A new approach to

the design of
gas-liquid separators
for the oil industry
*
/VTR diss
1672
R.A. Swanborn
NEW
OESIfiNS
MODI r epr oduces t he gas f l ow f i el d i nsi de a basi c separ at i on uni t ;
M0D2 descr i bes t he behavi our of t he l i qui d phase ( par t i cl e ' t r aj ect or i es,
r eent r ai nment and cr eep phenomena) ;
M0D3 descr i bes t he behavi our of a basi c separ at i on uni t ;
MOD*! quant i f i es t he measur e of mal di st r i but i on acr oss a f ul l si ze
separ at or ; no need t o model t hi s wi t h t he ear l i er ment i oned f l ui d
dynami c codes;
M0D5 combi nes t he pr edi ct i ve power s of M0D3 and M0D4 and shoul d t her ef or e
be abl e t o descr i be t he behavi our of an act ual scal ed separ at or over a
br oad r ange of oper at i ng condi t i ons;
EXP1 a. pr ovi des t he f l ui d dynami c code wi t h necessar y physi cal i nf or mat i on
t o st ar t wi t h ( st ar t i ng condi t i ons) and
b. pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e MODI wi t h ( gas f l ow
f i el d measur ement s)
EXP2 i dent i f i es and quant i f i es phenomena r el at ed t o t he l i qui d phase
( r eent r ai nment , cr eep, par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es) ;
EXP3 pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e M0D3 wi t h ( oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of a basi c separ at i on uni t over a br oad r ange of
oper at i ng condi t i ons) ;
EXP4 a. pr ovi des physi cal i nf or mat i on ( st ar t i ng condi t i ons) f or M0D4;
b. pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e MOD' * wi t h;
EXP5 pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e M0D5 wi t h ( oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of an act ual scal ed separ at or over a br oad r ange of
oper at i ng condi t i ons) ;
LI T r epr esent s t he i nf or mat i on acqui r ed t hr ough l i t er at ur e i nvest i gat i on
used f or val i dat i ng and suppl ement i ng model s.
VAL val i dat i on
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A NEWAPPROACH TO THE DESI GN OF GAS- LI QUI D
SEPARATORS FOR THE OI L I NDUSTRY
Front cover: An unrealistic simulation of the gas flow field inside a reverse
flow cyclone (see section 7.5).
Innerside of front cover: Project structure and nomenclature (see chapter 4).
A NEW APPROACH TO THE DESIGN OF GAS-LIQUID
SEPARATORS FOR THE OIL INDUSTRY
PROEFSCHRI FT Ar
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t er ver kr i j gi ng van de gr aad van doct or aan de
Techni sche Uni ver si t ei t Del f t , op gezag van de
Rect or Magni f i cus, Pr of . dr s. P. A. Schenck,
i n het openbaar t e ver dedi gen t en over st aan van een
commi ssi e door het Col l ege van Dekanen daar t oe aangewezen,
op di nsdag 25 okt ober 1988 t e 14. 00 uur
door
ROMBOUT ADRI AAN SWANBORN
gebor en t e Poi nt For t i n, Tr i ni dad
mi j ni ngeni eur
TR diss
1672
Di t pr oef schr i f t i s goedgekeur d door de pr omot or en
Pr of . xr . E. J . de J ong en Pr of . dr . i r . J . de Gr aauw
ADDENDUM TO: "A NEW APPROACH TO THE DESI GN OF GAS- LI QUI D
SEPARATORS FOR THE OI L I NDUSTRY",
by R. A. Swanbor n
I t has not been st at ed cl ear l y i n chapt er 6, sect i on 6. 3. 2. ,
bl ock RFC- EXP3 and RFC- EXP4 t hat t he det er mi ned char act er i st i cs
of ( si ngl e) cycl one t ype E and of ( mul t i ) cycl ones t ype B and C,
al l of whi ch have been desi gned by Pal adon Engi neer i ng Lt d. ,
shoul d not be consi der ed as r epr esent at i ve f or t he
char act er i st i cs of t he equi pment t hat i s pr esent l y desi gned by
t hi s company f or commer ci al pur poses.
The cycl one separ at or - desi gns t hat have been t est ed i n t hi s st udy
have been put at our di sposal by Pal adon, but concer n pr el i mi nar y
devel opment ver si ons t hat ar e di f f er ent f rom t he commer ci al
equi pment of t hi s f i r m bot h wi t h r espect t o geomet r y and
pr i nci pl e of oper at i on. The cycl ones t est ed wer e a desi gn
speci f i cal l y bei ng consi der ed t o over come er osi on pr obl ems i n
hi gh sand l oadi ng appl i cat i ons onl y.
Some of t he most i mpor t ant negat i ve char act er i st i cs wi t h r espect
t o ot her desi gns as t est ed i n t hi s st udy, can be expl ai ned
di r ect l y by t he pr esence of ext r a f eat ur es, not accommodat ed i n
t he convent i onal commer ci al desi gns, but obvi ousl y not yet of t he
opt i mal geomet r i cal f or mi n t he t est ed ver si ons.
"To some, science is an exalted goddess,
to others a cow which provides them
with butter"
B. Russell, 1928
Aan mijn ouders en Ella
CONTENTS
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSI ONS
SAMENVATTI NG EN CONCLUSI ES
1. I NTRODUCTI ON 1
2. CLASSI FI CATI ON OF PRESENT GAS/ LI QUI D SEPARATI ON APPLI CATI ONS 5
2. 1 I nt r oduct i on 5
2. 2 Basi c descr i pt i on of a gas pr oduct i on syst em 5
2. 3 I nvent or y of separ at or l ocat i ons 8
2. 3- 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 8
2. 3- 2 Wel l head separ at i on 8
2. 3. 3 Scr ubbi ng 9
2. 3. 4 Of f shor e gas wi nni ng 14
2. 3- 5 Onshor e gas wi nni ng 14
2. 4 Eval uat i on of separ at or i nl et condi t i ons and r equi r ement s 15
3. PRESENT TECHNOLOGY 17
3. 1 I nt r oduct i on 17
3- 2 Basi c gas/ l i qui d separ at i on mechani sms 20
3. 3 Sedi ment at i on 23
3. 3- 1 Gener al aspect s 23
3. 3- 2 Knock- out vessel s 23
3. 4 I ner t i al separ at i on 26
3. 4. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 26
3. 4. 2 I ner t i al separ at i on by mesh t ype separ at or s 26
3. 4. 3 I ner t i al separ at i on wi t h vane- t ype separ at or s 28
3. 4. 4 Cycl one t ype separ at or s 32
3. 4. 4. 1 Pr el i mi nar y r emar ks 32
3. 4. 4. 2 ( Rever se f l ow) Dust cycl ones 34
3. 4. 4. 3 Mi st cycl ones 35
3. 4. 4. 4 Mul t i cycl ones 39
3. 4. 4. 5 St r ai ght t hrough cycl ones 40
3. 4. 4. 6 Char act er i st i cs of cycl one t ype separ at or s 44
3- 5 Di f f usi onal separ at i on 46
3. 6 Exi st i ng separ at or t ypes 48
3- 6. 1 Hor i zont al or ver t i cal posi t i on 49
3. 6. 2 Number of separ at i on st ages 50
3. 7 Eval uat i on of pr esent t echnol ogy 52
DESCRI PTI ON OF THE CURRENT RESEARCH PROJ ECT 55
4. 1 St r uct ur e of chapt er 55
4. 2 For mul at i on of r esear ch obj ect i ves 55
4. 3 Pr oj ect st r at egy and t ool s 57
4. 3- 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 57
4. 3. 2 Pr oj ect st r at egy and t ool s 58
4. 4 Scope of pr esent r epor t 6l
RESULTS: LI TERATURE SEARCH 63
5. 1 I nt r oduct i on 63
5. 2 Det er mi nat i on of t he i nl et condi t i ons 63
5- 3 Fr i ct i on f act or s at gas/ l i qui d i nt er f ace 67
5. 3. 1 For mof gas/ l i qui d i nt er f ace 67
5. 3. 2 Fr i ct i on f act or s of l i qui d f i l m/ gas syst ems 69
5. 3. 2. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 69
5. 3. 2. 2 Wal l f r i ct i on f act or s of l i qui d f i l ms 69
5. 3. 2. 3 I nt er f aci al f r i ct i on f act or of l i qui d f i l ms 70
5. 3- 3 Fr i ct i on f act or s of r ot at i ng l i qui d f i l m/ gas syst ems 72
5. 4 Reent r ai nment and rel at ed ef f ect s 73
5. 4. 1 Fi l mbr eak- up mechani sms 73
5- 4. 2 I ni t i at i on cr i t er i a of r eent r ai nment 74
5. 4. 3 The r at e of r eent r ai nment 79
5- 4. 4 Dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on of r eent r ai nment 80
5- 4. 5 Di r ect i on of and i ni t i al vel oci t y of r eent r ai ned dr opl et s 81
5. 5 Char act er i zat i on of swi r l el ement s and swi r l i ng f l ows 82
5. 5. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 82
5. 5. 2 Exampl es of r ot at i ng f l ow f i el ds 82
5. 5. 3 Char act er i zat i on of swi r l el ement s and swi r l i ng f l ows 82
TEST FACI LI TI ES AND EXPERI MENTAL RESULTS 91
6. 1 St r uct ur e of chapt er 91
6. 2 Test f aci l i t i es 91
6. 2. 1 I nt r oduct i on 91
6. 2. 2 Test - r i g 1 ( bl ock EXP1, EXP2) 92
6. 2. 3 Test - r i g 2 ( bl ock EXP2, EXP3, EXP5) 3k
6. 2. 4 Test - r i g 3 ( bl ock EXP2. EXP4, EXP5) 98
6. 3 Exper i ment al r esul t s 102
6. 3- I Axi al cycl ones 102
6. 3. 2 Rever se f l ow cycl ones 108
6. 3. 3 Vanes 118
MODELLI NG RESULTS 129
7. 1 I nt r oduct i on 129
7. 1. 1 St r uct ur e of chapt er 129
7. 1. 2 Model l i ng t echni ques 129
7. 2 Numer i cal model l i ng of gas f l ow f i el ds 130
7. 2. 1 Physi cal backgr ound 130
7. 2. 2 Mat hemat i cal backgr ound 135
7. 2. 3 Fl ui d dynami c codes used 136
7. 3 Physi cal model l i ng of gas/ l i qui d i nt er act i ons 136
7. 3! I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 136
7. 3. 2 Behavi our of dr opl et phase 137
7. 3. 3 Behavi our of t he l i qui d f i l m 139
7. 4 Axi al cycl one model s 147
7. 4. 1 Bl ock AC- MODI 148
7. 4. 2 Bl ock AC- M0D2 157
7. 4. 3 Bl ock AC- M0D3 160
7. 4. 3. 1 St r uct ur e of model 160
7. 4. 3. 2 Pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency l 60
7. 4. 3. 3 Maxi mal capaci t y 162
7. 4. 4 Bl ocks AC- M0D4/ M0D5 164
7. 5 Rever se f l ow cycl ones 165
7. 5. 1 Bl ock RFC- MODI 165
7. 5. 2 Bl ock RFC- M0D2 166
7. 5- 3 Bl ock RFC- M0D3 167
7. 5- 3. 1 Pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency of a r ever se
f l ow cycl one 167
7. 5- 3- 2 Maxi mal capaci t y of a r ever se f l ow cycl one 168
7- 5- 3- 3 Pr essur e dr op of a r ever se f l ow cycl one 169
7. 5. 4 Bl ock RFC- M0D4 I 69
7. 5. 5 Bl ock RFC- M0D5 171
7. 6 Vanes 172
7. 6. 1 Bl ock V- M0D1 172
7. 6. 2 Bl ock V- M0D2 I 73
7. 6. 3 Bl ock V- M0D3 I 75
7. 6. 4 Bl ock V- M0D4 177
7. 6. 5 Bl ock V- M0D5 I 79
8. CONCLUSI ONS: I MPROVED DESI GNS AND DESI GN PROCEDURES 181
8. 1 I nt r oduct i on l 8l
8. 2 I mpr oved desi gns 181
8. 2. 1 Axi al cycl ones 181
8. 2. 2 Rever se f l ow cycl ones 187
8. 2. 3 Vanes 188
8. 3 I mpr oved desi gn equat i ons 192
8. 3- 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks 192
8. 3. 2 Tr adi t i onal axi al cycl ones 192
8. 3- 3 Rever se f l ow cycl ones 196
8. 3- 4 Vanes 198
LI ST OF SYMBOLS 203
REFERENCES 205
APPENDI CES
A 3. 3. 2 Knock- out vessel s A. 1
3. 4. 2 Mesh t ype separ at or s A. 5
3. 4. 3 Vane t ype separ at or s A. 12
3. 4. 4. 2 Rever se f l ow cycl ones A. 19
3. 4. 4. 3 Mi st cycl ones A. 37
3. 4. 4. 4 Mul t i cycl ones A
3. 4. 4. 5 St r ai ght - t hr ough cycl ones A
3. 5 Di f f usi onal separ at i on A
B Repr esent at i ve exampl es of swi r l i ng f l ow char act er i zat i ons B
B. l Swi r l i ng f l ow i n a smoot h pi pe B
B. 2 Swi r l i ng f l ow i n axi al cycl ones B
B. 3 Swi r l i ng f l ow i n r ever se f l ow cycl ones B
C Exper i ment al r esul t s C
D Tur bul ence model s D
D. 1 Tur bul ence model s based on t he concept of Boussi nesq D
D. l . 1 Backgr ound of Boussi nesq model s D
D. 1. 2 Zer o PDE model s D
D. 1. 3 One PDE model s D
D. 1. 4 Two PDE model s D
D. 2 Di r ect model l i ng of t ur bul ent shear st r esses D
CURRI CULUM VI TAE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSI ONS
The most i mpor t ant gas/ l i qui d separ at i ons t hat t ake pl ace i n oi l f i el d
oper at i on have been i nvest i gat ed.
An i nvent or y has been made of t he condi t i ons under whi ch t he separ at i ons
have t o t ake pl ace and whi ch r equi r ement s have t o be f ul f i l l ed.
The pr esent l y avai l abl e separ at or t ypes have been eval uat ed wi t h r espect t o
t he sui t abi l i t y t o f ul f i l t he r equi r ement s l i st ed above.
I t appear ed t hat many separ at or t ypes wer e not speci f i cal l y desi gned f or
hi gh pr essur e gas/ l i qui d separ at i on ( r at her f or ei t her at mospher i c
gas/ l i qui d or hi gh pr essur e gas/ dust separ at i on) .
I t al so appear ed t hat i n many cases t he behavi our of t he separ at or coul d not
be r el i abl y pr edi ct ed under t he condi t i ons of t he pr act i cal appl i cat i on.
For t hi s r eason ef f or t s wer e concent r at ed on devel opi ng i mpr oved desi gns and
gener al l y val i d desi gn r ul es f or i mpr oved and exi st i ng separ at or t ypes.
The separ at or t ypes under i nvest i gat i on wer e mai nl y axi al , r ever se f l ow and
vane t ype separ at or s.
Each of t hese separ at or t ypes makes use of t he i ner t i a of t he mi st par t i cl es
t o ef f ect t hei r separ at i on.
The pr i nci pl es of oper at i on are schemat i cal l y depi ct ed bel ow.
To devel op improved desi gns and improved desi gn equations, physical and
mathematical models were set up that descri be the phenomena i nsi de the
separator over a wide range of operating conditions.
These models are on one hand based on numerical sol uti on schemes that
descri be the behaviour of a fluid in motion, and on the other hand on rul es
that describe the gas/liquid i nteracti ons speci fi c to these separators.
An extensi ve experi mental program accompanied the development of these
models to ensure thei r val i di ty.
With these models two new separator designs were developed, that both show
consi derabl y improved operati ng characteri sti cs wi th respect to the
tradi ti onal high pressure gas/liquid separators.
A new axi al cyclone design was developed and tested of which the throughput
i s not l onger confined by the tradi ti onal mechanism of l i mi tati on. This
resul ted i n a drasti cal l y improved size/throughput rati o.
Also a new vane desi gn was developed and tested, which shows the same
improved size/throughput rati o.
An i mportant conclusion that was drawn from the design equations that were
derived from the models was the fact that tradi ti onal l y the i nfl uence of
operati ng pressure i s nearly always misjudged. I t i s underestimated in case
of one type of axi al cyclone separator and overesti mated i n case of most
other cyclone and vane type separators. This was al so demonstrated by
experimental resul ts.
I n nearl y al l cases thi s misconception has lead to separators of which the
si ze i s not optimal for application, an important requirement for offshore
operati ons. Therefore, practi cal rul es were given how to account for
operating pressure i n the design of the separator types under i nvesti gati on.
SAMENVATTI NG EN CONCLUSI ES
Di t pr oef schr i f t begi nt met een opsommi ng van de bel angr i j kst e pl aat sen i n
ol i e/ gas pr odukt i esyst emen waar gas/ vl oei st of schei di ng pl aat svi ndt .
De bedr i j f somst andi gheden waar onder de di ver se schei di ngsoper at i es
pl aat svi nden, wor den geanal yseer d en de ei sen aan de schei di ngsoper at i es
wor den gei nvent ar i seer d. Hi er na wor den de beschi kbar e separ at or en
geval ueer d zodat een over zi cht kan wor den gegeven van de t ekor t komi ngen di e
de hui di ge st and der t echni ek met zi ch meebr engt .
Het bl i j kt dat de meest e i n gebr ui k zi j nde separ at or t ypen ni et speci f i ek
voor hogedr uk gas/ vl oei st of schei di ng ont wor pen zi j n, doch eer der voor hoge
dr uk st of schei di ng of at mosf er i sche gas/ vl oei st of schei di ng. Tevens bl i j kt
dat i n veel geval l en het gedr ag van de separ at or onder bedr i j f somst andi g-
heden ni et nauwkeur i g voor spel d kan wor den.
Daar om r i cht het ver der e onder zoek zi ch voor namel i j k op de ont wi kkel i ng van
ni euwe separ at or ont wer pen en al gemeen gel dende ont wer pr egel s voor de ni euwe
en t r adi t i onel e separ at or t ypen.
De dr i e separ at or t ypen di e onder zocht wor den, zi j n de axi aal cycl oon, de
r ever se f l ow cycl oon en de vanepl aat af schei der . Het wer ki ngspr i nci pe van
el k van de dr i e ber ust op t r aaghei dsaf schei di ng en i s onder st aand
schemat i sch af gebeel d.
Om verbeterde separator ontwerpen en ontwerpregel s te ontwikkelen worden
fysische en mathematische modellen geformuleerd di e de verschijnselen i n een
separator beschrijven voor een ruim bereik van bedrijfsomstandigheden.
Enerzi j ds bestaan deze modellen ui t mathematische oplosmethoden di e
gasstromi ngsvel den voorspel l en, anderzi j ds ui t toegespi tste f ysi sche
modellen die de gas/vloeistof i nteracti es in een scheider beschrijven.
De modelontwikkeling gaat gepaard met een experi menteel programma om de
betrouwbaarhei d van de model voorspel l i ngen te al l en ti j de te kunnen
veri fi ren.
Vanuit deze modellen worden twee nieuwe separator typen ontwikkeld die
aanzi enl i j k verbeterde karakteri sti eken vertonen i n vergel i j ki ng met
tradi ti onel e hoge druk gas/vloeistofseparatoren.
Een nieuwe axiaal cycloon wordt ontwikkeld en getest waarvan de capaci tei t
ni et l anger door het tradi ti onel e mechanisme wordt begrensd. Dit resul teert
in een aanzienlijk verbeterde capaci tei t/grootte verhouding.
Er wordt ook een verbeterde vane ontwikkeld di e dezel fde verbeterde
capaci tei t/grootte verhouding vertoont.
Een bel angri j ke concl usi e di e getrokken wordt ui t de nieuw ontwikkelde
ontwerpregel s i s dat de i nvl oed van de werkingsdruk bi j na al ti j d fout
beoordeeld wordt. Deze invloed wordt onderschat i n geval van n type axiaal
cycloon en overschat in geval van de meeste andere soorten cyclonen en
vanes. Dit wordt ook aangetoond met experimentele resul taten. In bijna al l e
gevallen l ei dt di t misverstand tot separatoren die ni et de optimale grootte
voor de toepassing hebben, een belangrijke verei ste voor offshore operati es.
Daarom worden voor de drie onderzochte separator typen prakti sche regel s
gegeven hoe de opschal i ng naar hogere werkdrukken ui tgevoerd di ent te
worden.
- 1-
1. I NTRODUCTI ON
The of f shor e act i vi t i es i n t he oi l - and gas- i ndust r y have gr own st r ongl y i n
t he l ast f i f t een year s. As a consequence t he demand f or equi pment sui t ed f or
appl i cat i on on t he spat i al l y r est r i ct ed dr i l l i ng and pr oduct i on pl at f or ms
has i ncr eased.
Somewhat compar abl e wi t h t he i nf l uence t he space pr ogr ammes of t he si xt i es
had on t he el ect r oni c i ndust r y, t he of f shor e act i vi t i es have gi ven an
i mpul se t o t he devel opment of an assor t ment of pr oduct s and t echni ques whi ch
ar e char act er i zed by ef f i ci ency, r el i abi l i t y and l i t t l e mai nt enance.
As an exampl e of t he di ver si t y wi t hi n t hi s assor t ment , one can see on t he
one hand t he speci al l y devel oped concr et e const r uct i on t echni ques t hat wer e
appl i ed dur i ng t he er ect i on of t he pl at f or ms i n t he Gul l f aks f i el d and on
t he ot her hand t he ver y compact and r obust r ot at i ng pr ocess equi pment
( especi al l y t ur bi nes and compr essor s) . Many r esear ch and devel opment ef f or t s
have pr eceded t hese novel t i es.
Thi s st udy f or opt i mi zat i on of gas/ l i qui d separ at or s was al so bor n under t he
si gns descr i bed above.
Toget her wi t h oi l / wat er separ at i on, gas/ l i qui d separ at i on i s an i mpor t ant
pr ocess oper at i on t hat i s essent i al on an of f shor e pr oduct i on pl at f or m.
The wel l f l ui ds ar e pur i f i ed of l i qui d and cont ami nat i ons t hat have been
pr oduced f romt he r eser voi r .
To pr event er osi on, pl uggi ng and cor r osi on of val uabl e pr ocess equi pment i t
i s of gr eat i mpor t ance t hat sand and wat er ar e separ at ed i n t he ear l i est
possi bl e st age of t he pr oduct i on.
The pr ocess equi pment t hat i s used f or t hese oper at i ons i s of consi der abl e
si ze and wei ght and has f or a l ong t i me been subj ect t o opt i mi zat i on
at t empt s. One of t he pr obl ems encount er ed i n t hi s f i el d i s t he f act t hat t he
behavi our of t he mul t i phase f l ow under t he pr evai l i ng ci r cumst ances i s
compl ex and ver y di f f i cul t t o pr edi ct , even i n t he mechani cal separ at or s
under di scussi on i n t hi s r epor t whi ch ar e usual l y qui t e si mpl e i n t hei r
geomet r y.
- 2 -
Where quanti tati ve descri pti ons of the properties of thi s type of process
equipment are defi ci ent, empi ri cal desi gns f l ouri sh. The val ue of these
empirics i s high, as i t i s based on decennia of oi l field experience.
However, these rel ati ons are much l ess suited for design opti mi zati on when
they are stretched beyond thei r ori gi nal range of appl i cati on.
A complication that occurs when attempti ng to quanti fy the behaviour of
these mul ti phase flows i s that under high pressure the properti es of the
mi xture may di f f er consi derabl y from those of the same mi xture under
atmospheri c condi ti ons. This effect requi res expensive experimental
equipment to conduct experiments under actual ci rcumstances and equal l y
equal l y expensive computing equipment and software to carry out numerical
flow simulations.
As, up to now, only rel ati vel y small companies have been involved in the
design and fabrication of a large part of thi s parti cul ar separati on equi p-
ment, much of the necessary, expensi ve, research i n thi s field has been
neglected. Many examples are found of i ncorrectl y sized separators. This has
i nduced some better fi nanced oi l rel ated i ndustri es to. tackl e these
problems. Presently, some large research i nsti tutes (parti cul arl y i n Norway
and the United States) are conducting very thoroughly structured research
programmes to i nvesti gate the multiphase flow behaviour under the mentioned
conditions.
The research project described here has been set up more modestly.
Shel l .I nternati onal e Petroleum Maatschappij B.V., the Ministry of Economic
Affairs of The Netherlands, Sombroek Zaandam B.V. and Stork Ketels B.V. were
wi l l i ng to finance a research proj ect that aimed at gaining more insight
i nto the phenomena that restri ct the capacity and effi ci ency of gas/l i qui d
separation in natural gas production.
I t i s expected that recommendati ons can be formul ated for a more
si gni f i cant and uniform design procedure and, moreover, that completely new
separator desi gns, speci f i cal l y sui ted for appl i cati on offshore can be
suggested.
The sponsor s of t he pr oj ect have t he commer ci al r i ght s of new desi gns.
- 3-
I n f i gur e 1. 1 t he l ogi cal st r uct ur e of t hi s r epor t i s pr esent ed.
I t compr i ses t he r esul t s and concl usi ons r eached i n t he f i rst f our year s of
t hi s st udy. A cont i nuat i on of t he pr oj ect f or t hr ee year s has been st ar t ed.
I NVENTORY OF PRACTI CAL r
REQUI REMENTS I
LI TERATURE SEARCH
k
d nu
I NTRODUCTI ON
I 3 I i I NVENTORY OF PRACTI CAL
POSSI BI LI TI ES
FORMULATI ON OF RESEARCH
OBJ ECTI VE
EXPERI MENTAL RESULTS
MODELLI NG RESULTS
~J^ PRACTI CAL RESULTS
Figure 1.1 Structure of this report
I n chapt er 2 at t ent i on wi l l be pai d t o t he di f f er ent condi t i ons pr act i cal
separ at or s have t o oper at e under . Thi s wi l l hel p t o speci f y t he t asks of a
separ at or .
Chapt er 3 wi l l gi ve an over vi ew of pr esent t echnol ogy wi t h i t s possi bi l i t i es
and l i mi t at i ons. The di scr epancy bet ween t he r equi r ement s of chapt er 2 and
t he possi bi l i t i es of chapt er 3 wi l l f ormt he basi s of chapt er 4, i n whi ch
t he obj ect i ves and st r at egy of t he pr esent r esear ch pr oj ect wi l l be
f ormul at ed and el abor at ed.
Chapt er s 5. 6 and 7 wi l l mai nl y deal wi t h t he di f f er ent t ypes of
i nvest i gat i on t hat have been car r i ed out i n or der t o gat her t he i nf or mat i on
necessar y t o r each t he f or mul at ed obj ect i ves. Chapt er 5 wi l l gi ve t he
r esul t s of a l i t er at ur e sear ch, chapt er 6 t he r esul t s of exper i ment al
i nvest i gat i ons and chapt er 7 t he r esul t s of model l i ng ef f or t s.
I n chapt er 8 t hi s i nf or mat i on wi l l be t r ansl at ed t o pr act i cal t er ms. Desi gn
pr ocedur es t hat ar e bet t er sui t ed f or appl i cat i on under t he pr evai l i ng
condi t i ons wi l l be pr oposed. Thr ee novel separ at or i nt er nal s wi l l be
i nt r oduced, of whi ch t wo wi l l be t est ed. They wi l l combi ne t he advant ages of
sever al exi st i ng separ at or desi gns.
- 5-
2. CLASSIFICATION OF PRESENT GAS/LIQUID SEPARATION APPLICATIONS
2.1 Introduction
Thi s chapt er gi ves an over vi ew of f r equent l y encount er ed appl i cat i ons of
gas/ l i qui d separ at or s. The over vi ew compr i ses separ at or s i n of f shor e and
onshor e pr oduct i on syst ems. Onshor e separ at or l ocat i ons ar e i ncl uded because
of f - and onshor e pr oduct i on syst ems ar e i nt egr at ed. Thi s way i t wi l l be
possi bl e t o hi ghl i ght some speci f i c di f f er ences bet ween bot h t ypes of
separ at or s. A basi c gener al pr oduct i on f l owsheet i s descr i bed i n sect i on
2. 2, so t hat i n sect i on 2, 3 t he t ypi cal gas/ l i qui d separ at i on oper at i ons
t hat t ake pl ace i n t he di f f er ent var i at i ons of t hi s basi c f l owsheet can be
cat al ogued accor di ng t o oper at i ng condi t i ons and r equi r ed pr oper t i es.
2. 2 Basi c description of a ga s production system
As al r eady ment i oned, pr oduced gas cont ai ns l i qui d and sol i d const i t uent s.
The r emoval of t hese f or ms t he most i mpor t ant pr ocess st ep bef or e del i ver y
can t ake pl ace. The l i qui ds al most i nvar i abl y consi st of wat er and
hydr ocar bons t hat ar e gaseous under r eser voi r condi t i ons but condense dur i ng
pr oduct i on due t o t he decr ease i n gas pr essur e and t emper at ur e. However , oi l
may be copr oduced f romt he r eser voi r .
Sol i d par t i cl es have t o be r emoved because of er osi on pr obl ems. The r emoval
of wat er i s necessar y because:
a. i n pr esence of C0
2
and Hj S (two ot her possi bl e const i t uent s of nat ur al
gas) wat er f or ms a hi ghl y cor r osi ve mi xt ur e;
b. under cer t ai n condi t i ons wat er t oget her wi t h hydr ocar bon component s can
f orm"hydr at es", f l aky sol i ds, whi ch coul d cause pl uggi ng.
The ext ent t o whi ch t he nat ur al gas shoul d be f r ee of wat er i s usual l y
expr essed i n t er ms of t he wat er dew poi nt of t he gas. Thi s i s t he
t emper at ur e at whi ch wat er st ar t s t o condense f romt he gas.
For obvi ous r easons hydr ocar bon condensat es ar e not al l owed i n sal es gas.
- 6-
They f or m, however , l ess hazar ds dur i ng pr el i mi nar y pr oduct i on and
pr ocessi ng t han wat er , so t hat i n many pr oduct i on syst ems nat ur al gas and
i t s hydr ocar bon condensat es are al l owed t o coexi st much l onger .
For sal es gas t he speci f i cat i ons of l i qui d hydr ocar bon cont ent s ar e al so
of t en expr essed i n t er ms of dew poi nt s. The speci f i ed dew poi nt s usual l y
r el at e t o t he mi ni mumoccur i ng t emper at ur e of t he sal es gas ( approxi mat el y
bet ween - 3C and - 8C) .
Nor mal l y t he r emoval of t he l i qui ds f r ompr oduced gas i s carri ed out i n
t wo st eps.
The f i r st st ep, t he so- cal l ed wel l head separ at i on, t akes pl ace under hi gh
pr essur e. Wi t h t hi s oper at i on t he sol i ds shoul d be r emoved f r om t he gas t o
pr event er osi on of t he equi pment f ur t her downst r eam. Toget her wi t h t he
sol i ds t he bul k of t he al r eady condensed l i qui ds wi l l be r emoved f r om t he
gas. Behi nd t hi s separ at or of t en some f l ow or pr essur e cont r ol val ve wi l l
r egul at e t he gas f l ow t o i t s desi r ed val ue.
Thi s r esul t s i n a decr ease i n pr essur e and t emper at ur e, whi ch wi l l i n most
cases cause condensat i on of mor e l i qui ds, bot h wat er and hydr ocar bons ( t he
l at t er because of r et r ogr ade condensat i on) . Thi s expl ai ns why t he l i qui d
separ at i on ef f i ci eny of t he wel l head separ at or i s not consi der ed cr i t i cal .
I n t hi s st age t he gas i s of t en cool ed t o ef f ect t he condensat i on of even
mor e l i qui ds, af t er whi ch t he second separ at i on st ep wi l l t ake pl ace. Wi t h
t hi s st ep t he gas wi l l be br ought t o t he speci f i cat i ons r equi r ed f or
del i ver y t o t he sal es gas net wor k. Thi s appl i es t o bot h t he wat er ( of whi ch
t he r emoval i s cal l ed "dehydr at i on") and t he l i qui d hydr ocar bon cont ent
( whi ch wi l l be r ef er r ed t o as "condensat es scr ubbi ng") .
Thi s second separ at i on st ep usual l y consi st s of sever al i nt er dependi ng
i ndi vi dual separ at i on and t r eat i ng st eps. I t ' i s i n some cases di f f i cul t t o
compar e wi t h t he st r ai ght f orward wel l head separ at i on, f or i nst ance because
of t he addi t i on of chemi cal s, l i ke gl ycol , t o t he gas f l ow t o assi st i n t he
pr ocess.
Ther e are sever al basi c dehydr at i on/ scr ubbi ng pr ocesses. The most popul ar
are descr i bed i n sect i on 2. 3- 3-
When descr i bi ng t he "basi c" gas pr oduct i on syst em i n r el at i on t o possi bl e
appl i cat i ons of gas/ l i qui d separ at or s one i mpor t ant di st i nct i on must be
made: whet her gas i s pr oduced on- or of f shor e.
-7-
Obvi ousl y, of f shor e oper at i ons wi l l i mpose ext r a demands on t he desi gn
pr ocedur e as t o si ze and wei ght of a separ at or , whi ch r esul t s i n ext r a
const r ai nt s. An ot her i mpor t ant aspect i s t hat t he f or m of t he basi c
f l owsheet f or of f shor e pr oduct i on/ pr ocessi ng may di f f er f undament al l y f r om
t he si mpl e onshor e f l owsheet . Because t he wat er cont ent can be ver y
har mf ul t o t he gas pi pe l i ne i t shoul d be r emoved as soon as possi bl e.
Thi s means t hat t he dehydr at i on of t he gas on a pr oduct i on pl at f or mhas t o
be suf f i ci ent t o pr event wat er condensat i on dur i ng pi pel i ne t r anspor t at i on
t o onshor e f aci l i t i es.
As ext r a under sea pi pel i nes ar e ver y expensi ve, t he l i qui d hydr ocar bons
condensed sof ar wi l l be t r anspor t ed wi t h t he gas i n one pi pel i ne t o be
separ at ed agai n onshor e. Thi s i mpl i es t hat t he second separ at i on st ep, whi ch
separ at es si mul t aneousl y t he wat er and t he condensat es, must be spl i t up
i nt o an of f shor e and an onshor e par t .
A schemat i c expl anat i on of t he above i s gi ven i n f i gur es 2. 1A and 2. I B.
produced
natural gas
1 f
wellhead
separation
'
Jsand
/
^ S
" condensate \
dehydration
\ '
salesgas
^ i I
^ condensate
produced
natural gas
w el l h ea d
sepa ra tion
offshore
dehydration
&
scrubbing
condensate
scrubbing
E
| salesgas
sand
water
condensate]
water |
condensate I
Fig. 2.1A Simplified onshore produo- Fig. 2. IB Simplified offshore produc-
tion flowsheet tion flowsheet
- 8-
2. 3 I nvent or y of separ at or l ocat i ons
2. 3. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
As descr i bed i n t he pr evi ous sect i on, t wo di f f er ent cr i t er i a char act er i ze
t he l ocat i on of a separ at or :
- whet her t he separ at i on st ep t akes pl ace up- or downst r eam i n t he pr ocess
f l owsheet ( wel l head separ at i on or scr ubbi ng/ dehydr at i on) ;
- whet her t he gas i s pr oduced on- or of f shor e.
The char act er i zat i on of each l ocat i on t akes pl ace by def i ni ng t he i nl et
condi t i ons and t he r equi r ement s of t he separ at i on oper at i on.
The i nl et condi t i ons ar e det er mi ned accor di ng t o t he f ol l owi ng pr oper t i es:
1. Physi cal pr oper t i es of gas phase; especi al l y gas densi t y t hat i s mai nl y
det er mi ned by oper at i ng pr essur e and gas composi t i on.
2. Physi cal pr oper t i es of l i qui d phase; especi al l y sur f ace t ensi on,
vi scosi t y and densi t y.
3. Dr op si ze di st r i but i on of l i qui d phase;
k. Gas t o l i qui d r at i o;
5. Occur r ence of possi bl e f oul i ng agent s ( sand, wax) i n gas.
The r equi r ement s accor di ng t o:
1. Separ at i on ef f i ci ency ( wi t h r espect t o mi st s, sl ugs and sol i ds) ;
2. Tur n down r at i o;
3. Al l owabl e pr essur e dr op;
4. Possi bl e si ze const r ai nt s.
Af t er char act er i zat i on of al l t he i ndi vi dual l ocat i ons t abl es 2. 1 and 2. I I
i n sect i on 2A gi ve a summar y of al l i nvent or i es.
2. 3. 2 Wel l head separ at i on
The condi t i ons under whi ch wel l head separ at i on must t ake pl ace ar e of t en
ext r eme. Gas pr essur es may r ange up t o 600 bar and er osi ve sol i d par t i cl es
may shor t en t he l i f et i me of t he i nt er nal s consi der abl y. The l i qui d i n t he
gas consi st s of wat er and hydr ocar bons, of whi ch t he dr opl et si ze depends t o
- 9-
a gr eat ext ent on r est r i ct i ons upst r eami n t he pi pi ng ( choke, sharp bends
et c. ) . Under cer t ai n condi t i ons f or mat i on of sl ugs may occur , f or i nst ance
wher e t he pr oduct i on l i ne r uns acr oss t he sea bot t om. The amount of l i qui d
i n t he gas f l ow depends gr eat l y on t he composi t i on of t he gas and di f f er ence
i n condi t i ons i n r eser voi r and separ at or . The l i qui d separ at i on ef f i ci ency
i s not of cr i t i cal i mpor t ance when di r ect l y downst r eam of t he wel l head
separ at or equi pment i s si t uat ed t hat causes condensat i on of mor e l i qui ds,
ei t her del i ber at el y ( heat exchanger s) or not ( choke val ves) . An ext r a
separ at or sect i on i s usual l y i nst al l ed af t er t he wel l head separ at or t o
pr event l i qui d over l oadi ng of t he next pr ocess oper at i ons.
The most i mpor t ant oper at i ng condi t i ons ar e:
- The f ormof t he l i qui d l oadi ng may var y f rommi st t o sl ug;
- Bot h sol i d ( sand) and l i qui d ( wat er and hydr ocar bon) par t i cl es may have t o
be separ at ed;
- Pr essur es may r ange up t o 600 bar , dependi ng on t he gasf i el d; t emper at ur es
up t o 80- 100"C;
and t he most i mpor t ant separ at or r equi r ement s:
- Abi l i t y t o separ at e par t i cul at es f romhi gh densi t y gasses;
- Wel l abl e t o separ at e sl ugs;
- Good separ at i on of sol i d mat er i al .
2. 3. 3 Scr ubbi ng
For good or der i t i s r epeat ed t hat t he word "scr ubbi ng" wi l l be used as t he
gener al t er m f or t hor ough separ at i on of l i qui ds f r om t he gas f l ow.
"Dehydr at i on" r ef er s speci f i cal l y t o t he r emoval of wat er f romt he gas.
Fr om t he f ol l owi ng i t wi l l be cl ear t hat some dehydr at i on pr ocesses can not
r esor t under gas/ l i qui d separ at i on as t hey r at her achi eve a gas/ gas
separ at i on. They ar e descr i bed i n t hi s chapt er because t hese dehydr at i on
pr ocesses ar e near l y al ways accompani ed by one or mor e gas/ l i qui d separ at i on
st eps, necessar y f or successf ul oper at i on.
The t wo basi c f or ms of scr ubbi ng/ dehydr at i on ar e:
1. Cool i ng t he gas beneat h t he speci f i ed dew poi nt and separ at i ng t he
condensed l i qui ds f romt he gas ( gas/ l i qui d separ at i on) ;
2. Dr yi ng t he gas wi t h desi ccant s.
- 10-
ad 1. Scr ubbi ng/ dehydr at i on by gascool i ng
Thi s dehydr at i on met hod i s bet t er known as Low Temper at ur e Separ at i on ( LTS) .
The gas i s cool ed down t o such a t emper at ur e t hat af t er separ at i on of t he
condensed l i qui ds t he gas wi l l r emai n dr y even at l ower pr essur es above t he
speci f i ed dew poi nt . The advant age of t hi s met hod i s t hat i n one separ at i on
st ep bot h wat er and hydr ocar bon condensat es ar e r ecover ed.
Ther e ar e t wo common ways of l ower i ng t he gas t emper at ur e:
1) By usi ng t he cool i ng t hat occur s when t he gas i s expanded adi abat i cal l y;
2) By r ef r i ger at i ng t he gas mechani cal l y, a met hod whi ch i s used when t he
wel l pr essur e i s al r eady t oo l ow f or t he above cool i ng met hod. Thi s
met hod has become popul ar i n onshor e oper at i ons i n The Net her l ands.
I n bot h cases l ar ge heat exchanger s ar e necessar y t o make ef f i ci ent use of
t he r ef r i ger at i on. I n t he second case l ar ge quant i t i es of ener gy ar e
consumed by t he mechani cal r ef r i ger at i on. Dependi ng on t he t her modynami cs of
a gi ven gas, separ at i on t emper at ur es down t o appr oxi mat el y -25 C may be
necessar y t o f ul f i l t he r equi r ement s f or sal es gas. These l ow t emper at ur es
ar e necessar y, as t he separ at i on t akes pl ace at consi der abl y hi gher
pr essur es t han at whi ch t he gas wi l l be t r anspor t ed i n t he di st r i but i on
net wor k ( see f or i nst ance f i gur e 2. 2) .
When t oo l ow t emper at ur es ar e r eached bef or e t he separ at i on st ep hydr at e
f or mat i on can occur i n t he gas. Ther ef or e, an ( hydr at e- ) i nhi bi t or ( i n most
cases di et hyl enegl ycol , DEG) i s i nj ect ed at , or upst r eam of , t he heat
exchanger . A possi bl e conf i gur at i on i s shown i n f i gur e 2. 3-
p
4
r| heatexchanger \*I
DEO
r ef r i g er at o r
-_
cold separator I
cold separator
L-J
glycol/water
N
condensate
heatexchanger
T
Fig. 2.2 Example of a phase loop Fig. 2.3 Simplified set-up of LTS process
- 11-
I n most cases a second, t andem ( f i l t er ) separ at or i s si t uat ed di r ect l y
downst r eam of t he " col d" separ at or as a measur e agai nst possi bl e
mal f unct i oni ng of t he l at t er . The separ at i on ef f i ci ency of t hi s f i l t er
separ at or must be as hi gh as possi bl e, because t he gas i s suppl i ed t o t he
sal es gas net wor k di r ect l y af t er t hi s separ at i on st ep.
Summar y of t he oper at i ng condi t i ons and r equi r ed pr oper t i es:
Ma in sepa ra tor
Oper at i ng condi t i ons: 1. For mof l i qui d l oadi ng: r angi ng f rommi st t o sl ug,
dependi ng on upst r eamf l owsheet and pi pi ng;
2. Li qui d l oadi ng: consi st i ng of gl ycol / wat er and
hydr ocar bons;
3. Pr essur es: r angi ng f r om appr oxi mat el y 70- 90 bar ;
t emper at ur es: down t o appr oxi mat el y - 25C.
Requi r ed pr oper t i es: 1. Hi gh/ Ver y hi gh ef f i ci ency on mi st s;
2. Ver y hi gh ef f i ci ency on sl ugs;
3. Low pr essur e dr op.
Tandemsepar at or
Oper at i ng condi t i ons: 1. As t he l i qui d of f er ed t o t hi s separ at or i s car r i ed
over f r om t he col d separ at or , i t wi l l gener al l y be
l ow i n concent r at i on and ver y f i ne;
2. See above;
3. See above.
Requi r ed pr oper t i es: 1. Ver y hi gh ef f i ci ency on mi st s;
2. Low pr essur e dr op.
I n bot h cases a l ow pr essur e dr op i s r equi r ed because t he gas del i ver ed t o
t he sal es gas net wor k has t o meet a cer t ai n mi ni mum pr essur e. The i nl et
pr essur e of t he separ at or has t o be chosen as cl ose as possi bl e t o t hi s
mi ni numpr essur e, because t he condensat i on of hydr ocar bons i ncr eases wi t h
decr easi ng pr essur e ( r et r ogr ade condensat i on) .
ad 2. Dehydr at i on by maki ng use of desi ccant s
Two t ypes of desi ccant s may be appl i ed: l i qui d or sol i d. Sol i d desi ccant s
( cal ci umchl or i de, si l i cagel ) ar e used when ext r emel y l ow wat er dew poi nt s
have t o be r eached, and/ or when onl y smal l amount s of gas have t o be
pr ocessed. Gener al l y, sol i d desi ccant s have l ower dr yi ng capaci t i es t han
- 12-
l i qui d desi ccant s. Thi s i s t he r eason why i ni t i al and oper at i ng cost s of a
dehydr at i on syst embased on a l i qui d desi ccant ar e l ower . As t he r ol e of t he
gas/ l i qui d separ at i on st ep i s onl y modest i n a sol i d desi ccant dehydr at i on
pr ocess, t he f ol l owi ng sect i on i s f ocussed on l i qui d desi ccant pr ocesses.
The by f ar most popul ar dehydr at i on pr ocess ( especi al l y of f shor e) , gl ycol
absor pt i on, i s descr i bed next .
Dehydr at i on by gl ycol absor pt i on ( l i qui d desi ccant )
The popul ar i t y of t hi s pr ocess i s due t o i t s compact ness, r obust ness and
easy oper at i on. Gas i s br ought i n cont act wi t h gl ycol ( i n most cases
t r i et hyl enegl ycol , TEG) i n a cont act i ng t ower . The gl ycol absor bs onl y wat er
vapour f romt he gas and i s r egener at ed.
A si mpl i f i ed f l owsheet i s depi ct ed i n f i gur e 2. 4. For t he si ze and ener gy
consumpt i on of t he gl ycol r egener at i on sect i on i t i s ver y i mpor t ant t hat t he
gas i s f r ee of condensed l i qui ds when i t ent er s t he cont act i ng t ower . Fr ee
hydr ocar bons wi l l hi nder wat er vapour absor pt i on.
water
\
glycol
regeneration
section
lean glycol
rich glycol
three-phase mixture
from well head
gl ycol /wat er
separation
section
contactor
section
*: pr esepar at or . ^
wmmm.
dried gas
free water S
condensates
Figure 2.4 Flowsheet of glycol dehydration unit
- 13-
Wat er and condensat e wi l l st r ongl y i ncr ease t he ener gy consumpt i on of t hi s
r egener at i on sect i on. An i nl et separ at i on sect i on i s si t uat ed di r ect l y
upst r eam of t he cont act i ng t ower t o el i mi nat e t hese l i qui ds. The speci f i c
desi gn of t hi s i nl et separ at or depends on t he amount and f or m of t he f r ee
l i qui ds i n t he gas and t hus on t he upst r eamf l owsheet and gas pr oper t i es.
Downst r eamof t he cont act i ng sect i on (i n t he t op sect i on of t he cont act i ng
t ower i t sel f or i n a separ at e vessel ) a second separ at i on sect i on i s
si t uat ed t o cat ch ent r ai ned gl ycol / wat er sol ut i on. Gl ycol l oss i s one of t he
par amet er s t hat i nf l uences t he economi cs of t hi s pr ocess. The i nl et
separ at or wi l l be ref erred t o as absor pt i on separ at or I , t he ent r ai nment
separ at or as absor pt i on separ at or I I .
For bot h separ at or s a summar y of t he oper at i ng condi t i ons and t he r equi r ed
pr oper t i es i s l i st ed bel ow.
Absorption sepa ra tor I
For mof l i qui d l oadi ng: r angi ng f rommi st t o sl ug;
Li qui d l oadi ng: consi st i ng of wat er , hydr ocar bons
and gl ycol or met hanol as hydr at e i nhi bi t or s
( dependi ng on pr ocess, see next sect i on) may be
pr esent ;
Pr essur es: r angi ng f rom70- 100 bar ; t emper at ur es:
appr oxi mat el y f rom25- 40C.
Ver y hi gh ef f i ci ency on mi st s;
2. Ver y hi gh ef f i ci ency on sl ugs;
3. Low pr essur e dr op ( except f or of f shor e appl i ca-
t i ons, see next sect i on) .
Oper at i ng condi t i ons:
Requi r ed pr oper t i es: 1.
Absor pt i on sepa ra tor I I
Oper at i ng condi t i ons: 1.
Requi r ed pr oper t i es:
As t hi s l i qui d i s car r i ed- over f romt he cont act i ng
sect i on, i t wi l l gener al l y be a mi st ;
Li qui d l oadi ng consi st s of gl ycol / wat er ;
See above.
Hi gh ef f i ci ency on gl ycol mi st s;
2. As f or pr essur e dr op: see above.
I n t he pr evi ous sect i on t he oper at i ng condi t i ons i n up- or downst r eam
posi t i ons have been descr i bed. I n t he next sect i on t he i nf l uence of on- or
of f shor e oper at i on i s el abor at ed.
- 1 1 -
2.^.k Of f shor e gas wi nni ng
The usual Nor t h- Sea gas t r eat ment consi st s of wel l head separ at i on f ol l owed
by gl ycol dehydr at i on. The hydr ocar bon condensat es separ at ed sof ar ar e
br ought back i n t he gas f l ow and separ at ed agai n onshor e. Ther e, t he f i r st
separ at i on i s car r i ed out by massi ve sl ug cat cher s t o accommodat e t he
accumul at ed sl ugs, of t en f ol l owed by a second coar se separ at i on st ep bef or e
t he gas i s br ought t o speci f i cat i ons by, i n many cases, LTS. Two common
al t er nat i ves exi st : gl ycol dehydr at i on t akes pl ace on t he pl at f or mon whi ch
t he wel l head separ at or i s si t uat ed ( si t uat i on I , t abl e 2. I I ) , or dehydr at i on
t akes pl ace on a cent r al pr ocessi ng pl at f or mt o whi ch mor e pr oduct i on uni t s
ar e connect ed ( si t uat i on I I ) . I n t he l at t er case hydr at e f or mat i on i s
possi bl e, as sea wat er t emper at ur es r ange down t o 3C. Ther ef or e, t o pr event
hydr at e f or mat i on met hanol mi ght be i nj ect ed i n t he gas f l ow seasonal l y, or
DEG per manent l y. I n t hi s way f r ee l i qui ds i n t he pi pel i ne may bui l d up t o
sl ugs. I n case of a combi ned pr oduct i on/ pr ocessi ng pl at f or m ( si t uat i on I I ) ,
t he, i nl et condi t i ons of t he dehydr at i on sect i on wi l l be much mor e
f avour abl e, because no gl ycol wi l l be pr esent as hydr at e i nhi bi t or and
pr obabl y no sl ugs wi l l have bui l t up upst r eam.
For t he wel l head separ at or onl y const r ai nt s wi t h r espect t o si ze and wei ght
ar e added t o t he r equi r ement s f or an onshor e separ at or . Thi s coul d i nf l uence
r equi r ement s concer ni ng t ur ndown r at i o as wel l : when t he r eser voi r pr essur e
decl i nes, vol umet r i c gas f l ow i ncr eases and causes t he need f or a l ar ger
capaci t y. Thi s pr obl emi s usual l y sol ved much easi er onshor e by pl aci ng a
second separ at or i n par al l el .
The i nl et condi t i ons of t he t wo al t er nat i ve si t uat i ons descr i bed above ar e
summar i zed i n t abl e 2. 1.
2. ^. 5 Onshor e gas wi nni ng
Onshor e t he si t uat i on i s much l i ke f i gur e 2. 1A, i n whi ch i n one si ngl e
scr ubbi ng st ep bot h t he wat er - and t he hydr ocar bon dew poi nt ar e br ought t o
speci f i cat i on ( si t uat i on I I I ) . I t i s possi bl e t o i nj ect a hydr at e i nhi bi t or
bet ween wel l head- and dehydr at i on- sect i on when l ow t emper at ur es ar e
expect ed. When l onger st r et ches of pi pel i ne r un bet ween t hese sect i ons sl ug
f or mat i on may occur .
- 15-
2.4 E valuation of separator i nlet conditions and requirements
In thi s section the information presented in 2.2 and 2.3 i s summarized.
^Separator location
I nlet conditions
Operating pressure (bar)
Liquid sorts
Liquid to gas kg/10
6
Nm
3
DSD
Fouling agents present
Well head separator
100 - 600
hc,w
1000 - 6000
m.sl
poss.
Pre-separator TEG
onshore offshore
s i t. I s i t. I I
- 70 - 100
hc.w.g hc.w hc.w.g
500 - 1000
ra,sl(?) m m,sl(?)
poss. poss. poss.
Post-separator TEG
onshore offshore
- 70 ~100
w,g w,g
100-500 100-500
m m
LTS (onshore)
(or separator of
similar function)
- 70
hC.W.n
100-1000
m,sl(?)
g =glycol he =hydrocarbon m = mist si =slug w =water
Table 2.1 Inventory of the inlet conditions of the separator locations
^Separator location
I nlet conditions
High sep. eff. on:
mist
slug
sand/wax
High turndown ratio
Low allowable press.drop
Small size
Well head separator
onshore offshore
d
C
c
d c
nc nc
d c
Pre-separator TEG
onshore offshore
s i t. I si t. I I
c * c c
c c c
c c c
d e c
nc/d nc nc
d e c
Post-separator TEG
onshore offshore
c c'
NA NA
NA NA
d c
nc/d nc
d c
LTS (onshore)
(or separator of
similar function)
c*
c
c
d
c
d
nc =not cri ti cal NA =not applicable d =desirable c =cri ti cal * d.
f l
" lOu
"
d
50 "
lv
Table 2. II Inventory of the corresponding requirements
Wi t h t he i nf or mat i on pr esent ed i n t hi s chapt er i t wi l l be possi bl e t o
r oughl y char act er i ze t he i nl et condi t i ons of a cer t ai n t ype of separ at or and
t he r equi r ement s i t shoul d f ul f i l . Not al l possi bl e f l owsheet conf i gur at i ons
wi t h r espect t o gas/ l i qui d separ at or s have been descr i bed, but t he maj or i t y
of appl i cat i ons i s cover ed.
I t appear s t hat i n pr act i ce i t i s ver y di f f i cul t t o quant i f y t he f ormof t he
l i qui d phase i n t he pi pel i nes mor e pr eci sel y. Of t en t he si ze and ar r i val
f requency of sl ugs ar e di f f i cul t t o pr edi ct . Mor eover , t he exact dr opl et
si ze di st r i but i on of a mi st i s an unknown f act or . As most separ at or
per f or mances depend t o a l ar ge ext ent on t he f ormof t he l i qui d phase, t hi s
l ack of knowl edge can i nt r oduce a consi der abl e uncer t ai nt y i n t he desi gn
pr ocedur es of separ at or s.
- 17-
3. PRESENT TECHNOLOGY
3-1 I ntroducti on
Thi s chapter gi ves an overview of present i ndustri al separati on techni ques.
Attenti on i s pai d to pri nci pl es of operati on, operati ng characteri sti cs and
presentl y avai l abl e desi gn procedures. As ther e ar e many di f f er ent
separati on devi ces (whi ch can, al one or i n combi nati on, form a practi cal
separator) most of the l i ter atur e searches that form the basi s of thi s
chapter are descri bed i n separate appendices to keep thi s overview readabl e.
The general structure of chapter 3
i s
given in figure 3-1- This figure also
gives an overview of the different separation devices that will be
discussed.
3. 1 I NTRODUCTI ON
3. 2 BASI C SEPARATI ON MECHANI SMS
3. 3 SEDI MENTATI ON
3. 3- 2 Knock- out vessel
3. 4 I NERTI A
3. 4. 2 Mesh t ype
3. 4. 3 Vane t ype
3. 4. 4 Cycl one t ype
3. 5 DI FFUSI ON
3. 6 PRACTI CAL FORMS OF SI NGLE AND MULTI PLE STAGE SEPARATORS
3. 7 EVALUATI ON OF PRESENT TECHNOLOGY
Figure 3.1 General struetwce of chapter 3
The t hr ee basi c physi cal separ at i on met hods ar e descr i bed br i ef l y i n sect i on
3. 2. The pr act i cal appl i cat i ons of each separ at i on met hod ar e char act er i zed
ext ensi vel y i n sect i ons 3 3~3 - 5 Fi gur e 3- 2 gi ves t he f or mof t he char ac-
t er i zat i on of each separ at i on devi ce ment i oned i n f i gur e 31
-18-
PRI NCI PLE OF OPERATI ON
Li t er at ur e sear ch
THEORETI CAL BACKGROUND
( appendi x)
1. Separ at i on ef f i ci ency
2. Maxi mum capaci t y
3. Pr essur e dr op
Li t er at ur e sear ch
DESI GN PROCEDURES
( appendi x)
1. Separ at i on ef f i ci ency
2. Maxi mum capaci t y
3. Pr essur e dr op
CHARACTERI STI CS OF SEPARATI ON DEVI CE
OPERATI NG CHARACTERI STI CS
a. Separ at i on ef f i ci ency
b. Thr oughput per uni t vol ume ( si ze)
c. Pr essur e dr op
d. Abi l i t y t o separ at e non- l i qui d
const i t uent s
e. Tur ndown r at i o
f . Capi t al and oper at i onal cost s
g. Ot her
AVAI LABLE DESI GN PROCEDURES
AND EXPECTED RELI ABI LI TY
I nf l uence of
1. Oper at i ng pr essur e
2. Li qui d l oadi ng
3. Physi cal pr oper t i es of
l i qui d
on
a. Separ at i on ef f i ci ency
b. Maxi mum capaci t y
c. Tur n down r at i o
d. Pr essur e dr op
Figure 3.2 Form of the characterization of the separation devices described
in 3. 3, 3.4 and 3. S
Fi rst, the general operating principles and possible practi cal variations of
the design are described. Subsequently, the operati ng and design charac-
teri sti cs are summarized according to the enumeration given in figure 3-2.
The two l i terature searches on which the above characteri zati ons are based
are given in appendix A under corresponding section numbers. One l i terature
study i s made of the theoreti cal background of the pri nci pl e of operation of
each separati on devi ce, the other of the available corresponding practi cal
design procedures. The expected rel i abi l i ty of these desi gn procedures i s
i ndi cated i n the tabl es that summarize thi s information further in thi s
chapter. The val i di ty of most of the design procedures i s establ i shed in
section lA.
After characterization of al l l i sted separati on devi ces, secti on 3-6 wi l l
descri be the most i mportant practi cal separators which are composed or
consi st of the earl i er described elements. Finally, section 3-7 wi l l give a
summary of the characteri sti cs of the nowadays most popular separator
designs.
- 19-
Thi s sect i on wi l l be concl uded wi t h t he def i ni t i ons of some of t he oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs t hat wi l l be used t o j udge t he capabi l i t i es of separ at or
devi ces on:
Separ at i on ef f i ci ency
The def i ni t i on of ef f i ci ency of a gas/ l i qui d separ at or i s si mpl e and
unambi guous. I f a gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur e ( charact eri zed by * , * . , dr opl et si ze
di st r i but i on ( dsd) and physi cal pr oper t i es) i s separ at ed, t he separ at i on
ef f i ci ency i s def i ned as n =_/ *
1
, i n whi ch _ i s t he f l ow of separ at ed
l i qui d ( f i gur e 3- 3) n depends on *
vl '
dsd, physical properti es of
ori gi nal mixture and separator geometry. A good physi cal model of the
behavi our of the separator (or desi gn procedure) should quanti fy the
influence of each variable on n . Design equations, however, usual l y apply
only under certai n circumstances and are specific for a certai n geometry.
FEED
0
9
,0
v1
,dsd
SEPARATOR
CLEAN GAS
0j ,0,3,dsd
LIQUID
0
2
Figure 3.3 Nomenclature of separator operation
Thr ough- put per uni t vol ume ( si ze)
Some separ at or geomet r i es can handl e l ar ger gas f l ows at a cer t ai n si ze t han
ot her s. Especi al l y f or of f shor e appl i cat i ons t hi s pl ays an i mpor t ant r ol e.
Tur ndown r at i o
The turndown rati o, defined as the rati o between minimum and maximum gas
flow at a certai n minimum separati on effi ci ency, i s i mportant when
vari ati ons in gas flow are expected.
Pr essur e dr op
The pr essur e dr op depends on t he same var i abl es as separ at i on ef f i ci ency.
I n cases i n whi ch t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he separ at or i s cr i t i cal , i t i s
necessar y t o be abl e t o pr edi ct i t . I n most cases empi r i cal cor r el at i ons
exi st t hat ar e speci f i c f or a cer t ai n geomet r y.
- 20-
Abi l i t y t o separ at e non- l i qui d const i t uent s
I n chapt er 2 i t appeared t hat somet i mes non- l i qui d par t i cl es ( sand, wax) ar e
of f er ed t o separ at or s. Some separ at or s possess a geomet r y t hat i s not sui t ed
f or t he col l ect i on or dr ai nage of t hese const i t uent s. Apar t f romdi r ect
consequences wi t h r espect t o t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency of t hese component s,
exposi ng t he separ at or t o t hese subst ances can l ead t o pl uggi ng of i nt ernal
par t s. Thi s l eads t o det er i or at i on of t he separ at i on char act er i st i cs wi t h
r espect t o l i qui ds as wel l .
Capi t al and oper at i onal cost s
Thi s char act er i st i c evi dent l y has a st r ong i nf l uence on t he det er mi nat i on
whi ch sol ut i on wi l l be chosen f or a cer t ai n appl i cat i on. However , t he
f i nanci al cont ext of t hi s t echnol ogy st r ongl y depends on f act or s whi ch l i e
out si de t he scope of t hi s r epor t . Ther ef or e, i n t he next sect i ons onl y
gener al r ecommendat i ons ar e gi ven i f a choi ce has t o be made bet ween
t echni cal l y equi val ent al t er nat i ves.
3.2 Ba sic ga s/liquid sepa ra tion mecha nisms
I n gener al , a dr opl et i s consi der ed t o be separ at ed f r om t he car r i er gas
when i t comes i n t ouch wi t h obst acl es i n t he gas f l ow or when i t r eaches one
of t he wal l s (or ot her l i mi t at i ons) of t he space i n whi ch t he mi xt ur e f l ows.
The capt ur ed dr opl et coal esces i n a l i qui d f i l mon ei t her obst acl e or wal l ,
and i s t hen dr ai ned. The di f f er ent separ at i on mechani sms t hat wi l l be
descr i bed her eaf t er ai mat cr eat i ng a r el at i ve vel oci t y of t he dr opl et s i n
r espect t o t he gas. Thi s way dr opl et s ar e concent r at ed at speci f i c l ocat i ons
of t he separ at or , wher e t hey ar e capt ur ed and dr ai ned as descr i bed bef or e.
The di f f er ent separ at i on mechani sms ar e based on:
a. sedi ment at i on ( gravi t y set t l i ng) ;
b. i ner t i al f or ces;
c. di f f usi on;
d. el ectrostati c forces;
e. ul trasoni c agglomeration.
- 21-
Al t hough al l f i ve ment i oned pr i nci pl es have been appl i ed successf ul l y and
al t hough ul t r asoni c aggl omer at i on coul d of f er some ver y di st i nct advant ages
i n desi gni ng ver y compact separ at or s, onl y t he f i r st t hr ee are of i mpor t ance
i n t he pr esent gas/ l i qui d separ at i on t echnol ogy of t he oi l and gas i ndust r y.
For t hi s r eason onl y t hese mechani sms wi l l be pai d at t ent i on t o i n t he r est
of t hi s r epor t . Bef or e t he di f f er ent pr act i cal appl i cat i ons of t hese t hr ee
separ at i on mechani sms wi l l be descr i bed, some gener al t heor et i cal backgr ound
of each i s gi ven bel ow.
ad a. Sedi ment at i on ( gravi t y set t l i ng)
When l ower i ng t he vel oci t y of a gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur e suf f i ci ent l y, dr opl et s
can exper i ence consi der abl e i nf l uence of gr avi t y and wi l l set t l e down.
I f i t i s assumed t hat t he gr avi t y f or ce i s onl y opposed by t he drag f or ce
and t hat f or Re < 1 St okes' Law wi l l appl y, t he r el at i ve set t l i ng vel oci t y
can be quant i f i ed accor di ng t o equat i on 3- 1.
( P!
g a
P g
l 8 u
( 3- D
ad b. I ner t i al f or ces
The vel oci t y vect or of a dr opl et i n a non- r ect i l i near l y movi ng gas fl ow" wi l l
gener al l y not be i dent i cal t o t he vel oci t y vect or of t he gas f l ow at t hat
l ocat i on (at l east when p / p. . ) . The st r onger t he var i at i ons i n vel oci t y
and di r ect i on of t he gas and t he l ar ger t he mass of t he dr opl et , t he l ar ger
t he r el at i ve movement of t he dr opl et i n r espect t o t he gas f l ow ( see f i g.
3. 4) . When onl y dr ag f or ces are t aken i nt o account t he f ol l owi ng der i vat i ons
wi l l i l l ust r at e t he qual i t at i ve st at ement s above.
The dr ag f orce on t he par t i cl e:
F
D
( t) - J- n
2
D
C
D
. | p
g
( v
g
( t) - v
p
( t) )
2
(3.2)
The accel er at i on of t he par t i cl e under i nf l uence of
t hi s dr ag f or ce:
Figure 3.4
Inertia of particle
dv
d^
=
r d^p^pJ ^D- ^g
K
c
n
. ( v( t ) - v
p
( t ) r (3- 3)
- 22-
When v ( t ) i s known t he t raj ect ory of a par t i el e can be det er mi ned. I t can
t hen be pr edi ct ed under whi ch ci r cumst ances a dr opl et wi l l be capt ur ed.
ad c. Di f f usi on
Under i nf l uence of t he i mpact s of t he sur r oundi ng gas mol ecul es, ver y smal l
par t i cl es (d < 1 um) wi l l show r andommovement var i at i ons ( bet t er known as
Br owni an movement ) . The r el at i ve t r aj ect or y t hat t he dr opl et s t r avel under
i nf l uence of t hi s ef f ect i s usual l y ver y smal l . I t i s quant i f i ed as f ol l ows:
't RT K t
X = = Ei nst ei n and Smol uchowski (3-' t)
m
3 n u N D
P
i n which K =Stokes Cunningham Correcti on path; vari es between 1 (parti cl es
of 10 um) to 3"5. dependi ng on temperature ( par ti cl es of
0.1 pm)
N =Avogadro's number
R =gas constant
X =l ength of path
t = time
These t hr ee separ at i on mechani sms ser ve di st i nct l y di f f er ent pur poses.
Sedi ment at i on i s mai nl y appl i ed i n si t uat i ons i n whi ch i t i s necessar y t o
( pr e- ) separ at e l ar ge vol umes of coar se l i qui d el ement s. Thi s met hod i s
har dl y usef ul f or mi st separ at i on. I ner t i al separ at i on on t he ot her hand i s
mai nl y appl i ed i n si t uat i ons i n whi ch f ai r l y l ow vol umes of mi st have t o be
separ at ed and i s not sui t ed t o handl e hi gh l i qui d l oadi ngs. Di f f usi onal
separ at i on i s appl i ed when i t i s necessar y t o col l ect even t he f i nest
dr opl et s t o achi eve a ver y hi gh separ at i on ef f i ci ency. Onl y ver y l ow l i qui d
l oadi ngs can be of f er ed t o a separ at or based on t hi s pr i nci pl e.
The f ol l owi ng sect i ons descr i be pr act i cal appl i cat i ons of t hese t hr ee
separ at i on pr i nci pl es. Each descr i pt i on i s st r uct ur ed accor di ng t o f i gur e
3. 2. One shoul d bear i n mi nd t hat f or many separ at i ons i n pr act i ce
r equi r ement s have t o be f ul f i l l ed t hat can not be of f er ed by onl y one of
t hese t hr ee mechani sms. Ther ef or e, t he desi gns descr i bed i n t he f ol l owi ng
sect i ons shoul d r at her be r egar ded as modul es whi ch can f or m a compl et e
separ at or , somet i mes al one but most of t en wi t h ot her modul es.
- 23-
3- 3 Sedi ment at i on
3. 3- 1 Gener al aspect s
Sedi ment at i on ( gr avi t y set t l i ng) i s t he si mpl est and ol dest f or m of
gas/ l i qui d separ at i on. I t i s mai nl y used as a means t o separ at e coar se
l i qui d el ement s ( sl ugs and l ar ge dr opl et s) f romt he gas f l ow.
I n sect i on 3- 3. 2 at t ent i on wi l l be pai d t o t he f ol l owi ng t wo appl i cat i ons:
1. When mi st par t i cl es i n t he gas ar e not consi der ed det r i ment al t o f ur t her
gas handl i ng pr ocesses ( f or i nst ance i n f eed l i nes t o f l ar e- st acks) a
separ at or mi ght be based onl y on gr avi t y separ at i on.
2. Gr avi t y set t l i ng i s al so of t en used f or pr esepar at i ng t he bul k of t he
l i qui d i n a gas, so t hat her eaf t er t he gas f l ow i s sui t ed f or mi st
separ at i on. Thi s concept l eads t o compound separ at or s i n whi ch t he f i r st
st age r el i es on gr avi t y separ at i on.
3. 3. 2 Knock- out vessel s
1. Principle of opera tion
Two basi c separ at or t ypes exi st t hat make use of gr avi t y set t l i ng:
- Si mpl e separ at or s f or coar se separ at i on pur poses;
- Compound separ at or s, i n whi ch t he gas must be pr epar ed f or t he mi st
ext r act i on st age.
As t he most i mpor t ant geomet r i cal var i abl es have t o be det er mi ned i n an
anal ogous way f or bot h t ypes, no f ur t her di f f er ent i at i on wi l l be made i n
t hi s sect i on. I n l at er sect i ons at t ent i on wi l l be pai d t o separ at or s t hat
accommodat e mor e st ages.
Usual l y a separ at or maki ng use of t hi s pr i nci pl e, cal l ed "knock- out vessel ",
i s a l ar ge empt y hor i zont al or ver t i cal vessel ( f i gur es 3- 5 and 3- 6) i n
whi ch upon ent r ance a l ar ge r educt i on i n gas vel oci t y wi l l t ake pl ace.
I n a ver t i cal vessel t he dr opl et s, t hat have a t er mi nal set t l i ng vel oci t y
l ar ger t han t he upwar d gas vel oci t y, wi l l be separ at ed.
I n a hor i zont al vessel t he dr opl et s t hat r each t he gas/ l i qui d i nt er f ace
i nsi de t he vessel i n t he t i me t he gas passes t hr ough t he vessel wi l l be
separ at ed.
- 24-
tf^Z *\ Hit
t=d %
Figure 3.S Horizontal separator Figure 3.6 Vertical separator
I n bot h cases t he separ at ed l i qui d i s col l ect ed i n t he l ower par t of t he
vessel . The l i qui d dr ai nage vel oci t y i s chosen so t hat ent r ai ned gas bubbl es
ar e per mi t t ed t o escape t o t he sur f ace. I n t he desi gn of a knock- out vessel
i t i s ver y i mpor t ant t hat t he t wo- phase f l ow i s evenl y di st r i but ed acr oss
t he cr oss sect i on of t he separ at or . For t hi s pur pose a l ar ge var i et y of
most l y pr opr i et ar y i nl et devi ce desi gns exi st s ( f i g. 3- 7) .
A second pur pose of t he i nl et devi ces i s t o separ at e l i qui ds by i ner t i al
ef f ect s t hat ar e creat ed by t he t ur ni ngs i mposed on t he gas f l ow. One i ssue
not t o be over l ooked i n t hi s r espect i s t he f act t hat sharp t ur ni ngs of t he
gas f l ow, especi al l y t hose caused by baf f l e pl at es or i nversed cones and as
such meant t o i nvoke l ar ge i ner t i al f or ces, may adver sel y af f ect t he
f unct i oni ng of t he separ at or . Dr opl et s may be shat t er ed and r edi sper sed i n
t he gas f l ow at dr opl et si zes possi bl y smal l er t han t hose of f er ed t o t he
separ at or .
Figure 3.7A Inlet devices 1 and 2
- 25-
Figure 2. TB Inlet devices 3 and 4
2. Cha ra cteristics of knock-out vessels (see a ppendix A 3^ 3-2)
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs
- separ at i on ef f i ci ency
f l ow per uni t vol ume
t ur n down r at i o
pr essur e dr op
abi l i t y t o separ at e non-
l i qui d const i t uent s
i nst al l at i on and oper at i onal
cost s
: l ow f or mi st s; d
50
~ 150 umf or wat er / ai r
under at mospher i c condi t i ons
: l ow; f or ver t i cal separ at or s t he l oad
f act or A amount s t o 0. 07; f or hor i zont al
separ at or s t o 0. 15
(A =v ^H
gmax PJI - P
: no t heor et i cal l ower l i mi t t o gas vel oci t y
: l ow; det er mi ned mai nl y by si ze and shape
of i n- and out l et nozzl es
: r easonabl e
: as required surface area increases strong-
l y with i ncreasi ng pressure (v
- 1/ 2
gmax
) , cost s wi l l show same t endency ( f or
g
a gi ven const ant vol ume r at e)
2. B Avai l abi l i t y and r el i abi l i t y of desi gn pr ocedur es
I n t abl e 3. 1 t he avai l abi l i t y and expect ed r el i abi l i t y of di f f er ent desi gn
cor r el at i ons ar e summar i zed.
For t hese separ at or t ypes or - modul es t he det er mi nat i on of t he t ur n down
r at i o and pr essur e dr op i s ei t her t r i vi al or not of i nt er est .
- 26-
separ at i on ef f .
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
ma x. ca pa city
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
as a f unct i on
of geomet r y
+
+/ -
+
+
as a f unct i on
of oper . pr ess
+
+
+
as a f unct i on
of l i q. l oadi ng
-
as a f unct i on
of l i q. property
onl y densi t y
/ -
onl y densi t y
Table 3.1
3-4 Inertia l sepa ra tion
3. 4. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
To cl ean t he gas st r eam f r om smal l er par t i cl es t han can be achi eved
economi cal l y by gr avi t y separ at i on, t he mi st i s subj ect ed t o i ner t i al
f or ces. At pr esent t hree pr act i cal separ at or t ypes used f or mi st col l ect i on
ar e based on t hi s separ at i on mechani sm. They ar e descr i bed i n t he next t hree
sect i ons. The st r uct ur e depi ct ed i n f i gure 3- 2 and descr i bed i n sect i on 3- 1
wi l l be used.
3. 4. 2 I ner t i al separ at i on by mesh t ype separ at or s
1. Principle of opera tion
The most common way t o i nduce var i at i ons i n t he gas f l ow di r ect i on i s t o
pl ace wi r e mesh i n t he gas f l ow. The wi r e mesh consi st s of mul t i pl e l ayers
of bl anket s consi st i ng of asymmet r i cal i nt er l ocki ng l oops of wi r e.
As t he gas cont ai ni ng ent r ai ned dr opl et s passes t hr ough a wi r e mesh, t he gas
easi l y f i nds i t s way r ound t he wi r es, whi l e t he dr opl et s, whi ch ar e heavi er ,
can not t ake t he t ur ns and i mpi nge on t he wi r es ( f i g. 3- 8) .
Figure 3.8 Principle of wire mesh separation
- 27-
The separ at ed dr opl et s f ormf i l ms ar ound t he wi r es t hat r un down t hrough t he
mesh pad. At t he under si de of t he pad t he f i l ms br eak up i nt o l ar ge dr opl et s
t hat f al l back agai nst t he gas f l ow. The most common met al mesh t ype used i s
appr oxi mat el y 0. 3 > i n di amet er , t he average por osi t y i s appr oxi mat el y 97%
whi l e t he t ot al hei ght of t he pad usual l y has a val ue of 100 mm.
The t wo most popul ar possi bi l i t i es of appl i cat i on of a mesh pad ar e depi ct ed
i n f i gur es 3- 9 and 3- 10.
t?
^
Figure 3.9 Vertical mesh pad Figure 3.10 Horizontal mesh pad
The f ol l owi ng descr i pt i ons and concl usi ons wi l l al l r el at e t o t he ver t i cal l y
f l owed t hr ough meshpad ( f i gur e 3- 9) They ar e al so i ndi cat i ve f or t he
hor i zont al l y f l owed t hr ough ver si on.
2. Cha ra cteristics of meshtype sepa ra tors
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs
- separ at i on ef f i ci ency
- f l ow per uni t vol ume
- t ur n down r at i o
- pr essur e dr op
- abi l i t y t o separ at e non-
l i qui d const i t uent s
- i nst al l at i on and oper at i onal
cost s
hi gh; d
so
~ 5 Pi
l ow; i f v
gmax
r
P
l "
P
g
A J *t hen
P
g
A * 0, 11 f or most appl i cat i ons
1/ 3 (1 bar , dr opl et si zes > 10 um)
l ow, AP ~ 5 mbar ( wat er / ai r , 1 bar )
ver y poor
rel at i vel y hi gh because of l ar ge r equi r ed
pl an ar ea
- 28-
2. B Avai l abi l i t y and r el i abi l i t y of desi gn pr ocedur es
I n t abl e 3- I I t he avai l abi l i t y and expect ed r el i abi l i t y of di f f er ent desi gn
cor r el at i ons ar e summar i zed.
as a f unct i on
of geomet r y
as a f unct i on
of oper . pr ess
as a f unct i on
of l i q. l oadi ng
as a f unct i on
of l i q. property
separ at i on ef f .
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
ma x. ca pa city
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
turndown ra tio
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
pressure drop
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
+
+/ -
? *
? *
cruci al desi gn i nf or mat i on
Table 3. II
3.4.3 I nerti al separation with vane-type separators
1. Principle of operation
Vane-type separators general l y consi st of a seri es of narrowly spaced
uniformly tortuous plates positioned in paral l el to the direction of the gas
flow. The gas flow has to make more or l ess sharp turns through the free
spaci ngs between the plates (fi g. 3- H)- The entrained droplets will not be
able to follow these changes of di recti on and wi l l impinge on the pl ates.
The l i qui d film which i s formed thi s way i s drai ned from the separation
chamber.
Figure 3.11 Principle of vane type separation
- 29-
Desi gns f or ver t i cal l y f l owed t hr ough vane- t ype separ at or s
For vane- t ype separ at or s t hat f l ow t hr ough ver t i cal l y, desi gns exi st i n
whi ch t he l i qui d i s dr ai ned t hr ough shi el ded sl ot s ( f i g. 3- 12) . Al so si mpl er
vane- t ype desi gns exi st i n whi ch t he l i qui d i s dr ai ned count er cur r ent l y i n
di r ect cont act wi t h t he gas f l ow ( f i g. 3- 13)
Figure 3.12 Shielded liquid drainage Figure 3.13 Counter-current drainage
Desi gns f or hor i zont al l y f l owed t hr ough vane- t ype separ at or s
Hor i zont al l y f l owed t hr ough vane- t ype separ at or s ( f i gure 3. 1*0 near l y al l
f eat ur e shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage. Ther e i s l i t t l e quant i t at i ve i nf or mat i on
on t he i nf l uences of vane- bl ade geomet r y. Al t hough not al ways acknowl edged,
t he desi gn of t he f l ow pat h and t he posi t i oni ng of t he dr ai nage scoops or -
sl i t s i s cr uci al f or hi gh t hr ough- put oper at i on. Gar dner [ 1977] ment i ons t he
occur r ence of r i bbons of dr ai ni ng l i qui d i n f r ont of t he act ual dr ai nage
sl i t s whi ch pr obabl y means t hat eddi es ar e gener at ed at det r i ment al l oca-
t i ons, t hus pr event i ng t he l i qui d f romdr ai ni ng i n t he sl i t s. I n appendi x A
3. ^. 3 some, t o a l ar ge ext ent usel ess, at t empt s t o quant i f y t he i nf l uences
of some desi gn par amet er s are r epor t ed. The possi bi l i t i es t o opt i mi ze vane
pr of i l es and geomet r i es f or speci f i c appl i cat i ons ar e f ul l y not expl oi t ed.
Figure 3.14 Horizontal vane design
- 30-
Fi gur es 3. 15A and B show t wo separ at or desi gns based on hor i zont al l y f l owed
t hr ough vane packs and f i gur e 3- 15C one based on a ver t i cal l y f l owed t hrough
vane pack ( wi t h i nt er nal dr ai nage) .
a
^ ^
P=
Figures 3.15A and B Horizontally flowed
through vane packs
Figure 3.ISC Vertically flowed
through vane packs
2. Characteristics of vane type separators
2.A Operating characteri sti cs
- separation efficiency
- flow per unit volume
turn down rati o
good; d
50
=7-20 pm, depending on design
i n case of shi el ded l i qui d drai nage
(reentrainment-limited): high (v ~ 8-9
m/s, corresponding A ~0.3 (the use of the
load factor i s quite inappropriate i n.thi s
case; see appendix A, page A.11), water/
ai r, 1 bar); in case of fl oodi ng l i mi ted
operati on: medium (v ~ 5
_
6 m/s,
v
gmax
water/ai r, 1 bar)
approximately 1/4, (water/air, 1 bar, dsd
> 15 pm; i n case of f l oodi ng l i mi ted
operati on approximately 1/3 (water/ai r, 1
bar, d
5 0
>15 pm). but al so depending on
l i qui d loading
- 31-
pr essur e dr op
abi l i t y t o separ at e non-
l i qui d const i t uent s
i nst al l at i on and oper at i onal
cost s
other
low; AP " 5-10 mbar (water/air 1 bar)
poor, although danger of plugging i s l ess
i mmedi ate than i n case of wi re mesh
operation
rel ati vel y low, because of high speci f i c
capacities
operation possible up to higher operati ng
pressures than in case of mesh-pads *)
*) Vane-type separators can be used up to pressures of 75~100 bars. The
maximum al l owabl e vel oci ty i nsi de the vane decreases with increasing
pressure (see appendix A 3-^-3)- Because the minimum al l owabl e vel oci ty
i ncreases with i ncreasi ng gas density (i nerti al forces become smaller),
the turn-down rati o decreases considerably. At the operati ng pressures
mentioned i t i s sti l l j ust large enough for practi cal operation.
2.B Availability and rel i abi l i ty of design procedures
In tabl e 3-
111
the avai l abi l i ty and expected rel i abi l i ty of different design
correlations are summarized.
separ at i on ef f .
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
max. capaci t y
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
turndow n ra tio
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
pressure drop
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
as a f unct i on
of geomet r y
+
- -
+
- -
+
-
+/ -
-
as a f unct i on
of oper . pr ess
+
_ _
+
_ _
+
_ *
+
+
as a f unct i on
of l i q. l oadi ng
-
?
-
*
-
NI
-
NI ?
as a f unct i on
of l i q. pr oper t y
-
7
-

