart 1999, p. 125), who had attacked English sovereignty.
From the late 1580s onwards, Bacon turned to the Earl of Essex as his patron.
During this phase of his life, he particularly devoted himself to natural
philosophy. He clearly expressed his position in a famous letter of 1592 to his
uncle, Lord Burghley:
I confess that I have as vast contemplative ends, as I have moderate civil ends: for
I have taken all knowledge to be my province; and if I could purge it of two sorts
of rovers, whereof the one with frivolous disputations, confutations, and
verbosities, the other with blind experiments and auricular traditions and
impostures, hath committed so many spoils, I hope I should bring in industrious
observations, grounded conclusions, and profitable inventions and discoveries;
the best state of that province. This, whether it be curiosity, or vain glory, or
nature, or (if one take it favourably) philanthropia, is so fixed in my mind as it
cannot be removed. And I do easily see, that place of any reasonable countenance
doth bring commandment of more wits than of a man's own; which is the thing I
greatly affect.
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In 1593 Bacon fell out favor with the queen on account of his refusal to comply
with her request for funds from Parliament. Although he did not vote against
granting three subsidies to the government, he demanded that these should be
paid over a period six, rather than three, years. This led Sir Robert Cecil and Sir
Walter Raleigh to argue against him in Parliament. Bacon's patron, the Earl of
Essex, for whom he had already served as a close political advisor and informer,
was not able to mollify the queen's anger over the subsidies; and all Essex's
attempts to secure a high post for Bacon (attorney-general or solicitor-general)
came to nothing. Nevertheless, the queen valued Bacon's competence as a man of
law. He was involved in the treason trial of Roderigo Lopez and later on in the
proceedings against the Earl of Essex. In his contribution to the Gesta Grayorum
(the traditional Christmas revels held in Gray's Inn) of 15945, Bacon had
emphasized the necessity of scientific improvement and progress. Since he failed
to secure for himself a position in the government, he considered the possibility of
giving up politics and concentrating on natural philosophy. It is no wonder, then,
that Bacon engaged in many scholarly and literary pursuits in the 1590s. His
letters of advice to the Earl of Rutland and to the Earl of Essex should be
mentioned in this context. The advice given to Essex is of particular importance
because Bacon recommended that he should behave in a careful and intelligent
manner in public, above all abstaining from aspiring to military commands.
Bacon also worked in this phase of his career for the reform of English law. In
1597 his first book was published, the seminal version of his Essays, which
contained only ten pieces (Klein 2004b). His financial situation was still insecure;
but his plan to marry the rich widow Lady Hatton failed because she was
successfully courted by Sir Edward Coke. In 1598 Bacon was unable to sell his
reversion of the Star Chamber clerkship, so that he was imprisoned for a short
time on account of his debts. His parliamentary activities in 159798, mainly
involving committee work, were impressive; but when the Earl of Essex in 1599
took command of the attempt to pacify the Irish rebels, Bacon's hopes sank. Essex
did not solve the Irish question, returned to court and fell from grace, as Bacon
had anticipated he would. He therefore lost a valuable patron and spokesman for
his projects. Bacon tried to reconcile the queen and Essex; but when the earl
rebelled against the crown in 1601, he could do nothing to help him. The queen
ordered Bacon to participate in the treason trial against Essex. In 1601 Bacon sat in
Elizabeth's last parliament, playing an extremely active role.
Bacon looked forward to the next reign and tried to get in contact with James VI
of Scotland, Elizabeth's successor. During James' reign Bacon rose to power. He
was knighted in 1603 and was created a learned counsel a year later. He took up
the political issues of the union of England and Scotland, and he worked on a
conception of religious toleration, endorsing a middle course in dealing with
Catholics and nonconformists. Bacon married Alice Barnhem, the young daughter
of a rich London alderman in 1606. One year later he was appointed Solicitor
18


General. He was also dealing with theories of the state and developed the idea, in
accordance with Machiavelli, of a politically active and armed citizenry. In 1608
Bacon became clerk of the Star Chamber; and at this time, he made a review of his
life, jotting down his achievements and failures. Though he still was not free from
money problems, his career progressed step by step. In the period from 1603 to
1613 Bacon was not only busy within English politics. He also created the
foundations of his philosophical work by writing seminal treatises which
prepared the path for the Novum Organum and for the Instauratio Magna. In
1613 he became Attorney General and began the rise to the peak of his political
career: he became a member of the Privy Council in 1616, was appointed Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal the following yearthus achieving the same position as
his fatherand was granted the title of Lord Chancellor and created Baron of
Verulam in 1618. In 1621, however, Bacon, after being created Viscount of St
Alban, was impeached by Parliament for corruption. He fell victim to an intrigue
in Parliament because he had argued against the abuse of monopolies, indirectly
attacking his friend, the Duke of Buckingham, who was the king's favorite. In
order to protect Buckingham, the king sacrificed Bacon, whose enemies had
accused him of taking bribes in connection with his position as a judge. Bacon
saw no way out for himself and declared himself guilty. His fall was contrived by
his adversaries in Parliament and by the court faction, for which he was a
scapegoat to save the Duke of Buckingham not only from public anger but also
from open aggression (Mathews 1996). He lost all his offices and his seat in
Parliament, but retained his titles and his personal property. Bacon devoted the
last five years of his lifethe famous quinquenniumentirely to his
philosophical work. He tried to go ahead with his huge project, the Instauratio
Magna Scientiarum; but the task was too big for him to accomplish in only a few
years. Though he was able to finish important parts of the Instauratio, the
proverb, often quoted in his works, proved true for himself: Vita brevis, ars longa.
He died in April 1626 of pneumonia after experiments with ice.
Q4 Analyze the essay of Truth by Francis Bacon.
Ans As a hardnosed and as an observed thinker Bacon subscribed to the fundamental
Renaissance standardsSepantia (search for knowledge) and Eloquentia (the art
of rhetoric). Here in the essay Of Truth he supplements his search for truth by
going back to the theories of the classical thinkers and also by taking out
analogies from everyday life. It is to be noted here that his explication of the
theme is impassioned and he succeeds in providing almost neutral judgements on
the matter. Again, it is seen that Bacons last essays, though written in the same
aphoristic manner, stylistically are different in that he supplied more analogies
and examples to support or explain his arguments. As this essay belongs to the
latter group, we find ample analogies and examples. Bacon, while explaining the
reasons as to why people evade truth, talks of the Greek philosophical school of
sceptics, set up by Pyrro. Those philosophers would question the validity of truth
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and constantly change their opinions. Bacon says that now people are like those
philosophers with the important difference that they lack their force and tenacity
of argument. He says that like him the Greek philosopher Lucian was equally
puzzled at the fact that people are more attracted to lies and are averse to truth.
Bacon is surprised by the fact that people are loathed to find out or even
acknowledge truth in life. It seems to him that this is an innate human tendency
to do so. He finds evidence in support of his arguments in the behaviour of the
ancient Greek sceptics who used to question the validity of truth and would have
no fixed beliefs. Bacon thinks that people behave like those philosophers. But he
understands that they lack their strength of arguments. He then finds the Greek
philosopher Lucian, while considering the matter, was equally baffled. Lucian
investigated and found that poets like lies because those provides pleasure, and
that businessmen have to tell lies for making profit. But he could not come to a
definite conclusion as to why people should love lies. Bacon says that men love
falsehood because truth is like the bright light of the day and would show up
pomp and splendour of human life for what they are. They look attractive and
colourful in the dim light of lies. Men prefer to cherish illusions, which make life
more interesting. Bacon here gives an interesting analogy of truth and falsehood.
He says that the value of truth is like that of a pearl, which shines best in the day-
light, while a lie is like a diamond or carbuncle, which shines best producing
varied rays in dim light of candles. He comes to the conclusion that people love
falsehood because it produces imaginary pleasure about life. Bacon also examines
the statement of one of the early Church authorities, which severely condemned
poetry as the wine of the devils. Bacon here shows that even the highest art of
manpoetry, is composed of lies. He seems to have compounded the two
statements made by two early Christian thinkers. He agrees with St Augustine
who criticized poetry as the wine of error, and with Hironymous, who
condemned poetry as the food of demons. The equation is that, since the devil
or Satan works by falsehood, lies are its food. Poetry tends to be Satanic because it
resorts to falsehood while producing artistic pleasure. Bacon, however, makes a
distinction here between poetic untruth and fascination with falsehood in
everyday life. He thinks that poetic untruth is not harmful, as it does not leave
lasting impressions on the mind and character of a person. On the other hand, the
lies, which are embedded in the mind and control and regulate every thought and
action of a person, are harmful. Bacon refers to the Epicurean doctrine of
pleasure, beautifully expressed by the famous poet of that school, Lucretius, who
considered the realization of truth to be the highest pleasure of life. Bacon says
that the value of truth is understood by those who have experienced it. The
inquiry, knowledge and the belief of truth are the highest achievements that
human beings can pursue. He amplifies the matter by giving an analogy from the
Bible. According to him, God created the light of the senses first so that men
could see the world around them. The last thing he created, according to him, was
the light of reason, that is, the rational faculty. Bacon here interestingly comments
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that, since he finished the work of Creation, God has been diffusing the light of
His spirit in mankind. He supports his argument by referring to the Epicurean
theory of pleasure beautifully expressed by Lucretius who held that there is no
greater pleasure than that given by the realization of truth. The summit of truth
cannot be conquered and there is tranquillity on this peak from which one can
survey the errors and follies of men as they go through their trials; but this survey
should not fill the watcher with pity and not with pride. The essence of heavenly
life on this earth lies in the constant love of charity, an unshakable trust in God,
and steady allegiance to truth. At the concluding section of the essay Bacon
explains the value of truth in civil affairs of life. He is conscious of the fact that
civil life goes on with both truth and falsehood. He feels that the mixture of
falsehood with truth may sometimes turn out to be profitable. But it shows the
inferiority of the man who entertains it. This is, he says, like the composition of an
alloy, which is stronger but inferior in purity. He then compares this kind of way
of life to that of a serpent, which is a symbol of Satan itself. Bacon finds a striking
similarity between the crooked and mean devices adopted by people and the
zigzag movements of a serpent. To clarify his point more clearly, Bacon quotes
Montaigne who said that a man, who tells lies, is afraid of his fellow men but is
unafraid of God who is all perceiving. Bacon concludes his arguments by saying
that falsehood is the height of wickedness, and such that it will invite the wrath of
God on Doomsday

Q.5 How does Francis Bacon's Of Love' alter your understanding of Romeo and
Juliet?
Ans The main subject of Bacons text is that love causes more pain than joy and man
is made for greater purposes than to love or be loved. The message of Romeo and
Juliet on the other hand is the exact opposite. The young lovers believe love to be
worth dying for, and even had the Friars plan worked they still would have
given up their lives - in a sense died - to take up new ones. In order to
communicate his opinion, Bacon picks up on three other points about love: it is
only entertaining on stage; it is greatly exaggerated; love and wisdom cannot
coexist. Bacons statements highlight facts about love which influence the reader,
thus altering the understanding of Romeo and Juliet, a play which centre on love. It
makes one look beneath Shakespeares carefully crafted play, question the fiction
from which it is weaved, unpick the threads of love, and realize that perhaps the
play only works because it is not real. Bacon opines speaking in a perpetual hyperbole
is a technique which only produces significant and effective end when the subject
considered is love. Hyperbole is intrinsic to Romeo and Juliet, its effect enhancing
the brilliance and purity of love and, by contrast, the destructive propensity
of hate. For instance the scene of their secret marriage gives a vision into the fruits of love but is
closely pursued by the scene of Mercutios death (III.1) dominated by devastation and hate. The
serenity of the first makes the successive scene all the darker and after the
saturation in vengeance and death, the previous Elysium shimmers nostalgically
English Paper 2 21


like an almost-forgotten memory. From this it is suggestible that Bacon is wrong
in his generalization, for Shakespeares use of hyperbole does not only produce
an accomplished love-story but also one of hate. It is, however, the exaggeration
of both extremes which creates the effect; without one the other would wither and seem
an unchecked thought strayed too far on stage. Bacons text, in the mind of Shakespeares
audience, makes this perpetual hyperbole visible all over the play, not Justin its
overall accomplishment. It extends into the meeting of Romeo and Juliet. It is in their end and
in their journey. It is in the friars overzealous encouragement, Capulets
overreaction, Romeos banishment, Tybalts tyranny, and Mercutios death. The play is
vastly exaggerated but because all is so, none seems out of place, as one would think it
might to read Bacon. It can also be seen as condensing the events for the stage, as
there is insufficient time to develop Romeo and Juliets love in sight of the
audience, or for each character to ponder pointedly over their actions before carrying them
out as one might expect. In this sense Bacon is wrong about hyperbole because it is used for
many purposes other than love. Perpetualhyperbole has the added implication of an
incompetent misusage whereas Shakespeare deliberately and masterfully wields the
technique for his own purpose. Bacon does still succeed however in making the reader greatly
aware of the extensive exaggerations in the play. What then, does he mean by his statement
about Epicurus phrase? Who is the idol to which man subjects? If we follow Bacons
idea in the context of the extract, Of Love, he is referring to the complete subjection
of the lover to the person they love, as well as the lovers to love it. If Romeo and
Juliet and their idolatry of each other is used as an example, then the early
severance of their lives because of love and the waste of mans superior purpose
are one. However, Romeo and Juliet obviously see their love as a superior
purpose worth dying for. This leads to the concluding phrase of Bacons extract:
That it is impossible to love and to be wise Are Romeo and Juliet, by enslaving
their fates to each other and ignoring their greater purpose, unwise? Had Romeo
acted wisely rather than impulsively, he would not have killed Tybalt and later, had he
waited for wisdom, he would have found his wife alive (V.3).So now Bacons emphasis
has taken the hero and heroine and turned them from iconic lovers into
injudicious fools. This makes their ultimate sacrifice far from romantic and closer
to stupidity. However, Bacons earlier assertion that the stage is more beholding to love
than real life is, restores the balance Because they are fictional and are exaggerated
for the stage in a way that would not fit reality, their actions cannot be judged
with reality as grounding. However, if they strayed into reality they would become
the injudicious fools that so nearly ruined the established image of the tragic heroes. They
would have no excuse for their rash decisions and headstrong ideas. Their love is
like a siren as Bacon says; leading them down completely the wrong path,
ultimately to death but this can be seen as Shakespeares use of hyperbolism to
enhance their tragedy. Such a situation would not be fitting for reality. However
love does not always have to be labeled and contained by comedy or tragedy in real life. Bacon
should have said that love as contrived by playwrights should only occur on stage but love
sans hyperbole can be beholding to life. All of Bacons points are just a channel for him to
22


convey his overall sentiment. On the surface, it seems that he is saying that love is a mediocre
settlement of mans greater purpose: star-gazing and contemplation of the heavens is
mans purpose. In his time this would have been the standard view because
marriage was to unite two families or to gain influence and money instead of for love.
However, the real message is subtly different: love causes more pain than joy. Though not
immediately extractable, it is also in Romeo and Juliet Despite all their efforts, some
force acted against them, and Romeo and Juliet were fated to death because of their
emotions. So Bacon has completely reversed the fundamental message of the most
excellent and lamentable love story from an elevation of mans greatest emotion to the
dismal philosophy that love is a burden upon men. The impact of this makes one
wonder whether Shakespeare was in fact warning his audience against the perils
of love rather than just the perils of hate. In conclusion, Bacon opens his readers
eyes to new possibilities within Romeo and Juliet and influences the way in
which we approach and dissect the text in analysis. The use of hyperbole, usually
disguised by its own excess, becomes distinguished and the lack of intersection
between fiction and reality grows ever more important. Perhaps this is the case when any
text is studied in depth, yet Bacon offers insight into love in general, focusing on love in
real life as well as on stage. His observation that love and wisdom do not and cannot
coexist alters ones perspective of the lovers and of the basis for their sacrifice, leaving the
viewer unsettled at the end of the play. However, overarching the arguments he
presents about love is Bacons overall message that love causes more pain than joy. This
message gains greater emphasis in Romeo and Juliet after reading Bacon, and shakes
the quintessential foundation of the play that love is more than life, denying the seed
of hope and positivity, that is usually planted inside the audience, growth into the message that
love is our purpose.

Q.6 John Donne laid a Poetry foundation Describe with references taken by his poems
Ans John Donne's standing as a great English poet, and one of the greatest writers of
English prose, is now assured. However, it has been confirmed only in the
present century. The history of Donne's reputation is the most remarkable of any
major writer in English; no other body of great poetry has fallen so far from favor
for so long and been generally condemned as inept and crude. In Donne's own
day his poetry was highly prized among the small circle of his admirers, who
read it as it was circulated in manuscript, and in his later years he gained wide
fame as a preacher. For some thirty years after his death successive editions of his
verse stamped his powerful influence upon English poets. During the Restoration
his writing went out of fashion and remained so for several centuries.
Throughout the eighteenth century, and for much of the nineteenth century, he
was little read and scarcely appreciated. Commentators followed Samuel Johnson
in dismissing his work as no more than frigidly ingenious and metrically
uncouth. Some scribbled notes by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Charles Lamb's
copy of Donne's poems make a testimony of admiration rare in the early
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nineteenth century. Robert Browning became a known (and wondered-at)
enthusiast of Donne, but it was not until the end of the nineteenth century that
Donne's poetry was eagerly taken up by a growing band of avant-garde readers
and writers. His prose remained largely unnoticed until 1919.