-
NI
-
NI ?
* crucial design information NI not of i nterest
Table 3.Ill
- 32-
3. 4. 4 Cycl one t ype separ at or s
3. 4. 4. 1. . Pr el i mi nar y r emar ks
I n a cycl one t he gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur e per f or ms a spi r al movement i ns i de a
cyl i ndr i cal body, by whi ch t he dr opl et s ar e f l ung out and col l ect ed on t he
i nner wal l of t he cycl one. Thi s separ at i on devi ce has f ound wi de- spr ead
appl i cat i on. Not onl y i n t he mi s t , but especi al l y i n t he dust separ at i on
i ndust r y i t has pr oved t o be a ver y val uabl e t ool .
As most t heor et i cal i nvest i gat i ons have been per f or med on dust cycl ones, a
subst ant i al par t of t he i nf or mat i on gi ven i n t hi s sect i on wi l l r el at e t o
t hese t ypes of cycl ones. However , most of t he t heor i es t hat ar e devel oped
f or t hese cycl ones ar e di r ect l y appl i cabl e t o mi st cycl ones.
Sever al desi gns make use of t he separ at i on pr i nci pl e descr i bed above.
Pr i nci pl e di f f er ences i n geomet r i es can be f ound i n r espect t o t he way:
1. t he l i qui d f i l m i s ext r act ed f r om t he cycl one body;
2. t he swi r l i s i nduced;
3. upscal i ng can t ake pl ace.
ad 1.
a) most of t en t he cl eaned gas f l ow i s r ever sed so t hat i t can f l ow back
t hr ough t he vor t ex f i nder whi ch i s pl aced concent r i cal l y wi t hi n t he
i ncomi ng gas f l ow. The l i qui d can t hen be col l ect ed under neat h wi t hout
t he danger of r emi xi ng ( f i g. 3- 16) . I n t he f ol l owi ng t hi s t ype of cycl one
wi l l be r ef er r ed t o as " r ever se f l ow" cycl one.
b) t he second met hod i s si mpl er i n concept but mor e cr i t i cal i n des i gn: t he
cl eaned gas and separ at ed l i qui d keep movi ng i n t he same di r ect i on t o a
poi nt wher e t he l i qui d i s r emoved si dewar ds t hr ough l ongi t udi nal or
concent r i c sl i t s i n t he cyl i nder wal l whi l e t he gas i s f or ced t hr ough a
cent r al exi t t ube. At t hi s l ocat i on t her e i s danger of r eent r ai nment
( f i g. 3. 17) . Thi s cycl one wi l l be r ef er r ed t o as "st r ai ght t hr ough" .
ad 2.
Two gr oups of popul ar swi r l i nduci ng devi ces exi st : t he gas i s ei t her
i nt r oduced t angent i al l y t hr ough gui de vanes or axi al l y t hr ough a swi r l
el ement i nt o t he cyl i ndr i c body.
- 33-
Fig. 3.16 Reverse flow Fig. 3.17 Straight through Fig. 3.18 Multi-
ay clone cyclone cyclone
ad 3-
I t i s cl ear that the smal l er the radi us of rotati on the l arger the
separating effect wi l l be. However, the radius for a si ngl e cyclone can not
be chosen as small as one would l i ke for a given gas flow. I n the f i rst
place the spinning gas flow could gain so much vel oci ty that the wall film
would be reentrai ned. I n the second pl ace the pressure drop, which wi l l
prove to increase with the square of the gas flow through a cycl one, could
become excessive. So, for a certai n cyclone size a l i mi t gas flow i s set.
In order to be abl e to process l arger gas flows at the same separati on
effi ci ency a number of small cyclones i s placed i n paral l el (fig. 3-18).
This i s a very popular separation device.
The vari ous cyclone geometries are descri bed i n the next secti ons. I n
3.4.4.2 the reverse flow dust cyclone i s treated. 3 -*+ ^* 3 deal s with the
speci f i c differences with respect to reverse flow mist cyclones. In 3-4.4.4
multicyclones consisting of reverse flow cyclones are described and 3- 4.4.5
i s devoted to axi al cycl ones. In each of these secti ons the structure i s
the same as depicted in figure 3-1 except that the operating characteri sti cs
(item 2, fi gure 3-1) of al l cyclone types are l i sted together in section
3.4.4.6.
-34-
3.4.4.2 (Reverse flow) Dust cyclones
1. I ntroduction
In appendix A 3-4.4.2 an overview i s given of theories and design procedures
concerning dust separating cyclones. The prediction of col l ecti on efficiency
and pressure drop of a certai n cyclone can be considered similar in broad
ranges for both mist and dust separation. However, the prediction of maximal
capaci ty might very well show di sti nct differences, because the onset of
reentrainment of the l i qui d film i nsi de a mist cycl one, which determi nes
maximal capaci ty, i s a property qui te speci fi c for gas/liquid separation
devi ces. More attenti on to these speci fi c di fferences wi l l be paid i n
section 3.4.4.3-
General l y a reverse flow dust cyclone consi sts of an i nl et secti on, a
separation chamber, a dust discharge and a gas outl et section (figure 3-16).
In the corresponding section in appendix A i s expl ai ned how vari ati ons of
the geometry of these cyclone parts influence the operating characteri sti cs
of the cyclone. Usually the i nl et to a cyclone i s of the si ngl e tangenti al
type (fi gure 3- 16). but al so desi gns exi st that make use of a multiple
tangenti al (figure 3-19) or an axial i nl et (figure 3-20).
Most theoreti cal work has been performed for the former i nl et type, although
the l atter types have some advantageous features as well. Special attenti on
i s paid to these effects at the end of subsection 2.A of appendix A 3-4.4.2.
Fig. 3.19 Multiple tangential Fig. 3.20 Axial inlet Fig. 3.21 Cylindria
inlet cyclone
- 35-
Th e i nf l uence and t he det er mi nat i on of t he geomet r y of t he separ at i on
chamber and t he gas out l et sect i on i s ext ensi vel y descr i bed i n t he appendi x.
Much l ess at t ent i on has been pai d t o t he f or m of t he dust di schar ge.
Gener al l y, i n t he case of dust separ at i on, t he f ormi s l ong and t aper ed.
Thi s i s t o mi ni mi ze t he chance t hat t he eddi es, i nduced by a t oo st r ong
change i n di r ect i on of t he gas f l ow, wi l l r eent r ai n dust par t i cl es f r omt he
wal l . Ot her geomet r i es exi st but ar e t her ef or e consi der ed l ess ef f ect i ve.
3. 4. 4. 3 Mi st cycl ones
1. I nt r oduct i on
Al t hough t he pr i nci pl e of oper at i on of mi st cycl ones i s ver y si mi l ar t o t hat
of dust cycl ones, t here ar e di f f er ences t hat may l ead t o some char act er i st i c
desi gn f eat ur es. These wi l l be di scussed af t er descr i pt i on of t he speci f i c
di f f er ences bet ween t he t wo t ypes of separ at i on. The f act or s t hat f aci l i t at e
t he separ at i on pr ocess of gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur es ar e:
1. Dr opl et s coagul at e easi er t han dust par t i cl es and can, t hus, be separ at ed
qui cker .
2. When dust par t i cl es i mpi nge on t he i nner cycl one wal l t hey may bounce
back i nt o t he mai n f l ow and consequent l y be r eent r ai ned. Dr opl et s wi l l
t end t o coal esce wi t h t he wal l f i l mi n whi ch t hei r ki net i c ener gy wi l l be
di ssi pat ed.
3. The l ong coni cal sect i on under neat h dust cycl ones, necessar y f or t he
cont r ol l ed di schar ge of t he capt ur ed dust par t i cl es, has of t en a gr eat
i nf l uence on t he ef f i ci ency of t he cycl one. A l i qui d f i l m, however , can
be dr ai ned ot her wi se t han t hrough a cent r al out l et wi t hout r eent r ai nment
or cl oggi ng hazar ds ( f i gure 3- 21) . Exper i ment s have conf i r med t hat f or
gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur es cyl i ndr i c cycl ones per f or med as wel l as coni cal
cycl ones ( St orch [ 1979] . Ter Li nden [ 1953a] ) .
The advant age of omi t t i ng t he l ong coni cal sect i on i s t wof ol d:
1. t he cycl one can be bui l t mor e compact .
2. t he vor t ex i s pr event ed t o swi r l out of t he cycl one and i nt o t he
di schar ge bi n. Thi s i s of par t i cul ar di sadvant age i n r espect t o t he
r eent r ai nment of al r eady separ at ed dr opl et s, f or i nst ance i n
ml t i cycl ones ( 3- 4. 4. 4) .
- 36-
However , t he f act or s t hat r est r i ct t he gas/ l i qui d separ at i on i n compar i son
t o gas/ dust separ at i on i n a cycl one may al so be of consi der abl e i nf l uence:
1. The l i qui d f i l m t hat f aci l i t at es t he capt ur i ng of dr opl et s can part l y
cr eep t o ar eas of l ower pr essur e. Thi s may r esul t i n cr eepi ng of t he f i l m
acr oss t he cycl one t op, down t he vor t ex f i nder and ent er i ng i nt o t he
cl eaned gas l eavi ng t he cycl one. Thi s ef f ect can be of consi der abl e
i nf l uence accor di ng t o di f f er ent sour ces: Pol l ak and Wor k [ 19^2] ,
St ai r mand [ 1951] , t er Li nden [ 1953a] . Ter Li nden f ound t hat t he amount of
f i l m cr eep i ncr eases wi t h i ncr easi ng l i qui d vi scosi t y, i ncr easi ng
pr essur e dr op and decr easi ng di amet er and t hat i t i s r el at i vel y
i ndependent of l i qui d cont ent of f eed st r eam.
2. Al t hough t he f i l mpr event s t o a l ar ge ext ent t he bounci ng back of
dr opl et s, i t i s i t sel f suscept i bl e t o r eent r ai nment .
Apar t f romt he above ment i oned di f f er ences bet ween separ at i on of l i qui d and
of dust t her e i s one mor e gener al di st i nct i on:
- The pr esence of t he f i l mmay al t er t he ef f ect i ve r oughness of t he cycl one
wal l and t hus i nf l uence t he pr essur e dr op char act er i st i cs.
To pr event t he second def ect , r eent r ai nment of t he l i qui d f i l m, t he shear
st r esses bet ween l i qui d and gas phase shoul d not exceed a cer t ai n maxi mum.
I n appendi x A 3' ' * 3 some cor r el at i ons ar e ci t ed f roml i t er at ur e, al t hough
none of t hese seems t o ext end i nt o t he hi gh pr essur e ar ea of t he pr esent
f i el d of st udy. Ther ef or e, t hese phenomena wi l l f orman i mpor t ant subj ect i n
t he l ast t hr ee chapt er s of t hi s r epor t .
Wi t h r espect t o t he f i r st def ect i t i s possi bl e t o r educe t he ef f ect s of
f i l m cr eep l ayer l oss by a number of wel l chosen geomet r i cal pr ovi si ons
added t o or i nst ead of t he convent i onal dust cycl one desi gn.
1. A concent r i c ski r t ar ound t he exi t pi pe t o l ead t he f i l mback i nt o t he
separ at i on chamber of t he cycl one wher e agai n i t wi l l be suscept i bl e t o
t he f or ces of separ at i on ( f i gure 3- 22) .
2. Wi t h t he same obj ect i ve, an obst r uct i ng r i ng ar ound t he vor t ex f i nder
t hat ext ends down i nt o t he separ at i on chamber ( f i gure 3- 23) .
3. A ci r cul ar sl i t i n t he vor t ex f i nder ( f i gur e 3- 24) t o ext r act t he wal l
f i l mi n i t .
Wi t h t he pr essur e dr op ei t her avai l abl e i n t he cent r e of t he cycl one or
gener at ed wi t h an addi t i onal vent ur i i n t he i nl et l i ne t hi s l i qui d can be
br ought back i nt o t he separ at i on chamber of t he cycl one.
- 37-
Fig. 3.22 Prevention of Fig. 3.23 Prevention of Fig. 3.24 Prevention of
creep I creep II creep III
4. Speci al l y adapt ed desi gn t ypes f or gas/ l i qui d separ at i on, of whi ch t he
Webr e cycl one i s t he most f amous ( f i gure 3- 25) but of whi ch t he cycl one
desi gned by Pol yakov [ 1986] ( f i gure 3- 26) i s al so a good exampl e.
1 .
1
\
Figure 3.25 Webre cyclone
Figure 3.26 Polyakov cyclone
The mer i t of t hese t ypes of speci al desi gns f or gas/ l i qui d separ at i on i n
compar i son t o convent i onal desi gns i s pr esent ed i n f i gur e 3- 27A ( Pol l ak and
Wor k [ 1942] , wi t h r espect t o f i gur e 3- 25) and i n f i gur e 3. 27B ( Pol yakov,
wi t h r espect t o f i gur e 3- 26) . Unf or t unat el y no such di r ect compar i sons coul d
be f ound f or t he ot her t hree ki nds of adapt at i ons.
standard cyclone
inlet' velocity
-38-
inlet velocity
ih
Fig. 3.27A Characteristics Fig. 3.27B Characteristics Fig. 3.28 Ter Linden
Webre cyclone Polyakov cyclone cyclone
As an exampl e of pr act i cal appl i cat i on of a convent i onal gas/ l i qui d cycl one
one coul d t ake t he separ at or suggest ed by Ter Li nden [ 1953a] ( f i gure 3. 28) .
I n t hi s case a sol ut i on has been chosen t o pr ocess t he t ot al gas f l ow wi t h
one cycl one. Thi s i s a sol ut i on of si mpl e geomet r y, but wi t h a rel at i vel y
hi gh d
50
and pr essur e dr op. The desi gn pr ocedur e f or t hese t ypes of cycl one
ar e l i st ed i n appendi ces A 3. 4. 4. 2 - 3. 4. 4. 3- I t i s appar ent t hat at hi gher
oper at i ng pr essur es a vane- t ype t angent i al i nl et as depi ct ed i n f i gur e 3. 28
wi l l be uneconomi c and t he over al l l engt h/ di amet er r at i o wi l l be i nf l uenced
by t he oper at i ng pr essur e ( equat i on A. 15, appendi x A) as wel l .
These cycl ones f eat ure a spl ash ri ng around t he vor t ex f i nder whi ch ext ends
down t o t he i nl et hei ght and a hor i zont al baf f l e pl at e t o pr event i nt er ac-
t i ons bet ween vor t ex and separ at ed l i qui d. Froma pr act i cal poi nt of vi ew i t
i s r ecommendabl e t o r epl ace t he f l at bot t ompl at e by a sl i ght angl ed cone t o
avoi d r enewed gas/ l i qui d i nt er act i on. St or ch [ 1979] r ecommends especi al l y
t he st r ai ght t hr ough t ype cycl ones f or gas/ l i qui d separ at i on, as he f ound
t he cr eep l oss wi t h t hese cycl ones mi ni mal . St r ai ght t hrough cycl ones wi l l
be di scussed separ at el y l at er .
I n f i gur es 3- 29 and 3- 30 t he ear l i er descr i bed r ecycl e t ype cycl ones ar e
depi ct ed. A l ar ge scal e pr act i cal appl i cat i on of t he Webr e t ype cycl one i s
pr esent ed i n f i gur e 3- 31
- 3 9 -
gas outl et
Fig. 3.29 Reeyele cyclone I Fig. 3.30 Recycle cyclone II Fig. 3.31 Webre
cyclone
3. 4. ^. 4 Mul t i cycl ones
The l ar ge di sadvant age wi t h si ngl e cycl ones i s the r equi r ed ext r a pr essur e
dr op and accompanyi ng er osi on pr obl ems t o mai nt ai n a cer t ai n col l ect i on
ef f i ci ency when upscal i ng. Thi s had l ed t o t he use of smal l er cycl ones
pl aced i n par al l el . For not appar ent r easons a t wo i nch di amet er cycl one
wi t h a doubl e t angent i al i nl et has been set t o i ndust r i al st andar d. Thi s i s
t he most of t en encount er ed cycl oni c gas/ l i qui d separ at i on met hod i n t he oi l
f i el d i ndust r y. At l east t hr ee or f our di f f er ent compani es pr oduce desi gn
var i at i ons on an i dent i cal t heme ( f i gure 3- 32) .
Figure 3.32 2" cyclone standard
- 40-
Th e obvi ous advant age of an ar r angement wi t h ver y smal l cycl ones i s t hat
wi t h a l ower pr essur e dr op hi gh ef f i ci enci es can be obt ai ned. Fi gur e 3. 33
gi ves an exampl e of a mul t i cycl one separ at or , mount ed i n a hor i zont al
vessel . Fi gur es 3. 34 and 3- 35 ar e exampl es of t wo possi bl e conf i gur at i ons i n
a ver t i cal vessel .
IN n
s
Fig. 3.33 Horizontal Fig. 3.34 Vertical I Fig. 3.35 Vertical II
The si tuati on of figure 3-34 i s encountered i n appl i cati ons i n which no
sl ugs are anti ci pated. Often in thi s case a number of cyclones di rectl y in
the front of the i nl et has been omitted to faci l i tate the di stri buti on.
The two- stage configuration of figure 3-35 wi l l be described more detailed
with other such set-ups in section 3-6.
3.4.4.5 Strai ght through cyclones
1. I ntroduction
Another type of cyclone which may be successfully applied in high pressure
gas/l i qui d separation i s the strai ght through cycl one. I ts basi c form i s
depi cted i n fi gure 3-36. The gas enters the tube on the l ef t side, the
swirling flow i s usual l y induced by a set of stati c vanes. Parti cul ate
matter i s collected on the walls and discharged with or without the help of
a purge stream which has to be cleaned afterwards. The cleaned gas stream
leaves the tube through a vortex finder located in the centre.
M
J L
II ll l| ll
I "I ll II I
3- n - f n n r C
4
w
- i f Trmtr
AJ ULL
-
.1
wm,
f-
:
vv
;
K
S*:S;
DE
0
^
[
\
l ^ w
v
P I r