In the first two decades of the twentieth century Donne's poetry was decisively
rehabilitated. Its extraordinary appeal to modern readers throws light on the
Modernist movement, as well as on our intuitive response to our own times.
Donne may no longer be the cult figure he became in the 1920s and 1930s, when
T. S. Eliot and William Butler Yeats, among others, discovered in his poetry the
peculiar fusion of intellect and passion and the alert contemporariness which they
aspired to in their own art. He is not a poet for all tastes and times; yet for many
readers Donne remains what Ben Jonson judged him: "the first poet in the world
in some things." His poems continue to engage the attention and challenge the
experience of readers who come to him afresh. His high place in the pantheon of
the English poets now seems secure.
In "The Flea" an importunate lover points out a flea that has been sucking his
mistress's blood and now jumps to suck his; he tries to prevent his mistress from
crushing it:

Oh stay, three lives in one flea spare,
Where we almost, nay more than married are.
This flea is you and I, and this
Our marriage bed, and marriage temple is;
Though parents grudge, and you, we' are met,
And cloistered in these living walls of jet.
This poem moves forward as a kind of dramatic argument in which the chance
discovery of the flea itself becomes the means by which they work out the true
end of their love. The incessant play of a skeptical intelligence gives even these
love poems the style of impassioned reasoning.

The poetry inhabits an exhilaratingly unpredictable world in which wariness and
quick wits are at a premium. The more perilous the encounters of clandestine
lovers, the greater zest they have for their pleasures, whether they seek to outwit
24


the disapproving world, or a jealous husband, or a forbidding and deeply
suspicious father, as in Elegy 4
The tension of the poetry comes from the pull of divergent impulses in the
argument itself. In "A Valediction: Of my Name in the Window," the lover's name
scratched in his mistress's window ought to serve as a talisman to keep her
chaste; but then, as he explains to her, it may instead be an unwilling witness to
her infidelity:

When thy inconsiderate hand
Flings ope this casement, with my trembling name,
To look on one, whose wit or land,
New battery to thy heart may frame,
Then think this name alive, and that thou thus
In it offend'st my Genius.
So complex or downright contradictory is our state that quite opposite
possibilities must be allowed for within the scope of a single assertion, as in Satire
3: "Kind pity chokes my spleen; brave scorn forbids / Those tears to issue which
swell my eye-lids."
The opening lines of Satire 3 confront us with a bizarre medley of moral
questions: Should the corrupted state of religion prompt our anger or our grief?
What devotion do we owe to religion, and which religion may claim our
devotion? May the pagan philosophers be saved before Christian believers? What
obligation of piety do children owe to their fathers in return for their religious
upbringing? Then we get a quick review of issues such as the participation of
Englishmen in foreign wars, colonizing expeditions, the Spanish auto-da-f, and
brawls over women or honor in the London streets. The drift of Donne's
argument holds all these concerns together and brings them to bear upon the
divisions of Christendom that lead men to conclude that any worldly cause must
be more worthy of their devotion than the pursuit of a true Christian life. The
mode of reasoning is characteristic: Donne calls in a variety of circumstances,
weighing one area of concern against another so that we may appraise the present
claim in relation to a whole range of unlike possibilities: "Is not this excuse for
mere contraries, / Equally strong; cannot both sides say so?" The movement of
English Paper 2 25


the poem amounts to a sifting of the relative claims on our devotion that
commonly distract us from our absolute obligation to seek the truth.
Some of Donne's finest love poems, such as "A Valediction: forbidding
Mourning," prescribe the condition of a mutual attachment that time and distance
cannot diminish:

Dull sublunary lovers' love
(Whose soul is sense) cannot admit
Absence, because it doth remove
Those things which elemented it.

But we by a love, so much refined,
That our selves know not what it is,
Inter-assured of the mind,
Care less, eyes, lips, and hands to miss.
Donne finds some striking images to define this state in which two people remain
wholly one while they are separated. Their souls are not divided but expanded by
the distance between them, "Like gold to airy thinness beat"; or they move in
response to each other as the legs of twin compasses, whose fixed foot keeps the
moving foot steadfast in its path:

Such wilt thou be to me, who must
Like th' other foot obliquely run;
Thy firmness makes my circle just,
And makes me end, where I begun.
26


A supple argument unfolds with lyric grace.
It must be borne in mind that the poems editors group together were not
necessarily produced thus. Donne did not write for publication. No more than
seven poems and a bit of another poem were published during his lifetime, and
only two of these publications were authorized by him. The poems he released
were passed around in manuscript and transcribed by his admirers singly or in
gatherings. Some of these copies have survived. When the first printed edition of
his poems was published in 1633, two years after his death, the haphazard
arrangement of the poems gave no clue to the order of their composition. Many
modern editions of the poetry impose categorical divisions that are unlikely to
correspond to the order of writing, separating the love poetry from the satires and
the religious poetry, the verse letters from the epithalamiums and funeral poems.
No more than a handful of Donne's poems can be dated with certainty. The
Elegies and Satires are likely to have been written in the early 1590s.
Q.7 Write a general note on Bacons as a writer of Essays
Ans Bacons essays shows a familiar subjects which make an immediate appeal to
average readers Although quite number of these essays were written for the
benefits of kings, rulers,courtiers,and statesman fairly large number of them,
were taken on subjects of the popular interest. The ideas reveal in the essays
expressed by no means deeply philosophically or abstruse. Bacon deeply
illustrates and reinforces his ideas and arguments with appropriate similies,
metaphor and quotations. Bacon's ideas were influential in the 1630s and 1650s
among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia
Pseudopodia Epidemica (16461672) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach
to his scientific enquiries. During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked
as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660. In the
nineteenth century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by
William Whewell, among others. He has been reputed as the "Father of
Experimental Science".
Bacon is also considered to be the philosophical influence behind the dawning of
the Industrial age. In his works, Bacon called for a "spring of a progeny of
inventions, which shall overcome, to some extent, and subdue our needs and
miseries",ways proposing that all scientific work should be done for charitable
purposes, as matter of alleviating mankind's misery, and that therefore science
should be practical and have as purpose the inventing of useful things for the
improvement of mankind's estate. This changed the course of science in history,
from a merely contemplative state, as it was found in ancient and medieval ages,
to a practical, inventive state - that would have eventually led to the inventions
that made possible the Industrial Revolutions of the following centuries.
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The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history. In the two
centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over
tenfold, while the world's population increased over sixfold.

In the words of
Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living
standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained
growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before".He
also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death, with natural
and experimental observations for the prolongation of life.For one of his
biographers, Hepworth Dixon, Bacon's influence in modern world is so great that
every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in
an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a
beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him
something. Some authors believe that Bacon's vision for a Utopian New World in
North America was laid out in his novel New Atlantis, which depicts a mythical
island, Bensalem, located somewhere between Peru and Japan. In this work he
depicted a land where there would be freedom of religion - showing a Jew treated
fairly and equally in an island of Christians, but it has been debated whether this
work had influenced others reforms, such as greater rights for women, the
abolition of slavery, elimination of debtors' prisons, separation of church and
state, and freedom of political expression, although there is no hint of these
reforms in The New Atlantis itself. His propositions of legal reform (which were
not established in his life time), though, are considered to have been one of the
influences behind the Napoleonic Code and therefore could show some
resemblance with or influence in the drafting of other liberal constitutions that
came in the centuries after Bacon's lifetime, such as the American.

Q.8 Discuss the difference between bacon and Shakespeare
Ans The Baconian theory of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th
century, contends that Sir Francis Bacon wrote some or all the plays
conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare, in opposition to the scholarly
consensus that William Shakespeare of Stratford was the author.Francis Bacon
often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and
to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing Bacon's alleged
connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by
authors and scholars in many books. However others, including Daphne du
Maurier (in her biography of Bacon), have argued there is no substantive
evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians. Frances Yates
does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that
he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements
of his day. She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning
was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's
28


New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own
movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian
ideals.The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians ideals which Yates
allegedly found, was the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian
Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a "Great Instauration", for the two were calling for
a reformation of both "divine and human understanding",as well as both had in
view the purpose of mankind's return to the "state before the Fall".Another major
link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's "New Atlantis" and the
German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's "Description of the Republic of
Christianopolis (1619)". In his book, Andreae shows an utopic island in which
Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual
fulfillment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each
individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual calling linked to
the achievement of spiritual perfection. Andreae's island also depicts a great
advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones
which supplied the population's needs which shows great resemblance to
Bacon's scientific methods and purposes. The Rosicrucian organization AMORC
claims that Francis Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the Rosicrucian Order in
both England and the European continent, and would have directed it at that time
of the Renaissance. Francis Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of
religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilised his writings in
their own belief systems

Q.9 Write a short note on john donne poetries
Ans Donne was born in London, into a Roman Catholic family when practice of that
religion was illegal in England. Donne was the third of six children. His father,
also named John Donne, was of Welsh descent and a warden of the Ironmongers
Company in the City of London. Donne's father was a respected Roman Catholic
who avoided unwelcome government attention out of fear of persecution.Donne's
father died in 1576, leaving his wife, Elizabeth Heywood, the responsibility of
raising their children.Elizabeth was also from a recusant Roman Catholic family,
the daughter of John Heywood, the playwright, and sister of the Reverend Jasper
Heywood, a Jesuit priest and translator. She was a great-niece of the Roman
Catholic martyr Thomas More. This tradition of martyrdom would continue
among Donnes closer relatives, many of whom were executed or exiled for
religious reasons. Donne was educated privately; however, there is no evidence to
support the popular claim that he was taught by Jesuits. Donne's mother married
Dr. John Syminges, a wealthy widower with three children, a few months after
Donne's father died. Two more of his sisters, Mary and Katherine, died in 1581.
Donne's mother, who had lived in the Deanery after Donne became Dean of St.
Paul's, survived him, dying in 1632 .
English Paper 2 29


Donne was a student at Hart Hall, now Hertford College, Oxford, from the age of
11. After three years at Oxford he was admitted to the University of Cambridge,
where he studied for another three years. He was unable to obtain a degree from
either institution because of his Catholicism, since he could not take the Oath of
Supremacy required of graduate.In 1591 he was accepted as a student at the
Thavies Inn legal school, one of the Inns of Chancery in London. On 6 May 1592
he was admitted to Lincolns Inn, one of the Inns of Court. His brother Henry was
also a university student prior to his arrest in 1593 for harbouring a Catholic
priest, William Harrington, whom Henry betrayed under torture. Harrington was
tortured on the rack, hanged until not quite dead, then was subjected to
disembowelment. Henry Donne died in Newgate prison of bubonic plague,
leading John Donne to begin questioning his Catholic faith.During and after his
education, Donne spent much of his considerable inheritance on women,
literature, pastimes and travel. Although there is no record detailing precisely
where he travelled, it is known that he travelled across Europe and later fought
with the Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh against the Spanish at Cadiz (1596)
and the Azores (1597) and witnessed the loss of the Spanish flagship, the San
Felipe. According to Izaak Walton, who wrote a biography of Donne in 1658: he
returned not back into England till he had stayed some years, first in Italy, and
then in Spain, where he made many useful observations of those countries, their
laws and manner of government, and returned perfect in their languages.Izaak
WaltonBy the age of 25 he was well prepared for the diplomatic career he
appeared to be seeking. He was appointed chief secretary to the Lord Keeper of
the Great Seal, Sir Thomas Egerton, and was established at Egertons London
home, York House, Strand close to the Palace of Whitehall, then the most
influential social centre in England.
Donne's earliest poems showed a developed knowledge of English society
coupled with sharp criticism of its problems. His satires dealt with common
Elizabethan topics, such as corruption in the legal system, mediocre poets, and
pompous courtiers. His images of sickness, vomit, manure, and plague reflected
his strongly satiric view of a world populated by all the fools and knaves of
England. His third satire, however, deals with the problem of true religion, a
matter of great importance to Donne. He argued that it was better to examine
carefully one's religious convictions than blindly to follow any established
tradition, for none would be saved at the Final Judgment, by claiming "A Harry,
or a Martin taught [them] this."Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic
poetry, especially his elegies, in which he employed unconventional metaphors,
such as a flea biting two lovers being compared to sex. In Elegy XIX: To His
Mistress Going to Bed, he poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act
of fondling to the exploration of America. In Elegy XVIII, he compared the gap
between his lover's breasts to the Hellespont. Donne did not publish these poems,
although did allow them to circulate widely in manuscript form.
30


... any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankinde; And
therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee..
Donne, Meditation

Some have speculated that Donne's numerous illnesses, financial strain, and the
deaths of his friends all contributed to the development of a more somber and
pious tone in his later poems. The change can be clearly seen in "An Anatomy of
the World" (1611), a poem that Donne wrote in memory of Elizabeth Drury,
daughter of his patron, Sir Robert Drury of Hawstead, Suffolk. This poem treats
Elizabeth's demise with extreme gloominess, using it as a symbol for the Fall of
Man and the destruction of the universe.The poem "A Nocturnal upon S. Lucy's
Day, Being the Shortest Day", concerns the poet's despair at the death of a loved
one. In it Donne expresses a feeling of utter negation and hopelessness, saying
that "I am every dead thing...re-begot / Of absence, darkness, death." This famous
work was probably written in 1627 when both Donne's friend Lucy, Countess of
Bedford, and his daughter Lucy Donne died. Three years later, in 1630, Donne
wrote his will on Saint Lucy's day (13 December), the date the poem describes as
"Both the year's, and the day's deep midnight."The increasing gloominess of
Donne's tone may also be observed in the religious works that he began writing
during the same period. His early belief in the value of scepticism now gave way
to a firm faith in the traditional teachings of the Bible. Having converted to the
Anglican Church, Donne focused his literary career on religious literature. He
quickly became noted for his sermons and religious poems. The lines of these
sermons would come to influence future works of English literature, such as
Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls, which took its title from a passage
in Meditation XVII of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Mertons
No Man is an Island, which took its title from the same source.Towards the end of
his life Donne wrote works that challenged death, and the fear that it inspired in
many men, on the grounds of his belief that those who die are sent to Heaven to
live eternally. One example of this challenge is his Holy Sonnet X, Death Be Not
Proud, from which come the famous lines Death, be not proud, though some
have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so. Even as he lay dying
during Lent in 1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered the Death's Duel
sermon, which was later described as his own funeral sermon. Deaths Duel
portrays life as a steady descent to suffering and death, yet sees hope in salvation
and immortality through an embrace of God, Christ and the Resurrection.His
work has received much criticism over the years, especially concerning his
metaphysical form. Donne is generally considered the most prominent member of
the Metaphysical poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by the critic Dr Johnson,
following a comment on Donne by the poet John Dryden. Dryden had written of
Donne in 1693: "He affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his
English Paper 2 31


amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the
fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts,
and entertain them with the softnesses of love." In Life of Cowley (from Samuel
Johnson's 1781 work of biography and criticism Lives of the Most Eminent
English Poets), Johnson refers to the beginning of the seventeenth century in
which there "appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical
poets". Donne's immediate successors in poetry therefore tended to regard his
works with ambivalence, with the Neoclassical poets regarding his conceits as
abuse of the metaphor. However he was revived by Romantic poets such as
Coleridge and Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twentieth
century by poets such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F R Leavis tended to portray
him, with approval, as an anti-Romantic.Donne's work suggests a healthy
appetite for life and its pleasures, while also expressing deep emotion. He did this
through the use of conceits, wit and intellectas seen in the poems "The Sun
Rising" and "Batter My Heart".Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical
conceit, an extended metaphor that combines two vastly different ideas into a
single idea, often using imagery. An example of this is his equation of lovers with
saints in "The Canonization". Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan
poetry, most notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichd comparisons
between more closely related objects (such as a rose and love), metaphysical
conceits go to a greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects. One of
the most famous of Donne's conceits is found in "A Valediction: Forbidding
Mourning" where he compares two lovers who are separated to the two legs of a
compass.Donne's works are also witty, employing paradoxes, puns, and subtle
yet remarkable analogies. His pieces are often ironic and cynical, especially
regarding love and human motives. Common subjects of Donne's poems are love
(especially in his early life), death (especially after his wife's death), and
religion.John Donne's poetry represented a shift from classical forms to more
personal poetry. Donne is noted for his poetic metre, which was structured with
changing and jagged rhythms that closely resemble casual speech (it was for this
that the more classical-minded Ben Jonson commented that "Donne, for not
keeping of accent, deserved hanging").Some scholars believe that Donne's literary
works reflect the changing trends of his life, with love poetry and satires from his
youth and religious sermons during his later years. Other scholars, such as Helen
Gardner, question the validity of this datingmost of his poems were published
posthumously (1633). The exception to these is his Anniversaries which were
published in 1612 and Devotions upon Emergent Occasions published in 1624.
His sermons are also dated, sometimes specifically by date and year.Donne is
commemorated as a priest in the calendar of the Church of England and in the
Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on 31
March.Sylvia Plath, interviewed on BBC Radio in late 1962, said the following
about a book review of her collection of poems titled The Colossus that had been
published in the United Kingdom two years earlier: "I remember being appalled
32


when someone criticised me for beginning just like John Donne but not quite
managing to finish like John Donne, and I felt the weight of English literature on
me at that point."The memorial to Donne, modelled after the engraving pictured
above, was one of the few such memorials to survive the Great Fire of London in
1666 and now appears in St Paul's Cathedral where Donne is buried.Donne's
earliest poems showed a developed knowledge of English society coupled with
sharp criticism of its problems. His satires dealt with common Elizabethan topics,
such as corruption in the legal system, mediocre poets, and pompous courtiers.
His images of sickness, vomit, manure, and plague reflected his strongly satiric
view of a world populated by all the fools and knaves of England. His third
satire, however, deals with the problem of true religion, a matter of great
importance to Donne. He argued that it was better to examine carefully one's
religious convictions than blindly to follow any established tradition, for none
would be saved at the Final Judgment, by claiming "A Harry, or a Martin taught
[them] this."Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic poetry, especially
his elegies, in which he employed unconventional metaphors, such as a flea biting
two lovers being compared to sex. In Elegy XIX: To His Mistress Going to Bed, he
poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act of fondling to the
exploration of America. In Elegy XVIII, he compared the gap between his lover's
breasts to the Hellespont. Donne did not publish these poems, although did allow
them to circulate widely in manuscript form.
Donne, Meditation

Man and the destruction of the universe.
The poem "A Nocturnal upon S. Lucy's Day, Being the Shortest Day", concerns
the poet's despair at the death of a loved one. In it Donne expresses a feeling of
utter negation and hopelessness, saying that "I am every dead thing...re-begot /
Of absence, darkness, death." This famous work was probably written in 1627
when both Donne's friend Lucy, Countess of Bedford, and his daughter Lucy
Donne died. Three years later, in 1630, Donne wrote his will on Saint Lucy's day
(13 December), the date the poem describes as "Both the year's, and the day's
English Paper 2 33


deep midnight."The increasing gloominess of Donne's tone may also be observed
in the religious works that he began writing during the same period. His early
belief in the value of scepticism now gave way to a firm faith in the traditional
teachings of the Bible. Having converted to the Anglican Church, Donne focused
his literary career on religious literature. He quickly became noted for his
sermons and religious poems. The lines of these sermons would come to
influence future works of English literature, such as Ernest Hemingway's For
Whom the Bell Tolls, which took its title from a passage in Meditation XVII of
Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Mertons No Man is an Island,
which took its title from the same source.Towards the end of his life Donne wrote
works that challenged death, and the fear that it inspired in many men, on the
grounds of his belief that those who die are sent to Heaven to live eternally. One
example of this challenge is his Holy Sonnet X, Death Be Not Proud, from which
come the famous lines Death, be not proud, though some have called thee /
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so. Even as he lay dying during Lent in
1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered the Death's Duel sermon, which was
later described as his own funeral sermon. Deaths Duel portrays life as a steady
descent to suffering and death, yet sees hope in salvation and immortality
through an embrace of God, Christ and the Resurrection.His work has received
much criticism over the years, especially concerning his metaphysical form.
Donne is generally considered the most prominent member of the Metaphysical
poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by the critic Dr Johnson, following a comment on
Donne by the poet John Dryden. Dryden had written of Donne in 1693: "He
affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his amorous verses, where
nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice
speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts, and entertain
them with the softnesses of love." In Life of Cowley (from Samuel Johnson's 1781
work of biography and criticism Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets),
Johnson refers to the beginning of the seventeenth century in which there
"appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets". Donne's
immediate successors in poetry therefore tended to regard his works with
ambivalence, with the Neoclassical poets regarding his conceits as abuse of the
metaphor. However he was revived by Romantic poets such as Coleridge and
Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twentieth century by poets
such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F R Leavis tended to portray him, with approval,
as an anti-Romantic.Donne's work suggests a healthy appetite for life and its
pleasures, while also expressing deep emotion. He did this through the use of
conceits, wit and intellectas seen in the poems "The Sun Rising" and "Batter My
Heart".Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical conceit, an extended
metaphor that combines two vastly different ideas into a single idea, often using
imagery. An example of this is his equation of lovers with saints in "The
Canonization". Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan poetry, most
notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichd comparisons between more
34


closely related objects (such as a rose and love), metaphysical conceits go to a
greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects. One of the most
famous of Donne's conceits is found in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning"
where he compares two lovers who are separated to the two legs of a
me at that point."
The memorial to Donne, modelled after the engraving pictured above, was one of
the few such memorials to survive the Great Fire of London in 1666 and now
appears in St Paul's Cathedral where Donne is buried.

Q.10 Discus John Donne as an English poet
Ans John Donne was an English poet, satirist, lawyer and priest. He is considered the
pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets. His works are noted for
their strong, sensual style and include sonnets, love poetry, religious poems, Latin
translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for
its vibrancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, especially compared to
that of his contemporaries. Donne's style is characterised by abrupt openings and
various paradoxes, ironies and dislocations. These features, along with his
frequent dramatic or everyday speech rhythms, his tense syntax and his tough
English Paper 2 35


eloquence, were both a reaction against the smoothness of conventional
Elizabethan poetry and an adaptation into English of European baroque and
mannerist techniques. His early career was marked by poetry that bore immense
knowledge of British society and he met that knowledge with sharp criticism.
Another important theme in Donnes poetry is the idea of true religion,
something that he spent much time considering and theorising about. He wrote
secular poems as well as erotic and love poems. He is particularly famous for his
mastery of metaphysical conceits.
Despite his great education and poetic talents, Donne lived in poverty for several
years, relying heavily on wealthy friends. He spent much of the money he
inherited during and after his education on womanising, literature, pastimes, and
travel. In 1601, Donne secretly married Anne Moore, with whom he had twelve
children. In 1615, he became an Anglican priest, although he did not want to take
Anglican orders. He did so because King James I persistently ordered it. In 1621,
he was appointed the Dean of St Paul's Cathedral in London. He also served as a
memberof parliament in 1601 and in 1614.
or a Martin taught [them] this."

Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic poetry, especially his elegies,
in which he employed unconventional metaphors, such as a flea biting two lovers
being compared to sex. In Elegy XIX: To His Mistress Going to Bed, he poetically
undressed his mistress and compared the act of fondling to the exploration of
America. In Elegy XVIII, he compared the gap between his lover's breasts to the
Hellespont. Donne did not publish these poems, although did allow them to
circulate widely in manuscript form.

36


deep midnight."
The increasing gloominess of Donne's tone may also be observed in the religious
works that he began writing during the same period. His early belief in the value
of scepticism now gave way to a firm faith in the traditional teachings of the
Bible. Having converted to the Anglican Church, Donne focused his literary
career on religious literature. He quickly became noted for his sermons and
religious poems. The lines of these sermons would come to influence future
works of English literature, such as Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls,
which took its title from a passage in Meditation XVII of Devotions upon
Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Mertons No Man is an Island, which took its
title from the same source.

Towards the end of his life Donne wrote works that challenged death, and the
fear that it inspired in many men, on the grounds of his belief that those who die
are sent to Heaven to live eternally. One example of this challenge is his Holy
Sonnet X, Death Be Not Proud, from which come the famous lines Death, be not
proud, though some have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so.
Even as he lay dying during Lent in 1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered
the Death's Duel sermon, which was later described as his own funeral sermon.
Deaths Duel portrays life as a steady descent to suffering and death, yet sees
hope in salvation and immortality through an embrace of God, Christ and the
Resurrection.His work has received much criticism over the years, especially
concerning his metaphysical form. Donne is generally considered the most
prominent member of the Metaphysical poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by the
critic Dr Johnson, following a comment on Donne by the poet John Dryden.
Dryden had written of Donne in 1693: "He affects the metaphysics, not only in his
satires, but in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes
the minds of the fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should
engage their hearts, and entertain them with the softnesses of love." In Life of
Cowley (from Samuel Johnson's 1781 work of biography and criticism Lives of
the Most Eminent English Poets), Johnson refers to the beginning of the
seventeenth century in which there "appeared a race of writers that may be
English Paper 2 37


termed the metaphysical poets". Donne's immediate successors in poetry
therefore tended to regard his works with ambivalence, with the Neoclassical
poets regarding his conceits as abuse of the metaphor. However he was revived
by Romantic poets such as Coleridge and Browning, though his more recent
revival in the early twentieth century by poets such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F
R Leavis tended to portray him, with approval, as an anti-Romantic. Donne's
work suggests a healthy appetite for life and its pleasures, while also expressing
deep emotion. He did this through the use of conceits, wit and intellectas seen
in the poems "The Sun Rising" and "Batter My Heart". Donne is considered a
master of the metaphysical conceit, an extended metaphor that combines two
vastly different ideas into a single idea, often using imagery. An example of this is
his equation of lovers with saints in "The Canonization". Unlike the conceits
found in other Elizabethan poetry, most notably Petrarchan conceits, which
formed clichd comparisons between more closely related objects (such as a rose
and love), metaphysical conceits go to a greater depth in comparing two
completely unlike objects. One of the most famous of Donne's conceits is found in
"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" where he compares two lovers who are
separated to the two legs of a compass.

Donne's works are also witty, employing paradoxes, puns, and subtle yet
remarkable analogies. His pieces are often ironic and cynical, especially regarding
love and human motives. Common subjects of Donne's poems are love (especially
in his early life), death (especially after his wife's death), and religion.
John Donne's poetry represented a shift from classical forms to more personal
poetry. Donne is noted for his poetic metre, which was structured with changing
and jagged rhythms that closely resemble casual speech (it was for this that the
more classical-minded Ben Jonson commented that "Donne, for not keeping of
accent, deserved hanging"). Some scholars believe that Donne's literary works
reflect the changing trends of his life, with love poetry and satires from his youth
and religious sermons during his later years. Other scholars, such as Helen
His sermons are also dated, sometimes specifically by date and year which was
structured with changing and jagged rhythms that closely resemble casual speech
(it was for this that the more classical-minded Ben Jonson commented that
"Donne, for not keeping of accent, deserved hanging").

Some scholars believe that Donne's literary works reflect the changing trends of
his life, with love poetry and satires from his youth and religious sermons during
his later years. Other scholars, such as Helen Gardner, question the validity of
this datingmost of his poems were published posthumously (1633). The
38


exception to these is his Anniversaries which were published in 1612 and
Devotions upon Emergent Occasions published in 1624. His sermons are also
dated, sometimes specifically by date and year.

Q.11 Critically analyzes the poem the sunne rising
Ans The Sun Rising is one of Donnes popular and widely read and enjoyed love
poems. It is love poem of an unusual kind. In this poem, composed in the form of
a dramatic monologue, the poet lover reprimands the Sun and calls it names for
disturbing love making.Overtly addressed to the Sun, the poem is intended to
bears for her. The poet-lovers reprimand of the Sun, through a very clever
rhetorical maneuver, ultimately ends in locking the Sun in the bedroom of the
lover. The busy old fool, the unruly Sun, the saucy pedantic wretch is ultimately
persuaded to shine on the lovers and serve them.The poem has a well-knit, logical
structure. It has symmetry of design. It progresses with the progress and witty
shifts in the poet are thought. He addresses the Sun as busy old fool. He calls it
unruly because, by peeping in to the bedroom through windows and curtains it
disturbs the lovers.The poet-lover tells the Sun that lovers seasons do not run to
its motions. He advises the Sun to go and do such routine and dull jobs like
chiding late-schoolboys and apprentices, waking up court-huntsmen and
peasants. The expression country ants is imagery. It refers to the peasants,
drudging like ants. They get up with the Sun and toil the whole day, till sunset.
Love knows no season, no climates. It is not affected by time. In this section of the
poem we come across colloquial expression like busy old fool and saucy
pedantic wretch. Such terms of contempt fitfully set the tone of the poem which
is one of annoyance.The poets wit is apparent when he tells the Sun that he has
no reason to think that his beams are so reverend and strong. The poet lover
could eclipse and could the beams of the Sun with a wink. He does not do so
because he does not wish to loose her right so long. The poet-lover knows that
the Sun would go to the other half of the world and come to that place at this time
tomorrow.The Sun travels all over the world in twenty four hours. The poet-lover
asks the Sun to go round the world, see all Kings, come back tomorrow and say if
both the Indias of spice and mine be where it left them or lie here with me.
The Indias of spice and mine imply both India in the east and the Red Indians in
the west. The progress in navigation, the discovery of America, Walter Raleighs
going round the world etc. during the Renaissance widened the horizon of mans
knowledge about the universe. Donne profited from this new knowledge.
In his poems we come across allusions to the latest developments in
knowledge utilised to express his thoughts. The Sun, the poet says, will find all
Kings of the world All in one bed lay. He tells the Sun that he is all Kings.The
same imagery continues in the concluding verse of the poem where Shes all
English Paper 2 39


States, and all Princes I. The poets mistress is all States. She is the world. The
poet-lover is all Princes. He is the lord of the world. Princes only play them.
Compared to their love all honours mimick, all wealth alchemy. In the
latter imagery there is an allusion to the medieval belief in the powers of magic
etc.The Sun can shine over only half of the world at one time. The lovers, on
the contrary, are the world. It logically follows that the Sun is half as happy as
we. When we come to this part of the poem we notice a shift in the mood of
the poet.
The Sun is no longer the busy old fool or the saucy pedantic wretch of the
first verse or stanza. It is now an aged fellow in need of ease. The poet-lover
offers it the needed ease. The Suns duty is warming the world. It warms only
half of the world at a time. By shining on the lovers bed it can shine over the
whole world at a time. Let the bed be the centre and the walls the sphere of the
Sun with this arrangement the aged Sun can do its duties with ease.The last
part of the poem reveals the poets wit, his mastery over the use of apt imagery
and conceits. At the beginning of the poem the poet asked the Sun to go away
from there. Now he invites the Sun to go round their bed and shine on them.

40


Section C
Poems

Q.1 Discuss the theme in popes PARADISE LOST
Ans The Rape of the Lock opens with an invocation of a muse and establishes the
poems subject matter, specifically a dire offense from amorous causes and the
mighty contests [rising] from trivial things (1-2). The speaker concludes his
invocation by asking the muse to explain first why a lord of good-breeding would
assault a lady and, secondly, why a lady would reject a lord.
The action of the poem begins with the rising sun awakening the residents of a
wealthy household. Though everyone, including the lapdogs, has risen, Belinda
remains asleep. She dreams of a handsome youth who informs her that she is
protected by a thousand bright inhabitants of air: spirits that were once human
women who now protect virgins.
The youth explains that after a woman dies, her spirit returns to elemental form;
namely, to fire, water, earth, and air. Each element is characterized by different
types of women. Termagants or scolds become fire spirits or Salamanders.
Indecisive women become water spirits. Prudes or women who delight in
rejecting men become Gnomes (earth spirits). Coquettes become Sylphs (air
spirits).
The dream is sent to Belinda by Ariel, her guardian Sylph (20). The Sylphs are
Belindas guardians because they understand her vanity and pride, having been
coquettes when they were humans. They are devoted to any woman who rejects
mankind (68). Their role is to guide young women through the mystic mazes
of social interaction (92).
At the end of the dream, Ariel warns Belinda of an impending dread event,
urging her to Beware of all, but most beware of Man (109, 114). Belinda is then
awoken by her lapdog, Shock. Upon rising, she sees that a billet-doux, or a love-
letter, has arrived for her, causing her to forget the details of the dream.
Now awake, Belinda begins her elaborate toilette. Pope endows every object from
combs and pins to billet-doux and Bibles with significance in this ritual of
dressing: Each silver vase in mystic order laid (122). Belinda herself is described
as a goddess, looking at her heavenly image in the mirror (132, 125). The
English Paper 2 41


elegant language and importance of such objects thus elevate the process of
dressing to a sacred rite.
The Sylphs assist in Belindas dressing routine, setting her hair and straightening
her gown. Fully arrayed, Belinda emerges from her chamber.The opening of The
Rape of the Lock establishes the poems mock-heroic tone. In the tradition of epic
poetry, Pope opens the poem by invoking a muse, but rather than invoke one of
the mythic Greek muses, Pope leaves the muse anonymous and instead dedicates
the poem to John Caryll, the man who commissioned the poem. The first verse-
paragraph also introduces Popes epic subject matter: a war arising from
amorous causes Unlike Menelaus fury at Paris theft of Helen or Achilles
quarrel with Agamemnon over Briseis in The Iliad, however, the poems mighty
contests rise from trivial things (2). Indeed, these mighty contests are merely
flirtations and card games rather than the great battles of the Greek epic tradition.
The second verse-paragraph encapsulates Popes subversion of the epic genre. In
lines 11-12 Pope juxtaposes grand emotions with unheroic character-types,
specifically little men and women: In tasks so bold can little men engage, /
And in soft bosoms dwells such mighty rage. The irony of pairing epic
characteristics with lowly human characters contributes to Popes mock-heroic
style. Furthermore, the mighty rage of women evokes the rage of Achilles at the
outset of The Iliad, foreshadowing the comic gender-reversal that characterizes
the rest of the poem. Rather than distinguish the subjects of the poem as in a
traditional epic, Pope uses the mock-heroic genre to elevate and ridicule his
subjects simultaneously, creating a satire that chides society for its misplaced
values and emphasis on trivial matters.
Belindas dream provides the mythic structure of the poem. In this segment, Pope
introduces the supernatural forces that affect the action of the poem, much the
way that the gods and goddesses of The Iliad would influence the progress of the
Trojan War. Just as Athena protects Diomedes and Aphrodite supports Paris
during the Trojan War, Ariel is the guardian of Belinda. Unlike the Greek gods,
however, Ariel possesses little power to protect his ward and preserve her
chastity. In this initial canto, Belinda forgets Ariels warnings of impending
dangers upon receiving a billet-doux. Though charged with protecting Belindas
virtue, it seems that Ariel cannot fully guard her from the perils of love, unable to
distract her even from a relatively harmless love letter. In the dream Ariel
indicates that all women have patron sprites, depending on their personality
type. Ariel explains that when women die, their spirits return from earthly
vehicles to their first elements (50, 58). Each personality typescolds,
undecided women, prudes, coquettesbecomes a Salamander, Nymph, Gnome,
or Sylph, respectively. These four types are associated with both the four humors
and the four elements. Having been light coquettes as human women, the
42