<
Figure 3.36 Straight through cyclone
Al t hough i t i s much easi er t o pr edi ct t he f l ow f i el d i nsi de t hi s t ype of
cycl one t han i nsi de t he reverse f l ow cycl one, r el at i vel y l i t t l e t heor et i cal
wor k has been per f or med t o assi st i n desi gn pur poses.
Sof ar , t he f i el d of appl i cat i on has essent i al l y been t he aut omot i ve i ndust r y
wher e t hi s cycl one i s used as a pr ecl eaner i n t he ai r i nt ake.
Pr i nci pl e advant ages of t he st r ai ght t hr ough cycl one compar ed t o t he r ever se
f l ow cycl one ar e:
1. Less suscept i bl e t o r eent r ai nment , si nce l ess changes of di r ect i on wi t h
accompanyi ng t ur bul ence wi l l be necessar y;
2. A smal l er pr essur e dr op at t he same col l ect i on ef f i ci ency;
3. Mor e compact at t he same col l ect i on ef f i ci ency;
4. Bet t er sui t ed t o be grouped t o a mul t i cycl one (no danger of mal di st r i bu-
t i on and ver y compact ) .
Pr i nci pl e di sadvant ages:
1. The necessi t y of a ver y car ef ul l y desi gned out l et sect i on, si nce cl eaned
gas and separ at ed mat t er ar e dr awn of f ver y cl ose t o each ot her ;
2. The need t o make pr ovi si ons f or secondar y cl eani ng i f a pur ge gas st r eam
i s used t o di schar ge t he separ at ed mat t er .
I t appear s f romear l y l i t er at ur e, Ter Li nden [ 19^9] r ef er r i ng t o Davi dson,
Dani el s [ 1957] and J ackson [ 1963] , t hat t he r easons f or empl oyi ng st r ai ght
t hr ough cycl ones wer e not al ways t he same: di d Davi dson mean t o desi gn a
compact ef f i ci ent separ at or wi t h a hi gh t ur n down r at i o; Dani el s mi sused t he
concept , accor di ng t o J ackson, f or a l ow pr essur e dr op, l ow ef f i ci ency,
compact separ at or . I n a l at er publ i cat i on Pl ekhov [ 1972] r epor t s ver y
- ( 42-
successful high effi ci ency appl i cati ons of strai ght through cyclones at
operating pressures from 0.1 to 120 bars.
Several i nl et designs exi st; figure 3-37 gives some examples. The tangential
i nl et depi cted i n figure 3-37 has been presented as a means to prevent one
of the ef f ects that i nfl uence the col l ecti on effi ci ency of a strai ght
through cyclone negatively. With an axial swirl element large parti cl es can
hi t the wall with a fai rl y large radi al vel oci ty, which can cause bouncing
back i n the gas stream. When a tangenti al swi rl element i s used these
parti cl es wi l l be proj ected to the wall at a much shal l ower angle and
bouncing wi l l not take place. This effect wi l l be much stronger in case of
dust separati on than i n case of mist separati on. One di sadvantage of a
tangenti al i nl et i s the fact that care has to be taken when designing a
multicylone, since maldistribution to the cyclones can take place again.
Fig. 3.37A Inlet I 3.37B Inlet II 3.37C Inlet III 3.37D Inlet IV
The functi on of the outl et secti on i s to discharge the gas and collected
sol i ds or l i qui ds without any remixing of the col l ected matter i n the
cleaned gas. In i ndustri al practi ce two types of discharges can be found:
the col l ected matter i s discharged ei ther axi al l y, fi gures 3-38A and B, or
radi al l y, C and D. There seem to be some cl ear advantages attached to the
use of radi al discharges:
1. Col l ected matter i s di scharged i n an earl y stage and reentrai nment
chances are reduced;
2. Col l ected matter i s discharged more ef f i ci entl y because of hi gher
discharge pressure.
3. Lower pressure drop across outl et.
-43-
With respect to the l ast characteri sti c: i t i s usual to place an obstructing
ri ng behind the longitudonal sl i ts to prevent reentrainment. This wi l l , of
course, resul t in pressure drop increase.
Fig. 3.38A Outlet I 3.38B Outlet II 3.38C Outlet III 3.38D Outlet IV
Pl ekhov [1972] found that concentri c sl ots performed better than
longitudonal sl ots supposedly because of smal l er di sturbances to the flow
f i el d. The main advantage of an axial outl et i s probably i ts constructional
simplicity.
The di scharge of col l ected matter i s often faci l i tated by a purge stream.
Purge rates varyi ng up to k0% of the total gas stream are reported by
various authors: J ackson [1963], Plekhov [1972], Stenhouse [1979].
Usually a purged di scharge l eads to a consi derabl e hi gher col l ecti on
efficiency (figure 3-39, Stenhouse [1979]).
The cleaning of the purge gas can take place in a secondary separation stage
of more or l ess i ntri cate design. Sometimes i t consi sts of a simple baffle
above the discharge which causes some i nerti al forces. Sometimes, i n case of
a mul ti cycl one, the purge gas i s col l ected and fed to a separate reverse
flow cyclone. The cleaning of the purge gas can also take place i n the axi al
cyclone i tsel f i f use i s made of the avai l abl e underpressure inside the
cyclone (see figure 340).
The obvious advantage of thi s arrangement i s that no secondary cleaning
stage wi l l be necessary. Disadvantages have so far been the suscepti bi l i ty
to pl uggi ng of the underpressure channels and the negative influence on
pressure drop and/or si ze characteri sti cs.
- 44-
face vetocity
(m/s)
rge rate 0% 6.6
Purge rate 16% 6.0
Purge rare 37X 5.5
6 B 10 12
particle diam. (urcl
Figure 3.39 Effect of the purge gas rate Figure 3.40 Recycled purge gas
Axi al mul t i cycl one
Li ke t he ear l i er descr i bed r ever se f l ow cycl ones axi al cycl ones ar e of t en
gr ouped t oget her t o oper at e i n par al l el , mai nt ai ni ng hi gh ef f i ci ency and
r easonabl y l ow pr essur e dr op f or hi gh gas f l ows. The met hod of nest i ng i s
al most al ways t he same: a bank of cel l s i s cont ai ned by f r ont - and
backpl at es. Hol es i n bot h pl at es accommodat e t he i nl et and gas out l et
passages of t he t ubes. Mal di st r i but i on, wi t h t he accompanyi ng decr ease i n
separ at i on ef f i ci ency, i s by no means as acut e as wi t h r ever se f l ow.
Nor mal l y i t wi l l not be necessar y t o pay speci al at t ent i on to t hi s ef f ect .
3. 4. ^. 6 Char act er i st i cs of cycl one t ype separ at or s
As has been demonst r at ed i n t he pr evi ous sect i ons, many desi gn var i et i es of
cycl one separ at or s exi st . Thi s sect i on gi ves an over vi ew of t he separ at i on
char act er i st i cs of f i ve mai n t ypes.
I n t he f i r st pl ace t he f ol l owi ng t hr ee exi st i ng desi gns ar e t r eat ed:
1. l ar ge si ngl e gas/ l i qui d cycl ones ( f i gure 3- 28) ;
2. l ar ge si ngl e gas/ l i qui d cycl ones of speci al desi gn ( f i gures 3- 29- 3- 30) ;
3. convent i onal mul t i cycl ones ( composed of t ypi cal dust cycl ones, f i g. 3- 18)
Al so t wo ot her , not of t en appl i ed, mul t i cycl ones ar e char act er i zed:
U. mul t i cycl ones composed of cyl i ndr i cal r ever se f l ow cycl ones;
5. st r ai ght t hrough mul t i cycl ones.
-45-
Although no quanti tati ve data of exi sti ng strai ght through gas/l i qui d
cyclones are avai l abl e, expected characteri sti cs are esti mated from dust
separati ng operati on. The same appl i es to mul ti cycl ones of gas/l i qui d
cyclones, although characteri sti cs are estimated from the data avai l abl e of
single gas/l i qui d cyclones and conventional multicyclones.
A. Operating characteri sti cs
For some of the quanti tati ve data of the different designs given for the
operating characteri sti cs the following conditions apply:
mixture : water/ai r
operating pressure : 1 bar
droplet size di stri buti on: >8-10 vim
1. separ at i on ef f i ci ency
2. f l ow per uni t vol ume
expr essed as A (*)
3. t urn down r at i o
4. pr essur e dr op
5. abi l i t y t o separ at e non
l i qui d const i t uent s
6. i nst al l at i on and oper a-
t i onal cost s
1. separ at i on ef f i ci ency
2. f l ow per uni t vol ume
expr essed as A (*)
3. t urn down r at i o
4. pr essur e dr op
5. abi l i t y t o separ at e non
l i qui d const i t uent s
6. i nst al l at i on and oper a-
t i onal cost s
si ngl e cycl one si ngl e cycl one
speci al desi gn
mul t i cycl one
of dust cycl .
l ow; f ai rl y l ow; hi gh
d
50
~ 50 pm d
50
~ 25 urn d
5 0
~ 5- 7 pm
A ~ 0. 2 (*) A - 0. 25 (* ) A " 0. 3 (*)
0. 4 0. 35 0. 3
20- 30 mbar 20- 30 mbar < 20 mbar
ver y good very good ver y good
r el at e appr oxi mat el y i nver sel y wi t h A
mul t i cycl one of
gas/ l i qui d cycl ones
st r ai ght t hr ough
mul t i cycl ones
hi gh; hi gh;
d
50
~ 5- 7 pm d
50
~ 10 pm
A ~ 0. 35 (*) A ~ 0. 4 (*)
0. 25 0. 2
< 20 mbar < 10 mbar
dependi ng on geome- dependi ng on geome-
t ri cal char act er i st i cs t r i cal char act er i st i cs
rel at e appr oxi mat el y i nver sel y wi t h A
(*) For explanation see appendix A. I t must be realized that the use of the
load factor A i s inappropriate and only meant as a means to compare the
specific capaci ti es of the designs; again i t i s stressed that the values
of A wi l l only apply under the above given circumstances.
-i\6-
B. Design characteri sti cs
I n tabl e 3-IV the avai l abi l i ty and expected rel i abi l i ty of the desi gn
procedures for reverse flow and axi al cyclones have been summarized.
separ at i on eff.
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
ma x. ca pa city
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
turndown ra tio
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
pressure drop
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
as a f unct i on
of geomet r y
+
/ -
+
+/ -
+
+/ -
+
/ -
as a f unct i on
of oper . pr ess
+
+/ -
+
-
+
_ *
+
+/ -
as a f unct i on
of l i q. l oadi ng
+
_ #
-
-
-
-
+
-
as a f unct i on
of l i q. pr oper t
+
_ #
-
-
-
-
+
- / NI ?
* crucial design information NI not of i nterest
Table 3.IV
3 .5 Diffusional separation
1. Principle of operation
As described in section 3-2 very small parti cl es in a gas stream wi l l show
Brownian movement. With equati on 1 .k
t n e
traj ectory the droplets travel
under influence of thi s effect can be estimated. This equati on makes cl ear
that only the smal l est droplets (<0.5 um) wi l l be influenced perceptibly.
In order to achieve a separation of these parti cl es i t will be necessary to
create a l arge col l ecti on surface through which the gas must flow slowly,
which gives the parti cl es enough opportuni ty to reach thi s surface. I f
l arger parti cl es are separated as well by a separator rel yi ng on thi s
pri nci pl e, i nerti a has taken over as the main separation mechanism.
A practi cal form of a separation unit based on thi s pri nci pl e i s the often
applied f i l ter cartridge (see figure 3.^1) The f i l ter cartridge consi sts of
a fi ber bed that i s packed between two concentric support ri ngs. The fibrous
matter in the bed i s densely packed and in most cases made of fi ber gl ass.
The fibers are 15
_
30 um in diameter.
- 47-
Figure 3.41 Filter cartridge
The mi st l aden gas moves t hr ough t he bed, wher eby t he mi st par t i cl es
coal esce on t he f i ber s. The l i qui d f i l m f l ows downwar d and out of t he
f i l t er car t r i dge. Gas vel oci t i es ar e t ypi cal l y 20 cm/ sec; col l ect i on
ef f i ci enci es ( f or dr opl et s < 1 urn > 33.5%) and pr essur e dr ops f or
at mospher i c wat er and ai r oper at i on can r ange up t o 75 mbar .
A second way of empl oyi ng di f f usi onal separ at i on i s per mi t t i ng t oo hi gh gas
vel oci t i es i nsi de t he f i ber bed. Thi s wi l l l ead t o r eent r ai nment of t he
separat ed l i qui d i n t he cl eaned gas st r eam. Si nce t he r eent r ai nment consi st s
of coarse dr opl et s, a f ai r l y si mpl e mi st ext r act i on devi ce can be used f or
t he f i nal separ at i on. Fi ber beds appl i ed as such ar e usual l y r ef er r ed t o as
coal escer s. I t i s a pr act i cal way of r educi ng a l ar ge di sadvant age ( l ar ge
separ at or vol umes) whi l e mai nt ai ni ng t he speci f i c advant ages ( hi gh
separ at i on ef f i ci ency of ver y smal l par t i cl es) .
A pr act i cal separ at or t hat combi nes t he t wo separ at i on act i ons i s suggest ed
by J oseph [ 1984] . I t consi st s of a bi component f i ber bed made out of
t wo l ayer s of f i ber packi ng. The f i r st i s of convent i onal desi gn and t he
second of a much l ess densel y packed mat er i al . I f over f ed, t he f i r st l ayer
pr oduces coar se r eent r ai ned dr opl et s, t hat can easi l y be dr ai ned t hr ough t he
second l ayer . No speci f i c maxi mal al l owabl e gas vel oci t i es wer e r epor t ed.
2. Cha ra cteristics of diffusiona l sepa ra tors
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs
- separ at i on ef f i ci ency
- f l ow per uni t vol ume
- t ur ndown r at i o
pressure drop
very high (d
s
<1 um)
very low
no practi cal l ower l i mi t attached to
separation pri nci pl e
hi gh; appr oxi matel y 50- 60 mbar;
atmospheric water/ai r operation
-i n-
abi l i ty to separate non-
l i qui d constituents
i nstal l ati on and operating
costs
very good, but operati on under foul i ng
condi ti ons i s only possible i f the f i l ter
cartri dges are regularly replaced.
because of low throughputs and possi bl y
necessary repl acements of cl ogged
cartri dges: both high.
2.B Design characteri sti cs
In table 3-V the avai l abi l i ty and expected rel i abi l i ty of di fferent design
correl ati ons are summarized.

sepa ra tion eff.
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
ma x. ca pa city
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
pressure drop
avai l abi l i t y
exp. r el i abi l i t y
as a f unct i on
of geomet r y
+
+
+
/ -
+
+/ -
as a f unct i on
of oper . pr ess
+
+
-
-
+
+
as a f unct i on
of l i q. l oadi ng
-
-
-
-
-
- *
as a f unct i on
of l i q. pr oper t
-
-
-
-
-
-
probably necessary for geometrical optimization
Table 3.V
3.6 Existing sepa ra tor types
I n t he pr evi ous sect i on sever al possi bl e component s of pr act i cal separ at or s
have been di scussed. I n t hi s sect i on some meani ngf ul and of t en appl i ed
combi nat i ons of di f f er ent component s ar e descr i bed. The most i mpor t ant
f act or s t hat det er mi ne t he gener al f ormof t he separ at or ar e:
1. whet her t he separ at or i s posi t i oned hor i zont al l y or ver t i cal l y;
2. whet her t he separ at or compr i ses one or mor e separ at i on st ages.
-49-
In the following more attenti on wi l l be paid to the backgrounds of the
various al ternati ves.
3.6.1 Horizontal or verti cal position
1. Accor di ng t o De Gr aauw [ 1984] usual l y a ver t i cal knock- out dr um i s
pr ef er r ed because:
- t he pl an ar ea i s smal l er ;
- t he sol i ds can be removed mor e easi l y;
- t hey ar e l ess suscept i bl e f or l i qui d sur ges;
- t he l i qui d l evel i s not cr i t i cal f or oper at i on.
However , i n most cases when one or mor e of t he f ol l owi ng ci r cumst ances
ar e appl i cabl e, a hor i zont al knock- out vessel i s chosen.
- I f t he l i qui d t o gas r at i o i s hi gh and at t he same t i me t he l i qui d
vi scous, t hen t he si ze of t he l i qui d i nt er f ace det er mi nes t he desi gn
( f or exampl e when vi scosi t y of oi l n > 0. 01 Ns/ m
2
) ;
- I f t he mi xt ur e f oams easi l y;
- I f l i qui d/ l i qui d separ at i on has t o t ake pl ace i n t he l i quor sump.
I n f or mul at i ng t hese rul es De Gr aauw [ 1984] assumes t hat i t i s mai nl y t he
l ar ger gas/ l i qui d sur f ace i n a hor i zont al separ at or whi ch makes t hi s t ype
somet i mes pr ef er abl e t o t he ver t i cal separ at or .
2. Ar nol d [ 1984] on t he ot her hand st at es t hat t he hi gher gas vel oci t y
al l owed i nsi de a hor i zont al separ at or , r esul t i ng i n a smal l er vessel
vol ume, i s t he r eason why i n most cases a hor i zont al separ at or shoul d be
chosen. Ar nol d advi ses t o use ver t i cal separ at or s onl y i n case of l i mi t ed
f l oor space ( of f shore appl i cat i ons) .
Summar i zi ng i t can be concl uded t hat t he choi ce bet ween t he t wo t ypes of
separ at or s depends i n most cases on t he oper at i ng pr essur e.
When f l oor space i s not a cr i t i cal cr i t er i on, t he oper at i ng pr essur e wi l l be
a det er mi ni ng f act or i n j udgi ng t he economi cs of a hor i zont al separ at or and
t he conveni ent oper at i ng char act er i st i cs of a ver t i cal separ at or .
-50-
3-6.2 Number of separation stages
This number i s actual l y determined by the form and the quanti ty of the
l i qui ds offered to the separator and the maximal amount of liquid quantity
permitted in the outl et of the separator. As an i l l ustrati on: i f a gas flow
contains both slugs of l i qui d and fine mists and i t i s necessary to separate
out only the slugs (for instance for the feed l i ne to fl are) a knock-out
vessel wi l l be suf f i ci ent. I f mi sts are not permi tted downstream of the
separator (feed l i ne to glycol dehydrator for instance) i t wi l l be necessary
to accommodate both a knock- out and a mist extracti on stage in the
separator. I f the gas must be vi rtual l y free of any l i qui ds (sal es gas)
these two separati on stages wi l l be fol l owed by a thi rd; in which
diffusional separation (f i l ter cartridges) wi l l ei ther separate or coal esce
the remaining fi ne mist parti cl es. In the following, the general form and
operati ng properti es of several possi bl e one-, two- or mul ti pl e stage
separators wi l l be descri bed and i l l ustrati ve practi cal examples of each
type wi l l be given.
One-stage
One- st age separ at or s- have been descr i bed i n sect i ons 3- 3, 3-^ and 3- 5-
Onl y one- st age separ at or s based on gr avi t y set t l i ng and i ner t i al separ at i on
have f ound pr act i cal appl i cat i on i n oi l f i el d oper at i ons.
Speci f i c det ai l s have been descr i bed i n sect i ons 3- 3 and 3-*+-
Fi gur es 3- 5 and 3- 6 gi ve a t r i vi al exampl e of a pr act i cal f or m of bot h a
hor i zont al and a ver t i cal knock- out vessel . Fi gur e 3- 3^ shows a one- st age
mi st el i mi nat or wi t h a mul t i cycl one, f i gure 3- 15A wi t h a hor i zont al l y f l owed
t hr ough vane- pack. The l at t er t wo separ at or s ar e ref erred t o as ' i n l i ne'
separ at or s. They ar e onl y sui t ed f or oper at i ons i n whi ch no sl ugs are f ormed
i n t he f eed l i ne. Fi gur e 3- 28 shows a si ngl e cycl one as one- st age separ at or .
Thi s cycl one wi l l show a hi gher pr essur e dr op and pr obabl y al so a l ower
col l ect i on ef f i ci ency compar ed t o t he mul t i cycl one, but on t he ot her hand
have bet t er separ at i on char act er i st i cs f or sl ugs. Mesh t ype or upf l ow vane-
t ype separ at or s can physi cal l y onl y be appl i ed i n t wo- st age separ at or s.
Fi l t er car t r i dges ar e har dl y used i n si ngl e st age separ at i ons because of
t hei r suscept i bi l i t y t o l i qui d over l oadi ng.
-51-
Two-stage
Two types of two-stage separators can be distinguished:
1. Those having an effective separation abi l i ty in the slug and mist ranges.
The general form of thi s kind of separator consi sts of a knock- out
(secti on 3-2) and a mist extracti on stage (ei ther hori zontal l y or
verti cal l y posi ti oned) (secti on 3- ^). Fi gures 3-16B and 3-35 gi ve
i l l ustrati ve examples. The operating characteri sti cs of these separators
wi l l be the summation of the characteri sti cs of the si ngl e components.
Apart from thi s form also sl i ghtl y more exotic forms can be encountered
as for instance the two-stage single cyclone separator (figure 3-^2).
Fig. 3.42 Two-stage Fig. 3.43 Filter separator Fig, 3.44 Cyclone
single cyclone filter
separator separator
2. Those aiming at an effective separation of mists and fine mi sts.
The general form of thi s kind of separator consists of a coalescing stage
i n which f i l ter elements del i ver coarse droplets to a mist extraction
stage where usual l y a mesh-type or a vane-type demi ster i s l ocated
(figure 3-43).
Also references to practi cal appl i cati ons were found i n which the
position of the two stages are reversed and in which the demister acts as
a precl eaner and the f i l ter elements as high effi ci ency separators
(figure 3-^4).
- 52-
Thr ee- st age
Although one would expect in thi s case a separator i n which al l three
separation mechanisms would be delegated to provide a separation abi l i ty for
a broad range of i nl et condi ti ons, thi s appl i cati on i s not very often
encountered in practi ce. The reason i s mainly that the i nternal structure of
the separator vessel tends to get very compl i cated. A three- stage
configuration that did find practi cal application found i n separators that
overl oad a mesh pad or a simple upflow vane-pack which then acts as a
coalescing element. Downstream of thi s coal escer a rel ati vel y simple mist
extractor can be mounted which does not need to have a high col l ecti on
efficiency for fine mist parti cl es (with i ts advantages to pressure drop and
separator si ze).
3.7 Evaluation of present technology
I n thi s secti on the most often applied separators (described qual i tati vel y
in 3-6) are compared and characterized with respect to:
1. thei r operating characteri sti cs (table 3-VI);
2. rel i abi l i ty and versati l i ty of thei r design procedures (tables 3-VII
and 3.VI I I ).
These two inventories wi l l give a representative overview of two i mportant
aspects in connection with separator technology.
The di fferent separator types that will be discussed are:
1. Knock-out drum (section 3-3-2)
2. Mesh-type separator (two-stage) (sections 3-3-2, 3-4.2 and 3-6)
3. Vane-type separator
a. i nl i ne (one-stage) (section 3-4.3)
b. two-stage (sections 3-3-2, 3''3 and 3-6)
4. Cyclone type separator
a. single conventional cyclone (section 3^^3)
b. i nl i ne (one-stage) multicyclone (section S.h.^.k)
c. two-stage multicyclone (sections 3-3.2, 3.4.4.4 and 3-6)
5. Fi l ter separator (sections 3.5 and 3.6)
(two-stage, f i l ters as coalescers)
- 53-
Al t hough some pr act i cal use i n t hi s f i el d of st r ai ght t hr ough cycl ones i s
r epor t ed, t hi s separ at i on met hod can not be consi der ed as gener al l y appl i ed.
Because har dl y any quant i t at i ve i nf or mat i on i s avai l abl e about t hese
( pot ent i al ) gas/ l i qui d separ at or s, t hey have not been i ncl uded i n t hi s
i nvent or y. For mor e speci f i c i nf or mat i on i s r ef er r ed t o sect i on 3- 4. 4. 5-
The gener al i mpr essi on t hat i s gi ven by t he pr esent desi gn pr act i ce i s of
empi r i ci sm. Thi s i s caused par t i cul ar l y by t he l ack of exact knowl edge of
t he physi cal phenomena t hat t ake pl ace i nsi de t he separ at or .
The l at t er ef f ect i s t he r eason why at pr esent i t wi l l not be possi bl e t o
t ai l or a desi gn f or a par t i cul ar appl i cat i on, even i f one woul d have f ul l
knowl edge of t he oper at i ng condi t i ons. I ssues as t he i nf l uences of hi gh
pr essur e, t he pr esence of gl ycol s i n t he f eed st r eam or var i at i ons of
geomet r y ar e st i l l t he subj ect s on whi ch many l ect ur es ar e gi ven.
Thi s has l ed t o a si t uat i on i n whi ch onl y f ew i nnovat i ve separ at or desi gns
are appl i ed. The i ndust r y r at her hol ds on t o t r adi t i onal desi gns t hat have
been pr oven i n pr act i ce and wi t h whi ch oper at i ng exper i ence exi st s. Few
exper i ment s ar e under t aken wi t h new desi gns, t hat may be ver y pr omi si ng i n
one or mor e aspect s ( compact ness f or i nst ance) . I n i t sel f t hi s i s a ver y
under st andabl e cour se of event s, because t he i nvest ment s f or possi bl y
super f l uous gas/ l i qui d separ at i on equi pment ar e of t en mi nor i n compar i son t o
t he damage t hat coul d be i nf l i ct ed by a mal f unct i oni ng separ at or .
Most of t he pr esent separ at or t echnol ogy f i nds i t s or i gi n i n t he f i f t i es and
i s r el at i vel y l i t t l e devel oped. The popul ar mul t i cycl one bundl es descr i bed
i n 3. 4. 4 f or i nst ance have or i gi nal l y been devel oped f or dust separ at i on and
have not at al l benef i t t ed f romt he advances made i n t he mul t i phase f l ow
sci ences.
-54-
Oper at i ng char ac-
^ --^ ^ t e
r
i s t i es
Separ at or " " " -*-^ ^ ^
types
- Knock-out vessel
- Mesh type sep.
(two st age)
- Vane t ype sep.
i n l i n e
two st age
- c y c l . type sep.
si ngl e
i n l i n e mul t i
two stage mul t i
- F i l t e r sep.
Separ at i on ef f i c i enc y
mi st sl ugs sand/wax
++
++ ++
+
+ *+
++ +
+ - +
+ ++ + *
++ - - +
Flow per u n i t volume
(expressed as X) 1)
hz: 0.12 vt : 0,8
hz: 0,15 vt : 0,12
0,3
0,3
( -
0,3
0,3 *
H
Turndown r at i o
(mi ni mal capaci t y)
not l i mi t ed
1/3
1/3 - 1/3
1 J
1/3 - 1/4 *>
1/2,5 - 1/3 ^
1/3 - 1/5
1 J
1/3 - 1/5
1 J
not l i mi t ed
Pressure drop 1)
< 5 mbar
< 10 mbar
< 10 mbar
< 10 mbar
< 20-25 mbar
< 15-20 mbar
< 15-20 mbar
< 40 mbar
Su i t ab i l i t y f or hi gh
oper at i on (> 100 bar )
+/ -
+/ -
+
+
+
a t th e cost of h igh er erosion
i
w ith respect to a tmosph eric opera tion w ith a ir/w a ter
* compl ica ted vessel a t h igh er opera ting pressures
Table 3, VI
Desi gn procedure
Sep ar at o r " - *^ ^
t ypes ^ ^ -
- Knock-out vessel
- Mesh t ype sep.
(t wo st age)
- Vane type sep.
i n l i n e
two stage
- Cy c l . type sep.
si ngl e
i n l i ne
two stage
- F i l t er sep.
Det er mi nat i on of separ at i on ef f i c i en c y as a f unct i on
of gas t hroughput and DSD
Inf l uence of
geometry
Inf l uence of
oper. pr ess.
I nf l uence o f
1i q . l oad
vt : r hz: r r r r NI
rr rr NI
ur ur ur
ur * ur * ur
r r / u r ur ur
r r / u r ur ' ur
r r / u r ur * ur
rr rr ur
Inf l uence of
l i q u i d sor t
NI
r r
ur
ur
ur
ur
ur
ur
Det er mi nat i on of maximum capaci t y
Inf l uence of
geometry
rr
r r
ur
ur *
r r / u r *
r r / u r
r r / u r
rr
Inf l uence of
oper . pr ess.
I nf l uence of
l i q . l oad
r r NI
r r ur *
ur ur *
ur " v r
ur ur
ur ur
ur ur
r r ur
Inf l uence of
l i q u i d sor t
NI
ur *
ur *
ur *
ur
ur
ur
ur *
* necessary knowledge for optimized practical operation
r reliable; rr reasonably reliable; ur unreliable; NI not of interest
Table 3. VII
Oesi gn procedure
^ ^ -\^
Se p a r a t o r " * * \ ^
t ypes ^ ^
- Knock-out vessel
- Mesh t ype sep.
( t wo st age)
- Vane type sep.
i n l i n e
two st age
- Cy c l . type sep.
s i ngl e
i n l i n e
two stage
- F i l t e r sep.
Determi nate
Inf l uence of
geometry
NI
r r *
ur
ur
ur
ur
ur
NI
on of minimum capaci t y as
of DSD
Inf l uence of
oper. pr ess.
I nf l uence of
l i q . l oad
NI NI
ur NI
ur ur / NI
ur * ur / NI
ur * NI
ur NI
ur NI
NI NI
s f unct i on
Inf l uence of
l i qui d sor t
NI
r r
ur
ur
NI
NI
NI
NI
Det er mi nat i on of pr essur e drop
Inf l uence of
geometry
Inf l uence of
oper . pr ess.
Inf l uence of
l i q . l oad
r r H
r r r r / u r
ur ur ur
ur ur ur
r r r r ur
r r rr ur
rr rr ur
r r rr u r / r r
Inf l uence of
l i q u i d sor t
NI
r r / u r
ur
ur
ur / NI
ur / NI
ur / NI
u r / r r
* necessary knowledge for optimized practical operation
r reliable; rr reasonably reliable; ur unreliable; NI not of interest
Table 3.VIII
- 55-
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENT RESEARCH PROJECT
4.1 Structure of cha pter
I n thi s chapter the obj ecti ves of thi s proj ect are formulated and the
proj ect strategy and avai l abl e tool s are descri bed. I n secti on 4.2 i s
eval uated to what extent present separator technology can f ul f i l the
requi rements of modern separators. With the outcome of thi s inventory the
overall research objectives can be described. In section 4.3 the strategy to
reach these objectives i s explained in detai l and section 4.4 describes the
extent to which thi s report covers the total proj ect.
4.2 Formula tion of resea rch objectives
The eval uat i on of pr esent t echnol ogy wi t h r espect t o moder n separ at or
r equi r ement s i s based on t he compar i son of t abl es 2. 1 and 2. I I ( i nvent or y of
oper at i ng condi t i ons and r equi r ement s) and t abl es 3- VI , 3- VI I and 3- VI I I
( i nvent ory of oper at i ng and desi gn char act er i st i cs) .
Possi bl e di scr epanci es wi l l be subdi vi ded i n t wo cat egor i es:
1. pr i nci pl e shor t comi ngs of desi gn pr ocedur es;
2. pr i nci pl e shor t comi ngs of separ at or char act er i st i cs.
ad 1.
A. I t appears from chapter 3 that present desi gn procedures are hardl y
suf f i ci ent for practi cal use. In most cases design procedures consist of
empi ri cal correl ati ons that are propri etary and based on practi cal
experi ence, appl i cabl e to one parti cul ar separator type. Di ffi cul ti es
ari se in si tuati ons in which a separator design needs to be optimized, as
most procedures i ncl ude l arge safety margins that are qual i tati vel y
determined.
When observing the three basic types of separators, i t appears that those
based on gravity and diffusion are best described; mainly because of the
small influence of separator geometry vari ati ons.
- 56-
Those based on i nerti al separation are hardl y descri bed rel i abl y (with
exception of dust cyclones, but they play no role in thi s chapter).
The inadequacy of some of the i mportant practi cal desi gn rul es i s
demonstrated i n secti ons 7. ^"7. 6. I n these secti ons some of the
experimental resul ts described in chapter 6 combined with the physi cal
knowledge acqui red i n chapter 7, are used to check the val i di ty of
exi sti ng design rul es.
The most i mportant rel ati ons that need to be quanti fi ed rel i abl y are
those between:
- separati on ef f i ci ency and separator geometry, dropl et si ze
di stri buti on, gas throughput and operating pressure;
- maximal capaci ty and separator geometry, l i qui d sort, liquid loading
and operating pressure;
- minimal capacity and separator geometry, droplet size di stri buti on and
operating pressure;
- pressure drop and separator geometry, l i qui d loading, gas throughput
and operating pressure.
B. As appears from chapter 2, the form of the liquid loading offered to the
separator i s often unknown. L i ttl e i s known of thi s i nl et condition that
has a consi derabl e i nfl uence on separator operation. To develop a more
ef f i ci ent design procedure i t should be attempted to descri be thi s
quantity more exactly.
ad 2.
Appar ent l y, a per f ect separ at or has not yet made i t s appear ance.
Most separ at or s have dr awbacks connect ed wi t h t hei r speci f i c advant ages.
I n case of separ at or s or separ at or modul es based on gr avi t y or di f f usi on
t hese dr awbacks ( f or i nst ance necessar y vol ume) are di r ect l y r el at ed t o t he
pr i nci pl e of oper at i on and can not be reduced easi l y. I n case of separ at or s
based on i ner t i al separ at i on ( the by f ar l ar gest gr oup of separ at or s) much
mor e desi gn f l exi bi l i t y exi st s t o mi ni mi ze cer t ai n di sadvant ageous oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs. Even so, i n t hi s gr oup of separ at or s no si ngl e t ype exi st s
t hat combi nes al l posi t i ve pr oper t i es. Onl y cycl one and vane t ype separ at or s
wi l l pl ay a ser i ous r ol e as mesh t ype separ at or s ar e r api dl y l osi ng
popul ar i t y because of l ow capaci t y and f oul i ng pr obl ems.
- 57-
Tra ditiona l disa dva nta ges of va nes
Vanes have a l i mi t ed r ange of oper at i ng pr essur e ( maxi mum75- 100 bar ) . The
char act er i st i cs of most vane t ypes i n r espect t o f oul i ng oper at i ons ar e
quest i onabl e ( al t hough commer ci al except i ons exi st ) .
Tra ditiona l disa dva nta ges of reverse flow type cyclones
I n many cases mul t i cycl ones can not be bui l t i n a vessel as compact as vane
packs. At hi gher oper at i ng pr essur es t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he cycl one
bundl e pr event s dr ai nage of t he cycl ones i n t he sump of t he vessel t hr ough a
l i qui d seal , whi ch causes t he need f or a mor e expensi ve ext er nal dr ai nage.
Tra ditiona l disa dva nta ges of stra ight through type cyclones
Weak secondar y separ at i on of pur ge st r eam may r esul t i n l ow separ at i on
ef f i ci enci es.
4.3 Project stra tegy a nd tools
4. 3. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
I n t hi s sect i on t he mai n r esear ch obj ect i ves ar e descr i bed. Consi der i ng t he
f i ndi ngs of t he pr evi ous sect i on t her e i s appar ent l y especi al l y need of :
1. Devel opment of gener al l y appl i cabl e desi gn pr ocedur es f or vane and
cycl one t ype separ at or s;
2A. Devel opment of a compact , l ow pr essur e dr op, cycl one t ype separ at or ;
B. Devel opment of a vane- t ype separ at or wi t h an ext ended oper at i ng pr essur e
r ange;
Of bot h separ at or s t he t r adi t i onal advant ages shoul d be mai nt ai ned.
3. Devel opment of r el at i ons t o det er mi ne t he i nl et condi t i ons of separ at or s
mor e exact l y.
When consi der i ng t he f i rst t wo set s of obj ect i ves i t i s cl ear t hat t he f i r st
necessi t y i s t he devel opment of r el at i ons ( or model s) t hat descr i be t he
i nf l uence of i ssues as geomet r y and t wo- phase pr oper t i es on t he oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs.
-58-
These models can then:
a. easi l y be transformed to practi cal desi gn procedures for exi sti ng
separator types;
b. be used for geometric opti mi zati on to assi st in the development of the
designs specified under the second objective.
The thi rd objective stands apart and needs to be investigated separately.
Because experimental faci l i ti es for thi s specific purpose tend to be qui te
complicated and expensi ve, and because some experimental work carri ed out
earl i er seems di rectl y transf erabl e, i t i s expected that a l i terature
i nvesti gati on (reported in chapter 5) will suffice in fi rst i nstance.
Further thi s secti on wi l l be focussed on how to develop the separator
behaviour models.
^3.2 Project strategy and tools
The most important requirements of a general applicable model are that:
1. the gas flow fi el d i s predicted correctly for a broad range of geometries
of a certai n separator type;
2. the i nteracti on between the gas and any l i qui d phase i s correctl y
represented;
3. effects of upscaling are reproduced rel i abl y.
Because the descri pti on of these quanti ti es in the two separator types of
i nterest can be very complex, i t i s necessary to make use of exi sti ng
computer codes that are speci al i zed i n fluid dynamic problem solving. (In
chapter 7 an extensive description i s given of the theoreti cal background of
these software packages, thei r uses and thei r l i mi tati ons.) The code forms
submodels i n which the gas flow fi el d inside a given geometry i s calculated.
These data are transferred and processed further to predi ct parti cl e
traj ectori es and secondary effects l i ke reentrainment and creep. Thereafter
the primary operati ng characteri sti cs, separation efficiency and pressure
drop are available (minimal and maximal capacity l i mi ts can be deri ved from
these two).
- 59-
Unf or t unat el y, i n spi t e of t hei r convi nci ng gr aphi cs, t hese f l ui d dynami c
codes ar e not necessar i l y accur at e. Much car e must be t aken t o pr ovi de
enough oppor t uni t y t o ver i f y pr edi ct i ons agai nst exper i ment al dat a, ei t her
acqui r ed f roml i t er at ur e or by own exper i ment s.
The i dent i f i cat i on and quant i f i cat i on of t he physi cal phenomena necessar y t o
ext end t he gas f l ow f i el d model i s agai n acqui r ed par t i al l y by l i t er at ur e
sear ches and par t i al l y by own exper i ment s.
The devel opment pr ocedur e of t he dedi cat ed model s of i nt er est i s r epr esent ed
i n f i gur e 4. 1 and descr i bed subsequent l y.
Thi s scheme wi l l be car r i ed out f or vane ( V) , r ever se f l ow ( RFC) and
st r ai ght t hr ough (or axi al ) cycl one ( AC) separ at or s.
The pr oj ect i s t hus based on t he use of t hr ee di f f er ent ' t ool s' :
1. Li t er at ur e i nf or mat i on; t he r esul t s of sever al l i t er at ur e sear ches ar e
descr i bed i n chapt er 5-
2. Exper i ment s; t he cont ent s of t he EXP bl ocks and t he exper i ment al
f aci l i t i es wi l l be descr i bed ext ensi vel y i n chapt er 6.
3. Model l i ng f aci l i t i es; whi ch encompass bot h sof t war e ( f r om pr ogr ammes i n
Basi c t o compl ex f l ui d dynami c codes) and har dwar e ( f r om per sonal
comput er s t o a Cr ay super comput er ) .
Det ai l ed descr i pt i on of t he act i vi t i es t o f i l l out t he MOD bl ocks i s
gi ven i n chapt er 7
Si nce al l bl ocks pr esent ed i n f i gur e 4. 1 wi l l be t reat ed consecut i vel y i n
t he next t hr ee chapt er s sense of or i ent at i on wi t h r espect t o t he l ocat i on of
an i ndi vi dual bl ock i n t he pr oj ect st r uct ur e mi ght be l ost . Ther ef or e f i gur e
4. 1 and accompanyi ng t ext i s al so pr i nt ed on t he i nner si de of t he ( f ol ded)
f r ont cover as a qui ck r ef er ence.
- 60-
Figure 4.1
NEW
DESIGNS
MODI r epr oduces t he gas f l ow f i el d i nsi de a basi c separ at i on uni t ;
M0D2 descr i bes t he behavi our of t he l i qui d phase ( par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es,
r eent r ai nment and cr eep phenomena) ;
M0D3 descr i bes t he behavi our of a basi c separ at i on uni t ;
M0D4 quant i f i es t he measur e of mal di st r i but i on acr oss a f ul l si ze
separ at or ; no need t o model t hi s wi t h t he ear l i er ment i oned f l ui d
dynami c codes;
M0D5 combi nes t he pr edi ct i ve power s of M0D3 and M0D4 and shoul d t her ef or e
be abl e t o descr i be t he behavi our of an act ual scal ed separ at or over a
br oad r ange of oper at i ng condi t i ons;
EXP1 a. pr ovi des t he f l ui d dynami c code wi t h necessar y physi cal i nf ormat i on
t o st ar t wi t h ( st ar t i ng condi t i ons) and
b. pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e MODI wi t h (gas f l ow
f i el d measur ement s)
EXP2 i dent i f i es and quant i f i es phenomena r el at ed t o t he l i qui d phase
( r eent r ai nment , cr eep, par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es) ;
EXP3 pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e M0D3 wi t h ( oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of a basi c separ at i on uni t over a br oad r ange of
oper at i ng condi t i ons) ;
EXP4 a. pr ovi des physi cal i nf or mat i on ( st art i ng condi t i ons) f or M0D4;
b. pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e M0D4 wi t h;
EXP5 pr ovi des t he exper i ment al dat a t o val i dat e M0D5 wi t h ( oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of an act ual scal ed separ at or over a br oad r ange of
oper at i ng condi t i ons) ;
LI T r epr esent s t he i nf or mat i on acqui red t hrough l i t er at ur e i nvest i gat i on
used f or val i dat i ng and suppl ement i ng model s.
VAL val i dat i on
-61-
4.4 Scope of present report
As t hi s di sser t at i on i s t he f i r st of t wo i n whi ch t he r esul t s of t hi s
pr oj ect wi l l be publ i shed, t he f ol l owi ng chapt er s ar e not compl et e f or al l
separ at or t ypes.
Tabl e 4. 1 gi ves an over vi ew whi ch bl ocks have been r eal i zed. Fr omt hi s t abl e
i t i s appar ent t hat speci al at t ent i on wi l l be pai d t o st r ai ght t hr ough and
r ever se f l ow cycl ones. I t i s expect ed t hat vane separ at or s wi l l be deal t
wi t h mor e compl et el y l at er .
LI T
EXP1
EXP2
EXP3
EXP4
EXP5
MODI
M0D2
M0D3
M0D4
M0D5
AC
X
X
X
X
NA
NA
X
X
X
NA
NA
RFC
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
V
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
x =compl et ed
=not compl et ed
NA =not appl i cabl e
Table 4.1
- 63-
5. RESULTS: LITERATURE SEARCH
For pr oj ect st r uct ur e and nomencl at ur e see i nner si de of f r ont cover .
5.1 Introduction
Thi s chapt er gi ves t he concl usi ons of t he t wo descr i bed l i t er at ur e sear ches.
1. Sect i on 5- 2 gi ves a shor t over vi ew of di f f er ent phenomena t hat i nf l uence
t he i nl et condi t i ons of a separ at or . Wher e possi bl e, a shor t quant i f i ca-
t i on i s gi ven. Thi s sect i on cl ar i f i es some of t he uncer t ai nt i es t hat ar e
usual l y encount er ed when t he i nl et condi t i ons of a cer t ai n separ at or ar e
det er mi ned ( thi rd obj ect i ve i n sect i on 4. 3) .
Thi s i nf or mat i on i s al so used i n chapt er 6 t o det er mi ne t he exper i ment al
dr opl et si ze di st r i but i ons.
2. Sect i ons 5 - 3~55 gi ve t he r esul t s of t he l i t er at ur e sear ches descr i bed i n
chapt er 4 as bl ock LI T i n t he pr oj ect st r at egy. Speci f i c i nf or mat i on t hat
i s necessar y t o set up and ver i f y t he model s i s col l ect ed.
Sect i ons 5- 3 and 5- 4 quant i f y r espect i vel y t he f r i ct i on f act or at a
gas/ l i qui d i nt er f ace and t he r eent r ai nment behavi our of a l i qui d f i l m
( i nf ormat i on necessar y f or M0D2) . Sect i on 5. 5 gi ves char act er i st i cs of
swi r l i ng f l ows under di f f er ent condi t i ons ( i nf or mat i on necessar y f or
RFC/ AC- MODI ) .
5-2 Determina tion of the inlet conditions
The i nl et condi t i ons t hat exer t t he l ar gest i nf l uence on t he oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of t he separ at or ( see chapt er 2 and 3) ar e:
1. oper at i ng pr essur e;
2. physi cal pr oper t i es of l i qui d phase, l i qui d densi t y, l i qui d vi scosi t y and
sur f ace t ensi on;
3. dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on;
4. gas t o l i qui d r at i o;
5. compl i cat i ng char act er i st i cs ( f oul i ng: t he pr esence of sand and wax i n
t he gas and/ or f oami ng) .
- 64-
ad 1, 2 and 4
Gas- and l i qui d densi t y ar e i mpor t ant because t he r at i o of t hese pr oper t i es
det er mi nes t he magni t ude of t he separ at i ng f or ces ( sect i on 3. 2) . Dependi ng
on t he appl i cat i on, t hi s r at i o can var y consi der abl y.
Li qui d vi scosi t y and sur f ace t ensi on of t en det er mi ne t he maxi mumal l owabl e
gas and l i qui d l oadi ng of t he separ at or pr i or t o r eent r ai nment or f l oodi ng
( see f or i nst ance appendi x A 3- ' t) .
The l i qui d t o gas r at i o of t he mi xt ur e not onl y i nf l uences t he maxi mum
al l owabl e gas vel oci t y t hr ough a separ at or but al so det er mi nes t he f ormof
t he l i qui ds i n f ront of t he separ at or . The separ at or desi gn i s t o a l ar ge
ext ent det er mi ned by t he f ormof t he l i qui ds. The separ at i on of a sl ug put s
ot her demands on t he separ at or t han t he separ at i on of a mi st ( see sect i on
3- 6) .
At pr esent , gr oups 1, 2 and 4 can be det er mi ned qui t e exact l y i f enough
i nf or mat i on i s avai l abl e about t he composi t i on of t he r eser voi r f l ui ds and
about t he pr oduct i on syst em. Wi t h t he hel p of sof t war e packages t o pr edi ct
t her modynami c and physi cal pr oper t i es of compl ex mi xt ur es i t i s, f or
i nst ance, possi bl e t o cal cul at e t he amount of r et r ogr ade condensat i on i n a
gi ven gas mi xt ur e under a gi ven pr essur e dr op.
M_l -
Unf or t unat el y, t he f or m of t he l i qui d l oadi ng ( dropl et si ze di st r i but i on)
seems much l ess easi er pr edi ct abl e.
I t depends on:
1. gas vel oci t y;
2. l i qui d t o gas r at i o;
3. physi cal pr oper t i es ( vi scosi t y, densi t y, sur f ace t ensi on) ;
4. di ssi pat ed ener gy i n t he syst em.
I n f i gur e 5- 1 Sakaguchi [ 1979] ( Het sroni [ 1982] ) shows t he i nf l uence of t he
f i r st t hr ee gr oups on t he f ormof a t wo- phase mi xt ur e i n a hor i zont al pi pe.
Fi gur e 5- 2 ( Het sr oni ) shows t he act ual f ormof t he di f f er ent f l ow r egi mes
encount er ed i n f i gur e 5 1
- 65-
Flow direction
j v ^^r - ' : ' ? ) Dispersed
Q _ bubble H
0
.
D=30mm * Stratified * Plug ^Semislug Violent wave
L=8m oWavy Slug Annulor
T
i
a
o p' D o a o a
L
Q
=Q5mjQ7m
* d U J . S o
* * *;t^* t
S
H?
fl
J
B
Annular
V^. * "
A
**\ \ B S. B o 8 D
Y* 5emtslug*KB'-
t
^\i * B
D
^o
ST a A
3
*>. B a o
u
o
E
T D Stratified
0 flow
r ~~ -d "-i -
7 6 9 10
Intermittent
flows
Figure 5.1 Flow pattern map
Figure 5.2 Flow patterns
Many aut hor s have i nvest i gat ed t he t r ansi t i on of f l ow r egi mes as a f unct i on
of t he par amet er s used i n f i gur es 5. 1 and 5- 2. Baker [ 195**] . Schi cht [ 1969] .
Mandhane [ 1974] and Tai t el and Dukl er [ 1976] ar e exampl es of aut hor s who
have suggest ed di f f er ent f l ow char t s. I n or der t o account al so f or t he
di f f er ent physi cal pr oper t i es of ot her gas/ l i qui d syst ems t han wat er and ai r
Baker suggest s t he f ol l owi ng cor r ect i on f act or s f or t he val ues on t he t wo
axes of t he di agr am ( f i gure 5- 3) :
p
A V
and
B o

u
w Pl
The subscr i pt s A and Wref er t o t he cor r espondi ng physi cal pr oper t i es of ai r
and wat er ; g and 1 t o t he pr oper t i es of t he gas and l i qui d i n quest i on.
Tai t el and Dukl er have set up a semi - t heor et i cal der i vat i on of t he f l ow
r egi me char t whi ch has been f ound f ai r l y consi st ent wi t h exper i ment al dat a
and whi ch i s r ef er r ed t o as most r el i abl e ( Het sroni [ 1982] ) f or pr edi ct i ons
of f l ow r egi mes f or unconvent i onal gas/ l i qui d syst ems.
The cor r el at i ons t hat have been ment i oned sof ar appl y t o hor i zont al l y
f l owi ng gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur es. For i ncl i ned or ver t i cal f l ows si mi l ar r egi mes
can be encount er ed, but occur under compl et el y di f f er ent ci r cumst ances ( see
f i gur e 5- 4) .
N and N, are compar abl e t o t he cor r espondi ng var i abl es of f i gur e 5- 3-
g 1
- 66-
Wavy
1
0.5-
1 1 1 I
10 20 50 102
Slug
Plug
B^tHkg n-l s-1
Figure 5.3 Flow pattern map of Baker,
replotted in the form
suggested by Bell (1969)
0.1 1.0
horizontal 45 Inclination verti cal
Figure 5.4 Vertical flow pattern
map
The above cl ear l y i l l ust r at es t hat wi t h t he pr esent quant i t at i ve knowl edge
of t hese ef f ect s pr oper t i es as maxi mumsl ug si ze or mi ni mumdr opl et si ze ar e
ver y di f f i cul t t o pr edi ct , especi al l y i f one r eal i zes t hat t he appr oach of
t he gas/ l i qui d mi xt ur e t o a separ at or i s of t en a bi zar r e combi nat i on of
hor i zont al and ver t i cal passages, al t er nat ed by bends i n t he pi pel i ne.
I t i s appar ent l y not possi bl e t o descr i be t he l i qui d f ormquant i t at i vel y,
compl et el y and t heor et i cal l y. Ther ef or e, some phenomenol ogi cal cor r el at i ons
wi l l be ci t ed t hat quant i f y t he ef f ect s t hat det er mi ne t he maxi mumst abl e
dr opl et si ze. Hi nze [ 1955] and Kol mogor of f [ 19^9] devel oped, al ong di f f er ent
r out es, t he f ol l owi ng expr essi on f or d :
P 3/ 5
d =C (-*)
max ' a
( e)
2/ 5
( 5- 1)
f

v
D
i n whi ch: e =2 --r-, t he di ssi pat ed ener gy per uni t vol ume
f . =f r i ct i on f act or bet ween gas and l i qui d i nt er f ace
gi
v =gas vel oci t y
C
D
=di mensi onl ess const ant
=di amet er of pi pe
- 67-
Sl ei cher [ 1962] der i ves a mor e empi r i cal expr essi on f or d :
v 1/ 2 v 0. 7
We ( n
g
f-) =38 (1 + 0. 7 ( n
1
) ) ( 5- 2)
i n whi ch t he par amet er We i s def i ned as f ol l ows:
2
v
We =d p -
s
-
max g a
ad 5.
Fouling by sand or wax deposition can exert seriously detrimental effects on
the operating characteri sti cs of a separator, and thus be of i nfl uence on
the choi ce of a parti cul ar separator. Possible wax problems can usually be
predicted from the anal ysi s of the reservoi r f l ui ds, al though the exact
extent to which waxing wi l l occur i s not always known and i s often
determined empirically. Sand can always be present in the feed of separators
further upstream. The amount depends most often on reservoi r characteri sti cs
but also on production rate.
Foaming i s a second compl i cati ng property that can seri ousl y hamper the
separator operation.
I n l i ter atur e no speci f i c ref erences have been found that descri be
possi bi l i ti es to predict thi s effect (semi -)theoreti cal l y.
5.3 Friction factors at gas/liquid interface
5.3-1 Form of gas/liquid interface
I t i s usual l y assumed that the separated liquid forms an evenly di stri buted
film across the inner surface of the separator. I n practi ce thi s i s not
always the case: when the l i qui d loading i s low i t wi l l often appear that
not al l of the surface i s wetted and that the l i qui d wi l l run down i n
stri ngs. I f the l i qui d loading increases the whole surface wi l l eventually
be wetted with a smooth film. A further increase in the l i qui d l oadi ng wi l l
f i r st resul t i n ri ppl es on the fi l m surf ace and l ater i n l arger
i nstabi l i ti es l i ke 'rol l - waves' (fi gure 5-5)- I n practi cal separati on
-68-
si tuati ons al l of the four mentioned regimes can occur, and each wi l l be
accompanied by a corresponding speci fi c fri cti on factor.
The following wi l l l argel y deal with the ful l y wetted regi mes, because
hardl y any i nformati on i s avai l abl e on stri ng flows. Addi ti onal l y, the
computational techniques are not suf f i ci entl y refi ned. However, complex
data, l i ke those to descri be the effects of stri ng flow, could easi l y be
incorporated in the envisaged models.
Hartl ey and Murgatroid [1964] developed a cri teri on for the minimal film
thickness (b . ) under which stri ng flow would develop. This cri teri on has
i n
been modi f i ed by Bankof f [ 1971] t o gi ve t he f ol l owi ng equat i on:
1. 72 ( a/
P l
)
1/ 5
( p
1
/ ( n
1
g) )
2 / 5
( f ( 6
o
) )
1/ 5
( 5- 3)
i n whi ch f (8 ) i s a f unct i on of t he cont act angl e of t he l i qui d phase and
t he separ at or mat er i al and var i es bet ween 0 and 1. For a cont act angl e of
60 ( wat er and ai r ) f ( 8 ) amount s t o 1/ 3. As t he cor r el at i on i s not di men-
si onl ess i t i s i mpor t ant t hat cor r ect di mensi ons of t he par amet er s ar e used.
For t hi s cor r el at i on: b . i n cm
mi n
a
p
l
n
l
g
i n dyne/cm
i n g/cm
i n g/cm s
/
2
i n m/s
I t shoul d be not ed t hat i n case of r ot at i ng f l ows g shoul d be subst i t ut ed by
2
(
w *
g by - J , i n which w represents the
tangenti al film vel oci ty.
us -
1 u .
!|.J
1 i
Di st urbance vve
<r
/
f r i t ul t l oo
Fr ot h Flow
.-*""*"""~Strbii tw
r i gl on
St al l r l ppl i
region
Noo-wet ting
region
100 200 300 400 S00
Interface
at wall
Figure 5. 5 Interfaaial regimes
(Shearer et al. (1965))
Figure 5.6 Nomenalature for inter-
facial phenomena
- 69-
5. 3- 2 Fr i ct i on f act or s of l i qui d f i l m/ gas syst ems
5. 3- 2. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
I t i s necessar y t o quant i f y t he f r i ct i on f act or bet ween t he gas and l i qui d
f i l mi n or der t o be abl e t o:
1. pr edi ct t he cor r ect gas f l ow pat t er n wi t h t he model s of chapt er 7;
2. cal cul at e t he i nt er f aci al and wal l shear st r esses f romwhi ch t he l i qui d
f i l mvel oci t y di st r i but i on can be der i ved.
For t hi s r eason cor r el at i ons t o det er mi ne t he wal l and i nt er f aci al shear
st r esses ar e col l ect ed.
The nomencl at ur e used i s expl ai ned i n f i gur e 5- 6.
5. 3. 2. 2 Wal l f r i ct i on f act or s of l i qui d f i l ms
Fr om t he wal l f r i ct i on f act or , f , t he shear st r ess at t he wal l i s
w
det er mi ned as f ol l ows:
T =f . \ p. v
2
( 5. 4)
w w 2 1 1
v
'
Accor di ng t o di f f er ent aut hor s t her e i s no maj or di f f er ence bet ween t he wal l
f r i ct i on f act or s of t he f ul l pi pe f l ow and f i l mf l ow ( Wal l i s [ 1969] , I shi i
[ 1975] . Popov [ 1986] ) . The f ol l owi ng r el at i on i s r ecommended f or smoot h
t ubes:
f =16/ Re
1
f or ne