Sylphs are most closely affiliated with Belinda. Belinda herself is a coquette, and
it is this aspect of femininity with which Pope is most concerned.
Pope explores the role of the coquette in this first canto. He demonstrates that
womanly priorities are limited to personal pleasures and social aspirations. In his
description of the Sylphs during the dream sequence, Pope enumerates coquettish
vanities. As humans these women valued their beauteous mold and enjoyed
frivolous diversions, which they continue to take pleasure in as sprites The joy in
gilded chariots suggests a preference for superficial grandeur and external
signifiers of wealth Similarly, their love of ombre, a popular card game
featuring elements of bridge and poker, indicates a desire for fashionable
entertainment Through this love of finery and these trivial pastimes, Pope depicts
a society that emphasizes appearances rather than moral principles. This focus on
appearance extends to attitudes towards honor and virtue. Society dictates that
women remain chaste while enticing suitable husbands. Of course, if a woman
seemed to compromise herself, society would censure her as though she had lost
her virtue. This concern about female sexuality represents the underlying anxiety
in The Rape of the Lock: the theft of the lock (a metonymic substitution for
Belindas chastity) creates the appearance of lost virtue.
At this point in the poem, however, Pope depicts Belinda not as a coquette but as
a powerful figure, similar to the (male) heroes of epic poetry. Pope remains
Belindas morning routine as a heros ritualized preparation before battle. Her
toilette commences as a religious rite in praise of a goddess. Belindas reflection in
the mirror becomes the image of the goddess while her maid is the inferior
priestess, worshipping at the altar These sacred rites perform a secondary
purpose: once the sacraments are performed, the goddess should protect Belinda
during her days adventures Upon completion of the mornings ceremony,
Belinda begins to array herself, a scene which Pope figures within the epic
paradigm as the ritualized arming of the hero. The combs, pins, puffs, powders,
patches become the weapons and armor of this hero as the awful Beauty [puts]
on all its arms This depiction of Belinda as an epic hero establishes the mock-
heroic motifs that occur throughout the poem.
Q-.2 Write a general note on Bacons as a writer of Essays
Ans Bacons essays shows a familiar subjects which make an immediate appeal to
average readers Although quite number of these essays were written for the
benefits of kings, rulers,courtiers,and statesman fairly large number of them,
were taken on subjects of the popular interest. The ideas reveal in the essays
expressed by no means deeply philosophically or abstruse. Bacon deeply
illustrates and reinforces his ideas and arguments with appropriate similies,
metaphor and quotations. Bacon's ideas were influential in the 1630s and 1650s
among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopedia
English Paper 2 43


Pseudopodia Epidemica (16461672) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach
to his scientific enquiries. During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked
as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660. In the
nineteenth century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by
William Whewell, among others. He has been reputed as the "Father of
Experimental Science".
Bacon is also considered to be the philosophical influence behind the dawning of
the Industrial age. In his works, Bacon called for a "spring of a progeny of
inventions, which shall overcome, to some extent, and subdue our needs and
miseries",ways proposing that all scientific work should be done for charitable
purposes, as matter of alleviating mankind's misery, and that therefore science
should be practical and have as purpose the inventing of useful things for the
improvement of mankind's estate. This changed the course of science in history,
from a merely contemplative state, as it was found in ancient and medieval ages,
to a practical, inventive state - that would have eventually led to the inventions
that made possible the Industrial Revolutions of the following centuries.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history. In the two
centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over
tenfold, while the world's population increased over sixfold.

In the words of
Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living
standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained
growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before".He
also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death, with natural
and experimental observations for the prolongation of life.For one of his
biographers, Hepworth Dixon, Bacon's influence in modern world is so great that
every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in
an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a
beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him
something. Some authors believe that Bacon's vision for a Utopian New World in
North America was laid out in his novel New Atlantis, which depicts a mythical
island, Bensalem, located somewhere between Peru and Japan. In this work he
depicted a land where there would be freedom of religion - showing a Jew treated
fairly and equally in an island of Christians, but it has been debated whether this
work had influenced others reforms, such as greater rights for women, the
abolition of slavery, elimination of debtors' prisons, separation of church and
state, and freedom of political expression, although there is no hint of these
reforms in The New Atlantis itself. His propositions of legal reform (which were
not established in his life time), though, are considered to have been one of the
influences behind the Napoleonic Code and therefore could show some
resemblance with or influence in the drafting of other liberal constitutions that
came in the centuries after Bacon's lifetime, such as the American.
44


Q.3 Discuss the difference between bacon and Shakespeare
Ans The Baconian theory of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th
century, contends that Sir Francis Bacon wrote some or all the plays
conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare, in opposition to the scholarly
consensus that William Shakespeare of Stratford was the author.Francis Bacon
often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and
to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing Bacon's alleged
connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by
authors and scholars in many books. However others, including Daphne du
Maurier (in her biography of Bacon), have argued there is no substantive
evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians. Frances Yates
does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that
he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements
of his day. She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning
was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's
New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own
movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian
ideals.The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians ideals which Yates
allegedly found, was the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian
Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a "Great Instauration", for the two were calling for
a reformation of both "divine and human understanding",as well as both had in
view the purpose of mankind's return to the "state before the Fall".Another major
link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's "New Atlantis" and the
German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's "Description of the Republic of
Christianopolis (1619)". In his book, Andreae shows an utopic island in which
Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual
fulfillment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each
individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual calling linked to
the achievement of spiritual perfection. Andreae's island also depicts a great
advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones
which supplied the population's needs which shows great resemblance to
Bacon's scientific methods and purposes. The Rosicrucian organization AMORC
claims that Francis Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the Rosicrucian Order in
both England and the European continent, and would have directed it at that time
of the Renaissance. Francis Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of
religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilised his writings in
their own belief systems

Q.4 Write a short note on john donne poetries
Ans Donne was born in London, into a Roman Catholic family when practice of that
religion was illegal in England. Donne was the third of six children. His father,
also named John Donne, was of Welsh descent and a warden of the Ironmongers
Company in the City of London. Donne's father was a respected Roman Catholic
English Paper 2 45


who avoided unwelcome government attention out of fear of persecution.Donne's
father died in 1576, leaving his wife, Elizabeth Heywood, the responsibility of
raising their children.Elizabeth was also from a recusant Roman Catholic family,
the daughter of John Heywood, the playwright, and sister of the Reverend Jasper
Heywood, a Jesuit priest and translator. She was a great-niece of the Roman
Catholic martyr Thomas More. This tradition of martyrdom would continue
among Donnes closer relatives, many of whom were executed or exiled for
religious reasons. Donne was educated privately; however, there is no evidence to
support the popular claim that he was taught by Jesuits. Donne's mother married
Dr. John Syminges, a wealthy widower with three children, a few months after
Donne's father died. Two more of his sisters, Mary and Katherine, died in 1581.
Donne's mother, who had lived in the Deanery after Donne became Dean of St.
Paul's, survived him, dying in 1632 .
Donne was a student at Hart Hall, now Hertford College, Oxford, from the age of
11. After three years at Oxford he was admitted to the University of Cambridge,
where he studied for another three years. He was unable to obtain a degree from
either institution because of his Catholicism, since he could not take the Oath of
Supremacy required of graduate.In 1591 he was accepted as a student at the
Thavies Inn legal school, one of the Inns of Chancery in London. On 6 May 1592
he was admitted to Lincolns Inn, one of the Inns of Court. His brother Henry was
also a university student prior to his arrest in 1593 for harbouring a Catholic
priest, William Harrington, whom Henry betrayed under torture. Harrington was
tortured on the rack, hanged until not quite dead, then was subjected to
disembowelment. Henry Donne died in Newgate prison of bubonic plague,
leading John Donne to begin questioning his Catholic faith.During and after his
education, Donne spent much of his considerable inheritance on women,
literature, pastimes and travel. Although there is no record detailing precisely
where he travelled, it is known that he travelled across Europe and later fought
with the Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh against the Spanish at Cadiz (1596)
and the Azores (1597) and witnessed the loss of the Spanish flagship, the San
Felipe. According to Izaak Walton, who wrote a biography of Donne in 1658: he
returned not back into England till he had stayed some years, first in Italy, and
then in Spain, where he made many useful observations of those countries, their
laws and manner of government, and returned perfect in their languages.Izaak
WaltonBy the age of 25 he was well prepared for the diplomatic career he
appeared to be seeking. He was appointed chief secretary to the Lord Keeper of
the Great Seal, Sir Thomas Egerton, and was established at Egertons London
home, York House, Strand close to the Palace of Whitehall, then the most
influential social centre in England.
46


or a Martin taught [them] this."Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic
poetry, especially his elegies, in which he employed unconventional metaphors,
such as a flea biting two lovers being compared to sex. In Elegy XIX: To His
Mistress Going to Bed, he poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act
of fondling to the exploration of America. In Elegy XVIII, he compared the gap
between his lover's breasts to the Hellespont. Donne did not publish these poems,
although did allow them to circulate widely in manuscript form.
Donne, Meditation

Man and the destruction of the universe.The poem "A Nocturnal upon S. Lucy's
Day, Being the Shortest Day", concerns the poet's despair at the death of a loved
one. In it Donne expresses a feeling of utter negation and hopelessness, saying
that "I am every dead thing...re-begot / Of absence, darkness, death." This famous
work was probably written in 1627 when both Donne's friend Lucy, Countess of
Bedford, and his daughter Lucy Donne died. Three years later, in 1630, Donne
wrote his will on Saint Lucy's day (13 December), the date the poem describes as
"Both the year's, and the day's deep midnight."The increasing gloominess of
Donne's tone may also be observed in the religious works that he began writing
during the same period. His early belief in the value of scepticism now gave way
to a firm faith in the traditional teachings of the Bible. Having converted to the
Anglican Church, Donne focused his literary career on religious literature. He
quickly became noted for his sermons and religious poems. The lines of these
sermons would come to influence future works of English literature, such as
Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls, which took its title from a passage
in Meditation XVII of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Mertons
English Paper 2 47


No Man is an Island, which took its title from the same source.Towards the end of
his life Donne wrote works that challenged death, and the fear that it inspired in
many men, on the grounds of his belief that those who die are sent to Heaven to
live eternally. One example of this challenge is his Holy Sonnet X, Death Be Not
Proud, from which come the famous lines Death, be not proud, though some
have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so. Even as he lay dying
during Lent in 1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered the Death's Duel
sermon, which was later described as his own funeral sermon. Deaths Duel
portrays life as a steady descent to suffering and death, yet sees hope in salvation
and immortality through an embrace of God, Christ and the Resurrection.His
work has received much criticism over the years, especially concerning his
metaphysical form. Donne is generally considered the most prominent member of
the Metaphysical poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by the critic Dr Johnson,
following a comment on Donne by the poet John Dryden. Dryden had written of
Donne in 1693: "He affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his
amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the
fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts,
and entertain them with the softnesses of love." In Life of Cowley (from Samuel
Johnson's 1781 work of biography and criticism Lives of the Most Eminent
English Poets), Johnson refers to the beginning of the seventeenth century in
which there "appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical
poets". Donne's immediate successors in poetry therefore tended to regard his
works with ambivalence, with the Neoclassical poets regarding his conceits as
abuse of the metaphor. However he was revived by Romantic poets such as
Coleridge and Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twentieth
century by poets such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F R Leavis tended to portray
him, with approval, as an anti-Romantic.Donne's work suggests a healthy
appetite for life and its pleasures, while also expressing deep emotion. He did this
through the use of conceits, wit and intellectas seen in the poems "The Sun
Rising" and "Batter My Heart".Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical
conceit, an extended metaphor that combines two vastly different ideas into a
single idea, often using imagery. An example of this is his equation of lovers with
saints in "The Canonization". Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan
poetry, most notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichd comparisons
between more closely related objects (such as a rose and love), metaphysical
conceits go to a greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects. One of
the most famous of Donne's conceits is found in "A Valediction: Forbidding
Mourning" where he compares two lovers who are separated to the two legs of a
48


me at that point."The memorial to Donne, modelled after the engraving pictured
above, was one of the few such memorials to survive the Great Fire of London in
1666 and now appears in St Paul's Cathedral where Donne is buried.Donne's
earliest poems showed a developed knowledge of English society coupled with
sharp criticism of its problems. His satires dealt with common Elizabethan topics,
such as corruption in the legal system, mediocre poets, and pompous courtiers.
His images of sickness, vomit, manure, and plague reflected his strongly satiric
view of a world populated by all the fools and knaves of England. His third
satire, however, deals with the problem of true religion, a matter of great
importance to Donne. He argued that it was better to examine carefully one's
religious convictions than blindly to follow any established tradition, for none
would be saved at the Final Judgment, by claiming "A Harry, or a Martin taught
[them] this."Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic poetry, especially
his elegies, in which he employed unconventional metaphors, such as a flea biting
two lovers being compared to sex. In Elegy XIX: To His Mistress Going to Bed, he
poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act of fondling to the
exploration of America. In Elegy XVIII, he compared the gap between his lover's
breasts to the Hellespont. Donne did not publish these poems, although did allow
them to circulate widely in manuscript form.
Donne, Meditation

English Paper 2 49


deep midnight."The increasing gloominess of Donne's tone may also be observed
in the religious works that he began writing during the same period. His early
belief in the value of scepticism now gave way to a firm faith in the traditional
teachings of the Bible. Having converted to the Anglican Church, Donne focused
his literary career on religious literature. He quickly became noted for his
sermons and religious poems. The lines of these sermons would come to
influence future works of English literature, such as Ernest Hemingway's For
Whom the Bell Tolls, which took its title from a passage in Meditation XVII of
Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, and Thomas Mertons No Man is an Island,
which took its title from the same source.Towards the end of his life Donne wrote
works that challenged death, and the fear that it inspired in many men, on the
grounds of his belief that those who die are sent to Heaven to live eternally. One
example of this challenge is his Holy Sonnet X, Death Be Not Proud, from which
come the famous lines Death, be not proud, though some have called thee /
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so. Even as he lay dying during Lent in
1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered the Death's Duel sermon, which was
later described as his own funeral sermon. Deaths Duel portrays life as a steady
descent to suffering and death, yet sees hope in salvation and immortality
through an embrace of God, Christ and the Resurrection.His work has received
much criticism over the years, especially concerning his metaphysical form.
Donne is generally considered the most prominent member of the Metaphysical
poets, a phrase coined in 1781 by the critic Dr Johnson, following a comment on
Donne by the poet John Dryden. Dryden had written of Donne in 1693: "He
affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his amorous verses, where
nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice
speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts, and entertain
them with the softnesses of love." In Life of Cowley (from Samuel Johnson's 1781
work of biography and criticism Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets),
50


Johnson refers to the beginning of the seventeenth century in which there
"appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets". Donne's
immediate successors in poetry therefore tended to regard his works with
ambivalence, with the Neoclassical poets regarding his conceits as abuse of the
metaphor. However he was revived by Romantic poets such as Coleridge and
Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twentieth century by poets
such as T. S. Eliot and critics like F R Leavis tended to portray him, with approval,
as an anti-Romantic.Donne's work suggests a healthy appetite for life and its
pleasures, while also expressing deep emotion. He did this through the use of
conceits, wit and intellectas seen in the poems "The Sun Rising" and "Batter My
Heart".Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical conceit, an extended
metaphor that combines two vastly different ideas into a single idea, often using
imagery. An example of this is his equation of lovers with saints in "The
Canonization". Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan poetry, most
notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichd comparisons between more
closely related objects (such as a rose and love), metaphysical conceits go to a
greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects. One of the most
famous of Donne's conceits is found in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning"
where he compares two lovers who are separated to the two legs of a
me at that point."
English Paper 2 51


The memorial to Donne, modelled after the engraving pictured above, was one of
the few such memorials to survive the Great Fire of London in 1666 and now
appears in St Paul's Cathedral where Donne is buried.