< 1000 ( 5- 5a)

f =0. 079 Re"
0, 25
f or Re
1
> 1000 ( 5- 5b)
The l i qui d f i l mReynol ds number ( Re, ) i s def i ned as:
4 p v b
Re
1
= 4 ^ - (5-6)
For hi gher Re, number s and syst ems wi t h a non- negl i gi bl e wal l r oughness t he
f r i ct i on f act or can be det er mi ned convent i onal l y, f or i nst ance wi t h t he
wel l - known gr aph of Moody [ 1944] .
- 70-
5- 3- 2. 3 I nt er f aci al f r i ct i on f act or of l i qui d f i l ms
The i nt er f aci al f r i ct i on f act or can r el at e t o ei t her t he gas or t he l i qui d
phase. I n t he f i r st case t he shear st r ess on t he i nt er f ace i s cal cul at ed
f romf . , t he i nt er f aci al f ri ct i on f act or r el at ed t o t he gas phase:
T. =f . . \ P (V - V. )
2
( 5. 7)
i gi 2
K
g g I '
In the second case T. rel ates to f-. . , the i nterf aci al f ri cti on f actor
rel ated to the l i qui d phase, as:
T
i =
f
l i -2 >l
v
l (5.8)
v =super f i ci al gas vel oci t y
v. =super f i ci al l i qui d vel oci t y
v. =vel oci t y of i nt er f ace
I . Fi r st some cor r el at i ons ar e ci t ed t hat quant i f y f . .
Wal l i s [ 1969] pr oposed a cor r el at i on of t he f ol l owi ng f or m:
C
2
1. f =0. 005 (1 + C b/ D) " ( 5. 9a)
gi 1
i n whi ch D i s t he hydr aul i c di amet er of t he duct .
He f ound t hat t he f ol l owi ng val ues of t he const ant s agr eed wi t h hi s
exper i ment s:
C
]
_ =300 and C
2
=1 ( 5- 9b)
I n l ater publ i cati ons (ci ted i n Hewitt and Hal l - Tayl or [1970]) he
rel ates f . to f to generalize equati on 5-9a for more geometries as
g i w
fol l ows:
C
2
2
-
f
gi =
f
w
( 1 + C
l
b/ D )
wi th C
1
=360 and C
2
=1 (5-9c)
- 71-
Bhar at an [ 1978] on t he ot her hand f ound val ues of :
3. C
1
=818200 and C
2
=2. 04 ( 5- 9d)
subst i t ut ed i n equat i on 5- 9 t o descr i be hi s exper i ment al r esul t s bet t er .
He at t r i but ed t he di scr epanci es t o geomet r i cal di f f er ences i n t he
t est i ng equi pment .
Measur ement s of Whal l ey et al . [197
1
*] showed t hat C. and C- var i ed wi t h
t he sur f ace t ensi on of t he l i qui d phase.
For de and Norst rud [ 1984] quant i f i ed t he i nf l uence of sur f ace t ensi on
and devel oped t he f ol l owi ng cor r el at i on t o det er mi ne t he equi val ent
r oughness of t he f i l m ( expressed i n t he r at i o t o t he f i l mt hi ckness) .
4. =4/ [zr
3
I -
2
- ]
1
'
2
) (5-10)
b
v l
l - a
l
u v ' ' \J i
*g g
in which: a =the liquid volume fraction.
k =height of instabilities on the film
With k/b (=i nterfaci al roughness) the i nterfaci al friction can be
determined conventionally (for instance with the graph of Moody).
I I . If the interfacial friction factor is related to the liquid phase (the
second case mentioned at the start of thi s subsection) i t can
satisfactorily be quantified as follows:
(5-11)
(Hughmark [1973]) f^ ={\ Re
m
)
in which: K =3.730 ; m =-0.47
K
t
=1.962 ; m =-0.33
K =0.735 ; m =-0.19
2
for
for
for
2 <Re <100
100 <Re <1000
Re

> 1000
- 72-
5- 3- 3 Fr i ct i on f act or s of r ot at i ng l i qui d f i l m/ gas syst ems
Har dl y any r el i abl e cor r el at i ons have been devel oped t o det er mi ne
i nt er f aci al f r i ct i on f act or s f or r ot at i ng gas/ l i qui d syst ems. I t can be
expect ed t hat t he i ncr eased gr avi t at i onal accel er at i on f l at t ens out t he
f i l m, causi ng a decr ease of t he f i l mr oughness. Loxham[ 1976] measur ed t he
appar ent axi al f r i ct i on f act or i n an annul ar swi r l i ng gas/ l i qui d f l ow. He
f ound an i ncr ease of t he f r i ct i on f act or wi t h i ncr easi ng f i l mt hi ckness, up
t o a cer t ai n val ue above whi ch i t r emai ned const ant . He compar ed t he
exper i ment al val ues t o t hose pr edi ct ed by equat i on 5- 9. wi t hout compensat i ng
f or i ncr eased pat h l engt h i nsi de t he t ube and f ound t he exper i ment al val ues
4- 5 t i mes hi gher f or smal l f i l mt hi cknesses. However , when t he t angent i al
component of t he gas/ f i l mcont act i s t aken i nt o account ( angl e of swi r l at
wal l 4> =45 and v =u/ si n$) i t appear s t hat t hese f r i ct i on f act or s
gcomp
obt ai n t he same val ues as t hose pr edi ct ed by equat i on 5- 9- Thi s i s t r ue f or
f i l m t hi cknesses up t o b/ D of 0. 005- Above t hi s f i l mt hi ckness t he gas/
l i qui d f r i ct i on f act or r emai ns const ant . Appar ent l y, onl y wi t h t hi cker f i l ms
t he equal i zi ng act i on of t he i ncr eased gr avi t at i on becomes of consi der abl e
i nf l uence. Thi s dependency of f . i s depi ct ed i n f i gure 5. 7- The dependency
of f . on cent r i f ugal accel er at i on i s gi ven i n f i gur e 5- 8. Bot h f i gur es ar e
gi
t
based on exper i ment al dat a of Loxham[ 1976] f or a swi rl number of S =1 ( see
sect i on 5- 5)
1 l o i h i a 119761
2 Wt l l U 1196*1
- 2 Loxhaa
conptnsatcd
0.02'
4- l- 10- ol
V
90
Fig. 5.7 Dependency of friction Fig. 5.8 Dependency of friction factors
factors on film thickness on tangential acceleration
f . =0. 005 (1 +b/ D) ( ^ I
- 0
"
05
f or b/ D( ^ f
0
"
05
< 0. 05
gl gU gl J
f . =0. 02 ( 2*L
2
) - -
05
f o r b/ n(
2^
2
)
- 0. 05 >
Q05
( 5- 12)
( 5- 13)
- 73-
5. 4 Reent r ai nment and r el at ed ef f ect s
5. 4. 1 Fi l mbr eak- up mechani sms
The br eak- up of t he l i qui d f i l mt hat i s f ormed by t he separ at ed dr opl et s i s
supposed t o be t he maj or sour ce of r eent r ai nment i f t he maxi mal capaci t y of
t he separ at or i s exceeded. The t wo pr i nci pal mechani sms t hat det er mi ne f i l m
br eak- up ar e depi ct ed i n f i gur e 5- 9-
Re, > 200 Re
n
< 200
Roll wave Wave undercut
Figures 5.9A and 5.9B Reentrainment mechanisms
The f i r st mechani sm ( f i gure 5. 9-A) i s st r ongl y associ at ed wi t h r ol l waves.
Rol l waves appear at t hi ck f i l ms and hi gh l i qui d f i l mReynol ds number s ( see
f i gure 5- 10) . Thi s has been descr i bed ext ensi vel y by Cooper et al . [ 1985] ,
Wal l i s et al . [ 1964] , Hewi t t and Hal l - Tayl or [ 1970] , I shi i and Gr ol mes
[ 1975] . Sur f ace t ensi on and hydr odynami c f or ces det er mi ne t he shape and
movement of a r ol l wave. Under cer t ai n condi t i ons an ext r eme def or mat i on of
t he t op of t he wave l eads t o t he f or mat i on of numer ous smal l dr ops.
The second mechani smi s not of t en encount er ed and i s usual l y r ef er r ed t o as
"wave under cut ". I t can t ake pl ace wi t hout t he occur r ence of r ol l waves.
At a cer t ai n gas and l i qui d vel oci t y t he gas st ar t s t o cut under t he wave;
the wave st ar t s t o bul ge and can event ual l y bur st by t he hi gh pr essur e
i nsi de t he hal f cl osed bubbl e ( f i gure 5- 9B) . Dr opl et s f ormed t hi s way can be
proj ect ed at hi gh r adi al vel oci t i es.
Wave under cut i s descr i bed by Hewi t t and Hal l - Tayl or [ 1970] and I shi i and
Gr ol mes [ 1975] . I t t akes pl ace onl y at l ow l i qui d f i l mReynol ds number s.
- 74-
4S.Q00-
0.000
J" 35.000 -
30.000 -
25.000
20.000 -
15.000 -
to.ooo -
S.000 -
0
V
\ L _
^ ***^ *4i a
^
400 600
1
Fig. 5.10 Occurrence of roll waves
(Andreussi 1985))
/ Minimum Reynol ds
/ number regime
'. Ent rapment
Transi t i on
regime
Rough
t ur bul ent
regime
I. (Re,) AI7.5I
Fig. 5.11 Oaaurrenae of reentrainment
(Ishii (1975))
5. 4. 2 I ni t i at i on cr i t er i a of r eent r ai nment
The previ ous secti on made cl ear that the flow regime of the two-phase
mixture has a strong influence on the onset of reentrai nment. Fi gure 5- H
shows thi s ef f ect. I n thi s fi gure roughly three different regimes can be
discerned:
1. Minimum Reynolds number regime; which represents the minimal l i qui d film
Reynolds number under which no reentrainment will occur, i rrespecti ve of
gas vel oci ty;
2. Rough turbulent regime; to which a certai n gas velocity i s attached above
which reentrainment of a liquid film wi l l take place (i rrespecti ve of i ts
Reynolds number);
3. A transi ti on regime; which connects the two areas described above.
Regimes 1 and 2 are, within certai n l i mi ts, independent (I shi i [1975]) of
the di recti on of the gravi ty force (i .e. are i denti cal for horizontal and
verti cal up- or down flow) . Regime 3 on the other hand shows to be
di sti nctl y i nfl uenced by the di recti on of flow, and separate correl ati ons
have been developed to describe thi s effect on the reentrainment phenomena.
For two-phase mixtures in cocurrent flow the transi ti on regime starts at a
certai n minimum film Reynolds number (Re, . ). Rough turbul ent regime
starts from Re^^>1500-1750.
-75-
From l i terature i t appeared that the experimental work of the different
authors shows a large variability, as the inception criteria have not always
been i denti cal . As some authors have misunderstood the different
reentrainment regimes, unjustified linearizations of sets of data have been
carried out. Most of the correlations published before 1972 were purely
empirical and, because of the reasons described above, not always very
consistent.
Correlations that have been considered for use in the M0D2 framework, but
will not be described in full in this section, are those of:
1. Zhi vai ki n [ 1962] ;
2. Chi en and I bel e [ I 960] ;
3. Van Rossum [ 1959] ;
k. Wal l i s and St een [ 1964] .
These cor r el at i ons wer e not di mensi onl ess and gener al appl i cabi l i t y i s
quest i onabl e.
Kut at el adze [ 1972] pr oposes a cor r el at i on t hat depends on t he gr avi t y f or ce
di r ect i on f or t he f ul l r ange Re. ( see f i gur e 5- 13) :
v =C J N Re7
1 / 3
( 5- 14)
gmax u
L
* p u 1
C =36 hor i zont al
C =54 ver t i cal up
p
l
N ( vi scosi t y number ) = r-rx ( 5- 15)
('Wg- f7)
1/ 2
I shi i and Grolmes [1975] extended the range of appl i cabi l i ty of the
cri teri on formulated by Kutateladze. They derived for the minimum film
Reynolds number under which no reentrainment can take place:
p 0.75 u 1.5
Re, . =155 () -*) (5-16)
1 min
JJ l
p '
l
u.'
g 1
Up t o Re. =2 ( f or ver t i cal down) or Re. =160 ( f or ver t i cal up and hor i zon-
t al cocur r ent f l ows) t hey der i ved t he f ol l owi ng r eent r ai nment cr i t er i on:
- 76-
! aS j ! l / - J a. l . 5Re;
1
>
2
( 5. 17)
I t i s based on t he r eent r ai nment mechani sms of wave under cut ( f i gure 5- 9B) .
Above t hese f i l mReynol ds number s t he ot her r eent r ai nment mechani sm t akes
over ( see f i gur e 5- 9A) . Now t he cr est s of r ol l waves ar e shear ed of f . For
f i l mReynol ds number s bet ween 2 r espect i vel y 160 < Re, < 1625 ( t r ansi t i on
r egi me) I shi i and Gr ol mes [ 1975] der i ved t he f ol l owi ng cr i t er i on ( see f i gur e
5- 13) :
gmax 1 j _g_
=
C =11. 78 N
0
-
8
f or N < 1/ 15 ( 5- 18)
a * p, u p
C = 1. 35 Re~
1/ 3
f or N > 1/ 15
and f or t he r ough t ur bul ent r egi me ( Re. > 1625)
J E* J ^! f t
=c
.
C =N
0. 8
a p

u u
C =0. 115 f or N > 1/ 15
N =vi scosi t y number (see equat i on 5- 15)
f or N < 1/ 15 ( 5. 19)
Andr eussi [ 1980] der i ved an ot her expr essi on f or v f or t he t r ansi t i on
gmax
r egi me whi ch does not var y much f romt he cor r el at i on of I shi i and Gr ol mes,
but t he exper i ment al val ues t o whi ch he f i t t ed hi s cor r el at i on seemt o
di f f er f rommost ot her publ i shed measur ement s ( f i gure 5- 12) .
I n f i gur e 5- 13 most of t he ot her ment i oned cor r el at i ons are compar ed. I t has
been deci ded t o use t he cor r el at i ons der i ved by I shi i and Gr ol mes as a basi s
f or f ur t her devel opment s i n l at er chapt er s of t hi s r epor t .
The r eent r ai nment mechani sms descr i bed by I shi i and Andr eussi depend t o a
l ar ge ext ent on t he pr esence of r ol l waves. Wi t h equat i on 5- 25 I shi i assumes
expl i ci t l y t hat above Re, =2 f or ver t i cal down or Re, =l 60 f or ver t i cal up
and hor i zont al cocur r ent f l ows r ol l waves wi l l occur . I t i s ver y l i kel y t hat
i n si t uat i ons wi t h i ncr eased gr avi t at i onal f or ces ( the cent r i f ugal syst ems
i n cycl ones and vane separ at or s) t he onset of rol l waves wi l l be del ayed.
-77-
Th e resul t of a short survey with respect to rol l wave f ormati on i s
described below.
I . According to I shi i (Hetsroni [1982]) rol l wave formati on i s wel l
predi cted by the Kelvin-Helmholtz i nstabi l i ty. The Kelvin-Helmholtz
stabi l i ty ari ses at the i nterf ace of two fl ui d l ayers of di f f erent
densi ti es p. and p , flowing perpendicular to the gravi tati onal fi el ds
-*-
with superfi ci al vel oci ti es v. and v . The stabi l i ty of the system i s
1 g
governed by three effects:
1. gr avi t y f or ce;
2. sur f ace t ensi on f or ce;
3. r el at i ve mot i on.
The l atter term accounts for the effect of pressure through the
Bernouilli pri nci pl e.
According to Helmholtz [1868], Kelvin [1871] and Lamb [1945] the flow i s
stabl e if:
g (p - p ) o k v - v 2
k T^^y
+
7^rr
g
>'i P
B
t^r^l (5.20)
i n whi ch: g =t he gr avi t at i onal accel er at i on
k =t he wave number (m )
a =sur f ace t ensi on
I I . On t he basi s of t he l i near st abi l i t y t heor y set up by Her shman and
Hanr at t y [ I 96I ] t o descr i be t he i ni t i at i on of r ol l waves, Andr eussi
[ 1985] devel oped a model f or t hi s pur pose t hat shows excel l ent agr eement
wi t h sever al col l ect i ons of exper i ment al dat a ( see f i gur e 5- 10) .
Thi s model account s f or t he most i mpor t ant physi cal t wo phase- par amet er s
(p , p, , u, , u and f l ow r at es) , but does not descr i be t he i nf l uence of
g 1 1 g
i ncreased gr avi t at i onal f or ces on t he st abi l i t y of t he l i qui d f i l m.
The t heory of Andr eussi shows t hat at l i qui d f i l mReynol ds number s Re >
200- 300 t he cr i t i cal gas Reynol ds number above whi ch r ol l waves wi l l
occur i s i ndependent of t he physi cal pr oper t i es ment i oned above.
- 78-
The most i mpor t ant f or ces t hat det er mi ne t he st abi l i t y of t he f i l munder
t hese condi t i ons ar e on one hand t he gr avi t at i on f or ces; on t he ot her
hand t he wave i nduced pr essur e var i at i ons t hat ar e di r ect l y pr opor t i onal
1 2
t o t he i nt er f aci al shear st r ess; x. =f . p (v - v. ) .
l gi 2
K
g g 1'
Each of the two theories described above assumes a rel ati on of the following
form between the stabi l i ty cri teri a of a si tuati on with and without
increased gravi tati on:
2
g 1 i ncr eased gr avi t at i on _ r 1
(v - v. )
n
.,. _.
=J
gD
g 1 nor mal gr avi t at i on
I t i s assumed t hat :
1. t he st abi l i zi ng f or ce of t he sur f ace t ensi on can be negl ect ed i n case of
r ol l waves i nduced by t he Kel vi n Hel mhol t z i nst abi l i t y;
2. f . i s const ant i n case of t he second t heor y ( see f i gur e 5- 7)
Wi t h t hi s i nf or mat i on t he i ncr eased st abi l i t y of t he l i qui d f i l mi n cycl ones
can be quant i f i ed wi t h r espect t o t he necessar y i ncr ease of t he gas vel oci t y
t o i ni t i at e r ol l waves. I f f or i nst ance t he l i qui d f i l m r ot at es wi t h a
t angent i al vel oci t y of w. =1. 5 m/ s i n a cycl one wi t h D =0. 05 m, t he
di f f er ent i al vel oci t y bet ween t he phases can be 3 t i mes hi gher t han i n
non cent r i f ugal syst ems bef or e r ol l waves occur .
o Andreussl
V er t i ci l flow
Horl i ontol fl '
Ishll and Grolncs
horl zont i l *nd
ver t i ci l up flow
ChlM ind Ibile
2.5(Ii>10
Ishll tnd Grolmes
ver hul down How
Up flow
101 10>
Re,
Figure 5.12 Reentrainment correlation Figure 5.13 Comparison of other
of Andreussi (1980) reentrainment correlations
- 79-
5. ^. 3 The r at e of r eent r ai nment
To t hi s subj ect t he same r emar ks appl y as t o t he i ncept i on of ent r ai nment .
Many empi r i cal cor r el at i ons exi st and many exper i ment s have been car r i ed out
under di f f er ent condi t i ons. However , i n t hi s case no over l appi ng, gener al ,
physi cal l y based t heory has yet been devel oped.
Cor r el at i ons pr oposed by:
1. Wi cks and Dukl er [ I 960] ;
2. Pal eev and Fi l i ppovi ch [ 1966] ;
3. Dal l man and Hanr at t y [ 1979] ;
4. I shi i and Mi shi ma [ I 98I ]
have been consi dered for use i n M0D2 models, but are rejected because of
thei r empirical nature (i mpossi bi l i ty to account for hi gher g- forces) or
basi c assumpti ons. For instance, often the equilibrium i s modelled between
reentrained droplets and those redeposited by turbul ence. However, i n al l
cases under investigation the redeposition wi l l be much stronger.
Whalley and Hutchinson [197*0 proposed an annular flow model that accounts
for both the processes of reentrainment and deposition. The difference of
these forms the net fraction of reentrainment.
Although the model underpredi cts the actual rate i t gives correct trends.
Whalley and Hewitt [1978] and Tatterson [1975] suggested improvements and
vari ati ons of above model. The general form of thi s correl ati on (after the
l ast modifications of Tatterson and Whalley i s:
R
E
= <u
g
* . p- 5 pO-5 .
Cl
hV )
2
(5.21)
i n whi ch: u * = ( f ri ct i on vel oci t y)
S p
g
k =hei ght of i nst abi l i t i es on f i l m
C. , Cp =di mensi onl ess const ant s
R_ =r eent r ai nment r at e ( kg\ m
2
s)
bj
I n f i gur e 5- 1^ a compar i son of exper i ment al dat a and t he pr edi ct i ons of some
cor r el at i ons i s gi ven.
-80-
Experimental Data
t Paleev and Filipovich
2tshil and Mishima
3 Annular flow model - Whaltey
A
/
s
A
-7^
liquid mass flux ( k g/ or s l
Figure 5.14 Comparison of correlations of reentrainment rate
For t he ci r cumst ances t hat occur i n a cycl one or vane separ at or , i . e. a
hor i zont al f l ow under hi gher gr avi t at i onal accel er at i ons, onl y l i t t l e
i nf or mat i on can be der i ved f romt he pr esent cor r el at i ons. Pr ovi si ons shoul d
be made t o account f or t he hi gher shear st r esses i n t he f i l m. I n pr i nci pl e
t he appr oach of Whal l ey et al . [ 197*0 of f er s t hi s possi bi l i t y. Ther ef or e,
t hi s model i s r ecommended f or appl i cat i on i n t he M0D2 f r amewor k t o descr i be
r eent r ai nment r at es.
5. 4. ^ Dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on of r eent r ai nment
Tat t er son [ 1975] conduct ed exper i ment s under at mospher i c condi t i ons wi t h ai r
and sever al l i qui ds. He pr oved t hat t he aver age dr op si ze var i ed f rom15 urn
t o 70 um. The aver age dr op si ze gr ew wi t h an i ncr ease of gas vel oci t y and
wi t h a decr ease of sur f ace t ensi on. Tat t er son f ound good agreement bet ween a
cor r el at i on of t he f ol l owi ng f ormand hi s exper i ment al dat a:
C
1
D (
2 '
p u D
g g
- ,., D u p C_
| V2 f K *g) 2
( 5- 22)
i n whi ch R i s t he r at e of r eent r ai nment i n kg/ ms.
I shi i [ 1975] pr oposed t he f ol l owi ng cor r el at i on:
d = 9-9
10
"3 H 4 ) Rep ( V
1/3
( V
/ 3
vm
l
2' 1 ' p. '
l
n, '
p u 1 1
g g
( 5- 23)
- 81-
I shi i assumed a symmet r i cal l og- nor mal di st r i but i on i n whi ch d i s t he
medi an vol ume di amet er .
Andr eussi and Azzopar di [ 1983] f ound t hat t he f ol l owi ng cor r el at i on f i t t ed
V t A n ^
t he measur ed Saut er di amet er s (d_
9
= ' -, ' '-]
i t d
l ( d . n)
Re
0- 1
p 0. 6 R_
f _) * n h f f e_l ( 5. 24)
S.* ' J*' ; ? '
A
^
]
i n whi ch R =mass f l ow of r eent r ai nment per uni t ar ea.
Al l ment i oned cor r el at i ons ar e der i ved on a pur el y empi r i cal base and,
t her ef or e, not consi st ent . I t i s r ecommended t o check t hese cor r el at i ons
wi t h own r epr esent at i ve exper i ment al dat a. Thi s way a sui t abl e cor r el at i on
can be der i ved t o be f i t t ed i n t he M0D2 f r amewor k.
5. 4. 5 Di r ect i on of and i ni t i al vel oci t y of r eent r ai ned dr opl et s
Fromt he exper i ment al i nvest i gat i ons conduct ed by J ames et al . [ 1980] , i t
appear ed t hat r eent r ai ned dr opl et s t hat wer e shear ed of t he cr est s of r ol l
waves moved r adi al l y away f r om t he f i l m. These measur ement s concer ned
essent i al l y dr opl et s l ar ger t han 250 urn. Andr eussi and Azzopar di [ 1983]
di scover ed t hat t he i ni t i al vel oci t y and di r ect i on of t he dr opl et s ar e
i ndependent of t he dr opl et di amet er :
v , . , =12 (-) u* ( 5. 25)
r adi al
v
p ' g
yj J
'
T. 1/ 2
i n whi ch u* ( f ri ct i on vel oci t y) = ()
P
g
The i ni t i al axi al dr opl et vel oci t y i s t aken equal t o t he f i l mvel oci t y.
Agai n t hese empi r i cal equat i ons ar e i n t he f i r st pl ace set up f or non-
r ot at i ng f l ows.
-82-
5.5 Cha ra cteriza tion of swirl elements a nd swirling flows
5. 5- 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
I n t he f ol l owi ng t wo subsect i ons at t ent i on i s r espect i vel y pai d t o:
a. a number of r ef er ences i n l i t er at ur e t o t he ( exper i ment al ) char act er i za-
t i on of swi r l i ng f l ows;
b. a pr ocedur e t o char act er i ze swi r l el ement s i n or der t o j udge t hem on
sui t abi l i t y f or di f f er ent appl i cat i ons.
a. and b. wi l l be used bot h i n t he pr ocess of bui l di ng up and val i dat i ng
bl ock AC- MODI and RFC- MODI .
Wi t h some compl ement ar y exper i ment s, r epor t ed i n AC- EXP1, t he out come of b.
assi st s i n t he sel ect i on of swi r l el ement s f or speci f i c unconvent i onal axi al
cycl ones ( chapt er 8) .
5. 5. 2 Exampl es of r ot at i ng f l ow f i el ds
I n appendi x B r epr esent at i ve exampl es of t hr ee di f f er ent sor t s of swi r l i ng
f l ows ar e descr i bed:
a. i n a smoot h pi pe ( Loxham[ 1976] ) ;
b. i n an axi al cycl one ( St enhouse [ 1979] ) ;
c. i n a r ever se f l ow cycl one ( Mot hes [ 1982] ) .
The swi r l i ng f l ow r epor t ed under a. i s necessar y t o val i dat e t he assumpt i ons
on whi ch t he mor e compl et e model s ar e based. These model s ar e ver i f i ed wi t h
t he gas f l ow f i el ds col l ect ed under b. and c.
5. 5. 3 Char act er i zat i on of swi r l el ement s and swi r l i ng f l ows
Fr om sect i on H.kA i t appear ed t hat a number of possi bi l i t i es exi st t o
i nduce t he swi r l i ng f l ow necessar y f or cycl one oper at i on. I n t hi s sect i on
t he l i t er at ur e concer ni ng some r epr esent at i ve swi r l i nduci ng devi ces i s
i nvest i gat ed f or r ef er ences t o i mpor t ant char act er i st i cs. Mi ssi ng dat a ar e
suppl ement ed f romown exper i ment s, r epor t ed i n chapt er 6.
At t ent i on wi l l be pai d t o t he f ol l owi ng swi r l er pr oper t i es:
- 83-
1. For mof t he i nduced f l ow f i el d ( t angent i al and axi al vel oci t y pr of i l es
and swi r l number ) ;
2. Pr essur e dr op acr oss swi r l er ;
3. Hydr aul i c ef f i ci ency of swi r l er ;
k. Const r uct i onal aspect s.
Fi r st t he above ment i oned swi r l er char act er i st i cs ar e expl ai ned shor t l y,
t hen t he di f f er ent swi r l er s ar e descr i bed and j udged.
Expla na tion of swirler cha ra cteristics
ad 1. For mof t he i nduced f l ow f i el d
The most i mpor t ant pr oper t i es of a swi r l i ng f l ow ar e t he magni t ude of i t s
vel oci t y component s i n axi al , t angent i al and r adi al di r ect i on at di f f er ent
r adi al cr oss sect i ons. The f or mer t wo component s can t o a gr eat ext ent
depend di r ect l y on t he geomet r y of t he swi r l er . These vel oci t y component s
ar e of gr eat i nf l uence on t he separ at i on char act er i st i cs of t he cycl one: t he
t angent i al component det er mi nes t he dr i vi ng f or ce of t he separ at i on; t he
axi al component t he r esi dence t i me of t he t wo- phase f l ow i n t he cycl one.
The ot her component , t he r adi al vel oci t y, i s i n most cases det er mi ned by
ot her geomet r i c f act or s and r el at i vel y smal l , but i t can be as i mpor t ant as
t he f or mer component s. Gener al l y, i t s di r ect i on opposes t he successf ul
separ at i on of a par t i cl e.
A usef ul par amet er t hat has been i nt r oduced t o f aci l i t at e t he char act er i za-
t i on of a swi r l i ng f l ow i s t he swi r l number ( S) . The most popul ar def i ni t i on
of t he swi r l number descr i bes t hi s par amet er as t he r at i o of t he f l ux of
angul ar moment um ( M) and t he pr oduct of t he f l ux of axi al moment um (M ) and
U z
t he r adi us (R ) of t he f l ow.
R
M
Q
= p( u w + <u' w' >) r 2n r dr ( 5- 26)
O
p
M
z
= (p ( u
2
+ <u' >
2
+ (P - P ) ) 2n r dr ( 5- 27)
o
2
i n whi ch: <u' w' > and p <u' > are t he t ur bul ent shear st r esses
(P - P ) i s t he axi al pr essur e di f f er ence
- 84-
M
9
S =^V ( 5. 28)
z o
Loxham [ 1976] shows t hat S can be quant i f i ed by t he f ol l owi ng appr oxi mat i on
( negl ect i on of t ur bul ent shear st r esses and pr essur e cont r i but i on) :
1
2
.
S =2 wu r dr ( 5. 29)
i n whi ch: u r epr esent s t he di mensi onl ess axi al vel oci t y (=rr)
w r epr esent s t he di mensi onl ess t angent i al vel oci t y (TT)
r r epr esent s t he di mensi onl ess r adi us (==)
o
u, w and r ar e t he act ual t i me aver aged val ues of above quant i t i es
V r epr esent s t he super f i ci al gas vel oci t y
Of t en a r el at i on i s assumed bet ween vor t ex f ormand swi r l number f or a f ul l y
devel oped f l ow ( Reydon et al . [ 1981] , Loxham[ 1976] ) . Thi s i mpl i es t hat f or
a cer t ai n swi r l number of t he f l ow i t s f l ow f i el d i s f i xed, whi ch wi l l pr ove
par t i cul ar l y usef ul when model l i ng r esul t s ar e eval uat ed ( see chapt er 7)
Gener al l y, t he out er par t of such a ( combi ned or Ranki ne) vor t ex i s of a
f r ee vor t ex t ype; t he i nner par t of a f or ced vor t ex t ype ( sol i d body
r ot at i on) . Bot h vor t ex t ypes ar e expl ai ned bel ow.
I n a pur e f r ee vor t ex t he t angent i al vel oci t y i s def i ned as f ol l ows:
R
w
r
=w
R
f- ( 5. 30)
o
i n whi ch: w =t angent i al vel oci t y at r adi us r
w
R
=t angent i al vel oci t y at t he wal l .
I n a pur e f or ced vor t ex t he t angent i al vel oci t y i s def i ned as f ol l ows:
w
r
=w
R
f - ( 5. 3D
o o
I n a combined vortex the part of the tangenti al vel oci ty prof i l e that
connects the two above vortex forms i s described as follows:
w =c r exp (- A r) (5-32)
i n whi ch: c and A are const ant s.
-85-
Figures 5-15A, B and C give examples of the free, forced and combined (or
Rankine) vorti ces.
The maximum height, and the radius at which the tangential vel oci ty reaches
thi s maximum i s consi dered as an i mportant characteri sti c of an induced
swirling flow.
" . -
radius r /Ro
A
Figures 5.15A, S.15B and 5.15C Various vortex forms
I n l i t er at ur e pr act i cal r el at i onshi ps wer e encount er ed t o pr edi ct t he gas
f l ow f i el d of f our of t he f i ve swi r l i nduci ng devi ces t hat ar e consi der ed i n
AC- EXP1 ( see A, B, Cl , C2, Dl and D2 i n f i gur e 6. 9) .
I n t he r el at i ons t o descr i be swi r l el ement s t he f ol l owi ng var i abl es ar e
used:
R =r adi us of swi r l el ement
R, =r adi us of vane bl ade cur vat ur e
b
R. =r adi us of buf f body of swi r l el ement
c =( pr oj ect ed) l engt h of vane bl ades
t =t hi ckness of vane bl ades
s =di st ance bet ween vane bl ades
n =number of vane bl ades
=swi r l angl e of gas f l ow f i el d
<t> =vane angl e
The i ni t i al f l ow f i el d and cor r espondi ng swi r l number , i nduced by a swi r l
el ement wi t h st r ai ght vanes ( t wo exampl es ar e depi ct ed i n f i gur e 5- 16A) , can
be det er mi ned gr aphi cal l y wi t h f i gur es 5- 16B and C ( Fl et cher [ 1973] )
ra dius r/Ro
C
- 86-
Gupt a [ 1984] , advi ses t o use t hese t ypes of swi r l er s f or swi r l number s
smal l er t han S =0. 7. so shoul d not exceed 45 Accor di ng t o t hi s sour ce,
t hese swi r l er s become not i ceabl y l ess ef f i ci ent f or hi gher swi r l number s due
t o f l ow separ at i on around t he bl ades. Thi s r esul t s i n i ncr eased downst r eam
l evel s of t ur bul ence and i ncr eased pr essur e dr ops.
8 0-
.mnijlfliiijiinif,
t i i > i tl*) J fit I f I / f I
Figures 5.16A, 5.16B and S.16C Swirler characterization I
For swi r l er s wi t h const ant l y curved bl ades, as depi ct ed i n f i gur e 5. 17A, t he
f ol l owi ng r el at i on i s of t en used t o det er mi ne t he i nduced i ni t i al f l ow f i el d
( swi rl angl e) and swi r l number ( Buckl ey et al . [ 1980] ) :
(s/i y
" *
0
I
1
" 0. 001 + 0. 21 ] (2 si n* / 2)
( 5- 33)
Thi s r el at i on i s r epr esent ed gr aphi cal l y i n f i gur e 5. 17B. Wi t h f i gur e 5. 17C
t he swi r l number can be det er mi ned.
80 1
0
._U
1 >/>/1 / { / n /1 > /-7-A it-
Figures 5.17A, 5.17B and S..17C Swirler characterization II
- 87-
For swi r l er s wi t h var i abl y cur ved bl ades ( see f i gur e 5. 18A) Mat her and
McCal l um [ I 967] pr oposed t he f ol l owi ng r el at i on t o descr i be t he i nf l uence of
t he swi r l er geomet r y on t he i nduced f l ow f i el d:
1
S =
1 - ( R

/ R)
2( 1 - X) 1 - ( R. / R)
^ ta n *
2 o
( 5- 3*)
i n whi ch: X =
n t
2n R cos*
Thi s r el at i on i s gr aphi cal l y r epr esent ed i n f i gur e 5. 18B i n whi ch r esul t s
ar e shown of an exper i ment al val i dat i on by Mat her and McCal l um. They advi se
t hese swi r l el ement s t o i nduce swi r l i ng f l ows of whi ch S > 1 i f l ow pr essur e
dr ops ar e r equi r ed.
S < eq. 5.34)
Figures 5.18A and 5.18B Swirler characterization III
ad 2. Pressure drop across swirler
In some applications the separator pressure drop i s an i mportant operati ng
characteri sti c. 5 wi l l represent the pressure drop across the swi rl
element. I t i s defined as:
AP
0.5P v
(5-35)
i n whi ch: AP =t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he swi r l er
v =t he super f i ci al vel oci t y
- 88-
ad 3- Hydr aul i c ef f i ci ency of swi r l er
An i mpor t ant char act er i st i c t o compar e di f f er ent swi r l er t ypes i s t he
hydr aul i c ef f i ci ency. Onl y par t of t he pr essur e dr op acr oss a swi r l er wi l l
r esul t i n an i ncr ease of ki net i c ener gy of t he f l ow; t he r est wi l l be l ost
by f r i ct i on. I n ot her wor ds ( Leuckel [ 1968] ) :

Tcin.in stat.i n ~Tcin.out stat.out
+
loss (5-J o)
in which: E, . . represents the total incoming flux of ki neti c energy;
^ 1 2 2
E. . , = / T P( W-
+
u. 1
Uj
2n r dr ( 5- 37)
Tci n. i n 2
r i
i n i n' i n
y,J
-"'
o
i n whi ch: u =t he l ocal axi al vel oci t y
w =t he l ocal t angent i al vel oci t y
E, . cor r espondi ngl y t he out goi ng ki net i c ener gy f l ux
KinOut
E . r epr esent s t he t ot al i ncomi ng st at i c pr essur e ener gy
S C8 t lil
f l ux and i s quant i f i ed as f ol l ows:
R
,.
t
. = / P
t t
. u. 2 r dr ( 5- 38)
st at . i n st at . i n i n
o
E cor r espondi ngl y t he out goi ng st at i c pr essur e ener gy f l ux
S t at * Out
E
1
f l ux of l oss ener gy
The hydr aul i c ef f i ci ency, e, , can be def i ned as f ol l ows:
E. . -
t ot . i n ,_
on
,
e
h
=
~>
( 5- 39)
t ot . i n l oss
Except f or t he consequences f or t he pr essur e dr op one shoul d bear i n mi nd
t hat t he di ssi pat ed ener gy t hat accompani es a l owe, wi l l l ead t o t ur bul ence
n
whi ch can ser i ousl y di st or t t he f l ow f i el d or cause di sper si on of dr opl et s.
- 89-
ad h. Const r uct i onal aspect s
One of t he char act er i st i cs a cycl one wi l l be j udged on i s i t s economi c
f easi bi l i t y: i t shoul d pr ef er abl y be possi bl e t o t ake t he swi r l er i n mass-
pr oduct i on wi t hout hi gh cost s. Anot her aspect i s t he behavi our under f oul i ng
oper at i on: t he swi r l er shoul d pr ef er abl y have no nar r ow passages t hat wi l l
easi l y pl ug.
- 9 0-
-91-
6. TEST FACILITIES AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
For pr oj ect st r uct ur e and nomencl at ur e see i nner si de of f r ont cover .
6.1 Structure of cha pter
I n t hi s chapt er t he r esul t s of t he EXP- bl ocks of t he pr oj ect st r uct ur e ar e
pr esent ed. I n par agr aph 6. 2 t he di f f er ent t est - r i gs used f or t he exper i ment s
ar e descr i bed. I n par agr aph 6. 3 t hree subpar agr aphs ar e devot ed t o each of
t he t hr ee separ at or t ypes under i nvest i gat i on. I n t hese subpar agr aphs al l
exper i ment s r el evant t o t he separ at or t ype i n quest i on ar e r epor t ed.
I n case of exper i ment s t hat r esul t i n vast col l ect i ons of numer i c dat a
r ef er ences are made t o cor r espondi ng appendi ces.
At t he begi nni ng of t he descr i pt i on of each EXP bl ock a shor t over vi ew i s
gi ven of t he pur pose( s) of t he exper i ment s, t he condi t i ons under whi ch t hey
have been car r i ed out , and, i f appl i cabl e, wher e i n t he appendi ces t he
r esul t s can be f ound.
6.2 Test fa cilities
6. 2. 1 I nt r oduct i on
I n t he col l ect i on of exper i ment s, necessar y t o pr oduce t he r esul t s speci f i ed
by t he EXP bl ocks, t hr ee gr oups can be di scer ned whi ch each set speci f i c
demands t o t he t est f aci l i t y:
1. Easy opt i cal and physi cal accessi bi l i t y~of t he equi pment t o be t est ed
( EXP1) .
2. Repr oduct i on of pr act i cal oper at i ng condi t i ons as r el i abl e as possi bl e
( EXP2. 3) f or a basi c separ at i on uni t .
3. Repr oduct i on of act ual oper at i on scal e as r el i abl e as possi bl e ( EXP
1
! , 5) .
Unf or t unat el y, i t appear ed not economi cal or pr act i cal l y f easi bl e t o combi ne
t hese, somet i mes conf l i ct i ng, demands i n one t est - r i g. Ther ef or e, i t was
deci ded t o bui l d t hr ee t est - r i gs; each an exponent of each of t he t hr ee
-92-
above mentioned properti es. There i s one exception: i t proved financially
not feasi bl e to design a large scale test- ri g that could function under high
pressure. Therefore, EXP5 has been spl i t up in two parts: the large scale
i nvesti gati ons are done on a l arge atmospheri c test- r i g and wi l l be
extrapol ated accordi ng to the resul ts of specific experiments on a smaller
scaled test- ri g that operates under actual operating conditions.
For each EXP-block speci fi c modifications to the test sections appeared to
be necessary, which demanded a fl exi bl e design of the test- ri gs.
I n the fol l owi ng three subparagraphs a short characteri zati on i s given of
the framework of the three adjustable test- ri gs.
I t consi sts of a description of:
I ) the research purposes;
I I ) the general form and range of experimental conditions;
I I I ) the measurement and control secti ons.
6.2.2 Test- ri g 1 (block EXP1, EXP2)
Research purposes
I n the f i rst pl ace thi s test- ri g has been designed for the many gas flow
fi el d determinations that have to be carri ed out i n EXP1. These vel oci ty
measurements serve ei ther for defining starti ng conditions for the models to
be set up i n MODI or for val i dati ng predictions from these models.
A second appl i cati on of thi s test- ri g has been found in the observation of
the i nteracti on between the l i qui d film (formed in the separation uni ts) and
the main gas stream. These experiments resort under EXP2.
Description of test- ri g 1 and range of experimental conditions
The central part of the test- ri g i s the section that i s intended for the
velocity measurements. This central measuring secti on i s desi gned as such
that an unperturbed gas flow i s offered to the separator , which can easi l y
be repl aced or modified. Experiments have been carri ed out onl y wi th
atmospheric ai r and water. Variation of the gas density i s not possi bl e, and
with respect to the EXP1 experiments not necessary.
I n thi s test- ri g velocity flow fi el ds have been measured mainly i n axial and
reverse flow cyclones of 50 mm 0.
- 9 3 -
Figure 6.1 Flowsheet of test-rig 1 Figure 6.2 Test-rig 1
Range of experi mental condi ti ons: ai r flow 0 - 7 5 m
3
/hr
: maximal pressure drop 100 mbar
: water flow 0- 0. 1 m'/hr
: d
50
~25 um
Measurement and control s ecti ons of t es t - ri g 1
Gas and liquid flow are measured by ordi nary Rotameters; pressure drops
(except for the pi tot tube) by water fi l l ed U-tube manometers. Therefore,
al l operating conditions have to be controlled and adjusted manually. Thi s
does not cause any delay, because the measurement of the gas flow fi el d in
the separation uni t demands much more ti me. The gas vel oci ti es have been
measured with a pi tot tube of 1 mm 0 connected to a Setra 0-l^t mbar pressure
transducer.
The pi tot tube vel oci ty measurement was preferred to Laser Doppler
Velocimetry (LDV) because of i ts rel ati vel y simple way of operati on, i ts
versati l i ty and rel ati ve i nsensi bi l i ty to flaws in the experimental set- up.
Moreover, i t was assumed that i f highly swirling flows were investigated the
seedi ng par ti cl es, necessary for LDV operati on, might be di sti nctl y
i nfl uenced by i nerti al f orces. More thorough i nvesti gati on of the
avai l abi l i ty of small seedi ng parti cl es and di spergati ng mechanisms i s
necessary before a def i ni te concl usi on can be drawn wi th respect to
instrumentation for the follow-up of thi s work.
-94-
Two l arge disadvantages of pi tot tube velocity measurements are:
1) the presence of the pi tot tube i n the gas flow influences the gas flow;
2) the pi tot tube i s not able to measure turbulence spectra.
The f i rst di sadvantage has been minimized by designing a pi tot tube with a
much smaller diameter than that of the measured objects (<2%).
6.2.3 Test- ri g 2 (block EXP2, EXP3, EXP5)
Research purposes
This test- ri g has been designed to carry out the experiments:
1. (of EXP2) that characteri ze the behaviour of the l i qui d phase. The
i denti f i cati on of the physi cal phenomena provi des i n the f i rst place
starti ng conditions to the models of block M0D2. Moreover, wi th these
experimental resul ts the predictions of these models can be validated.
2. (of EXP3) that characterize the behaviour of the basi c separati on uni t
(one cyclone or set of vane blades) under the same operating conditions
as i n practi ce. With these resul ts the M0D3 models can be validated.
I n one experiment the test- ri g will be used to contribute to block RFC-EXP5.
Description of test- ri g 2 and range of experimental conditions
The central secti on of thi s test- ri g i s formed by a vessel that contains a
basic separation uni t of which the operati ng condi ti ons can be careful l y
control l ed and adj usted. The operati ng characteri sti cs of the separation
uni t can be monitored accurately as well.
Because many di fferent separati on uni ts needed to be tested in different
ways, the test- ri g i s designed i n such a way that the central measuring
secti on can easi l y be modified or interchanged for another vessel to ensure
optimal accommodation of the separation uni t.
The flowsheet of the test- ri g (figure 6.3) basi cal l y consists of a closed
gas- and l i qui d-l oop. The liquid i s sprayed in the gas j ust in front of the
measuring vessel . The mist i s separated partl y by the separation uni t and
partl y by a mist stri ppi ng vessel (contai ni ng f i l ter cartri dges) further
downstream. The l atter devi ce extracts the liquid that has passed through
the separation uni t.
- 9 5-
Other important parts of the gas loop are:
1. A roots bl ower as dri vi ng force of the gas stream. One of the
requi rements of the test- ri g i s the possi bi l i ty of pressurization in
order to achieve higher gas densi ti es. I t appeared to be di f f i cul t to
find a roots blower that could withstand i nternal pressures higher than 5
bar. After some frui tl ess experiments with speci al shaft seal s i t was
decided to pl ace a conventi onal unit inside a pressurized vessel . This
necessitated a special heat exchanger to remove the di ssi pated energy of
the blower engine from the reci rcul ati ng gas stream.
2. A heat exchanger to regulate the gas temperature (see 1.).
3. Control equipment to regulate the gas flows through the measuring vessel
and the heat exchanger.
--
Blower purge gas
AP <U b *
H15V hr.
-a-
-hfr
t XI-T1X1
Buffer
fault
JL
Giscooler
1
>f|W
Strl p
vessel
~
-
8l oi .t r
& P - 0. 5 bar
q150l V hr
UxJ )--|ix-
X
-<B
-
-& J
-
A P . t O bar
H-100 l / f i .
Figure 6. 3 Flowsheet of test-rig 2
To achieve the same gas densi ty as reported i n secti on 5.2 i t has been
decided to f i l l the test- ri g at medium pressures with a heavy gas. The most
economical and practi cal gas appeared to be SF
t
(sulfur hexafluoride) with a
densi ty of 6.5 kg/m
3
and a vapour pressure of over 40 bars at room
temperature. Gas densi ti es of over 60 kg/m
3
are possible at an operating
pressure of 10 bar, for which pressure the test- ri g has been designed.
- 96-
To be abl e t o t r anspor t t he t est - r i g t o even bul ki er equi pment i t has been
bui l t on t wo mor e or l ess mobi l e car r i ages. ( I n an ear l y st age of t he
pr oj ect i t was consi der ed t o use measur ement equi pment consi st i ng of a set
of r i gi dl y f i xed l ar ge pul se- l aser s t o cr eat e hol ogr af i c i mages of di sper se
phase syst ems. ) One car r i age cont ai ns al l t he dr i ven, and t hus vi br at i on
gener at i ng, equi pment . The ot her cont ai ns t he measur i ng vessel and equi pment
necessar y t o char act er i ze t he separ at i on uni t . The car r i ages ar e connect ed
wi t h 5 n> l ong f l exi bl e hose pi pes (see f i gur es 6A and 6. 5) .
Figure 6.4 Driven equipment of
test-rig 2
Figure 6.5 Measuring section of
test-rig 2
The exper i ment al condi t i ons t hat can be var i ed and t he r ange over whi ch t hi s
i s possi bl e are l i st ed bel ow:
gas f l ow 20 - 120 m
3
/ hr
maxi mal pr essur e 10 bar
gas densi t y 1. 3
_
60 kg/ m
3
maxi mal al l owabl e pr essur e dr op acr oss separ at or 1 bar
l i qui d f l ow 1 - 0. 04 1/ hr
dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on, d
50
10 - 100 urn
- 97-
As shown by t he r el at i ons i n sect i on 5- 2, i n pr act i ce t he dr opl et si ze
di st r i but i on wi l l most of t en l i e above 5 P
m
- The d
5
of t he mi st can be
adj ust ed ei t her by var yi ng t he r at i o bet ween f l ow r at e and pr essur e dr op
acr oss a spray nozzl e, or by usi ng di f f er ent l y si zed nozzl es.
Al most any l i qui d can be used i n t hi s t est - r i g t o var y physi cal pr oper t i es.
The physi cal pr oper t i es of t he used l i qui ds ar e gi ven i n appendi x C, page
C. l .
Mea surement a nd control sections of test-rig 2
To char act er i ze a separ at or t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency and pr essur e drop have
t o be det er mi ned as a f unct i on of t he f ol l owi ng oper at i ng condi t i ons:
1. gas f l ow;
2. gas densi t y;
3. l i qui d l oadi ng of gas;
4. physi cal pr oper t i es of l i qui d;
5. dr op si ze di st r i but i on of mi st .
I t i s qui t e si mpl e t o moni t or r eal t i me t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency and
pr essur e dr op of t he separ at or and at t he same t i me t he f i r st t hr ee
ment i oned var i abl es. A sof t war e dr i ven dat a col l ect i on/ pr ocess cont r ol uni t
has been used t hat moni t or ed t he pr ocess and adj ust ed t he exper i ment al key
condi t i ons aut omat i cal l y. The f l ow met er s and pr essur e t r ansducer s coul d be
coupl ed di rect l y t o t he dat a col l ect i on devi ce.
I t pr oved t o be mor e di f f i cul t t o aut omat i ze t he measur ement of dr op si ze
di st r i but i ons of t he mi st . A measur ement t echni que has been used t hat
der i ved t he par t i cl e si ze di st r i but i on of a di sper si on by i nt er pr et i ng i t s
di f f r act i on pat t er n, descr i bed by f or i nst ance Fel t on et al . [ 1985] - The
pr act i cal embodi ment of t hi s measur i ng pr i nci pl e was f or med by a Mal ver n
2600D appar at us t hat has been put at t he di sposal of t hi s pr oj ect agai nst a
reduced r at e.
Each measur ement had t o be pr eceded by car ef ul pr epar at i on and requi red much
manual l abour ( especi al l y t he cl eani ng and al i gni ng of t he gl asses t hr ough
whi ch t he measur ement s wer e car r i ed out ) . Ther ef or e, t he det er mi nat i on of
dr opl et si ze di st r i but i ons t ook pl ace i n speci al sessi ons, whi l e t he r out i ne
char act er i zat i ons wer e carri ed out unat t endedl y.
- 98-
6.2A Test - r i g 3 ( EXP2. EXPk, EXP5)
Resea rch purposes
The exper i ment s on t hi s t est - r i g cont r i but ed t o t he f ol l owi ng obj ect i ves:
1. ( of EXP4) t he i dent i f i cat i on of t he physi cal phenomena t hat accompany the
scal i ng up of a basi c separ at i on uni t t o a real scal e separ at or ( EXP4) ;
2. ( of EXPU) t he val i dat i on of t he pr edi ct i ons of t he model s ( M0D4) t hat
speci f i cal l y descr i be t hese ef f ect s;
3. ( of EXP5) t he f or mat i on of an ext ensi ve dat abase f or whi ch sever al sort s
of separ at or s have t o be char act er i zed under var yi ng ( at mospher i cal )
condi t i ons i n or der t o val i dat e t he at mospher i cal par t of t he ( M0D5)
model s.
Because t est - r i g 2 was const ant l y i n use f or cycl one exper i ment s, t est - r i g 3
has al so been used f or some exper i ment s of t he V- EXP2 bl ock .
Description of test-rig 3 a nd ra nge of experimenta l conditions
Thi s t est - r i g i s ver y si mi l ar t o t est - r i g 2, except f or t wo i mpor t ant
di f f er ences: i t i s t went y t i mes l ar ger and i t can not be pr essur i zed.
The cent r al sect i on of t hi s t est - r i g i s a ver t i cal l y or i ent at ed vessel ,
si ze and shape adj ust abl e, i n whi ch t he separ at or uni t can be accommodat ed
opt i mal l y. I n f i gur e 6. 6 t hr ee di f f er ent conf i gur at i ons of t he measur i ng
vessel ar e pr esent ed. To pr event per i ods of st and- st i l l , necessar y t o change
over t o ot her conf i gur at i ons, t he measur i ng sect i on has been execut ed i n
t wof ol d. Thi s way, one sect i on can be used f or t est r uns, whi l e t he ot her i s
pr epar ed f or t he next exper i ment al sessi on.
Al so t hi s t est - r i g consi st s of a cl osed, par t i al l y ent wi ned, gas and l i qui d
l oop ( see f i gur e 6. 8) . The most i mpor t ant component s of t he gas l oop ar e:
1. a demi st er vessel t hat ext r act s t he unsepar at ed mi st f romt he gas f l ow
( downst reamof t he measur i ng sect i on) ;
2. a r oot s bl ower as dr i vi ng f or ce of t he gas ( because t he t est - r i g can not
be pr essur i zed, speci al pr epar at i ons l i ke t hose f or t he bl ower of t est -
r i g 2 ar e not necessar y) ;
3. a heat exchanger t o cont r ol t he gas t emper at ur e i n t he cl osed l oop;
4. cont r ol equi pment t o r egul at e t he gas f l ows t hrough heat exchanger and
measur i ng sect i on.
- 9 9 -
JE


- vertically
(lowed
through
meshpad
Figure 6.6 Possible test configurations of test-rig 3
The most i mpor t ant component s of t he l i qui d l oop ar e:
1. t he spray nozzl es, of whi ch t wo t ypes wer e used:
a. Ul t r asoni c nozzl es, i n case ver t i cal l y f l owed t hr ough separ at i on uni t s
wer e t est ed and f i ne dr opl et si ze di st r i but i ons had t o be achi eved.
b. Di r ect i mpact nozzl es f or al l ot her cases.
When ul t r asoni c nozzl es wer e used, a separ at e hi gh pr essur i zed ai r f l ow
appear ed t o be necessar y t o dr i ve t hem. The ai r pumped i n t he syst emwas
bl ed downst r eamof t he mi st ext r act i on vessel .
2. a hi gh pr essur e ( t went y st age) cent r i f ugal pump as dr i vi ng f or ce of t he
l i qui d f l ow. I t was chosen power f ul enough t o at t ai n r easonabl y f i ne
mi st s even when di r ect i mpact nozzl es wer e used.
3. cont r ol equi pment ( val ves) t o r egul at e t he l i qui d f l ow over a wi de r ange.
Al t hough t he t est - r i g can not be pr essur i zed, i t has been pr epar ed t o r un
wi t h di f f er ent gas f i l l i ngs ( SF
8
) . Thi s way, gas densi t i es may be r ai sed
at at mospher i cal , or near at mospher i cal condi t i ons t o appr oxi mat el y 10
kg/ m
3
. However , no exper i ment s have been car r i ed out wi t h t hi s opt i on yet .
- 100-
Figure 6.7 Test-rig 3
- 101-
Figwe 6. 8 Flowsheet of test-rig 3
The exper i ment al condi t i ons cover ed by t hi s t est - r i g ar e l i st ed bel ow:
S
a s f l o
450 - 2400 m' / hr
maxi mal oper at i ng pr essur e 1. 5 bar
gas densi t y
1- 3
_
10 kg/ m3
maxi mal al l owabl e pr essur e dr op acr oss separ at i on uni t 500 mbar
l i qui d f l ow
0- 01
_
0- 5 m3/ hr
dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on, d
5
15
m
( ul t r asoni c) - 100 urn
To var y t he l i qui d pr oper t i es ever y l i qui d t hat does not af f ect pl exi gl ass
can be used. ( The used l i qui ds ar e l i st ed i n appendi x C, page C. l . )
Mea surement a nd control sect i ons of t est - r i g 3
Because t he oper at i ng pr i nci pl e of t hi s t est - r i g i s si mi l ar t o t hat of t est -
r i g 2 t he measur ement and cont r ol i s car r i ed out i n t he same way. For mor e
i nf or mat i on i s r ef er r ed t o t he cor r espondi ng sect i on of t est - r i g 2.
Dur i ng i t s unat t ended r uns t est - r i g 3 coul d est abl i sh a modem connect i on t o
a r emot e oper at or f or i nt er vent i on. Even bet t er t han t est - r i g 2, t hi s t est -
r i g coul d achi eve a ver y l ar ge number of usef ul r unni ng hour s ( one t i me i t
r unned cont i nuousl y over t hr ee weeks, t est i ng f our di f f er ent geomet r i es) .
- 102-
6.3 Experimenta l results
6. 3- 1 Axi al cycl ones
Bl ock AC-EXP1
I n f i r st i nst ance t he exper i ment al r esul t s of t hi s bl ock wer e meant f or
val i dat i on pur poses onl y. The subj ect of val i dat i on woul d be t he model t hat
descr i bes t he gas f l ow i nsi de an axi al cycl one as a f unct i on of i t s geomet r y
( MODI ) . The gas f l ow pat t er n i nsi de an axi al cycl one depends on t he t ype of
swi r l el ement . I t appeared t hat wi t h t he l i t er at ur e i nf or mat i on and sof t war e
f aci l i t i es at hand ( see sect i on 5- 5) i t was har dl y possi bl e or pr act i cal t o
model t he i nf l uence of t he geomet r y of a swi r l el ement r el i abl y. Ther ef or e,
i t has been deci ded t o carry out measur ement s t o char act er i ze a gr oup of
di f f er ent pr act i cal swi r l el ement s f i r st , so t hat wi t h t hese r esul t s can be
det er mi ned whi ch swi r l el ement wi l l meet t he r equi r ement s t hat f ol l ow f r om
t he st ar t i ng condi t i ons of t he r ot at i ng f l ow si mul at i ons ( see chapt er 7) .
The swi r l el ement s i n quest i on ar e r epr esent ed i n f i gur e 6. 9-
Dl D2 E
Figure 6.9 Tested swirl elements
- 103-
Apar t f r omt hi s swi r l er char act er i zat i on, whi ch mai nl y ser ved t o pr ovi de t he
st ar t i ng condi t i ons of MODI , many measur ement s have been car r i ed out f ur t her
downst r eam of t he swi r l el ement s at di f f er ent l ocat i ons i n di f f er ent t ypes
of geomet r i es.
The mai n di f f er ence i n t est geomet r i es l i es i n t he l i qui d di schar ge sect i on,
whi ch can ei t her be coaxi al or r adi al ( f or t he exact descr i pt i on of t hi s
aspect see t he cor r espondi ng par agr aphs i n sect i on 3- ^- 4- 5) - Ot her i mpor t ant
geomet r i cal var i at i ons t hat have been char act er i zed ar e t he pur ge gas r at e
and t he gas out l et di amet er .
Wi t h t hese measur ement s t he pr edi ct i ons of t he MODI model s wer e val i dat ed.
V_J v
92
Figure 6.10k Coaxial liquid outlet Figure 6.10B Radial liquid outlet
I n f i gur es 6. 10A and B t he nomencl at ur e f or each t ype of axi al cycl one i s
gi ven. The l ocat i ons downst r eamof t he swi r l el ement at whi ch t he gas f l ow
f i el d has been det er mi ned, ar e al so i ndi cat ed.
I n t abl e 6. 1 t he di f f er ent swi r l el ement s ar e char act er i zed accor di ng t o t he
st r uct ur e pr oposed i n sect i on 5- 5- The basi c oper at i ng char act er i st i cs l i ke
t he swi r l number , hydr aul i c ef f i ci ency and pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent ar e
gi ven i n t he t abl e. The gas f l ow f i el ds downst r eamof t he swi r l el ement ar e
depi ct ed i n appendi x C and ref erred t o i n t abl e 6. I I .
- 104-
swi r l el ement
{f i gure 6. 9)
A
B
Cl
C2
Dl
D2
E
swi r l number ,
S
1. 0
1. 2
0. 8
0. 5
2. 0
1. 2
1. 1
hydr aul i c
ef f i ci ency, e,
0. 4
0. 5
0. 6
0. 9
0. 7
0. 9
0. 8
pr essur e dr op
coef f i ci ent ,
12. 2
6. 1
3- 2
1. 1
9. 1
2.1
5. 6
Table 6.1
I n t abl e 6. I I t he exper i ment al condi t i ons and speci f i c geomet r i cal
pr oper t i es of t he f l ow f i el d det er mi nat i ons f or val i dat i on pur poses are
l i st ed accor di ng t o t he nomencl at ur e of f i gur e 6. 10. The r esul t s ( gas f l ow
f i el d di st r i but i on) ar e pr i nt ed i n appendi x C.
I n t hi s t abl e at some l ocat i ons a coaxi al l y pur gi ng cycl one i s def i ned wi t h
zer o per cent pur ge r at e and a gas out l et di amet er cor r espondi ng t o t he
di amet er of t he cycl one. These measur ement s have been used t o det er mi ne t he
uni mpeded f l ow f i el ds behi nd sever al swi r l el ement s.
exp.
no.
1
2
3
h
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
t ype of
l i qui d
di schar ge
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
R
R
t ype of swi r l
el ement
( f i gure 6. 9)
A
B
Cl
C2
Dl
D2
E
Cl
C2
Cl
Dl
di amet er of
gas out l et
D
e
/ D
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 6
pur ge
r at e
%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
15
15
10- 15
l ocat i on
of
measur ement
B
B
B
B
B
B
A
A. B. C
A, B, C
A. B. C
B. C
r esul t s i n
appendi x C
page
C. 1
C. 1
C. 1
C. 1
C. 2
C. 2
C. 2
C. 2
C. 2. C. 3
C. 3
C. 3
Table 6.II
- 105-
Bl ock AC- EXP2
The r esul t s of t hi s bl ock pr ovi de st ar t i ng condi t i ons and means of
val i dat i on t o model t he l i qui d phase. Because t he most i mpor t ant i nt er nal
phenomena ar e si mi l ar f or r ever se f l ow and axi al cycl ones and because t he
necessar y exper i ment s have been car r i ed out ext ensi vel y f or r ever se f l ow
cycl ones, i t i s r ef er r ed t o t hese exper i ment s ( RFC- EXP2) t o det er mi ne:
1. t he measur e of wet t i ng of t he i nt er nal sur f ace of t he cycl one as a
f unct i on of l i qui d l oad and l i qui d physi cal pr oper t i es, gas l oad and -
densi t y and cent r i f ugal accel er at i on;
2. t he f i l mr egi me as a f unct i on of t he same var i abl es;
3. t he i ncept i on poi nt of r eent r ai nment as a f unct i on of t he same var i abl es.
The exper i ment s, speci f i cal l y car r i ed out f or axi al cycl ones, t hat r esor t ed
under t hi s bl ock wer e ver y pr act i cal and qual i t at i ve. The maj or par t t ook
pl ace on t est - r i g 1 and concer ned t he pr el i mi nar y i nvest i gat i ons i nt o t he
i nf l uences of sever al geomet r i cal var i at i ons wi t h r espect t o t he l i qui d
out l et ( see f i gur es 6. 10A and B) . Al l exper i ment s wer e car r i ed out wi t h
at mospher i c ai r / wat er mi xt ur es. They wer e per f or med i n t he f i r st pl ace t o
come t o a mor e or l ess r epr esent at i ve desi gn f or a cycl one wi t h a r adi al
l i qui d di schar ge. However , a l i mi t i ng phenomenon i nsi de t he coaxi al l y
di schar gi ng cycl one has been i dent i f i ed as wel l . At hi gh l i qui d l oadi ngs t he
i nt er f aci al f r i ct i on i n t he di schar ge sect i on i s not hi gh enough t o car r y
al l t he l i qui d out of t he cycl one. Heavy r eent r ai nment mi ght be caused j ust
under neat h t he vor t ex f i nder ( see f i gur e 6. 11A) .
St ar t i ng f r om t he val ues f or L/ D and D / D, recommended by St enhouse [ 1984]
( see sect i on 3 ^ ^ - 5) f or a cycl one wi t h a coaxi al l i qui d di schar ge, a
pr el i mi nar y desi gn f or a r adi al l y pur gi ng cycl one has been devel oped. Thi s
cycl one i s t est ed t hor oughl y i n bl ock AC- EXP3 as a r epr esent at i ve of t he
axi al cycl one t ype wi t h r adi al l i qui d di schar ge. The i nf l uences of t he
f ol l owi ng geomet r i cal var i abl es wer e i nvest i gat ed:
1. number of sl i t s acr oss t he ci r cumf er ence of t he t ube;
2. hei ght of t he sl i t s (as such t hat t he di st ance bet ween t he swi r l el ement
and t he begi nni ng of t he sl i t s was var i ed) ;
3. f ormof t he sl i t s ( see f i gur es 6. 11B and C) ;
k. swi r l el ement .
- 106-
Fig. 6.11A Reentrainment in coaxial discharge Fig. 6.11B,C Slit geometries
The most i mpor t ant concl usi ons ar e:
1. Wi t h al l swi r l el ement s t hat i nduce f l ows of whi ch t he swi r l number >0. 9,
85- 90%of t he l i qui d i n t he gas was f l ung out i n t he f i r st cent i met r es
above t he swi r l el ement ( appr oxi mat e d
50
of mi st amount ed t o 25 um) .
2. Wi t h t he swi r l el ement s wi t h no or onl y a smal l buf f - body ( el ement s A,
Cl , Dl ) ext ensi ve r eent r ai nment occur s f romt he downst reamsi de of t he
buf f - body because of l i qui d cr eep i n t he swi r l el ement t owar ds i t s
cent er . Thi s af f ect s t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency ver y di sadvant ageousl y.
3. Wi t h swi r l el ement s A, Cl and Dl l i qui d st r i ngs can ' escape' bet ween t he
sl i t s i f onl y t hr ee sl i t s ar e pr esent i n t he ci r cumf er ence of t he t ube.
Thi s ef f ect does not t ake pl ace i f t he t ube has f our di schar ge sl i t s,
or at pur ge r at es above 2^> %.
4. The f or m of t he sl i t al so det er mi nes t he ef f i ci ency of t he l i qui d
di schar ge. Conf i gur at i on B ( f i gur e 6. 11C) pr ovi des a consi der abl e mor e
ef f i ci ent di schar ge t han conf i gur at i on A. I n case of conf i gur at i on A
dr opl et s have been obser ved t o j ump acr oss di schar ge sl ot s.
I n or der t o be abl e to ver i f y t he pr edi ct i ons of AC- M0D2 wi t h r espect t o t he
par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es i t was at t empt ed t o measur e t he drop si ze di st r i but i on
of t he non- separ at ed mi st downst r eamof t he cycl one on t est - ri g 2. Wi t h t hi s
i nf or mat i on f r act i onal ef f i ci ency cur ves coul d be cal cul at ed.
I n case no r eent r ai nment , creep or shor t ci r cui t i ng of t he pur ge ai r occur s,
t he d
5
0 of a r easonabl y wel l desi gned cycl one r esul t s gener al l y i n over al l
separ at i on ef f i ci enci es up t o 99- 5%. Wi t h t he avai l abl e equi pment i t i s
i mpossi bl e t o measur e accur at el y t hi s ver y l ow car r y- over .
-107 -
Block AC-EXP3
The exper i ment s car r i ed out i n t hi s bl ock ar e used t o char act er i ze
r epr esent at i ve axi al cycl ones under pr act i cal oi l f i el d condi t i ons. On t est -
r i g 2 exper i ment s t ook pl ace wi t h wat er and SF, under var yi ng pr essur es.
The geomet r i es t hat have been t est ed ( nomencl at ur e accor di ng to f i gur e 6. 10)
ar e gi ven i n t abl e 6. I I I . The cor r espondi ng exper i ment al condi t i ons and t he
f i gur es i n whi ch t he r esul t s ar e r epor t ed ar e gi ven i n t abl e 6. I V. Fi gur e
6. 12 shows t he i nf l uence of gas densi t y on t he oper at i on of cycl one t ype I I .
t ype of
l i qui d
di schar ge
I coaxi al
I I r adi al
I I I r adi al
di amet er
D ( mm)
50
50
50
l engt h of
separ at i on
zone, L ( mm)
125
125
125
swi r l
el ement
t ype
C2
A
C2
di amet er of
gas out l et
D ( mm)
e
30
30
30
secondar y sepa-
r at i on devi ce
B ( mm)
10
10
10
Table 6.Ill
r un
1- 3
4- 6
7- 9
t ype
I
I I
I I I
gas densi t y
( kg/ m
3
)
15, 20, 40
15, 20, 40
15, 20, 40
gas t hr ough-
put (m
3
/ hr )
30- 100
30- 100
30- 100
l i qui d
l oadi ng
( 10" ^) *
12
12
12
pr essur e drop
coef f i ci ent
( C)
13
24
14
ef f i ci ency
cur ves i n
app. C. page
c. 4
c. 4
c. 4
* t he cor r espondi ng dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on i s gi ven i n app. C, page C. 4.
Table 6. IV
separation efficiency of trad.cyclone
100
95-
65-
80-f 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 10 20 30 ( 0 50 60 70 BO 90 100
gasftow (mV hrl
Fig. 6.12 Example of axial cyclone characterization: run 4-6 table 6.IV
Blocks AC-EXP4 a nd AC-EXP5
I t i s assumed t hat no det r i ment al secondar y ef f ect s ( mal di st r i but i on) of any
scal e wi l l t ake pl ace i n an axi al mul t i cycl one. Ther ef or e, no exper i ment s
wer e pl anned i n t hese bl ocks.
A Pn=15kg/m*
D Pg.20kg/l
Pg=l 0kg/ml
- 108-
6. 3- 2 Rever se f l ow cycl ones
Bl ock RFC-EXP1
The exper i ment al r esul t s i n t hi s bl ock suppl ement t he i nf or mat i on gat her ed
i n sect i on 5- 5- 2 necessar y t o val i dat e t he gas f l ow f i el d model of a r ever se
f l ow cycl one. Much i nf or mat i on i s avai l abl e on t he convent i onal r ever se f l ow
cycl one wi t h a si ngl e t angent i al i nl et . A r ever se f l ow cycl one t hat i s of t en
used i n t he oi l f i el d i ndust r y i s t he doubl e t angent i al i nl et t ype. Of t hi s
t ype har dl y any quant i t at i ve i nf or mat i on exi st s ( f or a mor e el abor at e
descr i pt i on see sect i on 'iA.k.k). Ther ef or e exper i ment s i n t hi s bl ock wer e
car r i ed out t o char act er i ze al so t hi s r ever se f l ow cycl one t ype.
The physi cal i nf or mat i on necessar y t o set up t he f undament al s of t he f l ow
f i el d model ( swi r l i ng f l ows i n st r ai ght t ubes) can i n pr i nci pl e be deduced
f r omt he cor r espondi ng AC- bl ock.
E-
I -
829,
B 50.0
0.7SO0.37SO- W
Q/01-t .5 m/s.
p.0.09 N/ml
Figure 6.13A Test cyclone A
Figure 6.13B Test cyclone B
Gas flow f i el d measurements have been carri ed out on two geometri es
(depicted in figures 6.13A and B). Figure 6.13A was chosen as a geometri cal
averaged version of two similar i ndustri al l y applied cyclones (fabri cators:
Paladon and Burgess Manning). Figure 6.13B i s an example of a conventi onal
hi gh througput cyclone (Stairmand [1951]. see appendix A ^, .k .k.2). The
l ocati ons at which the gas vel oci ty di stri buti ons have been measured are
indicated i n the fi gure. The flow fi el d measured at location I has served as
starti ng condition of a version of RFC-MODI. The flow fields measured at the
other two locations were planned for validation purposes.
- 109-
Tabl e 6. V summar i zes t he condi t i ons of t he exper i ment s and t he l ocat i on of
t he gr aphi cal r esul t s. ( r ef er s t o t he cr oss sect i onal ar ea of t he cycl one)
exp.
nr .
1
2
3
4
geomet r y
( f i g. 6. 13)
A
A
B
B
l ocat i on of
measur ement
1
I I
I
I I
t hr oughput
( m
3
/ hr )
50
50
50
50
pr essur e dr op
coef f i ci ent
( C)
27
-
45
-
f l owf i el ds
depi ct ed i n
app. C, page
C. 5
C. 5
C. 5
C. 5
Table 6.V
Bl ock RFC-EXP2
The exper i ment s descr i bed i n t hi s bl ock have suppor t ed i n t he f or mul at i on of
model s t hat descr i be t he behavi our of t he l i qui d phase i n r ever se f l ow
cycl ones (to a l ar ge ext ent al so appl i cabl e t o axi al cycl ones) .
The l i qui d phase occur s i n t he cycl one i n t wo f or ms:
1. t he or i gi nal mi st phase;
2. t he l i qui d f i l mt hat has been f ormed by separ at ed mi st par t i cl es.
The maj or par t of t he exper i ment s i n t hi s bl ock have been car r i ed out wi t h
r espect t o t he l at t er .
Exper i ment s wi t h r espect t o t he l i qui d f i l mbehavi our
These exper i ment s have pur sued t wo obj ect i ves:
1. Det er mi nat i on of t he f i l mpr oper t i es i n di f f er ent sect i ons of t he cycl one
( f i l mt hi ckness, f l ow r egi me) ;
2. I dent i f i cat i on of condi t i ons and l ocat i ons of det r i ment al ef f ect s i nsi de
t he cycl one.
Wi t h t hi s i nf or mat i on i t i s possi bl e t o pr ovi de t he r eent r ai nment model s
l i st ed i n sect i ons 5- 3 and 5-' * wi t h dat a. I t i s t hen possi bl e t o check t hei r
val i di t y f or cent r i f ugal syst ems, or modi f yi ng t hem t o descr i be t hese
syst ems. I f t he phenomenol ogi cal model of I shi i [ 1975] i s t aken as t he most
ver sat i l e and r el i abl e of t hose l i st ed i n chapt er 5> and t her ef or e most
sui t ed t o be embedded i n RFC ( and AC) M0D2, t he mi ni mal physi cal dat a
necessar y t o col l ect ar e:
1. t he f i l mt hi ckness di st r i but i on i n t he cycl one;
2. t he l i qui d Reynol ds number ( or, wi t h 1: t he f i l mvel oci t y) ;
3. gas phase pr oper t i es, suppl i ed by EXP1 or MODI .
- HO-
The f i l m char act er i st i cs t hat ar e t he obj ect of i nvest i gat i on ( and of
pr edi ct i on) ar e:
1. t he f i l mf l ow r egi me;
2. t he occur r ence of r eent r ai nment ;
3. t he occur r ence of cr eep.
The l ast aspect i s not cover ed by t he model s of sect i ons 5. 3- 5. 5.
Figure 6.14 Visually accessible Figure 6.15 Test vessel in actual
test vessel operation
These exper i ment s have been car r i ed out wi t h a speci al l y desi gned measur i ng
vessel whi ch enabl ed cl ose obser vat i on of t he i nt er nal phenomena of a
cycl one. The measur i ng vessel consi st ed of a cent r al pl exi gl ass sect i on
whi ch f or ms t he separ at i on or set t l i ng zone of a r ever se f l ow cycl one ( see
f i gur es 6. 14 and 6. 15) . The ( doubl e) t angent i al i nl et was accommodat ed i n
t he st ai nl ess st eel ' head' of t he vessel i n whi ch t he mi st was spr ayed.
Obser vat i ons wer e possi bl e:
1. t hr ough an endoscope t hat was embedded i n t he vor t ex f i nder of t he
cycl one. Thi s way t he i nt er nal sur f ace of t he l i qui d f i l m i n t he
separ at i on zone coul d be vi sual i zed;
2. t hr ough t he pl exi gl ass sect i on of t he gener al appear ance of t hi s l i qui d
f i l mand ot her i nt er nal phenomena (f or i nst ance t he f i l mbehavi our on t he
vor t ex f i nder ) .
- Hl -
The separ at i on ef f i ci ency, pr essur e dr op and exper i ment al condi t i ons coul d
be measur ed si mul t aneousl y. To t r anspone t he r esul t s of t he det er mi nat i ons
(on a pl exi gl ass sur f ace) t o a si t uat i on i n whi ch t he i nner sur f ace of a
cycl one consi st s of st eel , t he angl e of cont act of t he t est l i qui ds has been
det er mi ned on r espect i vel y pl exi gl ass, smoot h st eel and cor r oded st eel . The
i nner sur f ace of t he pl exi gl ass par t was per f ect l y smoot h.
Exper i ment s have been car r i ed out wi t h ai r / wat er mi xt ur es wi t h gas densi t i es
up t o 10 kg/ m
3
. Exper i ment s wi t h gl ycol and SF
t
ar e pl anned f or t he near
f ut ur e; they have not been car r i ed out yet because of t he r ar e avai l abi l i t y
of t he necessar y hi gh speed vi deo equi pment . I t i s, however , not expect ed
t hat t he gener al f i ndi ngs of t hese exper i ment s wi l l be dr ast i cal l y changed.
Fr om t he r esul t s of t he next bl ock ( RFC- EXP3) i t appear s t hat t he oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of a cycl one ar e si mi l ar f or di f f er ent l i qui d and gas
pr oper t i es. Qual i t at i vel y, t hi s pr obabl y means t hat t he mechani sms t hat have
been f ound t o l i mi t cycl one oper at i on wi t h ai r / wat er mi xt ur es al so l i mi t
cycl one oper at i on under ot her condi t i ons.
I n t he f ol l owi ng pr esent at i on of r esul t s t he qual i t at i ve f i ndi ngs ar e
descr i bed ( 1- 5) . I n t abl e 6. VI t he exper i ment al condi t i ons and measur ed
quant i t i es are summar i zed. The geomet r y of t he t est cycl one i s depi ct ed i n
f i gur e 6. 17 and cor r esponds l ar gel y ( except f or t he ext ended separ at i on
zone) t o a Bur gess- Manni ng t ype cycl one. Ther ef or e, t he over al l oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs of t hi s cycl one are ver y si mi l ar t o t hat of cycl one t ype D
( f i gure 6. 18B) t est ed i n t he next bl ock. Under most ci r cumst ances t he f ul l
i nner per i met er of t he cycl one i s wet t ed.
1. The l i qui d f l ow, however , i s t o a l ar ge ext ent concent r at ed i n t wo
channel s t hat st ar t f r om t he l ower downst r eam end of each t angent i al
i nl et . Thi s ef f ect does not t ake pl ace at hi gh gas and l i qui d l oadi ng.
2. J ust under neat h t he vor t ex f i nder an accumul at i on of l i qui d t akes pl ace,
whi ch r esul t s i n a subst ant i al l y t hi cker f i l m. A bi t l ower ( 10- 30 mm,
dependi ng on condi t i ons) t he accumul at i on spr eads out , and sur pr i si ngl y,
t he t wo t hi cker channel s t hat or i gi nal l y f l owed i nt o t hi s accumul at i on,
seem t o f l ow out of i t seemi ngl y unchanged. The accumul at i on i s
appar ant l y caused by a change i n t he r at i o of l ocal axi al and t angent i al
- 112-
gas v el oc i t i es , as t he angl e of i nc l i nat i on i s muc h s mal l er i n t he
accumul at i on t han up- or downst r eam of i t ( see f i gur e 6. 16) .
Si gni f i c ant r eent r ai nment of t he l i qui d f i l m i n t he cl eaned gas seems t o
t ake pl ace onl y f r om t hi s band of accumul at ed l i qui d. I f r eent r ai nment
t akes pl ace f ur t her down, r eent r ai ned dr ops seem t o be depos i t ed di r ect l y
af t er war ds . Di s t ur bances i n t he l i qui d f i l m downs t r eam of t he band of
ac c umul at ed l i qui d s eem t o be mi ni mal i n compar i s on t o t he di s t ur bances
i n t he band i t s el f .
Reent r ai nment f r om t hi s band occur r ed onl y when l ar ge di s t ur bance waves
appear ed.
Dur i ng al l obs er vat i ons a cer t ai n amount of l i qui d cr ept al ong t he vor t ex
f i nder i nt o t he cl eaned gas st r eam. The es t i mat ed quant i t y amount s f r om
0. 5- 1. 0^ of t he t ot al l i qui d t hr oughput .
I n t abl e 6. VI t he r es ul t s ar e summar i zed wi t h t he cor r es pondi ng exper i ment al
condi t i ons under whi ch t hey have been meas ur ed.
B31. I .
Approx 55
Perspex
Fig. 6.16 Observed phenomena in cyclone fig. 6.17 Geometry of test cyclone
The endos cope was put at t he di s pos al of t he pr oj ect by Wol f GmbH.
Koni nkl i j ke/ Shel l - Labor at or i um, Ams t er dam assi st ed i n t he meas ur ement s .
-113-
exp.
r un
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
gas
densi t y
( kg/ m
3
)
1. 3
1. 3
1. 3
5
5
5
10
10
10
l i qui d
l oadi ng
( 10%#)
( d
5l
, ~20um)
3
6
12
3
6
12
3
6
12
channel s
di sappear
at ( m
3
/ hr )
90
80
65
80
80
55
75
70
50
band f ul l y
t ur bul ent
at ( m
3
/ hr )
60
60
60
60
55
60
55
50
55
r eent r ai nment
obser ved
at ( m
3
/ hr )
65
60
60
55
55
60
50
55
55
ef f i ci ency
cur ves and
f i l m vel oci t y
app. C, page
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
C. 6
Table 6. VI
Experiments with respect to the behaviour of mist phase
Li ke i n bl ock AC-EXP2, i t was al so tri ed here to measure fracti onal
efficiency curves. Unfortunately, the same negative resul ts were achi eved.
I n thi s case not only because of the very low concentrati ons of mist
parti cl es in the cyclone outl et, but parti cul arl y because the parti cl es
appeared to be large and probably originated from sheared off creeping film.
After these measurements i t was clear that i t would be necessary to measure
pri mary f racti onal ef f i ci ency curves with dust i n order to prevent
di storti on because of creep. (This has not been carried out sofar.)
Block RFC-EXP3
The experiments in thi s block are necessary to form a general database to
veri fy the predi cti ons of the general RFC-M0D3 model, that i s intended to
descri be the f ul l behaviour of a cycl one. Therefore, experiments were
carri ed out with four di fferent cyclone geometries (two of which were
designed according to guidelines collected i n secti on 3.4.^.2; and two of
which were cyclones that are popular i n practi cal operation) . These four
geometries are depicted in figures 6.13B and 6.18A-C.
Table 6.VI I l i sts the experimental condi ti ons under which each of these
cyclones was characterized and where the resul ts can be found in appendix C.
Each run consi sts of a vari ati on of the gas flow from 30-100 m
3
/hr and of
-5
the l i qui d load from 2-12*10 v%. In appendix C cyclone types B, C, D and E
are referred to as cyclones I , I I , I I I and IV.
0.5D
0.5Dx0.2D
Q/D2=1.5 m/ s .
Apl ai r at 20, 1 bar
= 0.07 N / V
Figure 6.18A Cyclone
geometry C
B33.- 1
.Sklr
Figure 6.18B Cyclone Figure 6.18C Cyclone
geometry D geometry E
exp.
r un *
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8- 10
11- 13
14- 16
17- 19
20
21
22
23
24
25
cycl one t ype
( f i g. 6. 13/ 18)
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
D
D
D
E
E
E
E
gas densi t y
P " kg/ m
3
1- 3
4
6. 5
1. 3
4
6. 5
10
1- 3
4
6. 5
10
13 ( SF, )
25 ( SF, )
1- 3
4
6. 5
10
l i qui d sor t
*
wa
wa
wa
wa
wa
wa
wa
wa, bu, gl
wa. bu. gl
wa, bu, gl
wa. bu. gl
wa
wa
wa
wa
wa
wa
pr essur e
dr op ( 5) ***
45
-
-
65
-
-
-
24
-
-
-
-
-
2q##
-
-
-
ef f . cur ves
app. C. page
C. 7
C. 7
C. 7
C. 7
C. 7
C. 7
C. 7
C. 7. C. 8
C. 8
C. 8
C. 9
C. 9
C. 9
C. 9
C. 9
C. 9
C. 10
* i n each experiment the gas flow i s vari ed from 30- 100 m
3
/ hr at l i qui d
l oadi ngs of 2-12 vol *.
** dr opl et si ze di st r i but i ons depi ct ed i n appendi x C, page C. 10.
2
*** 5 r el at es t o cr oss sect i onal ar ea of cycl one ( 0. 25 n D ) .
**** pr essur e dr op cur ves gi ven f or measur ement s wi t h wat er i n appendi x C,
page C. 10.
Table 6. VII
- 115-
Bl ock RFC- EXP' J
The exper i ment s car r i ed out i n t hi s bl ock ser ve t o i dent i f y and quant i f y t he
det r i ment al ef f ect s t hat accompany t he scal e- up of a si ngl e cycl one t o a
mul t i cycl one package. Wi t h t hi s i nf or mat i on i t i s possi bl e t o f orma basi s
f or t he MODU bl ocks and t hei r val i dat i on. As was t he case wi t h ot her EXP-
bl ocks ( AC- EXPl and RFC- EXPl ) par t of t he dat a ar e used as st ar t i ng
i nf or mat i on f or M0D4 and par t f or i t s val i dat i on. The r esul t s envi saged i n
t he f i r st obj ect i ve ar e:
1. Det er mi nat i on of t he var i at i on of i nl et condi t i ons of i ndi vi dual cycl ones
acr oss a mul t i cycl one package;
2. Det er mi nat i on of t he i nf l uence of t he mul t i cyl one geomet r y on t hi s
var i at i on.
The r esul t s envi saged i n t he second obj ect i ve ar e:
1. Compar i son of t he oper at i ng char act er i st i cs of a si ngl e cycl one t o t hose
of t he aver age i ndi vi dual cycl one i n a mul t i cycl one package;
2. Compar i son of t he oper at i ng char act er i st i cs of a si ngl e cycl one t o t hose
of t he aver age i ndi vi dual cycl one i n a speci al mul t i cycl one package. Thi s
package has been desi gned i n such a way t hat ever y si ngl e cycl one i s
posi t i oned i dent i cal l y.
The set - up of t he exper i ment cl ear l y i mpl i es t hat of al l det r i ment al ef f ect s
ment i oned i n sect i on 'i.kA.k, t he ef f ect of mal di st r i but i on of gas and
l i qui d phases acr oss a package wi l l be i nvest i gat ed especi al l y. The ot her
ef f ect s ar e mai nl y const r uct i onal or mechani cal and can easi l y be avoi ded.
The di f f er ent mul t i cycl one geomet r i es t hat have been t est ed ar e depi ct ed i n
f i gure 6. I 9. Test bundl es B and C ( Pal adon) are composed of cycl ones of t ype
E ( f i gur e 6. 18C) . Test bundl e A ( Bur gess Manni ng) consi st s of cycl ones of
t ype D ( f i gure 6. 18B) .
Thi s mul t i cycl one has been speci al l y pr epar ed t o measur e t he oper at i ng
condi t i ons of t he i ndi vi dual cycl ones i n t he mul t i cycl one bundl e.
Pr ovi si ons wer e made t o measur e:
a. t he l i qui d l oadi ng of a number of cycl ones;
b. t he gas f l ow t hr ough t he vor t ex f i nder of t hese cycl ones.
The cycl ones t hat have been measur ed i ndi vi dual l y ar e si t uat ed at r epr esen-
t at i ve l ocat i ons acr oss t he mul t i cycl one and ar e i ndi cat ed i n f i gur e 6. 19-
Fi gur e 6. 20 shows a pi ct ur e of t he mul t i cycl one under i nvest i gat i on.
- 116-
--0-O-
m
a
ilU'
A B
Figure 6.19 Multicyolones A-C
Figure 6. 20 Multiayalone A
Test bundl es B and C consi st of onl y one l ayer of cycl ones. Test bundl e A
f eatures a double l ayer. This appears to be a practi cal method to mi ni mi ze
the di ameter of the vessel ; a practi ce sometimes al so carri ed out by the
other manufacturer. Test bundle C i s a cyclone package wi th one cycl one l ess
than B i n whi ch al l cycl ones are posi ti oned i denti cal l y to mi ni mi ze
mal di stri buti on. The experi ments of thi s bl ock are l i sted i n tabl e 6.VI I I as
numbers 1-9. Fi gure 6.21A gi ves an example of the 'mul ti cycl one' ef f ect.
100-
55-
_ 90-
2 85-
| 80-
75-
| 70-
1
6S
"
S 60-
55-
50-
A cyclone E ,>ig.6.18C
cyclone B ,fig.6.19B
o cyclone C ,flg.6.19C
~50 7 M 110
gasflow per cyclone (mV hr l
To To To o"
gssflow per cyclone (mV hr l
"so ' Jo To ^~
gasriow per cyclone ImV hr)
Fig. 6. 21A Multiayalone effect Fig. 6. 21B Multiayalone A Fig. 6. 21C Multiayalone B
-117-
Block RFC-EXP5
The resul ts of thi s block are used to form a database with which the general
multicyclone describing model (M0D5) can be veri fi ed.
The measurements to quantify the multicyclone effect have already resulted
i n a vast amount of atmospheric data that can f ul f i l thi s f uncti on.
Therefore, the only extra experiments speci f i cal l y carri ed out for thi s
block consisted of the determination of the operating characteri sti cs of the
mul ti cycl ones presented in fi gure 6.19 with another two phase system,
gl ycol /ai r.
The parti cul ars are summarized in table 6.VI I I .
exp.
r un *
1- 3
h- 6
6- 9
10- 12
13- 15
mul t i cycl one
t ype
A
B
C
A
B
l i qui d
sor t **
wat er
wat er
wat er
gl ycol
gl ycol
ext r a car r y- over of
mul t i cycl one w. r . t .
si ngl e cycl one ***
ca. 17x
ca. l l x
ca. 2. 5x
-
-
r esul t s i n
Ni euwenhui s
[ 1987] and
Besemer
[ 1988]
* each run consi sts of determination of separation efficiency and pressure
-5
drop from approximately 30-100 m
3
/hr with 2-12'10 v% of l i qui d.
** i nl et droplet size di stri buti ons: d_ vari es between 25 - 75 urn.
5U
*** measur ed at 100 m
3
/ hr .
Table 6.VIII
I n f i gur es 6. 21B and C exampl es ar e gi ven of t he char act er i zat i ons of
mul t i cycl ones A and B. I t appear s t hat t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency of A
decr eases wi t h decr easi ng l i qui d l oad, whi l e t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency of B
i ncr eases. Thi s ef f ect wi l l be expl ai ned i n chapt er 7-
For t est - r i g 2 a t est vessel has been desi gned i n whi ch t wo si ngl e cycl ones
can be accommodat ed. The oper at i ng condi t i ons of f er ed t o each of t he
cycl ones can be car ef ul l y cont r ol l ed. Al so t he oper at i ng char act er i st i cs can
be moni t or ed separ at el y. Thi s vessel i s depi ct ed i n f i gur e 6. 22.
Wi t h t hese exper i ment s, whi ch ar e not f i ni shed yet , i t i s expect ed t o ext end
t he val i dat i on of t he r el at i ons t o be set up i n MOUk t o al l oper at i ng
condi t i ons.
- 118-
i m
Figure 6.22 Test vessel for two cyclones
6. 3- 3 Vanes
As al r eady ment i oned i n chapt er 4, t he emphasi s of t he pr esent r esear ch
pr oj ect has been put on t he i nvest i gat i ons of t he cycl one- t ype separ at or s.
Lar ge par t s of t he l ogi cal pr oj ect st r uct ur e f or t hese separ at or s have been
compl et ed. The compl et i on of t he pr oj ect st r uct ur e f or vanes i s much l ess
advanced. Ther ef or e t he emphasi s of t he f ol l ow- up pr oj ect wi l l be put on
t hese separ at or s. These r esul t s wi l l be i ncl uded i n t he t hesi s of Ver l aan
[ pl anned t o be publ i shed i n 1990] . Exper i ment al r esul t s have al ready been
obt ai ned, somet i mes even i n vast amount , but t he whol e col l ect i on l ooks
somewhat f r agment ed as st i l l some i mpor t ant dat a l ack.
- 119 -
Block V- E XP1
The resul ts of the experiments of thi s block are used to val i date the MODI
predictions of the gas flow fi el d between vane blades. Unlike the other EXP1
bl ocks no i nformati on needs to be col l ected to start the models wi th,
because the modelling of vanes appeared to be much more strai ght forward
than that of cycl ones. Anticipating the already mentioned follow-up thesi s
of Verlaan, preliminary experiments lead to the following measured gas flow
f i el d di stri buti ons between vane blades of a geometry as depicted in figure
6.23A. Velocities are measured with the pi tot tube as descri bed i n earl i er
EXP1 bl ocks. I n fi gure 6.23B the corresponding gas flow l i nes, visualized
with smoke, are shown (De Kort [1987])-
Fig. 6.23A Indicative example of measured velo- Fig. 6.23B Flow field
city distribution between vanes visualization
Block V- E XP2
The experiments in thi s block are necessary to check the models that
descri be the behaviour of the l i qui d phase. As encountered with the other
separator types thi s means that the behaviour of i ) the l i qui d film and i i )
the disperse phase (droplets) has to be characterized through experiments.
- 120-
Exper i ment s wi t h r espect t o t he l i qui d f i l mbehavi our
One exper i ment has al r eady been car r i ed out on t est - r i g 3- For t hi s pur pose
a commer ci al vane package was pr epar ed f or i nt er nal i nvest i gat i ons. One of
t he mor e or l ess hol l ow bl ades of t hi s vane package ( Bur gess Manni ng 625)
has been pr ovi ded wi t h a l ongi t udonal sl i t , i n whi ch an endoscope coul d be
embedded unobst r usi vel y t o vi ew t he opposi t e bl ade ( f or pr eci se descr i pt i on
of geomet r y see sect i on 3 -^- 3) - The l ocat i on of t hi s sl i t was chosen so t hat
t he second dr ai nage sl i t of t he opposi t e bl ade coul d be obser ved ( see f i gure
6. 24A) . The endoscope was put at t he di sposal of t he pr oj ect by Wol f GmbH.
Koni nkl i j ke/ Shel l - Labor at or i um, Amst er damassi st ed i n t he measur ement s.
Figure 6. 24A Field of view Figure 6.24B Experimental set-up
The i mpor t ant obser vat i ons of t hese i nvest i gat i ons wer e:
1A. At super f i ci al gas vel oci t i es ( ref erred t o t he f r ont al ar ea of t he vane)
l ower t han 3~5 m/ s and l i qui d l oadi ngs < 5 >!! most of t he l i qui d of f er ed
t o t he vanes ( 80- 90$) di d not r each t he second bend and had appar ant l y,
been separ at ed i n t he f i r st bend.
I B. At l i qui d l oadi ngs > 5 m# and/ or at super f i ci al gas vel oci t i es above 3
-
5
m/ s a subst ant i al amount of l i qui d i s dr ai ned t hr ough t he sl i t behi nd
t he second bend.
2. Al so a subst ant i al amount of l i qui d was dr ai ned i n t he t op sect i on of
t he bend i n t he vane pl at e ( see f i gur e 6. 25) .
3. The l i qui d f i l ment er s t he dr ai nage sl i t f l owi ng around t he upst r eaml i p
of t he sl i t ( see f i gure 6. 25) .
- 121-
Figure 6.25 Observed phenomena inside vane
4. At l i qui d l oadi ngs < 5 n>%and at super f i ci al gas vel oci t i es > 7 m/ s t he
t hi n ( 0. 03- 0. 08 mm) l ami nar l i qui d f i l m changed t o a pul sat i ng, at
t i mes, t hi ck f i l m ( 0. 1- 0. 25 mm) wi t h a ver y wavy sur f ace. I n t hi s f i l m
r egi me r eent r ai nment of dr ops coul d of t en be obser ved.
5. Reent r ai nment t ook al ways pl ace f r om t he sharp i r r egul ar i t i es at t he
edge of t he upst r eaml i p of t he sl i t , around whi ch t he f i l mf l owed i nt o
t he sl i t ( see f i gur e 6. 25) .
6. Reent r ai ned dr ops wer e at most t i mes deposi t ed agai n under t he
condi t i ons ment i oned under 4. Reent r ai ned dr ops of 30 um, t he smal l est
dr ops t hat coul d be r ecogni zed wi t h t he opt i cal syst em used, wer e
deposi t ed hal f way bet ween t he sl i t and t he next bend. Reent r ai ned dr ops
of 100 pmand l ar ger di r ect l y behi nd t he sl i t . Thi s phenomenon appear ed
as dr opl et s ' j umpi ng' acr oss t he sl i t .
7. At hi gh l i qui d l oadi ngs and gas vel oci t i es, when t he downst r eam si de of
t he sl i t was wet t ed subst ant i al l y i n t he above descr i bed way, a ver y
t hi n f i l m ( 20- 30 pm) was obser ved cr eepi ng agai nst t he gas di r ect i on
i nt o t he sl i t ( bendi ng i t sel f around t he edge of t he downst r eaml i p) .
Tabl e 6. I X gi ves a summar y of t he exper i ment al condi t i ons and measur ed
r esul t s. Exper i ment s have been car r i ed out onl y wi t h wat er and ai r .
exp.
run
1
2
3
l i qui d- l oadi ng
(10"
5
vol *)
2
5
10
gas vel oci t y ( m/ s) *
at whi ch second sl i t
was f i r st wet t ed
5. 5
5. 0
< 3. 5
gas vel oci t y ( m/ s) *
at whi ch f i l mshowed
f i rst i nst abi l i t i es
8
8
4 - 4. 5
- 122-
exp.
r un
1
2
3
f i l mt hi ckness ( pm)
at mi ni mumgas
vel oci t y*
30
HO
40
f i l mt hi ckness (urn)
at maxi mumgas
vel oci t y ( 13 m/ s) *
80
80
80 - 120
* gas vel oci t i es r ef er t o t he super f i ci al vel oci t y i n f r ont of t he vane.
Table 6.IX
Experiments with respect to the behaviour of the disperse phase
On test- ri g 3 i t appeared to be possi bl e to determine downstream dropl et
si ze di stri buti ons of mists that had penetrated untouched through the vane
bl ades and that did not contai n l arger dropl ets caused by creep or
reentrai nment. This enabled the di rect determi nati on of the fractional
efficiency curve of vane separators with geometries as presented i n fi gure
6.29 i n V-EXP4. Table 6.X summarizes experimental conditions and refers to
the fi gures.
exp.
r un
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
geomet r y
( f i K. 6. 28)
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
super f i ci al gas
vel oci t y ( m/ s)
4
8
4
8
4
8
4
8
gr aphs
app. C, page
C. l l
C. l l
C. l l
C. l l
C. l l
C. l l
C. l l
C. l l
Table 6.X
Block V- E XP3
With vane separators no experiments under actual oi l field conditions have
been carri ed out yet. With respect to these experiments i s referred to the
thesi s in preparation of Verlaan.
Block V- E XP4
The exper i ment s i n t hi s bl ock wi l l be used t o quant i f y t he ef f ect s t hat
accompany upscal i ng of vane separ at or s. The most not ewor t hy ef f ect t hat was
expect ed ( see al so sect i on 3- 4. 3) was t he mal di st r i but i on of t he t wo- phase
mi xt ur e acr oss t he f ront al sur f ace of t he vane separ at or .
- 123-
Thi s wi l l especi al l y be t he case wi t h vane separ at or s t hat have a l ar ge
rat i o of l engt h and wi dt h of t hei r f r ont al sur f ace. One of t he measur es t o
count er act t hi s mal di st r i but i on i s t o pl ace per f or at ed pl at es up- and
downst r eam of t he vane pack t o bui l d up an equal i zi ng pr essur e. The
exper i ment s pl anned i n t hi s bl ock consi st ed of t he:
1. det er mi nat i on of t he ef f ect of var yi ng l engt h/ wi dt h r at i os of t he f r ont al
sur f ace of t he vanepack;
2. det er mi nat i on of t he secondar y ef f ect of per f or at ed pl at es wi t h r espect
t o t hei r i nf l uence on t he l i qui d phase.
Dur i ng t hese i nvest i gat i ons i t appear ed t hat unexpect ed separ at i on
mechani sms downst r eamof t he vanepack pl ayed an i mpor t ant r ol e and i mpeded
wi t h t he char act er i zat i on of t he vane pack i t sel f . These ef f ect s ar e
descr i bed f i r st .
Fig. 6.26 Secondary Fig. 6.27 Alternative Fig. 6.28 Effect of alter-
separation set-up native set-up
The usual way t o i nst al l a hor i zont al l y f l owed t hrough vane pack i s depi ct ed
i n f i gur e 6. 26. Thi s way of i nst al l at i on necessi t at es t wo shar p t urns of t he
gas f l ow af t er exi t i ng bet ween t he vane bl ades. Under condi t i ons of
over l oadi ng, r el at i vel y l ar ge dr opl et s d
5 0
> 200 pmar e r eent r ai ned f romt he
vane pack and ar e subsequent l y separ at ed i n t he t wo zones i ndi cat ed i n
f i gur e 6. 26. I n t he f i r st zone because of t he shar p bend t he gas has t o
make; i n t he second al so because of a r el at i vel y shar p bend, but mai nl y
because of t he r educt i on i n act ual vel oci t y above t he vane pack.
- 124-
The l i qui d separ at ed i n second i nst ance has been obser ved t o f l ow back i n
shel t er ed zones agai nst t he gas st r eami n t he space di r ect l y behi nd t he vane
( zone I ) . Fr omher e i t f l ows over i nt o t he sump under neat h t he vane pack
f romwhi ch t he separ at ed l i qui d i s dr ai ned.
To quant i f y t hese ef f ect s measur ement s have been car r i ed out i n whi ch t he
gas f l owi ng out of vane pack, f l owed di r ect l y i n a f l exi bl e hose out of t he
separ at i on zones ( see f i gur e 6. 27) . Fi gur e 6. 28 gi ves an i l l ust r at i ve
exampl e of t he oper at i onal di f f er ences of t hi s conf i gur at i on wi t h r espect t o
t he usual vane pack i nst al l at i on.
Her eaf t er t he exper i ment s, or i gi nal l y pl anned i n t hi s bl ock, wer e car r i ed
out .
Det er mi nat i on of t he i nf l uence of var yi ng l engt h/ wi dt h r at i os
A qual i t at i ve exper i ment has been car r i ed out wi t h vane pack t ype A ( f i gur e
6. 29) i n whi ch t he l engt h wi dt h r at i o of i t s f r ont al i nl et ar ea was
i ncr eased f rom50 cm/ 26 cm( I ) t o 50 cm/ 13 cm( I I ) . I n t hi s way t he ef f ect
of bot h det r i ment al mechani sms t hat act dur i ng t hi s ki nd of upscal i ng can be
det er mi ned.
exp.
r un
1
2
3
super f i ci al gas
vel oci t y ( m/ s)
8
8
8
l i qui d^l oadi ng
( 10
- 5
vol #)
2
6
12
% mor e car r y- over of
si t uat i on I I
2
1
8
Table 6.XI
The measurements have been carried out with the vane separator configured as
in figure 6.27. I t has not been quanti fi ed whether the decrease of the
separati on effi ci ency with the i ncrease of L/D rati o i s caused by the
overf l owi ng of the l ower parts of the drai nage sl i t s or by the
mal di stri buti on of the gas across the longitudonal cross section. The fact
that the effect i s most di sti nct at high liquid loadings favours the f i rst
mechanism.
- 125-
Det er mi nat i on of t he secondar y ef f ect s of per f or at ed pl at es
Apar t f r om t he posi t i ve ef f ect s t hat t he popul ar per f or at ed pl at es mi ght
exer t wi t h r espect t o enhanci ng of t he di st r i but i on, i t was f el t t hat al so
negat i ve aspect s mi ght cl i ng t o t he use of t hem. Especi al l y t he br eak- up of
l ar ge dr opl et s at t he downst r eamsi de mi ght spoi l t he secondar y separ at i on
mechani sms whi ch have been ment i oned bef or e. Ther ef or e, a si mpl e exper i ment
has been carri ed out i n whi ch a vane pack wi t h a mor e or l ess squar e i nl et
sur f ace (so t hat mal di st r i but i on wi l l not t ake pl ace) has been pr ovi ded wi t h
di f f er ent sor t s of per f or at ed pl at es. I t was expect ed t hat t he smal l er t he
net f r ee ar ea was chosen, t he l ar ger t he shear f or ces on t he dr opl et woul d
be and t he smal l er t he dr opl et , t he hi gher t he car r y over ( t he smal l er t he
separ at i ve f orce of zone I and I I ) . Thi s was conf i r med by t he exper i ment s.
However , t he quant i f i cat i on of t hi s ef f ect l i es sl i ght l y out si de t he scope
of t hi s pr oj ect . Onl y an i l l ust r at i ve exampl e i s pr esent ed i n f i gur e 6- 30
and no r ef er ence t o i t wi l l be f ound i n t he cor r espondi ng M0D4 bl ock.
The vane pack, accor di ng t o t ype B of f i gure 6. 29, has been t est ed i n i t s
or i gi nal f orm(no modi f i cat i ons as i n f i gur e 6. 27) .
Burgess Manning 425 Euroform TS 5/f c Burgess Manning 627 Euroform T271
A
B C D
Figure 6.29 Tested vane geometries
- 126-
No perforated plates
With perforated pl ates
Casflow
Figure 6.30 Effect of perforated plates
Block V- E XP5
I n t hi s bl ock f our t ypes of act ual scal ed vane separ at or s have been t est ed
under var yi ng condi t i ons. These r esul t s f or m a dat abase f r omwhi ch t he
at mospher i cal par t of t he M0D5 model s can be ver i f i ed. The f our vane
separ at or s ar e pr esent ed i n f i gur e 6. 29. Type A and B ar e t wo commer ci al
hor i zont al l y f l owed t hr ough vanes wi t h shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage. Type C and
D ar e t wo commer ci al ver t i cal l y f l owed t hr ough vanes, of whi ch t ype C
f eat ur es a shi el ded i nt er nal dr ai nage. For t he speci f i c descr i pt i on of t hese
aspect s, see sect i on 3' ^. 3.
The r eason why onl y t he hor i zont al l y f l owed t hr ough vanes have been t he
subj ect f or scal i ng up char act er i zat i ons i s t hat t he t est sect i on of t est -
r i g 3 i s posi t i oned ver t i cal l y. ( Under t hi s condi t i on ver t i cal f l owed
t hr ough separ at or s wi l l not show ef f ect s of mal di st r i but i on. )
Tabl e 6. XI I summar i zes t he exper i ment al condi t i ons and r ef er s t o t he
l ocat i on of t he t est r esul t s.
exp. *
r un
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
vane t ype
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
l i qui d sor t
#
wat er
wat er
wat er
wat er
gl ycol
gl ycol
gl ycol
gl ycol
r esul t s i n
Vemer [ 1987]
and
Over gaag [ 1988]
* each r un consi st s of a var i at i on of t he super f i ci al gas vel oci t y f rom
appr oxi mat el y 3~15 m/ s at var i at i on of t he l i qui d l oad f rom2- 12* 10" ^.
** i nl et dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on: d
5
~ 25- 75 pm-
Table 6.XII
-127-
In figure 6.31 the characteri zati ons of the two verti cal vane packs are
given as i l l ustrati on. Figure 6.31A gives the test resul ts of vane C; figure
6.31B of vane D.
The di f f erence i n capaci ty l i mi tati on (see secti on 3-^-3) i s cl earl y
demonstrated.
100
90-
B
80
'
1 '
X 50-
| 1.0-
S 30
X 20
10
A 2-10-5 v%
A 6.10-5 %
12.10-5 1%
90-
3 80-
. 70-
1 60-
~50-1
S t o -
l l
3 0
"
X 20-
10 -
0-
A