52


Poetries and its Types and Features

Q.1 Trace the character of WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE as a Dramatist
Ans William Shakespeare was an English dramatist and poet. He is considered the
greatest English dramatist. His plays, written in blank verse with several prose,
can be usually divided into comedies, together with A Midsummer Night's
Dream, The Comedy of Errors, As You Like It, Much Ado About Nothing,
and Measure For Measure; historical plays, such as Henry VI (in three
parts), Richard III, and Henry IV (in two parts), which frequently show cynical
political wisdom; and tragedies, jointly with Romeo and
Juliet, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. He also wrote numerous
sonnets and longer poetry, frequently intended for wealthy patrons. The facts
about Shakespeare are fascinating in themselves, but they have diminutive to do
with his place in literature. Shakespeare wrote his plays to bequeath pleasure. It is
doable to blemish that bliss by giving too much concentration to his life, his times,
and the predicament of figuring out what he basically wrote. He can be enjoyed
in book form, in the theater, or on television without our expressive any of these
things.
Some difficulties dump in the way of this enjoyment. Shakespeare wrote more
than 350 years ago. The language he used is perceptibly somewhat different from
the language of today. More he wrote in verse. Verse permits a free use of words
that may not be couched by some readers. His plays are often whimsical this may
not implore to matter-of-fact people who are used to modern pragmatism For all
these reasons, readers may find him difficult. The most awful handicap to
enjoyment is the origin that Shakespeare is a classic, a writer to be approached
with apprehension The way to flight this last difficulty is to believe that
Shakespeare wrote his plays for day after day people and that numerous in the
audience were uneducated. They looked upon him as a hilarious, exciting, and
endearing performer, not as a great poet. People today should read him as the
people in his day listened to him. The eagerness and enjoyment of the plays will
extradite most of the difficulties. Shakespeare was an impressive humanist. His
interest in the life and the people of his time made him watch with
a observant eye the scenery of his native country, men and women in all walks of
life, their appearances, habits and speech. He was proverbial with the traditions
of English folklore and showed deep trepidation for his people and his country's
providence. His work may be divided into three periods. The first period is that
of poems, the sonnets, the historical plays or 'chronicles' (Richard II, Richard III,
English Paper 2 53


Henry IV, and Julius Caesar), comedies (Twelfth Night, A Midsummer Night's
Dream, The Taming of the Shrew, The Merchant of Venice) and a few tragedies
(Romeo and Juliet). In common Shakespeare's writings in this intermission are
full of optimism. The second period is that of the immense tragedies (Hamlet,
Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth). The cynicism of the humanists is felt all
through the third period includes the 'romance' plays (The Tempest, The Winter's
Tale) which are characterized by an additional
Although Shakespeare's language is tremendously composite almost
every word amalgamation forms a picture. To understand Shakespeare, both his
language and his ideas, we have not 'to read' but 'to study' his works, as out
enormous poet .Shakespeare lived at a time when ideas and communal structures
recognized in the Middle Ages serene informed human thought and behavior.
Queen Elizabeth I was Gods deputy on earth, and lords and commoners had
their due places in society underneath her, with responsibilities up through her to
God and down to those of more unpretentious rank. The order of things though
did not go unquestioned. Skepticism was still measured a confront to the attitude
and technique of life of a preponderance of Elizabethans, but the Christian
confidence was no longer single. Romes authority had been challenged by
Martin, John Calvin, a multitude of small religious sects, and certainly the English
church itself. Royal privilege was challenged in Parliament; the economic and
social orders were troubled by the rise of capitalism, by the redeployment of
frugal lands under Henry VIII, by the growth of education, and by the incursion
of new wealth from discovery of new lands. An interplay of new and old ideas
was distinctive of the time: official homilies exhorted the people to obedience; the
Italian political theorist Niccol Machiavelli was illuminating a new, practical
code of politics that caused Englishmen to fright the Italian Machiavellian and
yet aggravated them to ask what men do, rather than what they should do.
In Hamlet, disquisitionson man, belief, a rotten state, and times out of
jointobviously replicate a growing conflict and incredulity. The translation of
Montaignes Essays in 1603 gave auxiliary currency, range, and sophistication to
such thought, and Shakespeare was one of some who read them, building direct
and significant quotations in The Tempest. In philosophical inquisition the
question How? became the urge for advance, relatively than the traditional
Why? of Aristotle. Shakespeares plays written between 1603 and 1606 actually
imitate a new, Jacobean distrust James I, who, like Elizabeth, claimed divine
authority, was tremendous less able than she to sustain the authority of the
throne, The so-called Gunpowder (1605) show a stubborn confront by a small
minority in the state; Jamess struggles with the House of Commons in
consecutive Parliaments, in accumulation to indicating the strength of the new
men, also bare the insufficiency of the administration.
The Latin comedies of Plautus and Terence were identifiable in Elizabethan
schools and universities, and English translations or adaptations of them were
54


occasionally performed by students. Senecas rhetorical and sensational tragedies,
too, had been translated and often imitated. But there was also a strong resident
dramatic tradition deriving from the medieval miracle plays, which had
sustained to be performed in a variety of towns awaiting outlawed during
Elizabeths sway This native drama had been capable to absorb French admired
shambles clerically enthused morality plays on theoretical themes, and interludes
or short entertainments that made use of the turns of personage clowns and
actors. Although Shakespeares immediate predecessors were known
as University wits, their plays were rarely structured in the approach of those
they had studied at Oxford or Cambridge; as a substitute, they used and
developed the more popular narrative forms. Although the amount of factual
knowledge available about Shakespeare is resplendently large for one of his
station in life, many find it a little disappointing, for it is regularly gleaned from
documents of an administrator character. Dates of baptisms, marriages, deaths,
and burials; wills, conveyances, legal processes, and payments by the court
these are the grimy details. There are, however, many contemporary allusions to
him as a writer, and these add a pragmatic amount of flesh and blood to the
biographical skeleton.
Q.2 Who are metaphysical poets?
Ans the term "metaphysical," as practical to English and continental European poets of
the seventeenth century, was used by Augustan poets John Dryden and Samuel
Johnson to reprimand those poets for their "unnaturalness." As Goethe wrote,
however, "the unnatural, that too is natural," and the metaphysical poets continue
to be studied and revered for their intricacy and originality.
John Donne, along with similar but distinct poets such as George Herbert,
Andrew Marvell, and Henry Vaughn, developed a poetic style in which
philosophical and spiritual subjects were approached with cause and often
concluded in paradox. This group of writers established meditationbased on the
union of consideration and feeling required after in Jesuit Ignatian meditation
as a poetic mode.
The metaphysical poets were eclipsed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
by romantic and Victorian poets, but twentieth century readers and scholars,
considering in the metaphysical an attempt to appreciate pressing political and
scientific upheavals, occupied them with rehabilitated interest. In his essay "The
Metaphysical Poets," T. S. Eliot, in meticulous, saw in this group of poets a ability
for "devouring all kinds of experience."
John Donne (1572 1631) was the most significant metaphysical poet. His
personal relationship with spirituality is at the center of most of his work, and the
psychological scrutiny and sexual realism of his work noticeable a dramatic
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departure from traditional, genteel verse. His early work, composed in Satires and
in Songs and Sonnets, was free in an era of religious coercion His Holy Sonnets,
which contains many of Donnes most enduring poems, was released shortly after
his wife died in childbirth. The intensity with which Donne grapples with
concepts of divinity and mortality in the Holy Sonnets is exemplified in "Sonnet X
[Death, be not proud]," "Sonnet XIV [Batter my heart, three persond God]," and
"Sonnet XVII [Since she whom I loved hath paid her last debt]."
George Herbert (1593 1633) and Andrew Marvell (1621 1678) were incredible
poets who did not live to see a collection of their poems published. Herbert, the
son of a famous literary supporter to whom Donne devoted his Holy Sonnets,
exhausted the last years of his short life as a reverend in a small town. On his
deathbed, he handed his poems to a friend with the request that they be
published only if they might aid "any depressed poor soul." Marvell wrote
politically charged poems that would have cost him his freedom or his life had
they been public. He was a secretary to John Milton, and once Milton was
imprisoned during the Restoration, Marvell successfully petitioned to have the
elder poet freed. His intricate lyric and satirical poems were collected after his
death amid an air of concealment
For auxiliary resources, consult a site devoted to Seventeenth Century British
Poetry and a site devoted to classic English poetry and poets.

Q.3 What are the traits of metaphysical poets and poetries?
Ans The metaphysical poets were a small group of English lyric poets of the 17th
century who had analogous styles and concerns. Their fresh and complicated
approach to the writing of lyrics was manifest by an intellectual quality and an
ingenious and restrained style, with the use of the metaphysical vanity (a figure
of speech that employs unusual and paradoxical images). Of this group of poets
the work of only two will be covered in this short course: John Donne (1572-1631)
and Andrew Marvell (1621-1628). Some of the others were Crashaw, Cleveland,
Cowley and Vaughan.
The term "metaphysical poets" was first used by Samuel Johnson (1744), who said
that "the metaphysical poets were men of learning, and to illustrate learning was
their whole endeavor." He also said of their poetry that "the most assorted ideas
are yoked by violence together; nature and art are ransacked for illustrations,
comparisons, and allusions."
Donne, regarded as one of the chief poetic innovators among the metaphysical
poets, was reacting against the 16
th
century (Elizabethan) love lyrics, which
personified courtly-love conventions which idealized women. Donne did not use
the sonnet form for his love lyrics - a considerable break with the tradition
originate in earlier poets such as Sidney and Spenser. He used colloquial
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language, he forsaken (and sometimes satirized) the courtly mode and paying
attention on individual experience in a way that accessible a less inert notion of
love than several previous poets. Though, his view is frequently a rather
egotistical view, with the pressure on male ownership of women, defining
"maleness" alongside "femaleness" and suggesting the dominance of the man
rather than an equivalent partnership in love. In a sense, the attainment of Donne
was to resituate the love poem exterior the boundaries of the palace, as it was -
that is, outside the courtly tradition. A sander speaks of Donne's poetry in terms
of "the self-exploratory role-playing and the swaggering behind a defensive mask;
the perfection of art bordering upon human nullity; the perfidious manipulation
of irony and the spectacle of the ironist betrayed" (50).
For centuries Catholicism had dictated both worldly and religious values
throughout Europe, but the Reformation had obtainable a different, Protestant,
vision of the world, and the metaphysical poets were helping to ascertain this
view. Seventeenth-century metaphysical lyricists wrote as though they were
revolving new ground, and their individual style developed partly in reaction to
the task of situating the English lyric more resolutely within the relatively latest
tradition of Protestantism.
The prominence on individual experience mentioned beyond in relation to love
poetry was also an imperative element of Protestant religious experience. The
religious controversies in England (and elsewhere) revolved approximately
matters of the individual conscience in religious matters, as divergent to the
supremacy of the Church's authority.
In the work of a key metaphysical poet such as Donne religious poetry and love
poetry were not mutually exclusive, and each might contain elements of the
other. According to the twentieth-century poet TS Eliot, this reflected the more
flexible cultural pattern of Donne's time. Eliot calls this new fragmented sense of
life "the dissociation of sensibility", when "the integration of thought and feeling
began to vanish from literature" as well. As Eliot says,
Thought to Donne was an experience: it modified his sensibility...
The ordinary man [today]... falls in love, or reads Spinoza, and these
Two experiences have nothing to do with each other, or with the noise
Of the typewriter or the smell of cooking; in the mind of the poet these
Experiences are always forming new wholes.
(The Metaphysical Poets, 287)
Not surprisingly, the themes of insurgence and wavering are prominent in
17
th
century English poetry. Many of the metaphysical poets wrote against the
backdrop of revolutionary political developments: incessant internal conflict, the
accusation and beheading (1649) of King Charles I, and the Civil War which
followed this and produced, for a while, a drastically changed form of
government which expelled kingship (1642-1660).
Andrew Marvell (1621-1678), another of the Metaphysical poets, in 1657 was
appointed as an assistant to the blind Latin secretary for the Commonwealth,
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John Milton (who wrote Paradise Lost, which you will be reading during your
English 278 course). Milton supported the beheading of the King and the
establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell. After the restoration of
kingship in 1660, Marvell helped to save Milton from jail. Most of Marvell's
poetry was published after his death, by a woman who was probably his
housekeeper. Playful, informal and humorous in tone, always light on its
cadenced feet and accurate in its diction, Marvell's verse displays depth and
intellectual hardness in unforeseen places; its texture is astonishingly rich" (M.H.
Abrams, "Andrew Marvell", p. 1415)
The 17
th
century was a fruitful period for the lyric, both secular and religious.
During this time, the lyric developed into a highly polished, dignified, self-
conscious, self -questioning form which subverted and played with the chivalrous
conventions (remember, the court had, for a while, disappeared), while also only
if fertile soil for inventive poetic exploration.
Note: Critics often make a distinction between the poet and the persona/ speaker
in a poem, since we cannot habitually assume that the persona's thoughts and
experience are those of the poet. However, this peculiarity becomes a difficult one
to make when dealing with some lyric poetry.

Q.4 Conceit is a part of poetry explain
Ans In literature, a conceit is an extended metaphor with a intricate logic that governs
a poetic passage or entire poem. By juxtaposing, usurping and manipulating
images and ideas in astounding ways, a conceit invites the reader into a further
sophisticated understanding of an object of comparison. Comprehensive conceits
in English are part of the poetic idiom of Mannerism, throughout the later
sixteenth and untimely seventeenth century.
A "conceit" is an "elaborate metaphor" which establishes a prominent parallel
between two very dissimilar things. And there are two types of conceit:

1) The Petrarchan conceit It is a type of metaphor worn in love poems written
by the 14th-century Italian poet Petrarch, but became hackneyed in some of his
later Elizabethan imitators. A emblematic Petrarchan conceit involves a cold,
authoritative beauty and her distressed male lover, who suffers from the lady's
denial, while praises her beauty, her brutality and exaggerates his own desolation
For example, the despondent lover is a ship on a stormy sea, or a lady's eyes shine
like stars, her lips are as red as coral, her breasts and her forehead are as white as
snow, and so forth.

2) The metaphysical conceit It is characteristic of John Donne's poetry and other
metaphysical poets of the 17th century. In dramatic distinction to the figures of
conventional Petrarchanism, Donne's metaphysical poems used humorous and
unanticipated comparisons haggard from miscellaneous sources--theology,
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alchemy, philosophy, cartography, and even everyday objects. The result is an
extensive metaphor with a highly intellectual and complicated logic that reins an
entire poem.
In English literature the term is usually associated with the 17th
century metaphysical poets, an porch of contemporary usage. In
the metaphysical conceit, metaphors have a much more purely conceptual, and
therefore tenuous, relationship between the things being compared. Helen
Gardner observed that "a smugness is a comparison whose inventiveness is more
prominent than its justness" and that "a assessment becomes a conceit when we
are made to compromise likeness while being strappingly awake of unlikeness."
An example of the concluding would be George Herbert's "Praise (3)," in which
the liberality of God is compared to a bottle which ("As we have boxes for the
poor") will take in an inestimable amount of the speaker's tears.
An often-cited example of the metaphysical conceit is the metaphor from John
Donne's "The Flea", in which a flea that bites both the speaker and his lover
becomes a conceit at variance that his lover has no rationale to deny him sexually,
even though they are not married:
Oh stay! Three lives in one flea spare
Where we almost, yea more than married are.
This flea is you and I, and this
our marriage-bed and marriage-temple is.
When Sir Philip Sidney begins a sonnet with the conformist idiomatic
expression "My true-love hath my heart and I have his", but then takes the
metaphor literally and teases out a number of literal potential and profligately
playful conceptions in the swap over of hearts, the result is a fully twisted conceit.
The Petrarchan conceit, used in love poetry, exploits a particular set of images for
comparisons with the despondent lover and his ruthless but idolized mistress.
Such as the lover is a ship on a tempestuous sea, and his mistress "a cloud of dark
disdain"; or also the lady is a sun whose beauty and asset shine on her lover from
a aloofness
The inconsistent pain and contentment of lovesickness is frequently described
using oxymoron, for occurrence uniting peace and war, burning and freezing,
and so onward. But images which were novel in the sonnets of Petrarch became
clichs in the poetry of later imitators. Romeo uses trite Petrarchan conceits when
recounting his love for Rosaline as "bright smoke, cold fire, sick health

English Paper 2 59


Q.5 what is the role of irony in the poetry?
Ans Irony in poetry is a literary technique that uses discordance, strangeness or a
inexperienced speaker to say something other than a poem's literal meaning.
There are three essential types of irony in poetry: verbal irony,
situational irony and dramatic irony. Poets will use irony for a diversity of
reasons, counting satire or to make a political point. Irony in poetry can be
difficult to notice but it is a metaphorical device that students of poetry should
forever be on the sentry for.