2.10-5 x
6.10-5 x
12.10-5 vX
1 1
7 9 11 13 15 17
superficial gasvetoclfy Im/sl
" . 5 6 7 8
superficial gasvelocify Im/s)
Figure 6.31A Test results of vane C
Figure 6.31B Test results of vane D
- 129-
7 . MODELLING RESULTS
7.1 Introduction
7. 1. 1 St r uct ur e of chapt er
I n t hi s chapt er model s ar e f or mul at ed wi t h whi ch i t i s possi bl e t o pr edi ct
t he char act er i st i cs of t he separ at or s under i nvest i gat i on. These model s l ead
t o t he i nt r oduct i on of new separ at or desi gns and i mpr oved desi gn equat i ons
f or exi st i ng separ at or s ( i n chapt er 8) .
The f ol l owi ng oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ar e t he subj ect of model l i ng:
1. separ at i on ef f i ci ency, t hus al so:
a. maxi mal capaci t y
b. mi ni mal capaci t y
2. pr essur e dr op
as a f unct i on of separ at or geomet r y and oper at i ng condi t i ons.
I n sect i ons 7- 2 and 7- 3 common component s of t he model s ar e descr i bed.
Sect i ons 7- 4- 7. 6 gi ve an over vi ew of t he model s t hat have been devel oped
sof ar , per separ at or t ype under i nvest i gat i on.
7. 1. 2 Model l i ng t echni ques
The model s t hat ar e envi saged consi st of sever al submodel s as expl ai ned i n
chapt er 4. Submodel s ar e f or mul at ed t hat descr i be t he gas phase ( MODI ) and
t he l i qui d phase ( M0D2) . See i nner si de of t he f r ont cover f or expl anat i on of
t he codes.
Pr edi ct i ng a gas f l ow f i el d put s ot her demands on model l i ng t echni ques t han
pr edi ct i ng a gas/ l i qui d i nt er act i on under gi ven condi t i ons.
The f or mer model t ype per f or ms onl y adequat el y i f a numer i cal scheme i s set
up wi t h whi ch i t i s at t empt ed t o descr i be t he gas f l ow f i el d as accur at el y
as possi bl e. Gr ave si mpl i f i cat i ons of t he gas f l ow f i el d, as shown i n f or
i nst ance appendi x A ~$ .k .k .2 , wi l l al most i mmedi at el y r esul t i n an
unal l owabl e degr ee of i naccur acy. Power f ul comput i ng f aci l i t i es ar e
necessar y t o per f or mt hese ext ensi ve numer i cal comput at i ons.
- 130-
The pr edi ct i on of t he behavi our of a t wo- phase syst emunder gi ven condi t i ons
i s much mor e subsi st ed by physi cal or phenomenol ogi cal model l i ng: cer t ai n
obser ved phenomena ar e used as a st ar t f or f ur t her model s. A good exampl e i s
t he r eent r ai nment model of I shi i [ 1975] , descr i bed i n sect i on 5- 3-
The appr oach chosen i n t hi s chapt er i s one of model cl ust er i ng. Wi t h assumed
boundar y condi t i ons ( dependi ng on t he l i qui d phase) t he gas f l ow f i el d ( i n
MODI ) i s cal cul at ed. These r esul t s are used t o pr edi ct t he behavi our of t he
l i qui d phase ( i n M0D2) , f r omwhi ch t he assumed boundar y condi t i ons wi t h
r espect t o t he gas phase can be ver i f i ed. I f necessar y a val i d sol ut i on i s
obt ai ned af t er some i t er at i ons. M0D3 f or ms t he f r amewor k i n whi ch t hi s
i nt er act i on t akes pl ace. Somet i mes t he "i nf l uence of scal e has t o be t aken
i nt o account . The r esul t s of t he model t hat pr edi ct s mal di st r i but i on acr oss
t he separ at or ( M0D4) ar e used t o ver i f y t he boundar y condi t i ons of M0D3, t he
model t hat descr i bes t he basi c separ at i on uni t . Thi s i nt er act i on pl ays i n
M0D5, t he model t hat descr i bes t he f ul l separ at or .
I n t he f ol l owi ng sect i ons at t ent i on i s pai d t o common el ement s i n t he MODI
and M0D2 bl ocks of t he t hr ee separ at or t ypes under i nvest i gat i on. I n sect i on
7. 2 speci f i c at t ent i on i s gi ven t o t he numer i cal pr edi ct i on of gas f l ow
f i el ds and i n sect i on 7- 3 t o t he gas/ l i qui d phenomena t hat f or mt he cor e of
t he M0D2 model s.
7-2 Numerica l modelling of ga s flow fields
7- 2. 1 Physi cal backgr ound
La ws of conserva tion
The equat i ons t hat gover n i ncompr essi bl e, t i me- i ndependent , i sot her mal ,
si ngl e phase f l ui d f l ow ar e: ( see f i gur e 7- 1 f or coor di nat e not at i on)
u 7^ u
Figure 7.1 Notation for coordinate system
- 131-
1. t he l aw of conser vat i on of mat t er :
Or
p
r r * z
U u #1
'
2. the law of conservati on of momentum:
i n the di recti on of r:
fV ,, V W V W
2
g
l
t 6r r * r
*P
+
fiX 16V L L 11 i _ V M/, , .
i f ) =
z'
1
2
V
r
2
6*
2
2 V
r
2
6*
or
M
g
l
r
2
r 6r r
2
r
2
6*
2
r
2
6* or
i n the di recti on of
,W W W 6W VW ., W,
p
g lt
+ V
F
+
F 6*" " F
- + U
fa) =
6P_
f
6iW I W W_ . L_ 61W _ 2_ W 61Wi ,_ , ,
r*
y
g
l
r
2 +
r 6r " r
2
r
2
*
2
r
2
*
+
Or
2
'
{ ,
'
i
'
i n the di recti on of z:
,6U 6U W 6U .. U,
g
l
t r r 6* z'
P r oi l I U 1_ f_U , . ...
" z
v
g
l
dr
2 +
r r r
2
*
2
z
2 J U- H
'
U, V and War e t he moment ar y vel oci t i es i n t he di r ect i ons denot ed i n f i gur e
7. 1, P i s t he moment ar y pr essur e, p t he l ami nar dynami c vi scosi t y.
These equat i ons ar e gener al l y appl i cabl e t o t ur bul ent and l ami nar f l ows. I n
l ami nar f l ows t he moment ar y val ues of vel oci t y component s and pr essur e equal
t he aver age val ues.
The Reynol ds decomposi t i on
I n t ur bul ent f l ows t he moment ar y val ues of vel oci t i es and pr es s ur e
f l uct uat e. The scal e at whi ch t hese f l uct uat i ons occur i s of t en much smal l er
t han t he macr oscopi c gas f l ow f i el d. Accor di ng t o Col enbr ander [ 1988] a
t ypi cal scal e of l engt h at whi ch mass and moment um ar e t r ansf er r ed i n a
- 132-
t ur bul ent gas f l ow i s 0. 1 mm. I t has t r emendous i mpl i cat i ons f or t he
comput i ng f aci l i t i es i f a macr oscopi c gas f l ow f i el d i s model l ed wi t h a
r esol ut i on of t hi s or der of magni t ude. Ther ef or e, f l ui d f l ow cal cul at i ons
ar e of t en based on t he t i me aver aged val ue of vel oci t i es and pr essur e and
t he moment ar y val ue of t hei r f l uct uat i ons. Thi s i s cal l ed Reynol ds
decomposi t i on ( af t er Reynol ds [ 1877] )
U

=u

+u'

( 7- 5)
i n whi ch:
U. =moment ar y val ue of var i abl e U. ( vel oci t y component or pr essur e)
u. =t i me aver aged component
u' . =f l uct uat i ng component
t +6
1 f
u. i s def i ned as u. =l i mT- U. dt ( 7- 6)
e +#
t
o
t he aver aged val ue of u' . equal s zer o, as per def i ni t i on:
t +8
J =l i mj [ (U. - u. ) dt =0 (7. 7)
o
Thi s decomposi t i on i s onl y of pr act i cal use i f t he r at e of f l uct uat i on of u.
i s smal l i n compar i son t o t hat of U. . I n ot her wor ds, u. shoul d be
i ndependent of t . Thi s i s t he case i n st at i onar y f l ows.
I f t hi s decomposi t i on i s appl i ed t o U, V, Wand P i n equat i ons 7- l ~75 and
i t i s assumed t hat :
1. t he gas f l ow f i el ds under i nvest i gat i on ar e axi al l y symmet r i c ( cycl ones) ,
t hus
*"
=

;
2. t he f l ow f i el d i s st at i onar y;
t hen t he cont i nui t y equat i on i s t ransf ormed t o:
6u
+
1 i r yl
= 0 ( 7- 8)
<5z r r
- 133-
and the equati ons that descri be the conservati on of momentum:
i n the di recti on of z:
u u
u +v 7
6z or
F
1 6p_ 6 .
12s
1 6 . , ,. f<5
2
u 1 u, ^ z ,_
n
.
* - 7<u
,2
> 7r<u'v'> +v l-z-r +7r 7I + (7.9)
p <5z 6z r or g
l
6z
2
r r r' p
g
i n the di recti on of r:
6v 6v w*_
U
6z
+
^ r
F
v 1 r 1 p <5 , , ,
v
1 6 . , . . <w'
2
> ,6
2
v 1 6 6v
7^- - <u'v'> 7r<v'
2
> + +v (7-7- +7r ,, .
p 6z 6z r or r g
l
6z
2
r or 6r r
2
' p
g
(7.10)
i n the di recti on of :
6w <5w vw
u 7+v
6z 6r r
F
6 , , ,v 1 6 . , ,* <v'w'> /6
2
w 1 6 <5w w \ $
7- <u'w'> 7- r<v'w'> + v I-5-7- +- 7r 7
r
l +
6z r 6r r g
l
6z
2
r 6r or r* ' p
g
(7.H)
The products of vel oci ty f l uctuati ons, encl osed by the tri angul ar brackets,
(<u'.u'.>) are ti me averaged val ues. I f mul ti pl i ed by p , the product <u'.u'.>
represents the transf er of x. momentum i n x. di recti on by tur bul ence
(f l uctuati ng vel oci ti es):
T. . =- p <u'.u'.>.
i j 1 J
These ar e cal l ed Reynol ds st r esses. Fi gur e 7- 2 shows t hei r nomencl at ur e i n a
cyl i ndr i cal coor di nat e syst em.
I t can be pr oven ( f or i nst ance Lei j dens [ 1984] ) t hat t . . =t . . . so t hat i n
t ot al si x Reynol ds st r esses ar e def i ned.
- 134-
F , F and F, ar e ext er nal f or ces whi ch can f or i nst ance r epr esent t he
ef f ect of dr opl et s wi t h whi ch t he gas phase exchanges moment um. As t he
f or mul at ed model s ar e i n f i r st i nst ance assumed t o concer n a si ngl e gas
phase, t hese f or ces can be t aken equal t o zer o.
Figure 7. 2 Nomenclature for Reynolds stresses
Closure problem
I t appear s t hat equat i ons 7- 8- 7- 11 ar e coupl ed and non- l i near . They descr i be
t he gas f l ow compl et el y, because no si mpl i f i cat i ons have been made i n t he
der i vat i on of any of t he t er ms. Wi t h 10 unknown var i abl es and 4 equat i ons,
t hey obvi ousl y do not f orma cl osed syst em.
Her ewi t h t he wel l - known cl osur e pr obl emi s i nt r oduced, whi ch has been t he
subj ect of many i nvest i gat i ons si nce i t s cr eat i on by Reynol ds [ 1877] .
The sol ut i on f or t hi s cl osur e- pr obl emi s f ormed by t ur bul ence model s, whi ch
somehow quant i f y t he si x Reynol ds st r esses as a f unct i on of vel oci t i es and
pr essur e. The i mpor t ance of t he t ur bul ence model on t he r el i abi l i t y of t he
gas f l ow f i el d pr edi ct i ons i s demonst r at ed ext ensi vel y i n sect i ons 7. 4- 7. 6.
St r ongl y r ot at i ng f l ows ar e ani sot r opi c, whi ch means t hat t he Reynol ds
st r esses wi l l have t o be sol ved i ndi vi dual l y. They shoul d not be assi gned a
col l ect i ve equal val ue, whi ch t akes pl ace i n t he most popul ar si mpl er
t ur bul ence model s t hat ar e pr esent l y i n use.
I n appendi x D t he char act er i st i cs of t he t ur bul ence model s t hat pl ay a r ol e
i n t he model s descr i bed i n sect i ons 7. 4- 7- 6 ar e expl ai ned.
-135-
7.2.2 Mathematical background
The numerical technique to solve the fundamental equations, governing fl ui d
flow and the addi ti onal equati ons expressi ng the conservati on of the
parameters of the turbulence model, involves (Patankar [198O]):
- subdivision of the domain of i nterest i nto a f i ni te number of control
volumes ('gri d cel l s' );
- di screti sati on of the parti al di fferenti al equations over these volumes to
obtain sets of algebraic rel ati ons;
- the use of an i terati ve sol uti on procedure si nce the di f f erenti al
equations are coupled and non-linear.
Discretisation of conservation laws
The di screti sati on equati on (or f i ni te di fference equati on) has the
following general form to determi ne the val ue of a vari abl e * i n a
stati onary system:
,
a
l* l *
S
2*2 *
a
sS * %S * S S *
S
6*6 *
S
c
p "
&1
+a
2
+a
3
+a^+a
5
+a
6
+S
p
in which:
: t he val ue of * i n gri d cel l p;
P
1- 6 : r ef er t o t he bor der i ng gri d cel l s i n case of a 3D gr i d;
a : t he coef f i ci ent t hat det er mi nes t he cont r i but i on t o * by i n
a nei ghbour cel l , ' a' i s a f unct i on of t he mass f l ow r at e bet ween
t he cel l s and t he di f f usi on coef f i ci ent ;
S : t he cont r i but i on t o * by ext er nal sour ces
S =S + S *
P c p p
Apar t f r om t hi s equat i on t he mass bal ances ( cont i nui t y equat i on) i s
cal cul at ed f or each gri d cel l as wel l .
I t er at i ve sol ut i on pr ocedur e
I t i s r ef er r ed t o Pat ankar [ 1980] f or a f ul l descr i pt i on of t he i t er at i ve
met hods t hat ar e used t o sol ve t he above ment i oned coupl ed l i near equat i ons.
- 136-
7. 2. 3 Fl ui d dynami c codes used
Two exi st i ng codes wer e used:
i ) Phoeni cs, by ChamLt d.
i i ) Fl uent , by Cr ear e I nc.
The numer i cal sol ut i on pr ocedur e of bot h codes i s based on t he ear l i er
descr i bed ' cont rol vol ume' met hod.
Phoeni cs was avai l abl e t hr ough t he Uni ver si t y sof t war e l i br ar y and,
mor eover , pl aced at t he di sposal of f i nal year st udent s by Ner at oomB. V.
Because t he i nst al l ed ver si on ( 1. 3) st i l l f eat ur ed some bugs of whi ch t he
i dent i f i cat i on pr oved t o be t i me consumi ng and because Phoeni cs di d not have
bui l t - i n ani sot r opi c t ur bul ence model s, t he r esul t s achi eved wi t h t he
package f or hi ghl y swi r l i ng f l ows ( cycl ones! ) wer e ver y di sappoi nt i ng.
Especi al l y wi t h r espect t o t he number of CPU hour s used. Sat i sf yi ng r esul t s
wer e achi eved when model l i ng t he gas f l ow f i el d bet ween vane bl ades.
Fl uent was t empor ar i l y pl aced at t he di sposal of f i nal year st udent s by
Koni nkl i j ke/ Shel l - l abor at or i um, Amst er dam. Thi s code i s much bet t er equi pped
t o model r ot at i ng f l ows as i t of f ered possi bi l i t i es t o si mul at e ani sot r opi c
gas f l ow f i el ds. The model l i ng r esul t s (or at t empt s) ar e descr i bed i n t he
MODI bl ocks i n sect i ons 7- 3- 7- 5.
7-3 Physica l modelling of ga s/liquid intera ctions
7. 3. 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
I n t hi s sect i on physi cal model s ar e f ormul at ed t hat f ormcommon el ement s i n
t he M0D2 bl ocks. These bl ocks descr i be t he behavi our of t he var i ous f orms of
t he l i qui d phase dur i ng t he pr ocess of separ at i on.
Two f or ms of t he l i qui d phase t hat are pr esent i n al l separ at or t ypes under
i nvest i gat i on and f or whi ch gener al r el at i ons ar e der i ved i n t hi s bl ock ar e:
a. t he or i gi nal mi st phase;
b. t he f i l mf ormed by separ at ed l i qui d under cent r i f ugal accel er at i ons.
- 137-
7. 3- 2 Behavi our of dr opl et phase
The behavi our of a di sper se phase can be pr edi ct ed wi t h numer i cal met hods
ei t her by:
1. vi ewi ng t he di sper se phase as a cont i nuum and modi f yi ng t he l aws of
conser vat i on as such t hat t hey descr i be t hi s di sper se phase ( Eul er i an
appr oach, see f or i nst ance Hi nze [ 1975] ) ;
2. vi ewi ng t he di sper se phase as di scr et e par t i cl es of whi ch t he dynami cs
ar e det er mi ned by i nt er act i ons wi t h t he cont i nuum ( Langr angi an appr oach) .
The second appr oach i s chosen. I f i t i s assumed t hat t he par t i cl e does not
i nf l uence t he gas phas e moment um, t he t i me consumi ng and expensi ve
si mul at i on of a gas f l ow f i el d has t o be car r i ed out onl y once. Wi t h t he
r esul t s i t i s possi bl e t o det er mi ne t he t r aj ect or y of dr opl et s i n t hi s
par t i cul ar gas f l ow f i el d i n a si mpl e way. The assumpt i on ment i oned above i s
val i d t hr oughout t he l ar gest par t of t he cycl one as t he sl i p vel oci t y
bet ween par t i cl e and gas i s ver y smal l .
Compl i cat i ons mi ght ar i se i n t he i nl et sect i on of t he cycl one at hi gh
concent r at i ons of t he di sper se phase. Then t he moment um, necessar y t o
accel er at e t he mass of par t i cl es, mi ght r esul t i n a consi der abl e decr ease of
t he gas phase moment um, l eadi ng t o l ower t angent i al vel oci t i es t hr oughout
t he cycl one t han or i gi nal l y si mul at ed.
When i t i s assumed t hat :
1. dr opl et - dr opl et i nt er act i ons ar e absent ( whi ch i s t he case i n di l ut e
mi st s) ;
2. onl y dr ag f or ces wi l l pl ay a r ol e i n t he det er mi nat i on of t he par t i cl e
t r aj ect or y ( whi ch i s t he case i f t he dr opl et si ze i s bet ween 1 um < d, <
100 umand p, - p > 500 kg/ m' )
t he r el at i ons t o char act er i ze dr opl et mot i on i n cyl i ndr i cal coor di nat es ar e
easi l y der i ved ( see equat i on 3. 3 and f i gur e 3- ' t ) :
^ = - T (u
d
- u
g
) [u
d
- u
g
] - g
2 - =- 2. _
T
(
V
- V ) [ V, - V ]
dt r
v
d g d g
J
( 7. 12)
( 7. 13)
- 138-
d w V W
1T =
2
T
1
-

<
w
d' V
[w
d" V
(7
-
1
"
)
I n t hese equat i ons:
T
=} d
d
( p*-
Pg
)
C
d ( 7. 15)
U, , U =axi al vel oci t y of r espect i vel y dr opl et and gas
V , V =i dem, r adi al vel oci t y
P S
W, W ' =i dem, t angent i al vel oci t y
P g
C
d
=
&l
* a
2
/ Re + a
3
/ Re
2
( 7- 15a)
wi t h a. - a,. quant i f i ed accor di ng t o Mor si and Al exander [ 1972] .
I t can be r easoned t hat i n case of dr opl et t r aj ect or i es i n hi ghl y swi r l i ng
f l ows C, must be quant i f i ed as C, =24/ Re. I n t hi s case ( U, - U ) ~ 0 and
d d d g
( W, - W) 0. Onl y t he r adi al di f f er ent i al vel oci t y wi l l t hen cont r i but e t o
t he dr opl et Reynol ds number . Re, may under pr act i cal ci r cumst ances amount up
t o Re ~ 10- 20 whi ch woul d nor mal l y not j ust i f y t he assumpt i on t hat St okes'
Law appl i es. However , as t he amount of t ur bul ence t hat can f ormi n radi al
di r ect i on i s ver y l i mi t ed because of t he st abi l i zi ng act i on of t he
cent r i f ugal f i el d, i t i s not pr obabl e t hat f l ow separ at i on and wake
f or mat i on behi nd t he dr opl et wi l l t ake pl ace.
Fr om equat i ons 7- 1
1
* and 7- 15 i t becomes cl ear t hat t hi s has st r ong
i mpl i cat i ons f or t he dependency of t he mi ni mal necessar y gas vel oci t y i n a
separ at or on t he oper at i ng pr essur e. I f St okes' Law appl i es t here i s onl y a
weak dependency t hr ough t he gr oup (p.. - p ) . I f St okes' Law does not appl y
1 S
t he const ant a, i n equat i on "J.15a becomes non zer o and a much st r onger
dependency i s cr eat ed. Al t hough not yet quant i f i ed, one can expect t hat i n
case <w' > i s ver y smal l ( cycl one oper at i on) C, ~ 24/ Re. Wi t h t hi s r el at i on
t he par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es have been cal cul at ed i n sect i on lA. I n vane packs
t he si t uat i on i s mor e compl i cat ed as a cent r i f ugal f i el d wi l l be al t er nat ed
by a st r ai ght gas f l ow f i el d.
The ef f ect on t he mi st par t i cl es wi l l st r ongl y depend on wher e t he mi st
par t i cl es occur . The si mul at i on descr i bed i n sect i on 7- 6, i n whi ch par t i cl e
- 139-
t r aj ect or i es bet ween t he vanes ar e cal cul at ed, have made use of a
convent i onal l y cal cul at ed val ue f or C, ( equat i on 7- 15a) .
The f l uct uat i ng component s <u' >, <v' > and <w' > ar e negl ect ed. Fr omt he
r esul t s of M0D- AC1 appeared t hat i n most cases t he t ur bul ent ki net i c ener gy,
k, r emai ned smal l er t han 1 m
2
/ s
2
. Thi s means t hat <u' >
2
+ <v' >
2
+ <w' >
2
<
2 m
2
/ s
2
. I t can al so be assumed t hat t he i nf l uence of t he dr opl et s on t he
gas can be negl ect ed ( di l ut e concent r at i ons) . The l at t er assumpt i on i s
ver i f i ed i n AC- EXP3 and RFC- EXP4.
The gr i d t hat has been set up f or t he f l ow f i el d cal cul at i ons and t he
r esul t i ng val ues of t he vel oci t y component s ar e used as a f r amewor k f or t he
dr opl et t r aj ect or y cal cul at i ons. I t i s assumed t hat t he vel oci t y of t he
dr opl et r emai ns const ant when t r aver si ng a gr i d cel l ; i t s new vel oci t y wi l l
be det er mi ned when i t cr osses a r adi al pl ane. The t ot al gas f l ow f i el d has
been di vi ded i nt o suf f i ci ent l y smal l cal cul at i onal vol umes ( t ot al l i ng t o
mor e t han 1200 gr i d cel l s i n one axi al pl ane) . Ther ef or e i t i s assumed t hat
t hi s pr ocedur e wi l l pr ove adequat el y accur at e.
7. 3- 3 Behavi our of t he l i qui d f i l m
Fromsect i ons 5- 2- 5- 3. i t appear s t hat no ear l i er r esear ch has been r epor t ed
concer ni ng t he l i qui d f i l ms pr esent l y i nvest i gat ed. For t hi s r eason some of
t he model s and cor r el at i ons ci t ed i n chapt er 5 wi l l be modi f i ed so t hat
t hei r val i di t y ext ends t o condi t i ons of hi gh cent r i f ugal accel er at i ons and
hi gh gas densi t i es.
The speci f i c obj ect i ve of t hi s sect i on i s t o det er mi ne t he upper l i mi t of
t he st abi l i t y r ange ( onset of r eent r ai nment ) of t he i nt er nal l i qui d f i l ms
under cent r i f ugal accel er at i on. The l ogi cal st r uct ur e of t he det er mi nat i on
of t hese condi t i ons consi st s of t he f ol l owi ng el ement s:
1. Fi r st i t i s det er mi ned when t he l i qui d f i l mbr eaks up i n st r i ngs or
r i vul et s, i n or der t o ensur e t hat t he l i qui d wi l l r each t he onset of
r eent r ai nment i n t he f or m of a f i l m ( descr i pt i on of r i vul et s woul d
necessi t at e a compl et el y di f f er ent model ) ;
- 140-
2. A st abi l i t y cr i t er i on f or t he onset of r ol l waves wi l l be der i ved as
t hese ar e necessar y el ement s i n t he r eent r ai nment mechani sm.
3. On t he bas i s of t he phenomenol ogi c al model s of I shi i [ 1975] and
Kut at el adze [ 1972] a model wi l l be descr i bed t hat account s f or t he
modi f i ed r ol l wave cr i t er i on and f or changes of t he gas/ l i qui d i nt er f ace.
ad 1. Mi ni mal f i l m t hi ckness t o ensur e f ul l wet t i ng
The cr i t er i on ( equat i on 5- 3) i n sect i on 5. 3 der i ved by Bankof f [ 1971] i s
compar ed t o exper i ment al r esul t s of bl ock RFC- EXP2. The gr avi t at i onal
const ant i n hi s cr i t er i on i s r epl aced by t he t angent i al accel er at i on ( w' / r ) .
I t appear s t hat f or l ow gas vel oci t i es t he pr edi ct i on agr ees wel l wi t h t he
exper i ment al obs er vat i ons . For hi gher gas vel oci t i es t he di scr epancy
i ncr eases and near l y al ways a cont i nuous f i l m i s obser ved. Thi s i s obvi ousl y
due t o t he i ncr easi ng shear st r ess t hat i s exer t ed on t he l i qui d sur f ace,
whi ch i s not t aken i nt o account by Bankof f . Because t hi s ef f ect appear s t o
be ver y st r ong, i t i s deci ded t o assume t hat f or t he gas vel oci t i es at whi ch
r eent r ai nment can occur , t her e wi l l al ways be a f ul l y wet t ed i nner per i met er
wi t h an evenl y di st r i but ed f i l m. As t he exper i ment s of RFC- EXP2 showed,
t her e can al ways be a var i at i on i n f i l m t hi cknes s bec aus e of r adi al
assymmet r y i n t he l ocat i on of t he ent r ance sl i t s.
ad 2. Modi f i ed cr i t er i on f or r ol l wave f or mat i on
I f t he r eent r ai nment cr i t er i a ar e obser ved t hat I shi i and Kut at el adze
( equat i ons 5- l ' *- 5- 19) der i ved f or l i qui d f i l ms of whi ch t he Reynol ds number
exceeds 160, r eent r ai nment i s supposed t o t ake pl ace by shear i ng of f t he
cr est s of r ol l waves.
I n sect i on ^,.k.2 i t has been shown t hat f or l i qui d f i l mReynol ds number s of
Re. > 200- 300 t he cr i t i cal gas Reynol ds number becomes i ndependent of most
physi cal pr oper t i es of t he t wo- phase mi xt ur e. Thi s cr i t i cal val ue of Re i s
i nf l uenced by t he i ncr eased gr avi t at i on i nduced by f i l m r ot at i on i n t he
f ol l owi ng way:
( v
g -
v
l >r ot
(
^g " Vl i n
2w
2
* gD
- 141-
i n whi ch t he subscr i pt s r ot and l i n si gni f y r ot at i ng f i l m, r espect i vel y non-
r ot at i ng f i l m.
I f i t i s assumed t hat t he ot her condi t i ons r emai n const ant on basi s of t he
model of Andr eussi [ 1980] i t can be st at ed t hat :
2w
2
Re =11. 10* / - p^ f or Re. > 200. ( 7- 16)
gwc gD 1
I n whi ch Re =cr i t i cal gas Reynol ds number at whi ch r ol l waves occur .
* "
c
2w^
Fi gur e 7- 3 shows t he ef f ect of an i ncr easi ng f act or G =/ on t he
i ncept i on of r ol l waves. The dot t ed l i nes at Re. < 200 r epr esent t he
di ver gence of t he t wo t heor i es i nvest i gat ed i n sect i on 5- 4. ( a) f or t he
Kel vi n- Hel mhol t z i nst abi l i t y- t heor y and ( b) f or t he l i near st abi l i t y t heor y
r ef i ned by Andr eussi ( see sect i on 5. 4. 2) .
To det er mi ne a st abi l i t y cr i t er i on f or t he l i qui d f i l m i n cent r i f ugal
separ at or s t he f ol l owi ng l i ne of r easoni ng i s f ol l owed:
a. A r el at i on i s der i ved wi t h whi ch t he f i l mvel oci t y can be der i ved f r om
t he l ocal gas vel oci t y ( Re ) i nsi de a cent r i f ugal separ at or ;
b. A r el at i on i s der i ved wi t h whi ch t he f i l mt hi ckness can be der i ved f r om
t he l ocal gas vel oci t y (Re ) ;
c. Combi nat i on of t he t wo above r el at i ons gi ves:
a rel at i on bet ween Re. , and Re i nsi de a cycl one;
a r el at i on bet ween t he f i l mst abi l i zat i on as a f unct i on of Re. or Re .
1 g
Wi t h t he l ast t wo r el at i ons i t i s possi bl e t o det er mi ne under whi ch
oper at i ng condi t i ons r ol l waves wi l l occur on t he l i qui d f i l m.
ad a. The f i l m vel oci t y can be det er mi ned combi ni ng equat i ons 5- 7 and 5- '
whi ch l eads t o:
f . P
v
l =^ ( f ^
-
^)
{v
S
'
v
l >
( 7
-
17)
l i
p
l
s
- 142-
i n whi ch: f . =0. 02
( see equat i on 5. 12)
nu2
f
l i
=
'
K
i
R e
P ^ '
s ee e(
l
ua
t i on 5. 11)
K. =1. 962
-
1
- - f
f or 100 < Re. < 1000
f
1
" 0. 03 f or Re > 1000
as v. / v i s i n most cases smal l er t han 0. 03. v. i s negl ect ed wi t h
r espect t o v .
Thi s r el at i onshi p compar ed agai nst exper i ment al dat a i s shown i n f i gure
7. 4.
200 too (bo eoo
Rl
"9
( r a/sl
4<H
3<H
20
eq.7.17
A experi ment s
t abl e 6: si v%=12.10-5
0.2 o'.4 0'.6 0'.8 1!0 1.'2 I X 1!6 118 2*.0
( m/ s) v|
Figure 7. 3 Influence of centrifugal
force
Figure 7.4 Relation between v
and v.,
9
ad b. The f i l mt hi ckness depends on:
t he amount of l i qui d separ at ed f romt he gas ( $. ) ;
t he i nt er nal wet t ed per i met er ( nD) ;
t he axi al f i l mvel oci t y ( di scharge r at e) ( u, ) .
b
" n D u
( 7- 18)
- 143-
When t he gas f l ow i ncr eases t hr ough a cycl one t he amount of separ at ed
l i qui d wi l l i ncr ease accor di ngl y ( assumi ng f ul l separ at i on) . The swi r l
angl e of t he gas f l ow wi l l not change ( see sect i on 5- 5) I t appear ed
t hat f or most f i l m t hi cknesses t he l i qui d f i l m vel oci t y depends
l i near l y on t he gas vel oci t y. Ther ef or e, i t can be concl uded t hat t he
axi al l i qui d f i l m vel oci t y ( or t he l i qui d di schar ge r at e) i ncr eases
l i near l y wi t h an i ncr ease of t he gas f l ow t hr ough t he cycl one.
As t he i ncr ease of di schar ge r at e compensat es f or t he i ncr ease of
separ at ed l i qui d i n t he cycl one t he f i l mt hi ckness i n t he cycl one i s
l ar gel y i ndependent of i t s gas t hr oughput and wi l l mai nl y be
det er mi ned by t he l i qui d l oadi ng of t he gas.
ad c. Fr omt he t wo pr evi ous der i vat i ons i t appear s t hat f or a cer t ai n l i qui d
l oadi ng of t he gas and a cer t ai n oper at i ng pr essur e (p ) t he i ncr ease
of Re i nsi de a cycl one as a r esul t of t he i ncr ease of Re wi l l onl y
be caused by an i ncr eased f i l mvel oci t y. At ot her gas densi t i es t he
new r el at i on bet ween Re. and Re can be det er mi ned accor di ng t o
equat i on 1.11. At ot her l i qui d l oadi ngs of t he gas al so changed val ues
of t he f i l m t hi ckness ( equat i on 1.1%) shoul d be consi der ed i n t he
det er mi nat i on of Re. . Thi s i s depi ct ed i ndi cat i vel y i n f i gur e 7. 5.
Re
r
Figure 7.5 Relation between Re-j and Re Figure 7.6A Roll wave inception in
ayolones
Wi t h t hi s i nf or mat i on i t i s possi bl e t o coupl e t he st abi l i t y cr i t er i on
f or rol l waves der i ved i n sect i on 'j.k ( equat i on 7- 16) t o t he r el at i on
bet ween Re and Re. i nsi de a cycl one.
g !
-144-
An increase in Re^^at constant gas density and liquid loading means a
correspondi ng i ncrease of l i qui d film vel oci ty. As the swirl angle
remains constant, a correspondi ng i ncrease of the tangenti al film
vel oci ty, and thus of G, will be effected. So, for a certai n geometry,
G wi l l only depend on Re., (at constant p and liquid loading). Because
the rel ati on between Re
1
and Re inside a cyclone i s known, the onset
of rol l waves inside a parti cul ar geometry can be determined. This i s
depi cted i ndi cati vel y in fi gure 7.6A. Figure 7-6B gives a graphical
example of the effect of increase of the operating pressure. The film
vel oci ty i ncreases accordi ng to equati on 7.17, resul ti ng in an
increase of G (tangential component) and of the discharge rate (axi al
component). Therefore the film thi ckness decreases (equation 7.18)
correspondingly, resul ti ng in an unchanged Re,. I t appears that at the
new combination of Re
1
and Re (point I I ) rol l waves will occur. I f
one would l i ke to prevent thi s, Re should be decreased through
lowering the gas velocity to the level at which the inception cri teri a
i s not longer met (point I I I ) . The absol ute value of the necessary
decrease depends on the l ocal angle of swi rl that determines which
part of the increased film velocity i s attri buted to the tangenti al
vel oci ty. Figure 7.6C gi ves a graphical example of the effect of an
increase of the l i qui d loading of the gas processed by a cycl one. The
l i qui d film thi ckness wi l l i ncrease (equation 7.18), but the liquid
film velocity (and thus al so G) wi l l remain approximately constant
(equati on 7-17)- Therefore, from a si tuati on that j ust not meets the
rol l wave cri teri on an increase of l i qui d loading of the gas wi l l not
lead to the onset of rol l waves.
Figure 7.6B Influenoe of gas density Figure 7.6C Influenoe of liquid loading
- 145-
ad 3- Modi f i ed cr i t er i on f or t he onset of r eent r ai nment
Sof ar onl y a cr i t er i on i s gi ven f or t he occur r ence of r ol l waves. I shi i
[ 1975] and Kut at el adze [ 1972] set up t he f ol l owi ng r el at i on t o descr i be t he
onset of r eent r ai nment i n t he pr esence of r ol l waves i n whi ch t he f or ces act
t hat ar e depi ct ed i n f i gur e 7. 7-
u, (v - v
n
) p C J f .
^ S 11 J I S.

s
v
gi
"l
C
D W ^
C_ =dr ag coef f i ci ent of wave
C =i nt er f aci al shape coef f i ci ent
C
u
=f act or t o account f or t he i nt er nal f l ow i n t he wave as a f unct i on of Nfi
( vi scosi t y number : see equat i on 5- 15)
I n or der t o der i ve a usef ul r el at i on I shi i pr oposed t o:
1. quant i f y f . wi t h t he r el at i on of Wal l i s [ 1969] ( equat i on 5- 9) and
because of smal l val ues of t he f i l mt hi ckness he pr oposed t o appr oxi mat e
t hi s r el at i on by assumi ng f . =0. 005:
2. quant i f y f . . wi t h t he r el at i ons of Hughmar k [ 1973] ( equat i on 5. 11) ;
3. negl ect v, wi t h r espect t o v so t hat (v - v, ) ~ v .
1 g
v
g 1' g
The second and third quantification seem reasonable in the present
situation, but the approximation of f . by assuming f . =0.005 is not
g i g i
realistic.
As r- can amount to values of ^ =0.05 and is in nearly all cases larger
b ^
than >0.01 i t is more advisable to use the relation that quantifies f .
D
H
gi
for rotating (water/air) systems derived from the experimental results of
Loxham [1976]). Assuming that jr- > 0.01 this leads to f . =0.02.
H
Because Re. will in all cases amount to Re. >160, the criteria of I shii to
describe the onset of reentrainment will have the following form for
2w^
rotating flow systems with roll waves (for / -r> 1):
- 146-
u
i
v
~ P
^/ / 2 3 . 6 N '
8
Re :
1 / 3
f or Re, < 1600 and N S ~
u 15
f or Re-, > 1600 and N S T ^
1 u 15
( 7. 19)
Thi s i s t he onl y way t o account f or t he i ncr eased gr avi t at i on f or ce as al l
f or ces t hat pl ay a r ol e i n t he mechani sm depi ct ed i n f i gur e 7. 7 act
per pendi cul ar t o and are i ndependent of t he gr avi t at i on f or ce.
T-
eq.7 .17 ( 1 1
...,, eq.7 .16 ( 1 1
eq.7 .19 ( H I
////////v ///////////////////s/ss
Figure 7.7 Forces on wave orest Figure 7.8 Graphical representation of
proposed model
I n or der t o det er mi ne whet her r eent r ai nment wi l l t ake pl ace i n a cycl one,
t he gr aph depi ct ed i n f i gur e 7- 8 has t o be consi der ed. Li nes I and I I ar e
descr i bed bef or e and depend on cycl one geomet r y and oper at i ng condi t i ons.
Li ne I I I i s t he r eent r ai nment cr i t er i on gi ven i n equat i on 7. 17.
Two di st i nct l y di f f er ent r egi ons can be di scer ned:
1. at l ower f i l mReynol ds number s: i t appear s t hat above t he onset of r ol l
waves t he gas Reynol ds number can st i l l be i ncr eased pr i or t o t he onset
of r eent r ai nment ( regi on A i n f i gur e 7. 8) .
2. at hi gher f i l m Reynol ds number s: i t appear s t hat t he cr i t er i on f or t he
onset of r eent r ai nment set s a mor e conser vat i ve l i mi t t o Re t han f or
g
onset of rol l waves. Thi s i mpl i es t hat an unst abl e regi on exi st s ( bet ween
l i nes I I I and I ) i n whi ch moment ar y f i l mi nst abi l i t i es can be r eent r ai ned
i mmedi at el y ( as t he oper at i ng condi t i ons conf or mto t he r eent r ai nment
cr i t er i on) . When l i ne I I i s exceeded r ol l waves ar e i ni t i at ed f r omwhi ch
r eent r ai nment wi l l t ake pl ace i mmedi at el y ( regi on B i n f i gur e 7. 8) .
- 147-
Wi t h t he combi nat i on of t he i nf or mat i on t o whi ch i s ref erred i n f i gur e 7- 8,
i t can be det er mi ned i n whi ch st abi l i t y r egi on t he f i l m i s i nsi de a
par t i cul ar cycl one geomet r y.
Thi s model , whi ch i s st i l l concept ual , has r easonabl y r el i abl y been
conf i r med by t he r esul t s of RFC- EXP2 i n whi ch r eent r ai nment exper i ment s have
been car r i ed out .
The onl y i mpor t ant di f f er ences bet ween model and exper i ment s wer e t he hi gher
pr edi ct ed val ues of t he cr i t i cal Re at whi ch act ual r eent r ai nment t ook
pl ace and t he l ower dependency of t hi s Reynol ds number on t he gas densi t y.
Thi s can be expl ai ned adequat el y by t he al r eady ment i oned i r r egul ar
di st r i but i on of t he f i l macr oss t he per i met er t hat i s caused by geomet r i cal
assymet r y of t he i nl et sect i on.
Fi gur e 7- 9 shows an exampl e of t he pr edi ct ed and measur ed i nf l uence of
l i qui d l oadi ng. Fi gur e 7- 10 of t he pr edi ct ed and measur ed i nf l uence of t he
pr essur e dr op.
30
20-
10-
& experiments
(table 6at<%=12.10-5)
eq.5.18 (Ishii[l975])
- i 1 1 1 r
2 4 6 8 10
9C
. 4 0-
t ,
20-
10-
A experiments
(table 6 3 =1barl
proposed model
6 A
P9
3 6 " 5 5 S
-
1 0- s vol%
v% -
Figure 7.9 Validation of model I
Figure 7.10 Validation of model II
7-'t Axia l cyclone models
For t he pr oj ect st r uct ur e and nomencl at ur e see i nner si de of t he f r ont cover .
- 148-
7. 4. 1 Bl ock AC- MODI
Obj ect i ve: For mul at i on of a model t hat descr i bes t he gas f l ow f i el d i nsi de
an axi al cycl one as a f unct i on of i t s geomet r y.
Summar y : The at t empt s based on t he Fl uent code have been ver y successf ul ;
a good agr eement bet ween si mul at i on and exper i ment has been
achi eved. Bef or e t he act ual cycl one model i s set up and val i dat ed
t wo exer ci ses ar e car r i ed out .
1. The val i di t y of Fl uent f or si mul at i ng r ot at i ng f l ows i s
ver i f i ed.
2. A si mpl i f i ed pr ocedur e t o r epr esent swi r l el ement s i s
concei ved.
The di sappoi nt i ng r esul t s f romt he Phoeni cs si mul at i ons ar e not
descr i bed. These si mul at i ons wer e i n t he f i r st pl ace l ess
successf ul because of t he ear l i er ment i oned i nadequacy of t he
bui l t - i n t ur bul ence model s f or swi r l i ng f l ows.
The Fl uent and Phoeni cs codes are i nt r oduced i n sect i on 7- 2. 3.
ad 1. Set t i ng up Fl uent t o model r ot at i ng f l ow f i el ds
An exper i ment al l y ver y wel l char act er i zed r ot at i ng f l ow has been t he subj ect
of si mul at i on t o:
1. ver i f y t he val i di t y of t he gas f l ow f i el d si mul at i on pr ocedur e f or
r ot at i ng f l ows;
2. f or mul at e t he boundar y condi t i ons speci f i cal l y t o t he si mul at i on of
r ot at i ng f l ows.
The measur ement s used f or t hi s pur pose wer e car r i ed out by Loxham[ 1976] and
ar e r epor t ed i n sect i on 5- 5. 2 ( appendi x B. l ) . These r esul t s wer e
par t i cul ar l y sui t ed si nce t hey char act er i zed t he f r ee evol ut i on of a
r ot at i ng f l ow i n a l ong st r ai ght t ube wi t hout geomet r i cal compl exi t i es.
Of t he f ol l owi ng aspect s t he i nf l uence on t he r el i abi l i t y of t he si mul at i on
has been i nvest i gat ed:
i . gri d geomet r y;
i i . out f l ow condi t i ons;
i i i . t ur bul ence model .
- 149-
ad i . Gr i d geomet r y
The t wo- di mensi onal , axi al l y symmet r i cal gri d t hat pr oved t o be adequat e f or
a sat i sf yi ng si mul at i on compr i sed:
a. condensed axi al gr i d l i nes at t he l ocat i ons wher e t he l ar gest vel oci t y
gr adi ent s wer e expect ed t o occur ; t hus at t he wal l and i n t he cent r e;
b. a downst r eamel ongat i on of t he t ube t o achi eve a f ur t her decay of t he
swi r l t o a l evel at whi ch backf l ow woul d not occur anymor e i n t he cent r e
of t he out l et . Cent r al r egi ons i n r ot at i ng f l ows i n whi ch backf l ow occur s
ar e obser ved at swi r l number s l ar ger t han S =0. 6 ( Schet z [ 1980] ) ; t hi s
ef f ect can easi l y be expl ai ned and i s caused by r api d decay of swi r l
i nt ensi t y ( see f i gur e 7- 6A) .
I f t he l at t er pr ovi si on was not i ncl uded, t he si mul at i on woul d al most
i mmedi at el y di ver ge when t he devel opi ng ar ea of backf l ow r eached t he exi t of
t he t ube. When t hi s happened, i nf l owi ng gas woul d i mpor t angul ar moment um,
l eadi ng t o st eadi l y i ncr easi ng vel oci t y gr adi ent s on t he axi s. At a cer t ai n
st age t hese coul d no l onger be handl ed by t he si mul at i on code, and t he
i t er at i on pr ocedur e woul d be t er mi nat ed.
Wi t h t he el ongat i on of t he t ube a pr act i cal si t uat i on was model l ed i n whi ch
t he swi r l was decayed t o such an ext ent t hat no backf l ow occur r ed any l onger
at t he out l et pl ane. The upst r eam consequences of t hi s el ongat i on wer e
i nvest i gat ed by Ker st j ens [ 1988] and pr oved t o be negl i gi bl e. I n t hi s
r ef er ence an exact descr i pt i on of t he gr i d geomet r y i s gi ven as wel l .
ad i i . Out f l ow condi t i ons
The out f l ow condi t i ons t hat appear ed t o be adequat e set t he axi al vel oci t y
gr adi ent at t he out put cel l s t o zer o. No ot her opt i ons have been t est ed.
ad i i i . Tur bul ence model
I t i s r ef er r ed t o appendi x D f or expl anat i on of t he pr oper t i es of t he
t ur bul ence model s ment i oned bel ow.
The st andar dl y bui l t i n al gebr ai c st r ess model pr oved t o be r easonabl y
sui t abl e. I t has been at t empt ed t o decr ease ( smal l ) di scr epanci es bet ween
si mul at i on and exper i ment s by adj ust i ng some par amet er s of t he t ur bul ence
model . Bel ow, t hese at t empt s wi l l be descr i bed i n det ai l .
Because t he t angent i al shear st r esses i n t he cent r e of t he r adi al pl ane
( <v' w' >) pr oved t o be ver y l ow i n compar i son t o t he axi al shear st r esses at
- 150-
t hese l ocat i ons ( <u*w' >) , t he i sot r opi c k- e t ur bul ence model i n i t s or i gi nal
f or mi s usel ess. Maki ng use of t he k- e model t he ef f ect i ve ( i sot r opi c)
t ur bul ent vi scosi t y i s cal cul at ed much t oo hi gh wi t h r espect t o t he act ual
angul ar moment umt r ansf er . Thi s r esul t s i n a si mul at i on t hat pr edi ct s a t oo
r api d decr ease of swi r l i nt ensi t y. Because of t hi s ef f ect si mul at ed hi ghl y
swi r l i ng ( combi ned vor t ex) f l ows wi l l be t r ansf or med very qui ckl y i nt o weak
sol i d body r ot at i ons. ( For a mor e el abor at e descr i pt i on of t hese ef f ect s,
see Pel sma [ 1987] . Kar vi nen [ 19&7] . Boysan [ 1985] . )
The r esul t s of t he si mul at i ons based on t he exper i ment s of Loxham ar e
depi ct ed i n f i gur es 7- 10 A, B and C.
Accura cy of a xia l flow field predictions
The si mul at ed evol ut i on of t he axi al vel oci t y pr of i l e i n axi al di r ect i on
l ooks ver y si mi l ar t o t he exper i ment al l y det er mi ned evol ut i on.
The si mul at ed pr of i l es t end t o depi ct l ar ger vel oci t y gr adi ent s. However ,
t hi s di scr epancy i s pr obabl y par t l y caused by exper i ment al i naccur acy.
Al l l l
pofltion
' Ei peri nentl l
-Simulation
Ul n/ i l '
20
u
' 0:
121 co '
20
91 ca -
20-
41 i n
20
0
40
31 ca
20
0
10
21 ca
20
40
11 ca
20
0
^
\
. . . .
.=*.
V,
^
1
1 1 1
^
7
? \
Y
V
f^
,
\J
" \
-X
'I I 1 1
\
V
^
\
v,
f\
1 1 .,,
r
r4
r
j
p
j
*s
wi /s5:
40'
20
"
60.
20
60
40
20;
60
40
20
0
40
20
(0
40
20
40
40
20
0
==S
-"5
r-S
P^
p ^
p^
<s\
\
y
\ .
^
f^
:/*
,./\
O
140
1 120
a
clOO
1 80
J 60
40
20
S
J
\
\
\
\
\
\
Experimental
SlauUHoti
Fig. 7.10A, B and C Verification of predicted swirling flows in a straight tube
- 151-
Fr om t he exper i ment al r esul t s of Loxham [ 1976] i t appear s t hat t he
t hr oughput at a cer t ai n st age (at t he r adi al pl ane z =121, see appendi x B)
i s f or i nst ance 11# l ower t han t he or i gi nal i nput (at t he r adi al pl ane z =
11) . These t hr oughput s have been cal cul at ed by i nt egr at i on of t he axi al
vel oci t y pr of i l es. I n t he case of si mul at ed gas f l ow f i el d anot her cl ear
di f f er ence i s t he r ever sal of gas f l ow di r ect i on on t he axi s i n t he cent r al
back f l ow ar ea. Whet her t hi s ef f ect i s caused by an anomal y i n t he
si mul at i on pr ocedur e or whet her i t i s an act ual l y occur r i ng phenomenon, f or
whi ch t he measur ement t echni ques used by Loxham ( pi t ot t ube) wer e t oo
coar se, has not been i nvest i gat ed. I t has been not i ced t hat t hi s ef f ect al so
occur r ed i n ot her r ot at i ng f l ow si mul at i ons ( Karvi nen [ 1985] ) .
Accura cy of ta ngentia l flow field predictions
The decay of t he swi r l i nt ensi t y i s al most exact l y pr edi ct ed. Thi s i s a ver y
convi nci ng si gn t hat some f undament al l aws ar e r el i abl y r epr esent ed. The
t angent i al f l ow f i el ds ar e l ess st r i ki ngl y si mi l ar l y si mul at ed, al t hough
gener al l y t he f or m and axi al devel opment of t he vel oci t y pr of i l es ar e much
al i ke. The most i mpor t ant di f f er ence bet ween si mul at i on and exper i ment seems
t o be t he r adi us at whi ch t he f ree vor t ex f ormt akes over f r omt he f or ced
vor t ex. Thi s poi nt i s l ocat ed t oo cl ose t o t he cent r e. Rel at ed t o t hi s
ef f ect ar e t he t oo hi gh si mul at ed val ues of t he t angent i al vel oci t y maxi mum
and t he r ot at i on speed of t he f orced vor t ex.
The r eason of t hese phenomena mi ght be caused *) by t oo l ow cal cul at ed
<v' w' > shear st r esses.
The f or ced vor t ex does not expor t enough angul ar moment um i n r adi al
di r ect i on t o expand i t sel f t o a l ar ger r adi us ( t hereby r educi ng i t s speed of
r ot at i on) . Two at t empt s have been carri ed out t o modi f y t he const ant s of t he
t ur bul ence model t o decr ease t he di scr epancy:
*) Thi s ef f ect mi ght al so be caused by exper i ment al i naccur acy. Pr ecessi ng
of t he vor t ex mi ght l ead t o t he same obser ved di scr epancy i f vel oci t y
measur ement s ar e car r i ed out wi t h pi t ot - t ube ( f or a mor e compl et e
expl anat i on see Ker st j ens [ 1988] ) . )
- 152-
- The l ami nar vi scosi t y has been doubl ed. Because t he t ur bul ence shear
st r esses and cor r espondi ng t ur bul ence vi scosi t y i n t hi s r egi on ar e ver y
l ow t hi s i ncr ease may l ead t o t he desi r ed ef f ect s ( see eq. 7. 9- 7. 11) .
- The const ant a has been decr eased i n equat i on D. 19 i n or der t o i ncr ease
angul ar moment umt r anspor t ( const ant c_ was chosen c_ =1. 1 i nst ead of c
5
=0. 55) .
I ncr easi ng t he l ami nar vi scosi t y l eads t o an evenl y decr eased t angent i al
vel oci t y on t he f r ee vor t ex si de; t he poi nt of vor t ex f or m change- over and
f or ced vor t ex r ot at i on speed i s l ef t unchanged ( see f i gures 7- HA and B) .
Thi s means t hat t he <u' w' > st r esses i n t he f or ced vor t ex ar e ver y smal l
( whi ch i s t o be expect ed f or sol i d body r ot at i ons) .
Faci l i t at i ng t he t r anspor t of t he Reynol d st r esses t he second opt i on l eads
t o compar abl e r esul t s ( f i gur es 7- 12A and B) .
- r/R
Figures 7.11A and B Effect of -increase of \>
1
Figures 7.12A and B Effect of increase of C
- 153-
The t angent i al vel oci t i es ar e r educed on t he f r ee vor t ex si de, but t he poi nt
of vor t ex f or m changeover and f or ced vor t ex r ot at i on speed i s not
i nf l uenced. The necessi t y of a t ur bul ence model t hat account s f or ani sot r opy
when si mul at i ng t hi s t ype of r ot at i ng f l ow i s cl ear l y i ndi cat ed by f i gur es
7. 11A and B) . The t angent i al vel oci t y pr of i l e i s i nf l uenced qui t e st r ongl y
by doubl i ng t he l ami nar vi scosi t y. Thi s means t hat t he t ur bul ence component
i n t hi s di r ect i on i s so l ow t hat t he shar e of vi scous f or ces i n t he moment um
t r anspor t at i on i s of t he same or der of magni t ude as t he shar e of t ur bul ence
st r esses. The axi al pr of i l e on t he ot her hand, shows har dl y any si gni f i cant
changes by t hese adj ust ment s, whi ch means t hat t he vi scous f or ces pl ay a
subor di nat e r ol e; an i ndi cat i on of a hi gh l evel of t ur bul ence.
Fr om f i gur e 1.11 i t can be concl uded t hat t he maxi mal <v' w' > st r esses t ake
pl ace at t he vor t ex change- over poi nt . They are mi ni mal on t he f or ced vor t ex
si de, and decr ease st eadi l y t o t he wal l on t he f r ee vor t ex si de.
Unf or t unat el y f i nanci al and t i me l i mi t at i ons pr event ed f ur t her i nvest i ga-
t i ons t o di scover possi bi l i t i es t o decr ease t he r ot at i on speed of t he f or ced
vor t ex.
Ad 2. A si mpl i f i ed pr ocedur e t o det er mi ne t he i ni t i al f l ow f i el d of a swi r l
el ement
Model l i ng of t he swi r l el ement has been pr event ed. Fi r st l y t hi s woul d cause
t he need t o r un t hr ee i nst ead of t wo di mensi onal si mul at i on model s ( shar p
i ncr ease of comput er r unni ng t i me) . Secondl y, ever y t i me anot her swi r l
el ement woul d, be si mul at ed, a compl et el y new ( t hree di mensi onal ) gr i d woul d
have t o be puzzl ed t oget her ( l enght y model set - up t i mes) .
I t appear ed t hat most t ypes of axi al swi r l el ement s ( i n sect i on 5- 5- 3 al l
except t ype A) i ni t i al l y i nduced pur e sol i d body r ot at i ons. Thi s i s a di r ect
consequence of t he swi r l er geomet r y. Thi s vel oci t y di st r i but i on t hen evol ves
f ur t her downst r eam under i nf l uence of hydr odynami c and dr ag f or ces. The
angul ar moment um i mmedi at el y downst r eam of t he swi r l el ement i s ei t her
measur ed di r ect l y or cal cul at ed f r om measur ement s f ur t her downst r eamand
f romswi r l decay dat a. Wi t h t he knowl edge of t he angul ar moment um somewher e
downst r eam of t he swi r l el ement and wi t h t he assumpt i on of an evenl y
di st r i but ed axi al f l ow t he f l ow f i el d j ust above t he swi r l er can be
r econst r uct ed qui t e easi l y.
- 154-
I n f i gur es 7- 13A and B t he val i dat i on of t hi s pr ocedur e i s demonst r at ed.
Fr om a vel oci t y pr of i l e, measur ed at 1. 5 di amet er s downst r eamof t he swi rl
el ement , t he angul ar moment um was cal cul at ed. Thi s angul ar moment um was
cor r ect ed f or t he amount of swi r l decay t hat had occur r ed i n t he 1. 5
di amet er s l engt h f r om t he swi r l el ement . A sol i d body r ot at i on wi t h t he
cal cul at ed angul ar moment umwas used as st ar t i ng condi t i on i n a si mul at i on.
The vel oci t y pr of i l e 1. 5 di amet er downst r eamwas si mul at ed and compar ed t o
t he or i gi nal measur ed pr of i l e.
The si mul at i ons t hat wer e r un f r omt hi s poi nt onwar ds char act er i ze a swi r l
el ement by assi gni ng t o i t a cer t ai n swi r l number . Under t he assumpt i ons
descr i bed above t he i ni t i al f l ow f i el d can easi l y be r econst r uct ed.
The cor r espondi ng swi r l er geomet r y can be deduced f romt he requi red swi rl
number , al l owabl e pr essur e dr op and t he i nf or mat i on pr esent ed i n bl ock AC-
EXP1.
18-
W
l m/s)
I

10-
6
2
) a
o
x
N^ ^ Q
a experiment
model
a a /
a /
o
y ~\ c
U
I m/ s l '
16-
12-
>
4-
p\
a experiment
- model
_ o o o
y^ ^ ^
i 'f' i 1""-'
-1.0 -0,8 -0.1. 0.0 0,4 0,8 1,0 1,0 -0,8 -0.4 0.0 0,4 0.8 1.0
Figures 7.13A and B Validation of simplified swirl element representation
Verifica tion of ga s flow f i el d predictions of a n a xia l cyclone
Wi t h t he el ement s descr i bed bef or e, i t i s a mi nor st ep t o descr i be t he f ul l
gas f l ow f i el d i nsi de an axi al cycl one wi t h a coaxi al l i qui d di schar ge ( see
sect i on 3. 4. 4. 5) . The model l i ng of a cycl one wi t h a r adi al l i qui d di schar ge
wi l l be l ess st r ai ght f or war d, because t he decr ease i n axi al symmet r y wi l l
cause t he need t o model t hr ee- di mensi onal l y. I n f i r st i nst ance onl y t he
f or mer cycl one t ype has been si mul at ed wi t h t he expect at i on t hat t he f l ow
f i el ds of t he ot her cycl one t ype coul d be deduced f romt hi s i n a reasonabl y
si mpl e way.
-155-
Coaxially purging axi al cyclone
I n fi gures 7-l^A and B an example i s given of the val i dati on scheme: the
prediction of the gas flow fi el d j ust underneath the outl ets i s compared to
actual measurements. Both tangenti al and axi al vel oci ty prof i l es are
reported suffi ci entl y exact.
30-
U
(m/sl
22-
14-
6
1
D experimen
model
t
o
O Q D

1 , ,
D D D D
a
3
<^
<
-1,0 -0,8 -0,4 0,0 0,4 0,8 1,0
Figures 7.14k and B Validation of gas flow field predictions in aoaxially
purging axial cyclones at location C (figure 6.10A)
6.
2Qm/i
1
$\r
Dw
6>4m/s
53m/s
4>2a/ i
21/s
11a/s
tangential velocity
profile
axial velocity
profile
radial velocity
profile
Figure 7.14C Example of a full flow field simulation at S = 0.55
- 156-
Radi al l y pur gi ng axi al cycl one
As t he exact si mul at i on of t hi s geomet r y t ype woul d necessi t at e a t hree
di mensi onal , and t hus expensi ve, appr oach i t has been at t empt ed f i r st t o
der i ve accept abl e r esul t s f r om t he si mul at ed f l ow f i el ds of ot her wi se
cor r espondi ng coaxi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones.
Fr omear l i er report ed st udi es ( see sect i on 5- 5) i t can be concl uded t hat t he
r adi al l ocat i on of t he t angent i al vel oci t y maxi mumi s mai nl y det er mi ned by
t he swi r l number of a r ot at i ng f l ow. I n case of a r adi al l y pur gi ng axi al
cycl one i t can t her ef or e be expect ed t hat , i f not t oo much angul ar moment um
i s l ost wi t h t he pur ge gas, t he l ocat i on of t he t angent i al vel oci t y maxi mum
wi l l not l i e at si gni f i cant l y di f f er ent l ocat i ons t han i n ot her wi se
cor r espondi ng coaxi al l y pur gi ng axi al cycl ones.
The axi al vel oci t y pr of i l e det er mi nes t he super f i ci al vol ume rat e and i s not
so much ef f ect ed by char act er i st i cs of t he swi r l i ng f l ow. The pr of i l e of
t hi s vel oci t y component wi l l t her ef or e be det er mi ned i n a r adi al l y pur gi ng
cycl one, on one hand by t he r adi al i nf l ow i mposed by t he const r i ct i on of t he
vor t ex f i nder and on t he ot her hand by t he r adi al out f l ow i mposed by t he
r adi al pur ge. Based on t he r esul t s f romsi mul at i ons of t he pr evi ous cycl one
geomet r y, si mul at i ons of t he behavi our of t hi s cycl one have been car r i ed
out . I n f i gur es 7- 15A and B t he measur ed and assumed vel oci t y component s i n
t he t wo cycl one t ypes ar e compar ed. The agr eement i s sat i sf i abl e f or t he
pur pose of si mul at i on.
20
18
( /ii "
i t
12
10
a
6
<.
2-1!
0
assuaed
m l
*
Q
.a.
0
_
0
J ^
- 0.8 - 0.6 - 0.1 .0.2 0.2 O.t 0.6
r/R
Figures 7.ISA and B Justification of assumptions with respect to radially
purging axial cyclones
- 157-
7. 4. 2 Bl ock AC- M0D2
Obj ect i ve: For mul at i on of r el at i ons t hat descr i be t he behavi our of t he
l i qui d phase i nsi de an axi al cycl one.
Summar y : The var i ous f or ms of t he l i qui d phase and t hei r or i gi ns ar e
i dent i f i ed. For each of t hese f or ms r el at i ons ar e set up t o
descr i be t he behavi our and t o pr edi ct possi bl e cr i t i cal ef f ect s.
I n an axi al cycl one t he l i qui d phase can occur i n one of t he f ol l owi ng f or ms
( see f i gure 7- 16) :
a. as t he or i gi nal mi st phase ( I ) ;
b. as t he l i qui d f i l mf ormed by separ at ed dr opl et s ( I I ) ;
c. as t he dr opl et s t hat ar e r eent r ai ned f romt hi s f i l m( I I I ) ;
d. as dr ops/ dr opl et s f or med dur i ng t he di schar ge act i on i n t he secondar y
separ at i on zone ( I V) .
Figure 7.16 Forms of liquid in an axial cyclone
ad a. Behavi our of mi st phase
I n sect i on 7. 3- 2 adequat e r el at i ons are gi ven t o pr edi ct t he t r aj ect or i es of
mi st par t i cl es i n a r ot at i ng f l ow f i el d.
ad b. Behavi our of f i l m
I n sect i on 7- 3- 3 adequat e r el at i ons ar e gi ven t o pr edi ct t he behavi our of
t he l i qui d f i l mi n a cent r i f ugal f or ce f i el d.
- 158-
ad c. Behavi our of dr opl et s t hat are r eent r ai ned f romsepar at ed f i l m
To dr aw any concl usi ons as t o what r espect r eent r ai ned dr opl et s exer t
det r i ment al ef f ect s on t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency, bot h dr opl et si ze
di st r i but i on and i ni t i al vel oci t y of t hese dr opl et s must be eval uat ed wi t h
r espect t o t he l ocal gas f l ow f i el d char act er i st i cs. I n sect i on 5. 4
r el at i ons have been der i ved f or bot h quant i t i es.
I f t he dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on i s det er mi ned accor di ng t o equat i ons 5. 22-
5. 25 and R_ i n t hese equat i ons accor di ng t o equat i on 5. 21 val ues of
r eent r ai ned dr opl et di amet er s ar e f ound bet ween 30 and 300 pm, dependi ng on
cor r el at i on and speci f i c oper at i ng condi t i ons. I t i s recommended t o consi der
t hese val ues as i ndi cat i ve because t he ci t ed cor r el at i ons ar e by no means
consi st ent t o each ot her .
Equat i on 5. 25 gi ves an i ndi cat i on of t he i ni t i al vel oci t y of t he r eent r ai ned
dr opl et s per pendi cul ar t o t he f i l msur f ace. Maxi mal val ues of v , bet ween
2- 3 m/ s ar e f ound i ndependent of dr op si ze but dependi ng on u*.
ad d. Behavi our of dr opl et s i n t he secondar y separ at i on zone
The separ at i on mechani smof t hi s st ep i s supposed t o be t he f al l - out of t he
dr opl et s agai nst t he r el at i vel y l ow gas vel oci t i es bet ween t he axi al
cycl ones ( see f i gur e 7- 16) . I n or der t o det er mi ne whet her t hese gas
vel oci t i es ar e l ow enough f or a successf ul secondar y separ at i on i t i s
necessar y t o quant i f y t he si zes of t he dr opl et t hat are cr eat ed when t he
f i l m i s di schar ged f r om t he separ at i on zone. For t hi s pur pose si mpl e
i ndi cat i ve r el at i ons wi l l be pr ovi ded t o det er mi ne t hese di amet er s f or bot h
l i qui d di schar ge pr i nci pl es under i nvest i gat i ons.
Coaxi al l i qui d di schar ge
The si zes of t he dr opl et s t hat ar e creat ed dur i ng t he di schar ge pr ocess ar e
det er mi ned by t he bal ance of br eak- up f or ces ( cent ri f ugal accel er at i on over
t he cycl one t op and i nt er f aci al f or ces) and cont ai ni ng f or ces ( sur f ace
t ensi on) . Thi s bal ance i s depi ct ed i n f i gur e 1.11.
I t i s assumed t hat t he i nt er f aci al f or ces ar e smal l i n compar i son t o t he
cent r i f ugal f or ces. The bal ance r educes t o:
- 159-
2
P l
^ b
2
=2ab (i f ^ 1) ( 7. 20)
so t hat 6 =
aD
bp^
I f an equi val ent dr op di amet er d i s
def i ned as d =J" , t hen:
eq n
eq w ' p. Ti
Figure 7.17 Balance of forces I
Radi al l i qui d di schar ge
I n t hi s case i nt er f aci al f or ces wi l l be much hi gher as t he gas act ual l y
dr i ves t he l i qui d f i l mt hrough t he sl ot s. A bal ance bet ween t he i nt er f aci al
( br eak- up) f or ce and t he sur f ace t ensi on ( cont ai ni ng f or ce) det er mi nes t he
mi ni mal st abl e dr opl et si ze ( see f i gur e 7- 18) .
1 2
r-p v . C b =2ob
2
K
g gp D
i n whi ch v i s t he aver age pur ge gas vel oci t y t hr ough t he sl i t s.
gp
Assumi ng a dr ag coef f i ci ent of C. =1,
t hen:
kc
2
P v
g gP
Thus: d
eq
gP
bo
n
P
( 7. 21)
Figure 7.18'Balance of forces II
-160-
7-4.3 Block AC-M0D3
Objectives: Formulation of practi cal rel ati ons that describe the operating
characteri sti cs of an axi al cyclone as specified i n sections 4.3
and 7.1.
Summary : The models of AC-MODI and AC-M0D2 were j oi ned and the predi c-
ti ons of thi s model cl uster were compared with the measured
operating characteri sti cs of various axi al cyclone geometries.
The predi cti ons with respect to the primary efficiency could
onl y be veri f i ed i ndi r ectl y because of experi mental
compl i cati ons. The predictions with respect to maximal capacity
and pressure drop agreed well with experimental resul ts.
7. 4. 3. 1 St r uct ur e of model
The f ol l owi ng oper at i ng char act er i st i cs have been t he subj ect of model l i ng:
1. pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency;
2. maxi mal capaci t y.
Of bot h t he model l i ng pr ocedur e i s shor t l y expl ai ned and t he r esul t s of t he
model l i ng ef f or t s ar e compar ed wi t h exper i ment al r esul t s.
I t i s assumed t hat t he pr essur e dr op i s det er mi ned si mul t aneousl y wi t h t he
gas f l ow f i el d i n AC- MODI .
7. 4. 3. 2 Pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency
The det er mi nat i on of t he pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency consi st ed of t he
pr ocedur e expl ai ned bef or e: par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es wer e cal cul at ed wi t h t he
equat i ons of mot i on descr i bed i n AC- M0D2 on basi s of t he gas vel oci t i es t hat
had been assi gned t o t he gr i d cel l s i n whi ch t he axi al cycl one had been
subdi vi ded. An exampl e of t hi s cal cul at i on i s depi ct ed i n f i gur e 7- 19-
y~' i i
Ki l l petition lea)
Figure 7.19 Example of simulated particle trajectories
-161-
The most important assumptions of AC-MODI seemed to be j usti fi ed:
- The influence of the presence of the l i qui d phase on the gas flow f i el d
was negl i gi bl e as separation efficiency and pressure drop did hardly vary
when the l i qui d l oad was rai sed from 0.5 mass^l to 10 mass/K (see
corresponding resul ts in chapter 6).
- From the simulations (thi s has not been confirmed by experi ments because
of i nadequate measuri ng equipment) i t appeared that the turbul ent
fluctuations of the velocity components were suffi ci entl y small to j usti fy
the neglection of turbulence on the parti cl e motion.
(<v'> <<1 m/s; <u'>, <w'> <1 m/s at superfi ci al vel oci ti es through the
cyclone of approximately 15 m/s.)
I t has not been possi bl e to measure grade effi ci ency curves of axi al
cycl ones: the carry- over was too di l ute to measure exactl y. Therefore an
al ternati ve, somewhat l ess di rect, approach has been chosen to veri fy the
prediction.
Through simulation runs the theoreti cal grade efficiency curve for a certai n
cyclone geometry could be determined for certai n operating conditions. From
the corresponding physical experiment the overall separation effi ci ency was
determined. This measured efficiency was compared to the theoreti cal overall
separation determined by multiplying the matrices of the measured incoming
drop si ze di stri buti on and the predi cted grade effi ci ency curve. Such a
val i dati on procedure has been carri ed out only once. The resul ts are
summarized i n tabl e 7- 1. For the conditions of the experiments i s referred
to table 6.IV, section 6.3-1 and appendix C, page CA.
run
1
measured separ a-
t i on ef f i ci ency
99. 5 %
cal cul at ed separ a-
t i on ef f i ci ency
99. 1 %
d
50
( si mul at ed)
cycl one
8 um
d
5
.
comi ng mi st
28 um
Table 7.1
Al t hough t he r esul t s seemt o agr ee f ai r l y wel l , i t must be r eal i zed t hat t he
si mul at ed amount of car r y- over i s al most t wi ce t he measur ed amount . The
pr obabl e r eason i s coagul at i on of t he smal l er dr opl et s bet ween l ocat i on of
measur ement and ent r y i nt o t he cycl one, as one woul d r at her expect an
opposi t e di scr epancy wi t h t he assumpt i ons made i n t he si mul at i on.
- 162-
7. 4. 3- 3 Maxi mal capaci t y
Two mechani sms t hat may l i mi t t he r ange of oper at i on ar e:
1. r eent r ai nment of t he separat ed l i qui d;
2. mal f unct i oni ng of t he secondary separ at i on zone.
As t he di schar ge geomet r y of t he cycl one can be of i nf l uence on t he amount
of car r y- over t hat i s caused by t hese mechani sms, each wi l l be quant i f i ed
f or bot h di schar ge t ypes separ at el y.
ad 1. Consequences of r eent r ai nment
I n sect i on 7- 3- 3 t he submodel t hat pr edi ct s t he onset of r eent r ai nment i n
r ot at i ng gas/ l i qui d syst ems has been ver i f i ed adequat el y. Thi s wi l l not be
r epeat ed f or t he geomet r y of an axi al cycl one.
Radi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones
Wi t h an exampl e wi l l be demonst r at ed t hat t hi s mechani sms wi l l not pl ay a
si gni f i cant r ol e i n t he l i mi t at i on of t he capaci t y of t hi s cycl one t ype.
Fr omt he modi f i ed r eent r ai nment model appear s t hat at gas densi t i es of
60 kg/ m
3
r eent r ai nment t akes pl ace at super f i ci al gas vel oci t i es of
appr oxi mat el y 7- 5- 12. 5 m/ s. The t angent i al accel er at i on at t hi s l ocat i on
wi l l , dependi ng on t he swi r l number , amount t o appr oxi mat el y 3- 000 m/ s
2
.
I f dr opl et s ar e r eent r ai ned even wi t h escape vel oci t i es of 5 m/ s i t can
easi l y be cal cul at ed t hat t hey ar e r edeposi t ed ( assumi ng axi al pl ug f l ow,
negl ect i ng dr ag f orces on t he par t i cl e and assumi ng i mmedi at e accel er at i on
of t he dr opl et t o t he t angent i al vel oci t y of t he gas) i n appr oxi mat el y
2. 10 sec. I n t hi s t i me t he dr opl et wi l l not t r aver se a meani ngf ul axi al
di st ance. Thi s cal cul at i on i l l ust r at es t he obser vat i ons descr i bed i n chapt er
6 t hat r eent r ai nment of t he separ at ed f i l mdoes gener al l y not seem t o l i mi t
t he capaci t y i n axi al cycl ones ( al t hough t hese exper i ment s have been carri ed
out at gas densi t i es onl y up t o 10 kg/ m' ) .
Coaxi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones
For t he bul k of t he f i l m exact l y t he same cal cul at i on appl i es as above.
However , t he pr esence of t he vor t ex f i nder can cause a consi der abl e decr ease
i n axi al vel oci t y at t he wal l at t he hei ght t o whi ch i t ext ends ( see f or
i nst ance f i gur e 7- 10A) . The t angent i al gas vel oci t y does not decr ease al l
t hat sudden ( see f i gure 7. 10B) .
-163-
Thi s resul ts i n the behaviour (depicted in figure 6.11) that the wall film
thickens j ust underneath the vortex fi nder while i ts angl e of rotati on
i ncreases sharpl y. This way, very unfortunate separation circumstances are
created. Suppose that reentrainment takes place: then dropl ets immediately
enter the zone of hi gh radi al vel oci ti es (see f i gure 7-10C) and
redisposition wi l l not take place easi l y. The balance of drag forces inwards
and centri f ugal f orces outwards can easi l y be cal cul ated with the
information presented in AC-M0D1/2 (no quanti tati ve rel ati ons wi l l be given
here).
ad 2. Consequences of malfunctioning of secondary separation zones
As shown in AC-M0D2 the l i qui d that i s discharged from axial cyclones can be
so fine that i t i s questionable i f a simple gravi tati onal separati on step
would be suffi ci ent to prevent these droplets from reenteri ng the main flow.
I n the fol l owi ng a practi cal cri teri on wi l l be given to quanti f y the
detrimental effects on the total separation effi ci ency.
I f i t i s assumed that the axi al cyclones are grouped i n squares (fi gure
7.20) the space between the cyclones i s D
2
[1 - ) =0.215
n
* (see also
A
figures 6.10A and B).
(P* )
The superf i ci al vel oci ty i n thi s space (v
2
) amounts to v _ =
n ?1l
_
n2
in
which p% i s the purge rate and the throughput of the cyclone.
20 40
Fig. 7.20 Composition of multieyclone Fig. 7.21 Validation of equation 7.24
-164-
Coaxially purging cyclones
To determine whether droplets, that are formed during discharge, are taken
with the purge gas to the main stream the following applies (under Stokes'
law):
(p - p ) g d^
v
g2