One general appearance of irony in poetry is verbal irony, in which a poet
manipulates the tone to say the conflicting of what the poem actually says. This
type of irony, comparable to sarcasm, is predominantly common in satire. A good
example of verbal irony is "The Rape of the Lock," by Alexander Pope. The poem
uses the tone and conventions of epic poetry to illustrate the ordinary scenario of
a woman's hair being cut off. In using a arrogant tone to portray an everyday
event, Pope makes fun of the pretensions of the epic poem, viewing also the
arrogance of superficial beauty.
An additional use of irony in poetry is in situational irony.
Situational irony occurs when a poet uses a setting or metaphor that is
incompatible with the poem's pleased making the reader see impressive new
about the object at hand. A famous example of this type of irony in poetry occurs
in T. S. Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," which compares the evening
to "a patient etherized upon a table." By taking a conventionally beautiful natural
image and comparing it to a painful medical procedure of modernity, Eliot uses
situational irony to represent the loss of natural beauty in a tainted world.
A poem can also enclose dramatic irony, a type of irony in poetry in which a
immature speaker says something that carries meaning ahead of his or her own
knowledge. This rhetorical device is most widespread in poetry that uses an
unreliable speaker as the voice of the poem. A well-known example of this kind
of irony in poetry is Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess." The poem is narrated
by a duke relating the portrait of his former wife who died of allegedly natural
causes. During the poem, the duke unsuspectingly lets on that he had she killed
because of his uncontrollable jealousies, allowing the reader to see impressive
about the duke that he would relatively keep hidden

Q.6 What is a mock Epic poem?
Ans a mock epic poem is a part written in an epic style about a topic that generally
would not justify such a snobbish treatment. Mock epic poetry is a segment of the
superior satirical heroic style, which can be worn for anything from novels to
comic books. In quintessence the mechanism that makes this type of poem
humorous is the disparity between the storytelling style and the subject of the
poem. It is likely to write a mock epic poem concerning people, events, or even
concepts in some belongings Some examples of this type of poem may mislay
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their satirical meaning to prospect readers if the unique references are lost,
ensuing in stories that can be examine as simple ridiculous tales.
The appearance of the mock epic poem varies depending on genre, but most
poems of this type draw from stylistic conventions linked with classical literature.
Rhyming poems are common, but these are approximately always modeled after
older poems. at the same time as some poems are written to call up images of
Greek classics, others imitate traditional English poetry. The same notion could be
practical to non-Western poetic traditions too though this is a great deal less
common.
Topics addressed in a mock epic poem vary significantly but it is chiefly common
to write this type of poem about a person. Don Juan by Lord Byron and Mac
Flecknoe by John Dryden are two examples of this approach It is also probable to
write a mock epic poem about an occurrence as is the case in Alexander
Pope's The Rape of the Lock. Many poems of this type follow the trajectory of a
Greek classic directly, mirroring actual events in those epic poems.
One of the most interesting features of the mock epic poem is that it depends in
part on the classics for meaning. A reader who knows Virgil's Aeneid, for
example, is better equipped to understand Dryden's Mac Flecknoe in all its
nuanced references. This is not because the poems themselves are unintelligible
without these references, but rather because the comparison is not pointed out
directly. Satire through comparison depends on knowing the items being
compared in order to be understood as humorous, and the reference in these
cases is hidden in the style and form of the poetry.
Sometimes, a mock epic poem actually includes the word "parody" or "satire" in
its title. In other cases, it is up to the reader to determine how the poem is meant
to be taken. numerous years of scholarship on this theme have identified poems
that were written satirically, but most authors were upfront about the mocking
nature of their poems.

Q.7 What is a role of Satire in the poems?
Ans Satire, commonly defined as a literary, performed, or constructed work that holds
common human follies and vices up to the light for the reader or spectator to
derision and scorn, holds a prominent place in the art of constructing prose. Some
writers see the role of satire in poetry as two intertwined intellectual processes
that sometimes guide to the intense look of subconsciously repressed feelings.
The first release is often seen as mania, or in other words, having a good laugh
while interpretation or hearing about the village drunk, for example. Then, the
second release is that of scorn, which is present when the audience laughs and
belittles the village drunk himself, furthermore in the readers mind or out loud
English Paper 2 61


throughout a stage play. Derwent Hope, a modern and well-renowned poet from
Australia, reiterates the position of satire in poetry with discussing its use as a
brutally rational and ethically excited means that lends itself to extremely
effectual original writing.
In contrast with the employ of other literary templates, similar to novels and
plays, satire in poetry retains its gritty characteristic more significantly than the
aforesaid formats and has been described by some critics as undignified or
obscene when not tempered. One cause why the function of satire in poetry is
so marked is due, in part, to poetry being a exact constrained and moderately
short discourse. In other words, the irony and satirical pleased in a well-written
poem sticks out like a painful thumb. This is in distinction to longer literary
compositions that continue a number of straight humorous themes that
maintain the audience in a light and non-judgmental mood. If satire is
overcooked in any type, the majority of literary critics terminate that the part
becomes too preachy and predictable. The concept of suspicion can be
consideration of as being related to satire and can be seen in many poems,
especially if the subject matter is related to government, church, or politics. More
optimistic poking, however, can be seen in Dorothy Parker's poetry throughout
the 1920s and 1930s. Several of her most well-known subject substance concerned
the timeless wit of the miscommunication among men and women and the woes
of parenthood.
In previous times, like throughout the Greek and Roman empires, satirical poetry
and drama were mainly bound for towards the aristocratic population in these
instances, satire provided a discharge for men and women, who maintained an
air of graciousness and kindness to let go expressively. Another communal
notion, beginning approximately the same cultural period and enduring into
modern poetry writing and reciting, says that satire in poetry functions as a type
of living social comments. It is in the business of expressing truths that are tricky
for the audience to emotionally connect in and narrate to.
For example, news that exudes the bribery of a countrys governmental
configuration could persuade contention. If recited inside a crowd, it could rouse
a disturbance, but tempered with amusement and shared understanding
throughout satire; the audiences response is dispirited, helped also by the
conceptual language of poetry, from fright and distrust to hilarious social wit

Q.8 Analyze the role of paradox in poetries
Ans Paradox in poetry serves to create worry in the readers' minds by insertion words
or phrases together so that they first do not seem to follow the rules of logic or
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accepted truth. This use of contradiction in language often causes an audience to
think on a deeper level about the implied meaning of such a contradictory
statement. Authors who effectively use paradoxical wording divulge some
element of truth within an it seems that untrue statement. Paradox in poetry is
sometimes structured another way than in prose literature, and it can regularly
have several layers of meaning expressed in fewer words.
Poetry writers frequently utilize paradox to generate an unusual contemplation or
visual image with words. The same words would often or else read as normal
and unexceptional when placed in a different pact or context. Some types of
inconsistency in poetry are meant to express a tone of irony as well as escort to
reader contemplation on the subject of a convinced poem. This kind of irony from
a paradoxical poem normally generates feelings of conspiracy in readers' minds
and causes them to examine with a greater amount of focus as well as a deeper
level of consideration
Definite uses of paradox in poetry form the unique characteristics that set a given
poem separately from others. These written contradictions can be as easy as short
phrases or as complex as multiple unmitigated verses with intricate metric
schemes. Long and inclusive narrative poems sometimes contain several
paradoxes within the same work of literature. Paradoxes may also consist of
experimentation with terms that describe states of being or of perception itself.
Poets who write with these kinds of phrases sometimes raise questions in their
readers' minds concerning what entails a state of subsistence or other types of
related philosophical topics.
Figures of speech have an imperative role as part of the use of absurdity in
poetry. These kinds of lines in a poem can provide as words of perception or as
shrewd statements about diverse general aspects of life. A ambiguous statement
in a well-crafted contradictory poem is frequently quite different from a further
general saying such as an aphorism, and its meaning is habitually deeper and
their word is more detailed. The purpose of this kind of paradox in poetry is not
to converse a widely-acknowledged truth but to suggest an idea that readers
usually do not believe during their day-to-day life

Q.9 What is a religious satire?
Ans Religious satire is any form of media that pokes fun at religion. Satire can come
in the form of fictional books, films, and television programs and non-
fiction articles or essays. Religious satire uses irony, ridicule, or sarcasm in an
attempt to denounce religious practice. Many popular television shows and films
have satirized religion. Satire generally is done in an attempt to expose aspects of
a certain topic that are seen by satirists as being foolish or problematic.
English Paper 2 63


Any written, spoken, or acted mockery of religion can be classed as religious
satire. This can be thought of as a very broad definition of the term, because
generally only satirists that have been published or broadcast at some point will
be thought of as a "satirist." In the broad definition, even somebody making a joke
in a non-public setting about a virtually irrelevant small aspect of any religion can
be classed as a religious satirist. Technically, his or her words or actions would be
religious satire in that they use irony, sarcasm, or flat out ridicule to denounce or
expose an aspect of religion that the satirist believes to be in some way flawed.
Ordinarily, the satire will focus on a relatively large aspect of the religion and is
often broadcasted or published in the mass media.
Satire is partially defined by its intent, which is to denounce, expose, or deride
what the satirist sees as foolish or reprehensible. In this sense, if somebody
depicted a religious official as a comical character but didn't intend to make any
statement about the religion itself, it could not be defined as religious satire. A
piece of media only becomes satirical if it makes jokes about an underlying issue
with the subject being satirized. These jokes can take any form, such as irony, in
which words are used to express something outside of their literal context, or
simple ridicule, in which the subject is mocked openly by characters or by the
portrayal of those characters.
There have been many forms of religious satire throughout history, including
film, poetry, and even pseudo-religions. The Church of the Flying Spaghetti
Monster was set up to show the problem with reasoning whether or not deity
actually exists. Its inventors invented a new, absurd deity and have defended its
existence. This is meant to show the difficulty of proving the existence of deity.
Religious satire can stir deep emotions in people, and has been known to cause
deep offence. Some people have been threatened or even killed for their role in
religious satire. On the other hand, satire can bring attention to flawed or
damaging practices, bringing about change or improvement. It can be means to
opening dialogue between people of differing beliefs.
Q-10 What is the difference between comedy and satire?
Ans Satire is a structure of comedy that is considered mainly to poke fun at explicit
foibles or flaws in people or institutions basically in a challenge to draw notice
and, in various cases, advise change. Comedy is a wide genre in literature, theater
and art. It is frequently broken down into high and low designations based
on the sophistication of the humor. Satire is more often than not considered a
form of high comedy.
Comedy and satire are different in that comedy is a much broader genre. All
satire is comedy, but not all comedy is satire. Comedy includes everything from
intelligent, witty repartees and dark humor to slapstick and baseline jokes. Satire,
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on the additional hand, is a literary type primarily listening carefully on
highbrow social criticism.
The majority satire is heading for at politicians, religious leaders, and others in
the public sphere. It repeatedly features characters that stand for embellished
versions of the person or persons being beleaguered Satire is based on truth, but
depends on irony, drollness and sarcasm to depiction weakness and other flaws.
The tone is usually light, and the generally message is designed to be
entertaining. Nothing like other forms of comedy, nevertheless, satire carries a
somber message thinly oblique under its surface.
It could be said that satire is a means of using comedy and elevated humor to
interpretation social problems and ills. The kind is frequently lauded as an
intellectual form of condemnation. Artists and writers use comedic strategy to get
their message all the way through to audiences without resorting to plain
statements. In this way, comedy and satire for eternity go hand in hand. Most
satire is witty, drawing on ordinary perceptions and exploiting them in bright,
high-handed ways.
The larger area of comedy and satire regularly overlap, as nearly all satire
incorporates other comedic elements. It is frequent for a satirical work to
comprise some parody and hyperbole for instance. The main objective is to use
stinging humor to make various statements or criticism of social life by
capitalizing on literary form but further frequently than not this cannot be
achieved without at slightest some crossovers flanked by genres.
This crossover goes together ways. Comedy and satire additionally congregate in
works that are not first and foremost satirical. A travesty or a piece of dark
comedy may comprise convinced satirical elements lacking being characterized as
developed satires.
Much of how a comedy is definite depends on the whole message and superior
tone. The sensibilities of the spectators are also significant Comedy and satire
often go hand in hand, but in order to actually be satire, the overall purpose of the
piece must be more solemn, and the piece must be offered in such a manner that
its comedic leanings are not as willingly evident as they would be in a further
directly comedic genre.
Q-11 What is sarcasm?
Ans In the past, annotations categorized as sarcasm integrated any astringent or biting
explanation designed to cut or affront someone. More newly sarcastic language
has been more narrowly defined to include only those statements that rely on
understatement or irony for their power. This use of language is sometimes
identified as unplain speaking, in which what is said is different from what is
meant. Learning to classify sarcasm can be difficult for various people, but it is
English Paper 2 65


important to comprehend this type of speech in order to be considered a fully
functional speaker of a language.
Most fluent speakers of a language are able to use sarcasm, but not all may be
able to identify the mechanism by which this type of speech functions. Generally,
sarcasm works by stating a thing that is untrue in a specific tone of voice
associated with this device in a given language. Simply making an untrue
statement is usually not enough to identify the remark as sarcastic, and the tone
of voice in which the remark is made helps others understand that the statement
is not to be taken seriously.
Ironic expressions are characteristically said to work through irony, but it is
significant to distinguish between an ironic circumstances and a sarcastic remark.
Speech that is sarcastic is reliant on the speaker, except ironic speech is frequently
inadvertent on the part of the speaker, thus creating an ironic position. It can
consequently be said that ironic language relies on irony for its hilarious worth
but that it does not generate an ironic situation.
Several languages have particular ways of identifying ironic remarks and other
unreal phrases. Exceptional punctuation for sarcastic text has also been proposed.
There are numerous informal ways of signifying that text is sarcastic, which can
be valuable because written text cannot have any of the cadences that help people
make out sarcasm.
Children frequently learn sarcasm obviously and do not need to be skilled to use
this device, even if in certain contexts they might misunderstand how the
meaning is to be taken. In many studies, children as young as five years old are
revealed to be competent of perceiving sarcasm. Various people, however, not at
all learn to make out sarcastic usages of language owed to various problems
interpreting social situations or language. Autism, for example, can formulate it
very difficult for a person to comprehend when a person is not using language
literally. An incapability to recognize sarcasm can also, in convinced cases, point
to brain lesions or brain damage.

Q12 What is Antonomasia?
Ans Antonomasia is the use of a substitution or phrase for a proper noun, usually
substituting for the name of an entity. Although some might think that the word
refers to a differing substitution, because of the more admired and recognizable
term antonym, antonomasia replaces a name, which is unbiased in terms of
meaning, with a phrase that describes the personage in many classical cases of
antonomasia. The substituting phrase that is used is considered to be
representative. What this means is that the phrase that is used not only sums up
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the overall identity of the individual, but casts that individual as the most
important example of the phrase that is used. For example, in a land with merely
one king, speakers may pass on to this personage, who will of itinerary have a
specified name, simply as the King. This is in the taster of archetypal
antonomasia, where the human being being referenced is the archetypal King,
meaning that the individual is the finest example of a king that can be originate in
the speakers dominion of reference.
Not all archetypal uses of this language technique are controlled to describe
someone who holds a title entirely. Another common example is over and over
again given for this technique is the phrase the philosopher, which is used in
numerous different cases and cultures to pass on to a primary philosopher in that
culture. The use of antonomasia puts the individual person referenced on a stand
as the definitive example of their position within the society. This is proper to use
other titles like the teacher, the maestro, or the sage in the similar method
Additional uses of this language technique are not preordained to thrust the
individual whos being referenced to in archetypal status, but are frequently
somewhat deprecatory,, or still sarcastic in nature. One general example is when
English speakers refer to the dictator, or, in a analogous phrase, the little
dictator. This type of substituting phrase is regularly used by a speaker to refer
to someone above him or her in a hierarchy, such as a boss. In other cases, the
same phrase is used for a child who is acting insistently, or perchance
manipulating his siblings or parents. In the primary case, the use of the word
little serves as a restrained insult to the person being mentioned, where in the
second case, the word little often signifies that the speaker is talking about a
child as conflicting to an adult.
Q-13 What is a role of Rhetoric in Society?
Ans Definitions of the word rhetoric flourish, but it is regularly defined as the art of
effective, convincing formal communication, moreover written or spoken. The
ability and role of rhetoric in society has been a matter of discussion as ancient
Greece. In the past rhetorical language was deliberation to be the area of a select
group of dominant people in society, but mass communication has opened up
consideration and believable language to everyone. Some modern experts have
broadened the definition of rhetoric to comprise any form of communication and
say that rhetoric permeates every interaction. The word rhetoric derives from two
Greek words that denote "oratorical" and "public speaker."Plato felt that the
position of rhetoric in society was mainly restricted to politics and the communal
arena; however, his pupil, Aristotle, contemplation the art of influential
communication impacted numerous fields auxiliary just politics. Aristotle
developed the five canons of rhetoric: innovation of a influential argument,
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arrangement of language, expansion of a communication style, memorization of
the key realistic points, and effectual delivery of the speech. According to
Aristotle, the character of the speaker, the logic of the disagreement and the
touching state of the audience could all add to the power of rhetorical speech.The
role of rhetoric in society has changed remarkably since ancient Greece. Once the
area of a select few, such as politicians, lawyers and educators, rhetoric is now
ubiquitous due to mass media. The hasty growth of communication from written
print like books and newspapers to the development of television, radio and
computers has changed the purpose of rhetoric in society entirely. This is
particularly true since the arrival of the Internet and social media sites that create
manifold viewpoints offered from every angle. Increasingly, people are
bombarded with different points of outlook.
Some modern theorists bring a broader definition to the word rhetoric, claiming
that anytime someone communicates it is a structure of rhetoric. This theory
implies that when people use language they are always trying to persuade or
shape opinion. EIt implies that still when a person is heedlessly spending time
with a friend his or her discussion is intended to communicate a discernment or
point of view. If a person communicates merely because he or she wants to be
accepted or needs human companionship, it is forms of advice some definitions
of rhetoric enclose gotten as ambiguous as to even include non-verbal
communication.
Many experts and non-experts alike agree that language shapes a person's very
concept of reality. Oftentimes what does not have a word connection does not
exist, and language allows people to categorize and progress the information they
receive through the senses. Without the capability to place perceptions into
categories, a person's brain would be on overload. If rhetoric is any form of
communication, it is apparent that it forms the very keystone of and society and
life.
Q-14 Relate the most common topics for satire
Ans The most common topics for satire are usually politics, current events, perceived
social problems, and the typical pitfalls of daily life. Satire in literature typically
needs to be written through irony, sarcasm, and hyperbolic parody to be effectual
fruitfully written topics for satire are competent to call readers' attention to a
pertinent issue and even to question their own preconceived ideas surrounding
that concern. The literary genre of satire is distinguished for its use of evocative
exaggeration, and a well-written piece usually highlights a topic that a
moderately large variety of readers be acquainted with
Political happenings are universal topics for satire because they have a propensity
to be subjects most people hear about in a variety of news broadcasts. The
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decisions of government leaders are sometimes topics for satire when great
segments of the population consider leaders are making rash policy choices. This
type of written criticism can be particularly ubiquitous in societies that decidedly
value democracy and freedom of expression.
Satirical writing is a recurrent means for social criticism, particularly concerning
disruptive issues. One writer with a certain viewpoint may create a satire with the
ultimate goal of pointing out the fallacy of the opposed point of view. Some
famous satires in literary form are done as narratives with irony as one of the
primary tools for communicating the author's message about these types of
issues. Popular topics for satire about social issues may distress the gap between
the rich and the poor or the severance between church and state.
One of the preliminary steps of writing in this literary genre is to meticulously
understand the nuances of satire, as some types of satirical writing are further
subtle than others. Many writers attempting a satire fritter a good deal of time
reading the narrative parodies of more established satirists sooner than coming
up with their own ideas. A recurrent challenge is formulating an innovative take
on a admired idea, because manifold writers can sometimes parody the same
topics for satire and make it more difficult for a new writer to say implausible
unique about that material.
Aspects of everyday life can sometimes make entertaining satire topics if they are
crafted with the suitable measures of wit and irony. Some literary satirists write
narratives on topics such as the trials of technology or urban living. These satires
are time and again intended to communicate underlying commentary regarding
related human behavior.

Q15 Explain the Horatian Satire
Ans Satire is a structure of social criticism that manifests in art and literature. Horatian
satire is a literary term for optimistic gentle satire that points out universal human
failings. It is habitually contrasted with Juvenalian satire, which offers acerbic jabs
at specific immoral and corrupt behavior. Horatian satire is named after the
Roman poet Horace, whose work has had a wide maneuver on Western culture.
This form of satire is at rest practiced in modern times by cartoonists, comedians
and comedy writers.
Horace is the English name of the classical Roman poet and satirist, whose full
Latin name was Quintus Horatius Flaccus. He lived in the 1st century BC, and his
book Ars Poetica was the definitive source on the poetic form until well into the
19th century AD. He coined many phrases that are still in use today,
including carpe diem, or seize the day. His Satires poked fun at the dominant
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philosophical beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece. This approach, pleased at
human foibles but normally warm toward humanity itself, was immortalized
with the word Horatian satire.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, much ancient literature, including Horatian
satire, was forgotten by Western culture. In the middle Ages, the rediscovery of
established art and literature led to a recovery of interest in satire as well. The
Horatian form was revitalized in such influential works as Chaucers Canterbury
Tales. The 16th century French writer Rabelais was so noted for his clever comedy
that he inspired the phrase Rabelaisian wit. Chaucer and Rabelais drew
inspiration from Horace, couching their social satires in fanciful stories that could
be enjoyed for their own sake, respected as satire, or equally.
The 18th century Irish writer Jonathan Swift was the most significant satirist of
his time. The satire in his mainly noted work, Gullivers Travels, is so restrained
that many modern readers do not still notice it. Those familiar with the political
and cultural landscape of Swifts time, nevertheless, will apprehend that the
societies encountered by the shipwrecked Gulliver are criticisms of Swifts own
culture. Swift was evenly proficient at moreover Horatian or Juvenalian satire.
The American patriot and writer Benjamin Franklin also penned many works of
Horatian satire, often working, like Swift, beneath pseudonyms.
Mark Twain, considered one of the greatest writers in the English language, was
affectionate of both Juvenalian and Horatian satire. An example of the latter
was A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court, which used a time-travel story to
satirize romantic 19th-century views of warfare. Douglas Adams series The
Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy used proverbial science fiction themes to ridicule
modern society. Another modern Horatian satire is Matt Groenings long-running
cartoon The Simpsons. It uses the fictional small town of Springfield to nudge fun
at the entire aspects of American life.

Q16 Social satire Is common in poetries. Explain
Ans Satire is hilarious criticism anticipated to point out the flaws in the social and
cultural structure of a given society. Social satire focuses on aspects of society
itself, together with current events, existing attitudes, and political institutions.
This differentiates it from other forms of satire, such as send-up and parody,
which hub on popular culture and entertainment; some satire vehicles do both.
Communal satire has existed for centuries, originating with the ancient Greeks
and Romans. It is still a fashionable venue for social criticism in modern times.
Social satire was pioneered by the artists of classical relic, such as the playwrights
of Greece and the poets of the Roman Empire. Aristophanes, among works such
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as his racy playLysistrata, satirized the war policies and sexual mores of ancient
Greece. Juvenal, a Roman poet of the first century AD, wrote verses decisive of
the hypocrisy and corruption of his culture. Both writers employed comedy in
their work, as they may possibly have been punished for criticizing their
governments unswervingly this technique has been vital to satire throughout the
centuries and into the present day.

Juvenal was so extensively recognized for his biting social satire that the phrase
Juvenalian satire is used to this day to explain similar works. When the arts of
the ancients were rediscovered throughout the middle Ages and the Renaissance,
other writers soon took up the work of Juvenalian satire. Franois Rabelais,
writing in the 16th century, poked fun at French culture and social orders with his
racy satires. Other social satirists of the time include Geoffrey Chaucer in England
and Giovanni Boccaccio in Italy. Each of them had biting things to say about their
societies, but couched them in fictional tales to keep away from reprisals.
The 18th and 19th centuries were something of a golden age for social satire.
Jonathan Swift, a master of all forms of satire and parody, became a admired and
dominant writer in 18th-century England. His most famous work of social satire
was the essay A Modest Proposal, which recommended that the people of
England had so little observes for the troubles of poverty-stricken Ireland that
they might as well cannibalize Irish children. Swift published this and his more
biting satires pseudonymously or anonymously, just in case. His prevalent
achievement inspired later writers to generate their own social criticism, such as
Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain, and Ambrose Bierce.
Bierce, an existing of twain in the late 19th and early 20th century, satirized
modern culture mainly legendary in his mock lexicon The Devils Dictionary.
Much of 20th century satire has been focused on spoofing works of admired
culture, but social satire has thrived as well. Television series like Saturday Night
Live and South Park interchange between cultural parody and satirical views of
modern society. The Daily Show and the Colbert Report use the format of news
shows to offer stinging social criticism of current events. The radio show Wait,
Wait, Dont Tell Me uses a quiz-show layout to accomplish the same ends.

Q17 What are the different Satire techniques?
Ans Satire is a outline of social criticism that time and again employs humor, at times
very biting humor, to make its end more pleasant The various satire techniques
rivet different combinations of these two elements, humor and criticism. Some
forms of satire use moderate forms of humor to nudge fun at human folly; social
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commentary is indirect and often restrained other satire techniques can be more
straight, condemning specific persons or social bodies of fraud and evil through
very dark humor. One more form of satire, the spoof, makes fun of admired
entertainment to point out superior cultural foibles.
An ancient format, satire has been worn for centuries by artists and writers, who
have all the time had a propensity toward social commentary. The use of art and
humor to afford this commentary has frequently protected the satirists, especially
in regimes where more undeviating social criticism would not be tolerated. The
two major satire techniques are named after Horace and Juvenal, Roman satirists
from the 1st century AD. Horatian satire is the gentler form, sometimes offering
sympathetic portraits of its targets while tranquil pointing out their human
failings. Juvenalian satire attacks its targets openly and often angrily; both forms
are active and sound in the 21st century.

These primeval satire techniques enjoyed a revival in the 14th century. The
literary masterpiece Dantes Inferno offered disguised social comments as
the poet encountered many contemporary religious and political figures on his
passage through Hell. Boccacios Decameron and Chaucers Canterbury Tales,
afterward that same century, together poked fun at social fixtures of the day,
mainly crooked clergy. In the 16th century, the French writer Franois Rabelais
polished these satire techniques in his novels Pantagruel and Gargantua. Rabelais
books poked enjoyment at society while telling entertaining stories and
incorporated bawdy humor, all frequent features of modern satire as well.
The Irish writer Jonathan Swift was fond of both the Horatian and Juvenalian
satire techniques. An example of the previous is his classic Gullivers Travels, in
which a shipwrecked traveler encounters societies that ingeniously reproduce the
social conventions of his day. Swifts classic Juvenalian satire is the tarnished
essay A Modest Proposal, written when the British ruling classes were ignoring
conditions of poverty and famine in Ireland. Swift wryly suggested the Irish
could solve these problems by selling their babies to the British for food. The
indignation provoked by this essay focused public attention on the Irish situation,
consequently achieving Swifts objective.
Many modern works use these classic satire techniques. The Simpsons, Futurama,
and The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy are all examples of Horatian satire. South
Park, The Daily Show, and The Colbert Report are much further direct and
Juvenalian. Mad Magazine andSaturday Night Live feature both spoofs of pop
culture and direct social commentary. The comic
strips Pogo and Doonesbury used caricature to prod fun at political figures;
editorial cartooning in common has a long tradition of this. Luckily, satire is
confined.

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Q-18 Enumerate the Literary technique
Ans A literary technique is a manner for telling a story or part of a story. While the
word literary generally refers to written literature, these techniques can be used
in a broader sagacity in any narrative form, including movies, television, and
comic books. For example, the literary technique called foreshadowing, which
hints at future events in a story, is ordinary to every type of narrative. Some
literary techniques relate to an extensive range of stories, such as twist endings in
the genre of ambiguity fiction. Others may be detailed to a meticulous author or
work.
The art of storytelling is an crucial human activity that predates recorded history.
Some literary forms, such as poetry, drama, or the novel, are hundreds or
thousands of years old. Further media like film, comics, and television arrived
with the technological revolutions of the 19th and 20th centuries; every medium
has since established its own techniques and borrowed others. Some are
essentially storytelling shortcuts that are used to rapidly express or prance over
information that media-savvy audiences will previously know. Other kinds of
literary techniques can set a disposition institute character, or employ the
audience.
In medias res is an example of a literary technique that has been extensively used
in stories for centuries. The Latin expression refers to a story that starts in the
middle of the action and then employs flashbacks or temperament dialogue to
depict earlier events. This often has the effect of straight away drawing the
audience into the story as dispensing with scenes that are insignificant The Iliad,
Homers epic poem concerning the Trojan War, employed this technique nearly
3,000 years ago. The modern TV series Lost also in progress this way, with the
exposure of preceding events forming a major part of the series narrative.
Some literary techniques are matters of structure Shakespeare wrote his plays
using a poetic technique called iambic pentameter so the dialogue would have a
pleasing rhythm. Film noiris a cinematic technique employing shadowy images,
calculating characters, and grim storylines. Originating with American mystery
films of the 1940s, it was immediately borrowed by filmmakers approximately the
world. Noir has since been imitated in television, comic books, and even video
games, effectively becoming a prevalent literary technique.
Popular literary techniques can become so commonly known that the majority
audiences will distinguish them instantly; these are called tropes. Appropriately
used, these can produce wisdom of familiarity with the story and characters and
diminish the amount of time normally exhausted on explanation. When the
literary technique becomes too common however, it is called a clich, which
nearly all writers try to avoid. Other techniques are merely useful storytelling
tricks, such as onomatopoeia. This is the use of words to replicate real-life sounds,
a common literary technique that is employed by writers around the world.
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Q19 Describe Juvenalian Satire
Ans Juvenalian satire is one of the two foremost divisions of satire, and is
characterized by its pungent and rasping nature. It can be straight contrasted with
Horatian satire, which utilizes a much gentler form of scorn to underline madness
or strangeness A Juvenalian satirist is much more likely to see the targets of his
satire as evil or actively harmful to society, and to attack them with serious intent
to harm their reputation or power. While Juvenalian satire often attacks
individuals on a personal level, its most common objective is social criticism.
The two chief categories of satire are named for the Roman writers most closely
associated with their personal satirical forms. Juvenal was a poet active in the
Roman Republic during the first century CE, best known for his bitter attacks on
the public figures and institutions of the Republic, with which he disagreed.
Where his predecessor Horace utilized gentle scorn and absurdism to point out
the flaws and foibles of the Roman society, Juvenal occupied in savage personal
attacks. He utilized the satirical tools of embellishment and parody to make his
targets emerge hideous or ineffectual while he occasionally utilized absurdity to
make his point, Juvenal's satire had more in frequent with the diatribe of a
political expert than the above all humor-driven appearance favored by most
modern satirists.
The primary weapons of Juvenalian satire are contempt and derision often; a
satirist will exaggerate the words or situation of an opponent, or place them in a
circumstance that highlights their flaws or self-contradictions. A satirical piece
may be couched as a straightforward critique or take the form of an absolute
analogy or narrative. Often, characters in a Juvenalian narrative are thinly-
disguised representations of public figures or archetypes of accessible groups or
modes of thought. The characters are made to act in such a way that the
viewpoint or behaviors the satirist needs to attack are made to appear evil or
absurd.
Juvenalian satire has been a ordinary tool of social criticism from Juvenal's own
life span to the present. Jonathan Swift and Samuel Johnson borrowed heavily
from Juvenal's techniques in their critiques of contemporary English society.
George Orwell and Aldous Huxley created Juvenalian mirrors of their own
societies to address what they saw as dangerous social and political tendencies.
Modern satirists such as Jon Stewart, Stephen Colbert, and South Parks Matt
Stone and Trey Parker mount Juvenalian attacks on a wide variety of social
themes.

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Q-20 what are the characteristics of a Good Satire?
Ans Good satire is a usually believed to be writing that seeks to point out flaws in
society and its institutions. Satirical writing can also be used to criticize the
actions or policies of significant public figures. Good satire typically uses wit
and sarcasm to poke fun at institutions and public figures, with the objective of
reforming society or politics. Frequently, though, satire appears to address
archetypal figures, slightly than rigorous individuals. Authors of good satire are
by and large advised to suppose that their readers are bright enough to
appreciate the humor of the portion, which may be exaggerated or inconspicuous
depending on the nature of the satirist's audience.
Literary scholars in general divide satire into three categories, named for ancient
Greek and Roman authors who are alleged to have been some of the first writers
working in the genre. Juvenalian satire is named for the Roman author Juvenal,
whose sardonic works are characteristically identified as somewhat acerbic and
regularly intimidating in their mockery. Horatian satire is generally considered
far less caustic, and normally attempts to paint its subjects as foolish somewhat
than corrupt or immoral Horatian satire often encourages the reader to laugh at
himself, as well as at the subject of the satire. Menippean satire, named for the
Greek author Menippus, is a type of satire that mocks the world at large, rather
than focusing on a solitary subject or dignitary

Writers of good satire by and large utilize wit and sarcasm more willingly than
obscenities or unpleasant individual attacks. The satirical author is more often
than not most successful when he caters to his readers' level of understanding.
Different types of audiences will generally find humor in very different things.
It's also measured important that the writer of good satire comprehend and cater
to his readers' knowledge of the subject. Readers who hold detailed knowledge of
the satire's subject matter will be more probable to understand the humor in the
satirical piece.
It is normally considered both discreet and valuable to remain within the limits of
fitting social taste when writing good satire. Some have warned that satire written
in poor taste can be perilous to its author and even to society at hefty since the
subjects of satire often don't enjoy being mocked. The use of refinement,
vagueness and suggestion can help the effectual satirist to protect against
crossing this boundary. Caricature, parody, irony, and sarcasm used in satire can
be kept on the less caustic side, to avoid causing dangerous offense.
Satire as a literary type has a long history, stretching back to the time of ancient
Greece. Famous satirists in history have included authors Jonathan Swift,
Geoffrey Chaucer and Mark Twain. More contemporary satirists comprise author
Sir Terry Pratchett, television character Jon Stewart, and cartoonist Gary Trudeau.

Q-21 Explain Comic Irony
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Ans Comic irony is a literary technique or rhetorical device in which irony creates a
humorous upshot Comic irony comes in many forms, and can obtain
from ironic statements by characters or narrators in a work of fiction. It can also
happen from the situation presented in the work.
Students of rhetoric divide irony hooked on several categories. Several of these
categories can play the role of comic irony. Verbal irony, for occurrence is a form
of irony which arises from the divergence between what a speaker says and what
he or she means. A classic example of verbal irony used to comic consequence
occurs in the opening lines of Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice. The novel
opens with the observation that "it is a truth universally acknowledged, that a
particular man in tenure of a good fortune, must be in desire of a wife." In fact,
nevertheless this statement is anticipated ironically: the female characters in the
novel are chiefly concerned with verdict single men of good fortune to get
married

Verbal irony arises from a contrast in words; by disparity dramatic irony arises
from the difference between what the readers or spectator knows and what the
temperament knows. A classic example of dramatic irony, used in this case for
tragic effect, occurs in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, in which the spectators
observes characters behaving as if Juliet has died; despite the fact that the
audience knows she is alive. Dramatic irony can also be used for comic effect. A
similar illustration of dramatic irony, used this time for a black comic effect,
occurs in Shakespeare's Cymbeline, in which Imogen discovers a headless body
which she mistakes for that of her lover, Posthumus. The comic irony arises from
the fact that Imogen makes several statements about how she could never mistake
Posthumus's body, in spite of the fact that the audience knows she is truly flawed.
A third type of irony, situational irony, arises from the proceedings in a work of
fiction. In situational irony, the irony develops from the difference between a
character's intentions and the outcome of his or her actions. This kind of comic
irony usually highlights the narcissism or aspiration of the characters. Situational
irony underlies the plot of many television comedies. Classic examples include I
Love Lucy or The Simpsons, the plots of which normally center on the characters
concocting convoluted schemes which backfire with entertaining effect.

Q-22 What are the best tips for writing Satire
Ans Writing humor is rigid and many locate writing satire to be the most demanding
type of humor writing to do successfully. Satire is a literary form that tries to
emphasize or bring concentration to something by making fun of it, pointing out
its flaws and shortcomings. Works of satire are an outline of social criticism, as
the goal is often to point out how impractical, ludicrous or even stupid something
is in a way that will cause people, and society itself, to change. Satire writers
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use parody, exaggeration, sarcasm, or irony to make a point, perfectly in a
humorous way. Most believe satire is most effective when it doesnt cause
offense, anger or annoyance, but as a substitute uses comedy to soothingly
stimulate the reader to think in a different way about a subject, even if the subject
is the reader himself.
Anyone interested in writing satire must develop into familiar with the tools of
this literary form. When using exaggeration, a satirist might emphasize the
ludicrousness of a subject by depicting it in an extreme and over-the-top way.
There are many parodies of popular movies, TV shows, and novels. In a parody
of a novel, satirist strength writes his own description of the novel, exaggerating
the things he establishes silly about the book. In a sarcastic satirical piece, the
satirist might write about a subject as if sincerely likes or is in favor of it, while
tossing in the occasional gibe or criticism to show him in actuality isnt.

Those new to writing satire are frequently warned not to rely on unkindness
cruelty, or obscenity to make a point. One of the objectives of satire is to open
people up to seeing something in a new or different way so they can recognize its
flaws, which readers will have trouble doing if they are outraged or offended.
The best satire gently teases the subject, making readers laugh even while they
are forced to admit a fad, event, or behavior really is kind of silly. For this reason,
satire writers should avoid being cruel for the sake of being cruel, or using
obscenity that might offend readers.
Choosing a topic when writing satire can be difficult, but a satirist can find
profusion of material by looking at existing events and admired trends and fads.
Public figures, like famous entertainers, sports stars, and politicians can be a good
source of writing material. Often, a satire writer will find that he writes best about
an issues and topics he feels strongly about. So a satire writer should start with a
topic he truly cares about or is interested in, and then search for the humor to be
found in that subject. Writing satire about a topic he by now finds amusing in
some way will create writing a satirical piece even easier.

Q-23 What is a difference between Irony and Satire?
Ans Satire and irony are often closely related, but there are significant distinctions
between the two. A form of denigration satire uses humor to accomplish its goals.
One technique that satire uses is irony. Irony focuses on the discrepancies
between what is said or seen and what is in fact meant plainly satire and irony
differ largely because one, satire, often uses the other, irony.
Both satire and irony can be originated in literature, television, movies, theater
and even in artwork. Satire, however, is a genre, whereas irony is a technique.
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The term "genre" refers to categories of written or preformed art. Drama, comedy
and horror are all various genres.
Although satire and irony are arguably linked, they are not exclusive to each
other. Irony occurs not just in satire but in dramatic and comedic art as well.
Likewise, satire also uses many other rhetorical and comedic techniques, such as
ridicule, to complete its goal.
Satire is an appearance of comedic criticism. Although it sometimes uses
seemingly harsh techniques, its aim is not cruelty but rather to point out faults in
government, society, individuals or the human condition. Satire is an attempt to
draw concentration to these faults, either to influence a change or to compel
awareness. Some of the most renowned modern satires occur on television shows.
Just as a comedy uses jokes to construct people laugh or an action movie
uses explosions to thrill the audience, satire uses irony to make a humorous
criticism. There are several types of irony, but they all base their humor in
selective, often intentional, ignorance. Using words in an opposite way in which
they are intended is, perhaps, the simplest form of irony. For example, saying "It
is such a great day for sunbathing" in the middle of a hurricane would be ironic.
In literature and theater, nevertheless dramatic irony generally is used. Dramatic
irony occurs when a quality is saying or doing something that is in antagonism to
the reality of the situation. The character generally is ignorant of this fact, but the
audience is aware of it. This technique is seen regularly in movies and plays or in
literature.
Socratic irony was used by the Greek philosopher Socrates in his teachings. In this
form of irony, the teacher pretends to be ignorant of a topic a student believes to
know. The teacher carefully questions the student, all the while pretending that
the student is the connoisseur to bring to light flaws or inconsistencies in the
student's logic.

Q-24 Explain different type of Irony
Ans The different type of irony in literature are:-

Dramatic irony, situational irony and verbal irony are literature's three main
types of irony. The basis of irony is that there is a difference between what is
predictable and what is genuine Overall, irony deals with the unanticipated The
purpose of irony can be to make one think, to make one laugh, or simply to shock.
Irony also can provide to add apprehension and deception to story plots.
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Situational irony, one of the easier-to-recognize types of irony, involves the actual
outcome being much different from the conclusion that was expected. If a
character in a novel is a bad person who is robbing a bank and putting lots of
other people in danger, then it might be unexpected for him to get away with all
the money he wants without being caught. A nice, warm story about a child
receiving a pet bird for her birthday strength contain situational irony if it turned
out that, unknown to her parents, she is allergic to birds and quickly becomes ill,
necessitating the exclusion of her new pet. Situational irony often helps to keep
readers interested and guessing about what valor happen next, because it is not
easy to envisage

Another of the main types of irony, verbal irony happens when a character says
one thing but means something totally different. Take two characters who are
colleagues working in an office and talking about their boss, Dr. Young, for
example. One of them might say, There is nothing Id like more than to see Dr.
Young right now. While the character saying this might mean he would love to
see their boss so he can punch the man, whom he despises, his colleague might
think he means he thinks highly of their boss and would love to see him. Verbal
irony sometimes is easy to pick out in literature; other times it is more subtle and
requires some thinking.
Dramatic irony, also one of the main types of irony, occurs in literature when one
or more characters lack a imperative portion of information that has been
provided to the audience. In a play, for example, if a couple has decided that they
are breaking up in its place of getting married but their unknowing families are
busily preparing for their wedding, then this is considered dramatic irony. With
dramatic irony, the audience always knows more than the individual characters
in a story.
Q-25 what is a Cosmic Irony
Ans A type of situational irony, cosmic irony occurs when a situation, action, or event
consideration to have a affirmative outcome results in a negative outcome
through circumstance rather than the actions of a exact person. These events are
blamed on an unknown force, usually referred to as God, Fate, or the Universe,
which seems accountable for the negative penalty. Also called irony of fate,
cosmic irony is popularly used in casual speech as well as in literature and can be
seen in history.
Irony occurs when an important person directly concerned in a situation believes
something to be true when, in fact, the opposite or near opposite is true. In most
forms of irony, the player directly involved is unaware of his or her
misconception, but the audience and other players are aware. Cosmic irony
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considers the universe to be the entity responsible for twisting circumstances so
what the player believes will be true is not. Although cosmic irony can also often
be termed as coincidence or bad luck, not all coincidences are cosmic irony.
Cosmic irony deals only in those coincidences where the action or event is
assumed by the person taking the action to have a positive outcome when the
actual outcome results in a detrimental importance to that person. Unlike other
forms of irony, where someone else is responsible for the twist in circumstance or
the misconception of a good result, in cosmic irony it is an unknown force, such
as fate or the universe, that seems to be working adjacent to the person.
In literature, cosmic irony is in general used intentionally by the author. A villain
may fall prey to this plot technique, for example, if he or she devises a seemingly
cunning plan to defeat the protagonist only to find the very plan the villain set in
motion is what brings about his or her downfall. William Shakespeare's
play Othello and J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series both illustrate this use.
Cosmic irony also can be seen in daily or historical situations. Sometimes, the
irony is apparent immediately, but often it is seen in retrospect. For example, in
the early twentieth century, Australian sugar cane farmers near Queensland
began to have a severe problem with an introduced species of cane beetle, which
decimated their crops. In 1935, a solution was reached: introduce the cane toad,
which is harmless to crops but preys on the cane beetle. The farmers' solution,
nevertheless not only failed to manage their nuisance problem, it also resulted in
the introduction of one of the most insidious and environment

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Key Terms

1. Metaphysical: - The term "metaphysical," as practical to English and continental
European poets of the seventeenth century, was used by Augustan poets John
Dryden and Samuel Johnson to reprimand those poets for their "unnaturalness."
2. Conceit: - In literature, a conceit is an extended metaphor with a
intricate logic that governs a poetic passage or entire poem.
3. The Petrarchan conceit It is a type of metaphor worn in love poems written by
the 14th-century Italian poet Petrarch, but became hackneyed in some of his later
Elizabethan imitators.
4. Irony: - In poetry is a literary technique that uses discordance, strangeness or a
inexperienced speaker to say something other than a poem's literal meaning.
5. Mock epic: - a mock epic poem is a part written in an epic style about a topic that
generally would not justify such a snobbish treatment.
6. Satire: - It is commonly defined as a literary, performed, or constructed work that
holds common human follies and vices up to the light for the reader or spectator
to derision and scorn, holds a prominent place in the art of constructing prose.
7. Paradox: - In poetry it serves to create worry in the readers' minds by insertion
words or phrases together so that they first do not seem to follow the rules of
logic or accepted truth.
8. Religious satires: - It is any form of media that pokes fun at religion. Satire can
come in the form of fictional books, films, and television programs and non-
fiction articles or essays.
9. Antonomasia:-It is the use of a substitution or phrase for a proper noun, usually
substituting for the name of an entity.
10. Rhetoric: - The Definitions of the word rhetoric flourish, but it is regularly
defined as the art of effective, convincing formal communication, moreover
written or spoken.
11. Comic irony:- It is a literary technique or rhetorical device in which irony creates
a humorous upshot Comic irony comes in many forms, and can obtain
from ironic statements by characters or narrators in a work of fiction.
12. Cosmic irony -A type of situational irony, cosmic irony occurs when a situation,
action, or event consideration to have a affirmative outcome results in a negative
outcome through circumstance rather than the actions of a exact person.

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Case study
Investigate the dissimilar themes within William Shakespeare's tragic play, King
Lear. Themes are central to understanding King Lear as a play and identifying
Shakespeare's social and political commentary.
Important is the idea of power that has it, how one obtains it, how one defines
it, and how it plays into King Lear. With this look at power should also come an
investigation of issues such as age and gender? Consider, for example, the
treatment of the elderly by their offspring. And think about the power and
placement of women in Shakespeare's time as compared with the position of
women in society and the home today.
Nature, in unstable forms, is another theme ubiquitous in King Lear. Lear's view
of nature is one that holds certain values, such as respect for one's parents and
loyalty to one's king, to be important apart from of situation.
Doubling (to create either oppositions or parallels) adds extremely to the King
Lear experience. At an assortment of times, fools are contrasted with wise men,
motivation is set conflicting to nature, the upper class is set separately from the
beggar, and the family is paralleled with by society.
False service, as in the case of Oswald, is contrasted with true service, represented
by Kent. The selfish and false love of Regan and Goneril is a foil for the honest
fidelity of Cordelia.
Throughout the audience is privy to the conflicts between father and child, and to
fathers easily fooled by their children. Each father demonstrates poor conclusion
by rejecting a good child and trusting a dishonest child
Shakespeare makes numerous use of animal imagery, often attributing various
animal behaviors to the characters. In contrast, you also find frequent references
to the gods and to astronomical events. The combination of these images those
of the beast world and those of the heavens add interest to the play, further the
development of the character's personalities, and help define two distinct worlds
amid which humans general live their lives.
A key image in King Lear is the "Machiavelli" the self-serving villain. The
Prince, written by Niccolo Machiavelli, contains a philosophy that tended to
obsess Shakespeare and his contemporaries. Machiavelli wrote that in order to
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become a ruler and uphold that position, a person should use every means at his
or her removal to gain control.
Murder of the family of a deposed ruler was but one of the ways Machiavelli
optional that a new ruler ensure that his authority was not questioned or
overthrown. Edmund, the illicit son of Gloucester, is often described in
Machiavellian terms, and his methods and actions are as conscious and self-
serving as any described in The Prince.
King Lear inspires many philosophical questions; chief between them is the being
of divine justice. This notion was particularly vital during the Elizabethan era,
because religion played such a important role in everyday life. Religious leaders
directed people to suppose that they would have to answer to a higher authority,
expressing some hope that good would triumph and be pleased over evil. But
throughout King Lear, good does not triumph without honorable characters
agony terrible loss. In fact, at the play's termination many of the good characters
lie dead on the stage Lear, Gloucester, and Cordelia. In addition, the
consultation hears that Kent will soon die, and the Fool has earlier disappeared,
outwardly to die. Of course, the malevolence characters are also dead, but their
punishment is to be expected according to the laws of divine justice. But how
then does the audience account for the chastisement and, finally, the death of the
good characters in King Lear?
Lear makes quite a lot of poor choices, most importantly in misjudging the
sincerity of his daughters' words; but when he flees out into the open heath
during a storm; his madness seems a painful and unnecessary punishment to
witness. Parallel to Lear's punishment is that which Gloucester suffers. The
plucking of Gloucester's eyes can be apparent as another instance in which divine
justice is lacking. Gloucester has made several errors in judgment, as has Lear; but
the brutal nature of Gloucester's blinding the plucking out of his eyes and the
crushing of them under Cornwall's boots is surely in overload of any errors he
might have made.
Both Lear and Gloucester endure terrible physical and mental anguish as
punishment for their misjudgment, but previous to dying, both men are reunited
with the child each previous discarded this resolution of the child-parent conflict,
which earlier tore apart both families, may be seen as an element of divine justice,
although it offers little indulgence for the audience.

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Bibliography
Online collections of scholarly journals with strong coverage in Shakespeare studies.
Search these if you want to explore beyond your course reader/student notes.
Google Scholar
Searches for scholarly books and journal articles. Most results are citations and
abstracts. Look out for "Full-Text @ Victoria" link to your left. Click the link to get
the full-text of the article.
Humanities International Complete
Includes journals such as Shakespeare (London, England), Shakespeare studies
and Shakespeare bulletin.
International Index to Performing Arts full text: IIPA
Click "Search Articles" in the left column. Add "Shakespeare" to your search
keywords. Provides full text access to journals such as Australasian drama studies
and Shakespeare quarterly.
Journal Finder
If you have a reference to the article you want (journal title, volume/issue
number, article title, and so on), then search this tool by journal title and follow
links to get the full-text of the article.
JSTOR
All articles in this collection are full-text, but recent articles (the last 3-5 years) are
not available. Covers most literary topics from classics to contemporary literature.
Includes journals such as Shakespeare quarterly.
Literature Online
Click "Criticism & Reference" in the left column, and then search by title
keywords or "Shakespeare" as a subject.
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Provides full text access to journals such as Shakespeare quarterly and
Shakespeare studies.
MLA International Bibliography
Indexes journal articles, books, book chapters and dissertations with full-text
links. Strong focus on literature and languages, but covers film, theatre, and
media studies as well.
Shakespeare Survey Print Item
Year book of Shakespeare studies and production. Each volume is devoted to a
theme, or play, or group of plays; each also contains a section of reviews of that
year's textual and critical studies, and of the year's major British performance

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