l 8p* u ' <7-

2
3>
i n whi ch d i s det er mi ned accor di ng t o equat i on 7- 20.
eq
Thi s r el at i on has not been ver i f i ed agai nst exper i ment al r esul t s.
Radi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones
The same car r y- over cr i t er i on ( equat i on 7- 22) appl i es t o r adi al l y pur gi ng
cycl ones, but i n t hi s case d i s det er mi ned accor di ng t o equat i on 7- 21.
When t hi s equat i on f or d i s subst i t ut ed i n t he car r y- over cr i t er i on t he
eq
f ol l owi ng r el at i on i s der i ved:
b a g (p - p )
v
5
p C S- ( 7. 24)
gP g u
- 4
Thi s r el at i on has been ver i f i ed f or a cycl one of whi ch S. =32. 10 m' and
p% = 20. The r esul t s of t he exper i ment s are r epr esent ed i n f i gure 7.21. Fr om
t hi s f i gur e i t appear s t hat f or t he t est ed geomet r y t he l i mi t at i on i n gas
t hr oughput i s pur el y set by i nadequat e secondar y separ at i on. Thi s ef f ect i s
not as much speci f i c f or t hi s par t i cul ar geomet r y but r at her f or t he usual
way i n whi ch axi al cycl ones are oper at ed.
7. 4. 4 Bl ocks AC- M0D4/ M0D5
I t i s expect ed t hat banks of axi al cycl ones wi l l not show ot her det r i ment al
ef f ect s wi t h r espect t o oper at i ng char act er i st i cs t han t hose obser ved wi t h
si ngl e axi al cycl ones. Mal di st r i but i on, f or i nst ance, i s an ef f ect t hat i s
not l i kel y t o occur . Ther ef or e, t he i nt er pr et at i on of t he exper i ment s and
subsequent model l i ng f or axi al cycl ones i s concl uded.
- 165-
7-5 Reverse flow cyclones
7- 5- 1 Bl ock RFC- MODI
Obj ect i ve: For mul at i on of a model t hat descr i bes t he gas f l ow f i el d i nsi de a
r ever se f l ow cycl one as a f unct i on of i t s geomet r y.
Summar y : No sat i sf yi ng r esul t s have been achi eved.
Unf or t unat el y t he Fl uent code has not been avai l abl e t o model r ever se f l ow
cycl ones. I nst ead t he Phoeni cs code was used, whi ch i s much l ess equi pped t o
model swi r l i ng f l ows.
One of t he most i mpor t ant def i ci t s of Phoeni cs i s t he l ack of an advanced
t ur bul ence model whi ch i s necessar y t o model ani sot r opi c f l ows. Thi s was t he
pr i nci pl e cause of t he f ai l ur e t o f or mul at e a gener al l y appl i cabl e model .
I n f i gur e 7- 22 an exampl e i s gi ven of t he compar i son of a si mul at ed f l ow
f i el d t o an exper i ment al l y det er mi ned one. Al t hough t hi s si mul at i on has been
car r i ed out wi t h a f or t hi s pur pose modi f i ed Pr andt l - mi xi ng l engt h
t ur bul ence model ( suggest ed by Per i cl eous [ 1984] ) , t he agr eement i s st i l l
ver y poor .
Fig. 7.22 Simulated axial development of the Fig. 7.23 Manifestations of the
tangential velocity profile in a liquid phase in a
reverse flow cyclone with k-e reverse flow cyclone
- 166-
7. 5- 2 Bl ock RFC- M0D2
Obj ect i ve: For mul at i on of model s t hat descr i be t he behavi our of t he l i qui d
phase i nsi de a r ever se f l ow cycl one.
Summar y : The var i ous f or ms of t he l i qui d phase and t hei r or i gi n ar e
i dent i f i ed. Because t he condi t i ons i nsi de a r ever se f l ow cycl one
ar e ver y si mi l ar t o t hose i n axi al cycl ones i t i s possi bl e t o
r ef er i n most cases t o t he cor r espondi ng r el at i ons f ormul at ed f or
t hese cycl ones.
I n a r ever se f l ow cycl one t he l i qui d phase can occur i n one of t he f ol l owi ng
f or ms ( see f i gur e 723) :
a. as t he or i gi nal mi st phase ( I ) ;
b. as t he f i l mf or med by t he separ at ed l i qui d ( I I ) ;
c. as dr opl et s r eent r ai ned f romt hi s f i l m( I I I ) ;
d. as boundar y l ayer cr eep t owar ds t he vor t ex f i nder ( I V) .
The f i r st t hr ee phases can be descr i bed wi t h t he cor r espondi ng rel at i ons
der i ved i n AC- M0D2, as t hese r el at i ons t ake t he same ef f ect s i nt o account
t hat ar e of i nf l uence i n r ever se f l ow cycl ones. Boundar y l ayer creep i s
caused by t he shor t ci r cui t i ng gas f l ow t hat f l ows di r ect l y i nt o t he vor t ex
f i nder upon ent r y ( see f i gur e 7. 23) .
The amount of l i qui d t hat i s t r anspor t ed t hi s way can be quant i f i ed when t he
i nt er f aci al shear st r esses and t he f i l mt hi ckness ar e known:
1 2
- t he i nt er f aci al shear st r ess T. amount s t o T. =f . r p v ;
l l gi 2
K
g g'
- when assumi ng a t hi n l ami nar f i l m t he aver age f i l m f l ow r at e can be
T. b L
quant i f i ed as =v. L =^ ,
i n whi ch: b =t he f i l mt hi ckness
v. =t he aver age f i l mvel oci t y
L =t he wi dt h of t he sur f ace acr oss whi ch cr eep t akes pl ace
-167-
7-5-3 Block RFC-M0D3
Objective: Formul ati on of models that descri be the practi cal operati ng
characteri sti cs of a reverse flow cyclone.
Summary : The characteri sti cs to which attenti on wi l l be paid are:
1. pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency;
2. maxi mal capaci t y;
3. pr essur e dr op.
Because RFC- MODI has not been compl et ed, i t i s not yet possi bl e
t o f or mul at e an encompassi ve model cl ust er as has been done i n
AC- M0D3- St i l l , some l i mi t i ng phenomena have been i dent i f i ed f or
whi ch qual i t at i ve model s ar e f or mul at ed. The r el i abi l i t y of t hese
model s wi l l be ver i f i ed f or speci f i c cases t hat ar e exper i men-
t al l y wel l char act er i zed.
7. 5- 3. 1 Pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency of a r ever se f l ow cycl one
Because no gas f l ow f i el ds have yet been pr oduced f r om si mul at i ons i t has
been at t empt ed t o r el at e t he det er mi nat i on of t he pr i mar y separ at i on
ef f i ci ency of a r ever se f l ow cycl one t o t hat of an axi al cycl one. Thi s seems
t o be j ust i f i ed because t he condi t i ons i n t he separ at i on zones of bot h
cycl ones are ver y si mi l ar .
The pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency of a r ever se f l ow cycl one was si mul at ed by
det er mi ni ng t he pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency of an axi al cycl one t hat :
1. had an equal di amet er of t he vor t ex f i nder ;
2. had a swi r l number t hat equal l ed t he swi rl number of t he gas f l ow i n t he
separ at i on zone;
and i mpl i ci t l y i t was assumed t hat t he t angent i al vel oci t y pr of i l es woul d
onl y depend on t he act ual swi r l number and woul d not be i nf l uenced by t he
axi al l y r ever sed cor e.
The exper i ment al val i dat i on has t he same set - up as descr i bed f or t he
cor r espondi ng exper i ment i n AC- M0D3. The r esul t s ar e gi ven i n t abl e 7- I I -
r un measur ed separ a-
t i on ef f i ci ency
1 99. 1%
si mul at ed separ a-
t i on ef f i ci ency
99. 6*
si mul at ed d
5
1 d
5
, of i ncomi ng
of cycl one mi st
4 um 1 28 um
Table 7. II
- 168-
Al t hough t he pr edi ct ed seems t o agr ee f ai r l y wel l wi t h t he measur ed
separ at i on ef f i ci ency i t must be r eal i zed t hat t he amount of measur ed car r y-
over i s mor e t han t wo t i mes t he amount t hat i s pr edi ct ed. Pr obabl y t he
r eason f or t hi s ef f ect i s t hat i t i s not account ed f or shor t ci r cui t i ng gas
f l ow j ust under neat h t he vor t ex f i nder whi ch t akes par t i cl es out si de t he
r each of t he separ at i on zone ( see f i gur e 7- 25, I V) .
7. 5. 3- 2 Maxi mal capaci t y of a r ever se f l ow cycl one
Wi t h r espect t o t he det er mi nat i on of t he maxi mal capaci t y of a r ever se f l ow
cycl one, t wo l i mi t i ng phenomena wi l l be descr i bed:
1. t he ef f ect of r eent r ai nment ;
2. t he ef f ect of cr eep.
ad 1. Ef f ect of r eent r ai nment
Fr om t he descr i pt i on of RFC- EXP2 i t appear s t hat j ust under neat h t he vor t ex
f i nder of t he cycl one under i nvest i gat i on a compar abl e bui l d- up of l i qui d
t ook pl ace as descr i bed f or coaxi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones. Appar ant l y t he
r adi al i nf l ow of t he shor t ci r cui t i ng gas f l ow t o t he vor t ex f i nder caused a
moment ar y decr ease of t he axi al vel oci t y. Thi s ef f ect i s f or i nst ance
conf i r med by gas f l ow f i el d det er mi nat i ons of Boysan [ 1982] .
The obser ved phenomena can be expl ai ned by t he f act t hat t he t angent i al
vel oci t y does not show t hi s di p at t he wal l . These ef f ect s r esul t i n a
t hi ckened f i l mr ot at i ng at a shar per angl e ( see f i gur e 6. 16) .
Thi s i s a ver y unf or t unat e si t uat i on as t he r eent r ai nment t hat wi l l t ake
pl ace at t hi s l ocat i on wi l l not be r edeposi t ed f ur t her downst r eami n t he
cycl one. I nst ead i t wi l l be pi cked up by t he hi gh i nwar d r adi al vel oci t i es
and br ought i nt o t he exi t i ng cl eaned gas f l ow.
When t he gas f l ow f i el d can be pr edi ct ed i t wi l l be st r ai ght f or war d t o
det er mi ne t he ef f ect of r eent r ai nment wi t h t he r el at i ons f or mul at ed i n AC-
MODS wi t h r espect t o coaxi al l y pur gi ng axi al cycl ones.
ad 2. Ef f ect of cr eep
Cr eep i s an ef f ect of whi ch t he quant i t y, accor di ng t o RFC- M0D2, does not
depend on l i qui d l oadi ng of t he gas. Ther ef or e, cr eep i s of t en t he r eason
why at l ower l i qui d l oadi ngs t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency seems t o det er i or at e,
-169-
as the absol ute amount of creep stays constant. Unfortunatel y, yet no
i nformati on i s avai l abl e on the boundary l ayer gas flow rate, so no
quanti tati ve predictions can be given. However, the test resul ts of cyclone
type B, figure 6.21C demonstrate thi s effect very cl earl y.
7.5.3.3 Pressure drop of a reverse flow cyclone
In case of axi al cyclones i t has been establ i shed that the l i qui d phase
exerts l i ttl e influence on the pressure drop and therefore, i t i s rel i ed on
the gas flow fi el d si mul ati ons only to gi ve predi cti ons of the pressure
drop.
I n case of r ever se f l ow t her e i s a cl ear i nf l uence of t he l i qui d phase, as
i s demonst r at ed by, f or i nst ance, t he pr essur e dr op cur ves of cycl one I V
( t ype E, f i gur e 6. 18C) page C. 10 i n appendi x C.
On one occasi on ( cycl one t ype E, f i gur e 6. 18C) a r educt i on up t o 15# of t he
pr essur e dr op has been measur ed when t he l i qui d l oadi ng was i ncr eased f r om0
t o 10$. Thi s r educt i on can be expl ai ned by:
1. A r educt i on of t he t angent i al vel oci t y by a decr ease i n angul ar moment um
of t he gas ( swal l owed by t he dr opl et s) ;
2. A r educt i on of ef f ect i ve t ur bul ence by t he pr esence of par t i cl es;
3. A r educt i on of wal l f r i ct i on by t he f or mat i on of t he wal l f i l m.
Because t he f i r st t wo ef f ect s woul d have been appar ent f or axi al cycl ones as
wel l , t he t hi r d expl anat i on i s t he most pr obabl e. The sur f ace cover ed by
wal l f i l ms i s much smal l er i n r adi al l y di schar gi ng cycl ones t o whi ch t he
or i gi nal exper i ment s r el at e.
7. 5. 4 Bl ock RFC- MOD^
Obj ect i ve: I dent i f i cat i on of t he ef f ect s t hat i nf l uence t he r educt i on i n
separ at i on ef f i ci ency of a mul t i cycl one i n compar i son t o a si ngl e
cycl one.
Summar y : A si mpl i f i ed concept ual model of a r ever se f l ow cycl one wi l l be
set up wi t h whi ch t he obser ved behavi our of a mul t i cycl one can be
expl ai ned.
- 170-
The r esul t s of t he exper i ment s wi t h mul t i cycl one A, descr i bed i n RFC- EXP4,
show an appar ant cont r adi ct i on: al t hough t here i s a hi gh mal di st r i but i on of
l i qui d acr oss t he cycl one, t he gas f l ow t hat i s measur ed at t he out l et of
t he i ndi vi dual cycl ones i s const ant *) ( see t abl e 6. VI I I ) .
One woul d r at her expect a hi gher gas f l ow t hrough t he cycl ones t hat separ at e
hi gher amount s of l i qui d, as t he i ncr ease of l i qui d shoul d have r esul t ed i n
a decr ease of t he pr essur e dr op ( RFC- M0D3) . A val i d expl anat i on of t hi s
ef f ect i s t he assumpt i on t hat t he r educt i on of wal l f r i ct i on causes t he
r educt i on i n pr essur e dr op and t hat a f r ee exchange of gas bet ween the
cycl ones i s possi bl e i n t he di schar ge bi n. The r educt i on i n pr essur e dr op i s
i n t hi s case onl y cr eat ed bet ween t he i nl et and l i qui d out l et of t he
cycl one, causi ng ext r a gas t o t r avel t hi s t r aj ect t hr ough t he cycl one i f
ext r a l i qui d i s pr ocessed. Thi s r el at i ve advant age i s l ost , t hough, upon
r ever sal of t he gas di r ect i on, as much l ess l i qui d i s avai l abl e t o smoot h
t he wal l r oughness i n t he vor t ex f i nder . Ther ef or e, i n t he di schar ge bi n, a
r edi st r i but i on of t he gas wi l l t ake pl ace as such t hat t he pr essur e dr op
acr oss al l t he i ndi vi dual vor t ex f i nder s i s equal ( see f i gur e 7. 24) . Thi s
r edi st r i but i on wi l l cause al r eady separ at ed dr opl et s t o ent er t he cycl ones
agai n, af t er whi ch t hey wi l l pass ver y f ast t hr ough t he vor t ex f i nder .
Figure 7.24 Multiayalone effect induced by wall roughness and variation of
liquid loading
* ) The r eason t hat cycl ones I I and I V show l ower vel oci t i es i s caused by
t hei r l onger vor t ex f i nder . The ef f ect her eof i s expl ai ned i n t he cour se
of t he t ext .
- 171-
The i nf l uence of t hi s ef f ect on t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency depends on:
1. The r at e of gas r edi st r i but i on under t he cycl ones, whi ch i s det er mi ned
by:
a. t he r at e of l i qui d mal di st r i but i on acr oss t he cycl one;
b. t he absol ut e wal l r oughness of t he separ at i on zones of t he i ndi vi dual
cycl ones, as t hi s det er mi nes t he amount of l i qui d t hat i s necessar y
bef or e ext r a l i qui d wi l l no l onger r esul t i n ext r a gas t hr ough t he
i nl et . An exampl e: i f a ver y t hi n f i l mi s al r eady enough t o cover t he
wal l r oughness, t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he cycl one becomes
i ndependent of t he l i qui d l oadi ng acr oss t he cycl one ( see equat i ons
5. 12 and 5. 13) and t he amount of ext r a pr ocessed gas and subsequent
r edi st r i but i on st ays l i mi t ed.
2. The dr opl et si ze of t he di schar ged l i qui d. As t he same bal ance of f or ces
pl ays a r ol e as depi ct ed i n f i gur e 7- 22 f or coaxi al l y pur gi ng cycl one i t
i s ref erred t o t hi s sect i on of AC- M0D2.
The quant i f i cat i on depends ver y much on t he yet uncompl et ed gas f l ow f i el d
model of RFC- MODI and t he model s t hat quant i f y t he l i qui d mal di st r i but i on
acr oss t he package and t he gas vel oci t i es i n t he di schar ge bi n, as t he
l at t er wi l l det er mi ne how much l i qui d wi l l r eent er t he cycl ones. These
model s have not yet been f or mul at ed.
One concl usi on can be dr awn: i f t he wal l f r i ct i on f act or of t he separ at i on
zone i s smal l er t han t he i nt er f aci al ( gas) f r i ct i on f act or , t he descr i bed
mechani smcan not occur and t he separ at i on ef f i ci ency of t he mul t i cycl one i s
qui t e easi l y i mproved consi der abl y - up t o 10/K as shown by RFC- EXP4. ( Af t er
t hese exper i ment s one of t he cycl ones of bundl e I I was sacr i f i ced f or
i nt er nal exami nat i on: i t appear ed t hat chunks of rust pr ot r uded up t o 3 ""*>
i nt o t he separ at i on zone. )
7- 5. 5 Bl ock RFC- M0D5
Obj ect i ve: For mul at i on of pr act i cal r el at i ons t hat pr edi ct t he behavi our of
mul t i cycl ones.
Because of t he qual i t at i ve char act er of M0D4, no at t empt s have yet been
under t aken t o set up r el at i ons f or M0D5.
- 172-
7- 6 Vanes
7- 6. 1 Bl ock V- M0D1
Obj ect i ve: To set up a model t hat descr i bes t he gas f l ow f i el d i nsi de a
vane.
Summar y : A sui t abl e model has been devel oped on basi s of t he Phoeni cs
code. The val i dat i on of t hi s model i s descr i bed.
I t was assumed t hat t he measur e of r ot at i on bet ween t he vanes i s l ow enough
t o model t he syst emwi t h t he k- e t ur bul ence model . The f i rst r esul t s di d not
show t he vor t i ces t hat ar e devel oped i n t he t op sect i on of and behi nd t he
bends ( f i gure 6. 23) . Af t er t he gr i d had been r ef i ned t he si mul at i on di d show
t hese vor t i ces and a sat i sf yi ng agr eement was reached bet ween pr edi ct i on and
exper i ment . The out f l ow condi t i ons set t he vel oci t y gr adi ent s at t he exi t
pl ane t o zer o. The gr i d and ot her si mul at i on par amet er s ar e descr i bed mor e
ext ensi vel y by Wat er r eus [ 1988] . I n f i gur es 7- 25 and 7- 26 an exampl e i s
gi ven of t he compar i son of si mul at i on and exper i ment al r esul t s. The
di scr epancy was t hought t o be smal l enough t o be abl e t o rel y on t hi s model
f or t he geomet r i cal opt i mi zat i ons t hat wi l l be descr i bed i n chapt er 8.
The el ongat i on of t he vor t ex behi nd t he bend can b expl ai ned by t he same
ef f ect descr i bed wi t h one of t he pr el i mi nar y AC- MODI model s: angul ar
moment umi s i mpor t ed by i nf l ow of out si de gas. I f t he gr i d woul d have been
chosen l onger , t hi s ef f ect woul d no l onger be pr esent .
distance to wall
Figure 7.25 Simulated flow field Figures 7.26A and B Validation of V-M0D1
between vanes
- 173-
The vor t ex behi nd t he bend can be expl ai ned by t he af t er ef f ect s of t he
r adi al pr essur e gr adi ent t hat i s f or med i n t he bend. The l ow pr essur es at
t he i nner si de of t he bend cause an axi al pr essur e gr adi ent t hat i s di r ect ed
agai nst t he over al l f l ow di r ect i on when t he bend ends.
7. 6. 2 Bl ock V- M0D2
Obj ect i ve: For mul at i on of r el at i ons t hat descr i be t he behavi our of t he
l i qui d phase bet ween vane bl ades.
Summar y : The var i ous f or ms of t he l i qui d phase and t hei r or i gi n ar e
i dent i f i ed. For each of t hese f or ms r el at i ons ar e set up t o
descr i be behavi our and t o be abl e t o pr edi ct possi bl e cr i t i cal
ef f ect s.
The l i qui d can occur i n one of t he f ol l owi ng f orms ( see f i gur e 7.2J):
1. as t he dr opl et s of t he or i gi nal mi st phase ( I ) ;
2. as t he f i l mt hat i s f ormed by t he separ at ed dr opl et s ( I I ) ;
3. as t he dr opl et s r eent r ai ned f romt he f i l m( I I I ) .
ad 1. Behavi our of mi st phase
I t i s r ef er r ed t o sect i on 7- 3- 2 i n whi ch t he r el at i ons are der i ved t hat have
been used i n t he pr evi ous sect i ons f or det er mi ni ng par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es.
ad 2. Behavi our of l i qui d f i l m
Di st i nct i on wi l l be made bet ween vane separ at or s i n whi ch t he separ at ed
l i qui d i s dr ai ned t hrough shi el ded channel s or i n whi ch t he separ at ed l i qui d
i s dr ai ned agai nst t he upf l owi ng gas.
Figure 7.27 Manifestations of the liquid Figure 7.28 Balance of forces on
phase in a Vane-type separator the liquid film
- 17' -
I n case of shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage
Ther e ar e t wo mechani sms t hat can cause r eent r ai nment of t he f i l m:
- shear of f of f i l m f r om geomet r i cal i r r egul ar i t i es ( see EXP- V2) ;
- shear of f of i nt er f aci al i nst abi l i t i es ( see pr evi ous M0D2 bl ocks) .
The f i r st mechani smhas been obser ved t o t ake pl ace ext ensi vel y on vane
bl ades of t ype A i n f i gur e 6. 29. The dr opl et si ze t hat i s cr eat ed can be
est i mat ed wi t h t he bal ance of f or ces depi ct ed i n f i gur e 1.21, i n whi ch t he
br eak up of t he f i l mi s caused by i nt er f aci al f or ces, whi l e t he cont ai ni ng
f or ce i s f ormed by t he sur f ace t ensi on:
CL . i p v
2
6 b =a b 2
D 2
K
g g
assumi ng C_ =1 and d = -J
d =- / ^- ( 7. 25)
eq v * up
u
g g
I n case of t he second mechani sm, t he r eent r ai nment model gi ven i n sect i on
7- 3- 3 can be used f or pr edi ct i ons i f t he l ocal t angent i al f i l mvel oci t y and
t he f r i ct i on vel oci t y of t he gas phase ar e known ( bot h can be det er mi ned
f r om t he pr edi ct i ons of V- M0D1) . I t i s assumed t hat t he f i l mvel oci t y can be
det er mi ned accor di ng t o equat i on 7- 17:
f . P
1 f
1 P l
g
I n case of unshi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage i n ver t i cal l y f l owed t hr ough vanes
The mechani sm t hat l i mi t s t he capaci t y i s f ul l y di f f er ent . Mi st i s of f er ed
t o t he vane, l i qui d i s separ at ed and dr ai ned agai nst t he upf l owi ng gas . The
capaci t y of t he dr ai nage depends on t he gas f r i ct i on vel oci t y, gas densi t y
and l i qui d pr oper t i es. I f at a cer t ai n moment t he amount of l i qui d of f er ed
t o t he separ at or sur passes t hi s maxi mal dr ai nage capaci t y, t he separ at or
wi l l r api dl y f l ood i nt er nal l y and t he maxi mal capaci t y wi l l be r eached
abr upt l y. Pr essur e dr op and maxi mal capaci t y ar e ver y adequat el y descr i bed
by t he model of Bi l l et [ 1987] ( sect i on 3. 4. 3) f or packed col umns.
- 175-
ad 3. Behavi our of r eent r ai ned dr opl et s
Reent r ai nment wi l l onl y t ake pl ace at t he hi gh vel oci t i es t hat wi l l occur i n
oper at i on wi t h shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage. The behavi our of t hese r eent r ai ned
dr opl et s can be char act er i zed when t he f ol l owi ng pr oper t i es ar e known:
- dr opl et si ze;
- i ni t i al dr opl et vel oci t y;
- r eent r ai nment r at e.
I f dropl ets are reentrai ned by the f i rst mechani sm, menti oned under ad 2,
thei r dropl et si ze can be determi ned accordi ng to equati on 7-25-
I t can be expected accordi ng to the same model, depi cted i n f i gure 7-27 that
the dropl et vel oci ty can not be l arger than the maximally occuri ng film
vel oci ty, v
l max
.
v
n
~2 * v, (Re. <1000)
lmax 1 1
v. i s determi ned accordi ng to equati on 7-25
The reentrai nment rate depends on the surface roughness: speci f i cal l y on the
number of i rregul ari ti es that penetrate through the boundary l ayer of the
f i l m. I n case the fi l m i s so unstabl e that reentrai nment can take pl ace by
rol l wave crest shear off, i t i s ref erred to the correspondi ng ori gi nal
rel ati ons i n ei ther secti on 5- 5
o r
the modified relations for centrifugal
fields in AC-M0D2.
7.6.3 Block V-M0D3
Objectives: Formulation of practical relations that describe the operating
characteristics of a vane separator.
Summary : Because V-EXP3 has not yet been started, no reliable means of
val i dati on for the models of thi s block was available.
Therefore, only qualitative conclusions can be drawn. I t is
expected that Verlaan will pay extensive attention to this
subject in his thesis.
- 176-
I n t hi s sect i on at t ent i on wi l l be pai d t o t he f ol l owi ng oper at i ng
char act er i st i cs:
1. pr i mar y ef f i ci ency ( mi ni mal capaci t y) ;
2. maxi mal capaci t y.
The pr essur e dr op i s reproduced r el i abl y by V- MODl . I n t he f ol l owi ng i t i s
assumed t hat t he pr esence of l i qui d wi l l have a negl i gi bl e ef f ect on t he gas
f l ow f i el d as most vane bl ades consi st of smoot h st ai nl ess st eel ( see RFC-
M0D4) .
ad 1. Pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency
I n f i r st i nst ance t he same t hr ee assumpt i ons of par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es as
t hose i n AC- M0D3 ar e t aken t o be val i d wi t h r espect t o t he det er mi nat i on:
1. The gas f l ow f i el d i s not af f ect ed by t he pr esence of l i qui d phase;
2. Tur bul ence has a negl i gi bl e ef f ect on par t i cl e t r aj ect or i es;
3. St okes' l aw i s appl i cabl e.
The mi ni mumgas f l ow vel oci t y necessar y t o achi eve pr act i cal separ at i on
ef f i ci enci es has been est i mat ed f or vane t ype separ at or C i n f i gur e 6. 29.
Val ues of v . bet ween 2-k m/ s dependi ng on dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on,
g min i f o i-
wer e f ound, whi ch cor r esponded t o exper i ment al l y det er mi ned val ues on t est -
r i g 3- However , because of st i l l unquant i f i ed upscal i ng ef f ect s t hat mi ght
have i nf l uenced t hese r esul t s, t hese exper i ment s ar e not sui t abl e f or
val i dat i on pur poses ( Pouwel s [ 1987] ) .
Figure 7. 29 Simulated kinetic turbulent energy between vane blades
- 177-
Fromsi mul at i ons of gas f l ow f i el ds at hi gher gas vel oci t i es i t appear s t hat
t he i nt ensi t y of t ur bul ence i ncr eases r api dl y af t er each bend ( f i gure 7- 29) .
Because t he t ur bul ence i nt ensi t y i s hi gh i n t he r egi ons t hat t he dr opl et s
have t o t r aver se, i t i s quest i onabl e i f t he second assumpt i on wi l l pr ove t o
be val i d. The basi c cause of t he i ncr ease of t ur bul ence behi nd t he bends i s
t he occur r ence of t he vor t i ces whi ch are descr i bed i n V- M0D1.
ad 2. Maxi mal capaci t y
Fr omV- M0D2 t wo mechani sms ar e i ndi cat ed t hat can l i mi t t he oper at i on by
causi ng r eent r ai nment of separ at ed l i qui d. Whi ch one wi l l occur depends on
geomet r i cal ef f ect s ( sur f ace r oughness) and f l ow f i el d char act er i st i cs
( l ocal t angent i al accel er at i ons) .
The ef f ect of r eent r ai nment wi l l l ar gel y depend on t he l ocat i on of t h
dr ai nage sl i t s, and t hus on t he l ocat i on of t he wet t ed ar eas. Reent r ai ned
dr opl et s can penet r at e t o t he gas cor e i f no suf f i ci ent cent r i f ugal
accel er at i on i s avai l abl e and/ or when t he gas f l ow has become t oo t ur bul ent .
Al l t hese ef f ect s, but t he l ast can i n pr i nci pl e be si mul at ed wi t h t he
combi nat i on of t he model bl ocks pr esent ed i n t he t wo pr evi ous sect i ons.
When adequat e exper i ment al r esul t s have been gener at ed t o ver i f y t he
rel i abi l i t y of t hi s model cl ust er , a power f ul t ool has been obt ai ned t o
pr edi ct t he oper at i ng char act er i st i cs of vane t ype separ at or s t hat f eat ur e
shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage.
7. 6. 4 Bl ock V-MOD' t
Objective: To quanti fy the ef f ects of upscal i ng wi th respect to the
operating conditions of a vane separator.
Summary : Of two effects, that have earl i er been i denti f i ed as possi bl e
contri buants to reduction i n separation efficiency, one has been
investigated by means of si mul ati on, al though no experi mental
resul ts were yet available to verify the simulation model.
- 178-
I n sect i on 3- ^- 3 t wo det r i ment al ef f ect s wer e ment i oned t hat pl ay a r ol e
when t he l engt h/ wi dt h r at i o of t he i nf l ow ar ea of a vane t ype separ at or ,
f l owed t hr ough f r om t he di r ect i on of i t s l engt h ( see f i gur e 7. 30A) , i s
ext r eme:
1. gas wi l l be mal di st r i but ed acr oss t he f r ont al i nf l ow ar ea causi ng l ocal
over l oadi ng;
2. (i n case of hor i zont al l y f l owed t hr ough vanes: ) t he capaci t y of t he
l i qui d dr ai nage sl ot s mi ght be t oo l ow i n t he under si de of t he vane pack,
causi ng l i qui d t o f l ow out of t he sl ot s.
The second ef f ect wi l l not ver y l i kel y occur i n usual oper at i on as t he cr oss
sect i on of t he sl ot s i n most geomet r i es i s l ar ge i n r el at i on t o pr act i cal
l i qui d l oadi ngs. Mor eover , i f i t occur s, car r y- over wi l l be qui t e f ast
accommodat ed i n f ol l owi ng sl ot s.
The f i r st mechani sms mi ght r esul t i n mor e ser i ous ef f ect s, because t oo hi gh
super f i ci al gas vel oci t i es wi l l al ways l ead t o a decr ease i n ef f i ci ency.
For t hi s r eason a qual i t at i ve si mul at i on based on t he Phoeni cs code has been
set up t o assess t he amount of mal di st r i but i on as a f unct i on of oper at i ng
pr essur e, W/ L r at i o and pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent of t he vane. The si mul at ed
si t uat i on i s depi ct ed i n f i gur e 7- 30B.
An i ndi cat i ve exampl e of t he si mul at i on r esul t s i s depi ct ed i n f i gure 7. 30B.
The pr el i mi nar y concl usi on of t hi s exer ci se i s t hat t he ef f ect s of
mal di st r i but i on ar e much st r onger t han gener al l y consi der ed.
However , mor e ef f or t must yet be put i n t hese i nvest i gat i ons t o quant i f y t he
obser ved ef f ect s.
Figure 7. SOA Configuration used for modelling
-179-
Figure 7.30B Indicative example of simulation result
7.6.5 Block V-M0D5
Objective: To formulate practi cal rel ati ons that predi ct the behaviour of
vane packs.
Because of the qual i tati ve character of M0D4 no attempts have yet been
undertaken to set up rel ati ons for M0D5.
- 180-
- 181-
8. CONCLUSI ONS: I MPROVED DESI GNS AND DESI GN PROCEDURES
8. 1 I nt r oduct i on
I n chapt er 8 t he model s t hat have been f ormul at ed i n t hi s t hesi s ar e appl i ed
t o devel op new separ at or desi gns and i mproved separ at or desi gn pr ocedur es.
I n sect i on 8. 2 f or each separ at or t ype t he ef f ect s ar e summar i zed t hat have
been f ound t o l i mi t t he oper at i on. I mpr ovement s ar e pr oposed t o mi ni mi ze or
pr event t he ef f ect s of t hese l i mi t at i ons. Al ong t hi s l i ne a dedi cat ed axi al
and novel vane desi gn cycl one ar e opt i mi zed and t est ed.
Al t hough a concept ual desi gn f or an i mpr oved r ever se f l ow cycl one i s
pr oposed as wel l , t hi s separ at or t ype has not been devel oped f ur t her as t he
char act er i st i cs of t he new axi al cycl one pr oved t o be super i or i n advance.
I n sect i on 8. 3 desi gn pr ocedur es ar e di st i l l ed f romt he model s t hat have
been descr i bed i n chapt er 1.
I n some cases i t pr oves t o be possi bl e t o ext r act si mpl e and r el i abl e
r el at i ons f romt hese model s t hat have a pr act i cal val ue. I n most cases,
however , i s r ef er r ed t o t he compl et e model f or exact pr edi ct i ons. Rul es of
t humb ar e gi ven wi t h whi ch t he i nf l uences of most i mpor t ant oper at i ng
condi t i ons can be quant i f i ed. The newl y devel oped r el at i ons ar e compar ed t o
t he t r adi t i onal desi gn r ul es and concl usi ons ar e dr awn wi t h r espect t o t he
consequences of di scr epanci es.
8. 2 I mpr oved desi gns
8. 2. 1 Axi al cycl ones
Pr i me l i mi t at i ons
I t has been pr oven i n sect i on 7.k t hat t he maxi mal capaci t y i s reached i n
axi al cycl ones because of a mal f unct i oni ng secondar y separ at i on zone and not
because of r eent r ai nment of t he l i qui d f i l mi nsi de t he set t l i ng zone ( see
f or exampl e f i gur e 7- 21) .
Especi al l y i n case of r adi al l y pur gi ng ( sl i t - ) cycl ones t he det r i ment al
ef f ect of i ncr easi ng gas densi t y on t he ef f ect i veness of t he secondar y
- 182-
separ at i on zone i s ver y st r ong ( equat i on 1.2k). I n axi al cycl ones wi t h
ef f i ci ent swi r l el ement s a l ar ge par t of t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he
cycl one i s caused by t he const r i ct i on of t he vor t ex f i nder . The pr essur e
dr op acr oss t he vor t ex f i nder ser ves as t he dr i vi ng power of t he secondar y
separ at i on, but does not cont r i but e t o t he pr i mar y separ at i on ( see f or
i nst ance f i gur es 6. 10A and B) .
Pr oposal f or a compact axi al cycl one dedi cat ed t o hi gh pr essur e appl i cat i ons
I n f i gur es 3- 29 and 3- 30 i t i s shown f or r ever se f l ow cycl ones how t o
r epr ocess f oul ed pur ge gas wi t h t he mai n gas st r eam. I f t hi s i dea i s appl i ed
t o axi al cycl ones t he secondar y separ at i on zone i s not l onger necessar y.
Two di f f er ent conf i gur at i ons ( see f i gur e 8. 1) have been consi der ed t o
r epr ocess t he pur ge gas. The pur ge gas can ei t her be f ed back t o t he
unpr ocessed mai n st r eam t hr ough t he under pr essur e cr eat ed by a vent ur i
upst r eamof t he cycl one, or use can be made of t he avai l abl e under pr essur e
i n t he cent r e of t he cycl one t o cr eat e a dr i vi ng f or ce f or t he pur ge gas.
Apar t f romel i mi nat i ng t he pr esent l i mi t at i on t o t he maxi mal t hr oughput of
t r adi t i onal axi al cycl ones, t he need f or a nar r ow vor t ex f i nder ( dri vi ng
f or ce behi nd secondar y separ at i on) has now been el i mi nat ed as wel l . Thi s can
r esul t i n a much l ower pr essur e dr op acr oss t he cycl one. For each of t hese
t wo al t er nat i ves a desi gn opt i mi zat i on has been car r i ed out wi t h t he
si mul at i on model s descr i bed i n sect i on J.k.
I n t he f ol l owi ng t he opt i mi zat i on pr ocedur es and t he f i nal r esul t s ar e
descr i bed f or each of t he t wo al t er nat i ves.
j Iss
Figure 8.1A Venturi, recycle axial
cyclone
Figure a.IB Internal recycle axial
eye lone
-183-
Design optimization procedures
Venturi-recycle type cyclone
Starti ng with some fi xed geometri cal val ues and rati os the pri mary
separati on zone was f i rst optimally designed so that some stri ngent demands
to the operating characteri sti cs could be met. The geometri cal starti ng
condi ti ons concerned especi al l y the diameter of the cyclone (0 50 mm) and
the ranges of allowable vari ati on of the other geometri cal rati os so that
the resul ti ng desi gn could sti l l be accommodated in the test- ri g. In the
opti mi zati on procedure i t has never been necessary to i mpose these
constrai nts on the si mul ati on resul ts. The requirements with respect to
operating characteri sti cs concerned:
- the separati on effi ci ency (d
50
<5 um);
1 2
- pr essur e drop (5 <10, Ap = j p u , of whi ch < 3) ;
- t ur n down r at i o (Tr < 1/ 5 at p =k0 kg/ m
3
) .
The pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent acr oss t he swi r l er ( ) had t o meet st r i ngent
r equi r ement s as i t s val ue det er mi nes t he necessar y under pr essur e of t he
vent ur i (and t hus t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he vent ur i i t sel f ) .
The si mul at i on r esul t s speci f i ed t he f ol l owi ng pr oper t i es of t he cycl one
geomet r y (see AC- M0D3) :
- pur ge r at e, p%
- separ at i on chamber l engt h, L/ D
- di amet er of vor t ex f i nder , D / D
e'
- mi ni mal r equi r ed swi r l number , S .
m
Wi t h S t he geomet r y of a l ow pr essur e dr op swi r l el ement can be der i ved
f romt he i nf or mat i on gi ven i n sect i ons 5- 5 and 6. 3- 1 AC- EXP1.
A swi r l el ement was const r uct ed (see f i gure 8. 2) t hat met t he cr i t er i a ( =
2. 7 and S , t he mi ni mal r equi r ed swi r l number t hat was speci f i ed by t he
si mul at i on) .
Fr omexper i ment s appear ed t hat t he pr evi ousl y t heor et i cal l y det er mi ned
vent ur i geomet r y t hat shoul d compensat e f or t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he
swi r l el ement was not adequat e. The pur ge r at e was t oo l ow, and l ow
ef f i ci enci es wer e measur ed.
The vent ur i di amet er t hat di d i nduce t he speci f i ed pur ge r at e was f ound
exper i ment al l y.
- 184-
The predicted ef f i ci enci es now coi nci ded l argel y with the experi mental
val ues (see fi gure 8.3) which meant that no other l i mi ti ng phenomena
occurred that had not been anti ci pated.
The momentary decrease of measured separation efficiency at p =14 kg/m'
was structural and i s probably caused by film creep. Strangel y enough thi s
effect disappears at higher pressures. The target pressure drop coefficient
of =10 could not be reached because of a di sappoi nti ngl y high pressure
drop across the venturi (accounting for 55#of the total pressure drop).
Figure 8.2 Optimized swirl element
i target ' 10
I reached .15
=Sf
7"
predicted
6 experimental characterization at I5kg/n>
a .. .. at 20kg/n>>
a t 40kg/o>
1 5 ? 55 ! 55 ? 55 H ?~ ido
gasflow (actual n' /hr )
Figure 8.3 Characteristics of venturi
recycle type cyclone
I nternal recycle type cyclone
The opti mi zati on of the desi gn of the primary separation zone was carried
out si mi l arl y to the previous cyclone with an i mportant extra assumption.
The purge gas that entered the separation zone through the swirl element was
considered to be assimilated by the swirling gas flow f i el d. I t i s assumed
that thereby i t l owers the effecti ve swi rl number of the total flow
proportionally. The j usti f i cati on of thi s assumption i s shown in fi gure
8.4, i n which the measured axi al development of thi s swi rl i ng flow i s
depicted. At location A (corresponding to fi gure 6.10B) there i s sti l l a
di sti nct plug flow in the centre, which has disappeared at location B.
This means that the models formulated in AC-M0D3 can be applied. I t should,
however, be realized that a swirl element i s necessary that invokes a swirl
number that i s p% higher than the swirl number with which the simulation has
been carri ed out (i f p% i s the purge rate). With respect to the axial gas
flow field the same assumptions are made as l i sted in AC-MODI.
-185-
The simulations again specified the necessary geometrical parameters. Figure
8.5 gives the predi cti ons necessary for the determi nati on of the grade
efficiency curve of the final geometry.
i s , 1 1
u
ii/ii
-'' '' > ' '' ' ' ' Figure 8.5 Simulated partiele
Figure 8.4B Tangential flow field trajectories
The f ol l owi ng speci al pr oper t i es wer e r equi r ed of t he swi r l el ement :
1. i t shoul d i nduce t he speci f i ed mi ni mal swi r l i nt ensi t y (S ) ;
2. i t shoul d cr eat e a di f f er ent i al r adi al pr essur e dr op l ar ge enough t o
i nduce t he r equi r ed pur ge r at e;
3. i t shoul d wi t hst and f oul i ng oper at i on.
Wi t h r espect t o t he l ast demand t he passage t hrough t he swi r l el ement may
not be nar r ower t han 12 mm.
Exper i ment s wer e car r i ed out t o ver i f y t he pr edi ct i ons. Thi s t i me a ver y
l arge di scr epancy was encount er ed bet ween pr edi ct ed and measur ed separ at i on
ef f i ci ency and appar ent l y a secondar y l i mi t i ng mechani smoccur r ed i n t he
separ at i on pr ocess t hat had not yet been i dent i f i ed.
I nt er nal i nvest i gat i ons on t est - r i g 1 showed t hat ver y heavy f i l mcr eep
occurred acr oss t he t op of t he swi r l el ement t owar ds t he cent r e of t he
cycl one. Thi s l i qui d f i l mwas di sper sed by t he pur ge gas ( see f i gur e 8. 6A)
t hat ent er ed t he cycl one t hr ough t he swi r l el ement . Thi s way ver y
unf or t unat e condi t i ons wer e cr eat ed. An ant i cr eep devi ce was mount ed on t op
of t he swi rl el ement (see f i gur e 8. 6B) whi ch pr ovi ded an adequat e sol ut i on.
- 186-
Figure 8.6A Dispersion of oreep Figure 8.6B Modified swirl element
The exper i ment al char act er i zat i on was now agai n conf ormt o t he pr edi ct ed
behavi our ( see f i gur e 8. 7A) . The pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent t hat was expect ed
f or t hi s geomet r y amount ed t o =7; t he ef f ect i ve pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent
t hat was det er mi ned exper i ment al l y amount ed t o =6.
fj target .10
jj retched >6
/frtt /predicted
Pg.H.20.10 kg/m
at l>0 bar
4 .. ,. at 20 bar
O experimental characterization at 14 bar
10 20 30 10
50 ( 0 70 80
gasflow (actual o' /hr l
5-24
N: ^
4 \
Pg15 t g/m' \
QPg=20 k g/ a' \
aPg.tO k g/ a'
A
i I r 1 1 1 I i I
30 0 50 60 70
gasflow (actual aV t t r l
Figure 8.7A Characteristics of internal Fig. 8.7B Characteristics o f corresponds
recycle type cyclone conventional cyclone
I n f i gur e 8. 7B t he same axi al cycl one has been t est ed i n t he t radi t i onal
f or m (see f i gur e 6. 10A) . A secondar y separ at i on zone r epl aced t he r ecycl e
pr ovi si on. The di amet er of t he vor t ex f i nder had been chosen as such t hat an
equal pur ge rat e was devel oped. The ef f ect of t he di f f er ence i n pur ge gas
cl eani ng shows t hat t he t r adi t i onal sol ut i on i s not at al l sui t ed f or hi gh
pr essur e appl i cat i ons. Mor e speci f i c i nf or mat i on wi t h r espect t o t he
geomet r i cal pr oper t i es of t hese cycl ones i s conf i dent i al . I t i s i n the
possessi on of t he sponsor s of t hi s pr oj ect .
- 187-
Thi s desi gn opt i mi zat i on has l ead t o a cycl one of whi ch t he measur ed maxi mal
val ue of A ( rel at ed t o t he di amet er of t he cycl one) amount ed t o A =2. 5 (!)
( at p =40 kg/ m
3
and 110 m
3
/ hr ) . Thi s f i gur e was at l east 2. 5 t i mes hi gher
t han t he measur ed maxi mal val ue of A f or t he convent i onal cycl one.
Meanwhi l e, t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he new cycl one was f our t i mes l ower .
8. 2. 2 Rever se f l ow cycl ones
Pr i me l i mi t at i ons
I t has been shown i n sect i on 7- 5 t hat one of t he pr obabl e bot t l e- necks wi t h
r espect t o gas t hr oughput i n gas/ l i qui d r ever se f l ow cycl ones i s f or med by
r eent r ai nment of t he separ at ed l i qui d f i l mand t he hi gh r adi al gas i nf l ux at
t he hei ght of t he vor t ex f i nder .
Pr oposal f or a desi gn dedi cat ed f or hi gh pr essur e gas/ l i qui d separ at i on
A si mpl e geomet r i cal sol ut i on t hat r educes t he l ocal r adi al i nf l ux and at
t he same t i me t akes t he l i qui d away f romt he danger ous zone, i s expansi on of
t he separ at i on zone at t he hei ght of t he vor t ex f i nder ( see f i gur e 8. 8) .
Al t hough t he same separ at i on ef f i ci ency and t ur n down r at i o coul d be
r eached, a r ever se f l ow cycl one wi l l pr obabl y al ways have a hi gher pr essur e
dr op and a l ar ger si ze. Because no possi bl e advant ages ar e gai ned wi t h
r espect t o t he desi gns t hat have been devel oped i n t he pr evi ous sect i on, no
f ur t her ef f or t has been put i n opt i mi zat i on of t hi s desi gn pr i nci pl e.

Figure 8.8 Adapted reverse flow cyolone for high pressure gas/liquid
separation
- 188-
8. 2. 3 Vanes
Pr i me l i mi t at i ons
I n sect i on 7- 6 has been shown t hat , due t o t he poor aer odynami c pr oper t i es
of t he f l ow pat h bet ween t he vane bl ades, t he t ur bul ence i nt ensi t y wi l l
i ncr ease st eadi l y f romi n- t o out l et . The ef f ect of t he i ncr eased t urbul ence
i s t hr eef ol d:
1. I t has been shown t hat usual l y onl y t he f i r st t wo or t hr ee bends wi l l
cont r i but e t o an ef f ect i ve separ at i on. Fr om t hese bends onwar ds t he
movement of smal l mi st par t i cl es becomes so er r at i c t hat onl y some
t ur bul ent deposi t i on wi l l t ake pl ace.
2. Because of t he t ur bul ent f l uct uat i ons of t he gas f l ow t he maxi mal
capaci t y ( onset of r eent r ai nment ) i s reached ear l i er t han expect ed.
3. The pr essur e dr op acr oss t he vane pack i s hi gher t han necessar y.
The r eent r ai nment mechani sms t hat can be encount er ed i nsi de vane packs are
al so descr i bed i n sect i on "].6 and ar e i dent i f i ed as:
a. r ol l - wave cr est shear of f i n case of l ow cent r i f ugal st abi l i zat i on of t he
f i l m ( poor l y l ocat ed di schar ge sl i t s, out si de t he zones i n whi ch a
cent r i f ugal f i el d exi st s) ;
b. f i l mshear of f because of i r r egul ar i t i es on t he vane sur f ace.
The most i mpor t ant r eason f or t he downst r eami ncr ease of t urbul ence bet ween
vane bl ades i s caused by t he r adi al pr essur e gr adi ent t hat i s i nvoked i n t he
bends. The zone of l ow pr essur e at t he i nner si de of t he bend causes behi nd
t he bend an axi al gr adi ent t hat i s di r ect ed agai nst t he general di r ect i on of
f l ow. Thi s ef f ect gi ves r i se t o a vor t ex t hat f or ms an uncont r ol abl e
f l uct uat i ng ' obst acl e' i n t he f l ow pat h ( see f i gur e 7. 24 and V- M0D1) .
Pr oposal f or vane t ype separ at or desi gn t hat i s dedi cat ed to hi gh pr essur e
gas/ l i qui d separ at i on
Fr om per sonal communi cat i on wi t h Ni euwst adt [ 1987] i t appeared t hat a ver y
el egant way of abol i shi ng t he vor t i ces woul d consi st of cr eat i ng a l ow
pr essur e zone behi nd t he bends t o compensat e t he r adi al pr essur e gr adi ent i n
t he bend. Thi s l ow pr essur e zone shoul d be cr eat ed by r educi ng t he wi dt h
bet ween t he vane bl ades di r ect l y af t er t he bend.
- 189-
By choosi ng a car ef ul i ncr ease i n wi dt h, pr essur e coul d be r egai ned and t he
l evel of t ur bul ence coul d be kept t o a mi ni mum.
The maxi mal al l owabl e wi dt h of t he vane channel behi nd t he bend i n or der t o
pr event t he f or mat i on of a vor t ex can be quant i f i ed i n a si mpl i f i ed way: i f
sol i d body r ot at i on i s assumed t o t ake pl ace i n t he bend, t he r adi al
pr essur e di f f er ence acr oss t he channel i n t he bend wi l l be:
r
r

ut
2 . 1 2 2
AP
b
= J p
g
co r dr =2 P
g
*>
r
r =r
out
r =r.
( 8. 1)
i n i n
i n whi ch: r. =t he i nner r adi us of t he bend
i n
r ^ =t he out er r adi us of t he bend
out
ID =t he angul ar vel oci t y i n t he bend (~ u, / r )
u, =t he super f i ci al vel oci t y bet ween t he pl at es i n t he bend.
Wi t h t he knowl edge of t he r adi al pr essur e gr adi ent t he necessar y r educt i on
i n pr essur e behi nd t he bend can be cal cul at ed; f r om t hi s i nf or mat i on t he
r educt i on i n channel wi dt h can easi l y be est i mat ed wi t h Ber noui l l i ' s l aw:
AP =\ p (u, - u )
2
r 2
r
g ' b r'
i n whi ch: AP =t he pr essur e r educt i on af t er t he bend
u =t he super f i ci al vel oci t y bet ween t he pl at es af t er t he bend
The vor t ex behi nd t he bend wi l l not f or mi f AP >r- AP, _.
r 2 b
With the quantification described above a preliminary one-bend prof i l e was
set up and simulations with the earl i er described V-M0D1 model were carried
out to establ i sh the sensi ti vi ty of the desi gn. Two exampl es of the
si mul ati on resul ts are shown i n figures 8.9 and 8.10. As can be seen, the
vortex behind the bend i s i n effect no l onger present and the amount of
turbulence i s drasti cal l y reduced with respect to figure 1.29.
- 190-
Fig. 8.9 Simulated flow field Fig. 8.10 Simulated turbulent kinetic energy
Af t er t he t heor et i cal j ust i f i cat i on of t he new desi gn phi l osophy f or t he gas
f l ow pat h a pr ot ot ype vane separ at or was concei ved t hat consi st ed of onl y
one bend. Car e was t aken t o opt i mal l y l ocat e t he dr ai nage sl ot s ( accordi ng
t o t he f i ndi ngs i n sect i on 7- 6) and t o pr ovi de t he dr ai nage sl ot s wi t h
gr adual l y cur ved smoot h upst r eaml i ps ( see f i gur e 8. 11) t o ensur e cohesi on
of t he f i l mt o t he met al sur f ace and t o pr event t he second r eent r ai nment
mechani smment i oned.
Thi s pr ot ot ype f eat ur ed a ver t i cal shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage ( see f i gur e
3. 12) t o ensur e a desi gn as compact as possi bl e whi ch woul d be sui t ed f or
f oul i ng oper at i on.
The exper i ment al char act er i zat i on showed i n ef f ect a dr ast i cal l y reduced
pr essur e dr op (i t amount ed t o 20% of convent i onal vane packs wi t h ver t i cal
shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage) . The maxi mal capaci t y and separ at i on ef f i ci ency
pr oved t o be compar abl e t o convent i onal vane separ at or s.
I t was expect ed t hat t he maxi mal capaci t y was l i mi t ed by r eent r ai ned
dr opl et s f romt he st i l l t hi ck f i l m f l owi ng i nt o t he f i r st dr ai nage sl ot .
Af t er t he f i rst bend t hese dr opl et s wer e har dl y gi ven a second chance t o be
separ at ed. Ther ef or e, a second pr ot ot ype was desi gned t hat exchanged par t of
t he l ar ge r educt i on i n pr essur e dr op of t he f i rst pr ot ot ype f or an ext ensi on
of t he t ur n down r at i o. I nst ead of one bend, t hree bends wer e desi gned.
- 191-
Fi gur e 8. 11 shows an i ndi cat i ve exampl e of t he vane geomet r y. The r esul t s of
t he exper i ment al char act er i zat i on ar e shown i n f i gur e 8. 12. I n t hi s f i gur e
t he char act er i st i cs ar e compar ed t o t hose of a convent i onal vane t ype
separ at or .
The pr ot ot ype i s pr esent l y bei ng pat ent ed. For mor e speci f i c i nf or mat i on i s
r ef er r ed t o t he sponsor s. Ver t i cal l i qui d dr ai nage has been pat ent ed by
Bur gess Manni ng GmbH, whi ch company has put t hi s i dea at t he di sposal of
t hi s pr oj ect under cer t ai n condi t i ons.
Figure 8.11 Geometry of first prototype for new vane (indicative)
100-,
t
90-
B
80
"
70-
I
60
"
^ 50-
I 40-
|
30
"
S 20-
10 -
0-
A VANE TYPE III 6.29
NEW VANE
1
T r
-
r
7 9 11
superficial gasve
19 20
ilociry (ra/s)
Figure 8.12 Extrapolated characteristics of second prototype
- 192-
8.3 Improved design equa tions
8. 3- 1 I nt r oduct or y r emar ks
I n t he next t hr ee subsect i ons desi gn equat i ons ar e der i ved f r omt he model s
of chapt er 7 f or axi al cycl ones, r ever se f l ow cycl ones and vane t ype
separ at or s.
At t ent i on i s pai d t o t he same desi gn equat i ons as i n chapt er 3:
1. Maxi mal capaci t y as a f unct i on of gas densi t y, l i qui d pr oper t i es and
separ at or geomet r y;
2. Mi ni mal capaci t y ( pr i mar y separ at i on ef f i ci ency) as a f unct i on of t he
same var i abl es;
3. Pr essur e dr op as a f unct i on of t he same var i abl es and gas f l ow.
Except f or axi al cycl ones, t he model s of chapt er 7 ar e near l y al ways t oo
compl ex t o der i ve si mpl i f i ed, gener al r el at i ons f romt hat f ul l y account f or
geomet r i cal var i at i ons. Ther ef or e, t he pr act i cal desi gn equat i ons t hat ar e
der i ved f r om t hese model s ar e i n most cases gi ven i n a gener al f ormf rom
whi ch t he i nf l uence of changes i n oper at i ng condi t i ons can be quant i f i ed i n
a r el at i ve way. For i nst ance, i n case of r ever se f l ow cycl ones, t he
mechani sm t hat l i mi t s t he t hr oughput has been i dent i f i ed. Wi t h t hi s
i nf or mat i on changes i n oper at i ng condi t i ons can be pr edi ct ed qual i t at i vel y.
For each separ at or t ype each of t he new equat i ons ar e compar ed t o t he
t r adi t i onal equat i ons and t he ef f ect of t he di scr epanci es i s descr i bed
shor t l y.
8. 3- 2 Tr adi t i onal axi al cycl ones
Maxi mal capaci t y
I n case of r adi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones t he most i mpor t ant l i mi t i ng mechani sm
i s t he f ai l ur e of t he secondar y separ at i on zone t o separ at e t he di schar ged
l i qui ds f r omt he pur ge gas. The cr i t er i on f or r eent r ai nment i s descr i bed as
f ol l ows ( see equat i on 7- 23) :
* 2 J V
S
' S^ (-) C (8.2)
g max
v
p^ u A ^3 '
- 193-
i n whi ch: =gas t hr oughput
S
D =cycl one di amet er
S. =sl i t sur f ace
p% = per cent age of pur ge gas
v% = vol ume per cent age of l i qui d i n gas
C =numer i cal const ant
I n case of coaxi al l y pur gi ng cycl ones t he same mechani smmay t ake pl ace, but
i n t hi s case i s bet t er descr i bed by ( see equat i ons 7. 20 and 7. 21) :
g max
J
'
v
( p
i "
p
K
> v
3
* z 1
s
- ' 1 5- ' C (8.3)
g max * p p.. * . 2 \ ~II
g 1 P% t g a
i n whi ch a =t he swi r l angl e of t he exi t pl ane and det er mi nes t he r at i o
bet ween t angent i al and axi al vel oci t y component s. I t can be
quant i f i ed exact l y f romr el at i ons i n sect i on 5- 5 or f r omAC-
MODI but as a si mpl i f i cat i on a can be t aken equal t o t he
swi r l er angl e.
An ot her l i mi t at i on of t he capaci t y of t hi s cycl one t ype may be f or med by
t he r eent r ai nment mechani smdepi ct ed i n f i gur e 6. 11. I n t hi s case i t i s mor e
di f f i cul t t o der i ve gener al r el at i ons f romAC- M0D3, as t her e i s much l ar ger
i nf l uence of t he cycl one geomet r y.
The magni t ude of t he r adi al vel oci t i es at t he exi t pl ane depends on, f or
i nst ance, t he swi r l number . Gener al l y, i t can be expect ed t hat at swi r l
number s l ower t han 0. 8, hi gh l ocal r adi al i nf l ow vel oci t i es ar e cr eat ed.
I f t he si mul at ed gas vel oci t i es i n f i gur e 7- l ^C ar e obser ved i t i s not ed
t hat f or swi r l number s of S =0. 55 i nwar d di r ect ed r adi al vel oci t i es up t o 5
m/ s occur . Gener al i zi ng i t can t her ef or e be sai d t hat i f t he vane angl e i s
l ower t han 50- 60 one shoul d ser i ousl y account f or t hi s l i mi t at i on
mechani sm.
To quant i f y v i n t hi s case, t he absol ut e val ues of t he vel oci t y
gmax
component s of t he gas f l ow f i el d shoul d be der i ved f r om si mul at i ons.
Qual i t at i vel y, t he maxi mal capaci t y wi l l depend on p , p and a as descr i bed
by t he equi l i br i umspeci f i ed by equat i ons 7- 16, 7- 17 and 7- 19:
- 194-
X
v =C. - * ( 8. 4)
gmax 1 u,
v
'
i n whi ch: x = -0.5 < x < -0.1, dependi ng on swi r l number ;
i f S =1. 2 x ~ - 0. 15
i f S =0. 55 x ~ - 0. 35
C. =numer i cal const ant dependi ng on gas f l ow f i el d
Mi ni mal capaci t y
The mi ni mal l y al l owabl e gas t hr oughput st r ongl y depends on t he speci f i c f orm
of t he gas f l ow f i el d, whi ch necessi t at es gas f l ow f i el d si mul at i ons f or
quant i t at i ve pr edi ct i ons. Qual i t at i vel y, t he mi ni mal capaci t y wi l l depend on
p.. , p and d, as speci f i ed by equat i ons 7- 12- 7- 15 ( assumi ng t hat t he
g
24
cent r i f ugal st abi l i zat i on j ust i f i es C_ ==) .
C
2
v . = 5 ( 8. 5)
gmi n , . ,2
<
p
l "
p
g>
d
d
i n whi ch: C_ =numer i cal const ant dependi ng on gas f l ow f i el d.
I f t he i nf l uence of oper at i ng pr essur e on t he t ur n- down r at i o ( T ) i s
det er mi ned f romt he above t wo char act er i st i cs i t appear s t hat :
(Pi " P
K
>
T ~
n
_ i n case of maxi mal capaci t y t hat i s l i mi t ed by a f ai l i ng
g secondar y separ at i on zone and: ( 8. 6)
{ p
i " V
T ~ _ i n case of maxi mal capaci t y t hat i s l i mi t ed by r een-
g t r ai nment . ( 8. 7)
-195-
Pressure drop
The pressure drop across an axi al cyclone consi sts mainly of the pressure
drop across the swi rl element and the vortex fi nder. The pressure drop
coeffi ci ent of the f i rst can be approximately determined from table 6.1,
while the determination of the second i s straightforward.
I f si mul ati on modelling i s not used the pressure drop can be manually
determined by assuming that no other influences play a rol e (see section 1A
for j usti fi cati on of thi s assumption) and that:
AP =5
ac
| > /
g
(8.8)
in hich: ?
ac
= e
sw
e
vf
E =pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent of swi r l el ement and
sw
E . =pr essur e dr op coef f i ci ent of vor t ex f i nder .
Eval uat i on of pr act i cal desi gn equat i ons f or axi al cycl ones
Maxi mal capaci t y
One of t he f ew r ef er ences t o t he desi gn of axi al cycl ones f or hi gher
oper at i ng pr essur es i s:
A =0. 3
i n whi ch A =v J
s
( t he l oad f act or ) ; ( 8. 9)
g s p
l "
p
g
v i s t he super f i ci al axi al vel oci t y i n t he cycl one.
gs
The cycl one i n quest i on i s of t he r adi al di schar ge t ype and has been t est ed
i n AC- EXP3 ( t abl e 6. I V, cycl one t ype I I ) . The t est r esul t s show a much
l ar ger dependency on p t han pr edi ct ed by equat i on 8. 9 ( see f i gur e 6. 12) .
I n f i gur e 8. 13 t he act ual i nf l uence and t he i nf l uence pr edi ct ed by equat i on
8. 9 ar e compar ed.
- 196-
too -
" g" > 90-
l m/s)
80-
70-
60-
50-
10-
0-
>
)
a measured
eq.8.2
eq.8.9
0
\
\\
\ \
\ \
10 20 ^0
Pgl kg/m')
Figure 8.13 Comparison of traditional with improved design equation
The or i gi n of t he l oad f act or ( see appendi x A 3. 4. 2) i s not sui t ed f or t he
det er mi nat i on of t he capaci t y of cycl ones at al l ( see appendi x A 3. 4. 2) .
Thi s i s r ef l ect ed by t he l ar ge di scr epancy t hat appear s when t r yi ng t o
descr i be t he i nf l uence of p i n exper i ment al r esul t s wi t h t hi s equat i on.
Rel yi ng on t hi s equat i on mi ght l ead t o gr oss under desi gn of axi al cycl ones
under hi gh oper at i ng pr essur es.
An exampl e may i l l ust r at e t hi s: suppose t hat a cer t ai n axi al cycl one
separ at or f or appl i cat i on at 100 bar oper at i ng pr essur e i s desi gned by
upscal i ng f romat mospher i c t est dat a. Wi t h equat i on 8. 9 a vessel wi l l be
desi gned i n whi ch t he maxi mum al l owabl e super f i ci al gas vel oci t y as
speci f i ed by equat i on 8. 2 i s exceeded by a f act or 2. 5. The di amet er of t he
vessel i s chosen at l east 1. 5 t i mes t oo smal l .
8. 3. 3 Rever se f l ow cycl ones
Maxi mal capaci t y
The l i mi t i ng mechani smcan be compared t o t he second mechani smdescr i bed f or
coaxi al l y pur gi ng axi al cycl ones ( see sect i on 7- 5- 3) The same remarks appl y
wi t h r espect t o t he necessi t y of knowl edge of t he gas f l ow f i el d. The gas
f l ow f i el d, especi al l y i n t hi s case, i s ver y di f f i cul t t o char act er i ze i n a
si mpl e way. I t i s r ecommended t o r el y on t he f ul l si mul at i on model ( when
compl et ed) f or quant i f i cat i on of t he l ocal gas vel oci t i es.
Because of t he si mi l ar i t y of mechani smof l i mi t at i on wi t h coaxi al l y pur gi ng
axi al cycl ones t he dependency of v on t he oper at i ng condi t i ons i s al so
descr i bed by equat i ons 7. 16- 1. 19:
- 197-
X
P o
v =C, -
S
( 8. 10)
gmax 3 u,
i n whi ch: x =- 0. 5<x<- 0. 1, dependi ng on swi r l number ;
i f S =1. 2 x ~ - 0. 15
i f S =0. 55 x ~ - 0. 35
C_ =numer i cal const ant dependi ng on gas f l ow f i el d
Mi ni mal capaci t y
The exact det er mi nat i on needs t o be car r i ed out by si mul at i ons; dependency
of v . on oper at i ng condi t i ons can be summar i zed as f ol l ows ( see equat i ons
7. 12- 7. 15) :
C
4
v . = r ( 8; i i )
gmm , , , 2
K
'
( p
l "
p
g>
d
d
i n whi ch: C(. =numer i cal const ant dependi ng on gas f l ow f i el d.
The t ur n down r at i o r el at es t o t he oper at i ng pr essur e as:
( p
i V
T
r
~
X
0
.
3
S
( 8. 12)
p
g
Pr essur e dr op
The pr essur e dr op i s wel l descr i bed by t he r el at i ons i n appendi x A 3. 4. 4. 4.
Eval uat i on of pr act i cal desi gn equat i ons f or r ever se f l ow cycl ones
Maxi mal capaci t y
The desi gn equat i ons of whi ch an i nvent or y i s made i n appendi x A 3- 4. 4 and
t hat r ecogni zed r eent r ai nment as l i mi t i ng mechani sm wi t h r espect t o
capaci t y, di d not t ake t he st abi l i zi ng ef f ect i nt o account of t he
cent r i f ugal f i el d. Hence, t hey descr i be t oo st r ong a dependency of v on
p (v ~ p ) . These cr i t er i a l ead t o over si zed separ at or s.
K
g g max
K
g
- 198-
Most desi gn equat i ons t hat ar e used i n t he oi l f i el d pr act i ce ei t her use
agai n a l oad f act or or a pr essur e dr op cr i t er i on.
Mi ni mal capaci t y
Usual a mi ni mal capaci t y i s assumed t hat i s i ndependent of oper at i ng
condi t i ons. Thi s i s not j ust i f i abl e f or smal l er (p. - p ) val ues.
8. 3- ^ Vanes
Maxi mal capaci t y
Two l i mi t i ng mechani sms have been i dent i f i ed and descr i bed.
Bot h ar e t r eat ed i n sect i on 7- 6. I n case of shear i ng- of f of t he f i l mf rom
i r r egul ar i t i es i n f r ont of t he dr ai nage sl i t s i t i s di f f i cul t t o gi ve a
si mpl i f i ed r el at i on of si gni f i cant r el i abi l i t y. I t i s r ecommended t o use t he
compl et e model descr i bed i n V- M0D3 t o cal cul at e t he bal ance of r eent r ai nment
and r edeposi t i on.
I n case of smoot h vane sur f aces t he maxi mal capaci t y i s l i mi t ed by
r eent r ai nment by r ol l - wave cr est shear of f ( sect i on 7- 3- 3) The l ocal st at us
of t he gas f l ow f i el d det er mi nes t he amount of cent r i f ugal st abi l i zat i on of
t he l i qui d f i l m. I n case of wel l l ocat ed dr ai nage sl i t s t he maxi mal vel oci t y
depends agai n on t he oper at i ng condi t i ons i n t he ear l i er descr i bed manner :
x
P o
v =C -
S
( 8. 13)
gmax 5 u,
i n whi ch: - 0. 5 < x < - 0. 3, dependi ng on l ocat i ons of wet t ed areas and vane
geomet r y: i f wet t ed ar eas ar e l ocat ed out si de cent r i f ugal f i el d x " - 0. 5-
Ot her wi se x may be l ar ger , dependi ng on gas f l ow f i el d.
C_ i s a numer i cal const ant .
5
Mi ni mal capaci t y ( pri mary ef f i ci ency)
The f l ow f i el d bet ween vane bl ades i s t oo compl ex t o be gener al i zed by
si mpl e r el at i ons. For t he exact det er mi nat i on of t he pr i mar y ef f i ci ency i s
r ef er r ed t o t he model s f or mul at ed i n V- M0D3.
- 199-
Gener al l y ( see sect i on 7. 2) t he dependency on p wi l l be l ar ger t han
pr edi ct ed f or cycl one separ at or s. The cent r i f ugal st abi l i zat i on wi l l
pr obabl y not be st r ong enough t o ext end t he r ange of St okes' Law.
I n case of smoot h vane bl ades and f or a gi ven geomet r y and t wo- phase syst em
t he t ur ndown r at i o wi l l be l i near l y dependent on:
p
l " "s
T ~
a
0. 3 < x < 0. 9 dependi ng on l ocat i ons of wet t ed
g ar eas and vane geomet r y ( 8. 14)
Pr essur e dr op
As t he pr essur e dr ops st r ongl y depends on t he gener at ed gas f l ow f i el d
( vor t i ces! ) bet ween t he vane bl ades i t i s di f f i cul t t o f or mul at e si mpl i f i ed
r el at i ons t hat descr i be t he i nf l uence exer t ed on t hi s par amet er by
geomet r i cal var i at i ons. Ther ef or e, i t i s r ecommended t o use t he gas f l ow
f i el d si mul at i on model t o det er mi ne pr essur e dr ops.
Eval uat i on of pr act i cal desi gn equat i ons f or vanes
Maxi mal capaci t y
Two di f f er ent cr i t er i a ar e encount er ed i n pr act i ce ( see appendi x C) t o
det er mi ne t he maxi mal capaci t y i n vanes wi t h shi el ded l i qui d dr ai nage:
P
1. a l oad f act or (v / ^) l i mi t var yi ng bet ween 0. 1 - 0. 3,
1 g dependi ng on sever al par amet er s ( 8. 15)
1 2
~ ?
p v
- 1
2. a reentrainment cri teri on, * <C [m ] (8.16)
In the l atter case i s not accounted for the centrifugal film stabi l i zati on.
I n the f i rst case there i s no connection between the l i qui d properti es and
the l i mi tati on of mechanism. In both cases the effect of p on v i s
g g max
assumed t oo st r ong i f vanes ar e descr i bed i n whi ch t he wet t ed ar eas ar e
car ef ul l y chosen. Thi s mi ght l ead t o over desi gned separ at or s at hi gher
oper at i ng pr essur es, whi ch can cause t oo l ow oper at i ng vel oci t i es, because
T r educes st r ongl y wi t h i ncr easi ng pr essur es ( equat i on 8. l 4) .
r
-200-
Again an example may i l l ustrate thi s case: suppose that a certai n vane type
separator for appl i cati on at 100 bar operati ng pressure i s designed by
upscal i ng from atmospheric test data with equation 8.15. I f the exponent x
i n equation 8.13 amounts to x =- 0.3. then a vane type separator i s designed
i n which the maximum allowable superfi ci al gas velocity i s not reached by a
factor 2.5.
Apart from the f act that an unnecessary l arge vessel i s constructed
(diameter 1.5 times larger than necessary) i t i s probable that i n thi s case
the separator wi l l sometimes not functi on properl y because of too low
throughputs.
Minimal capacity
As appears from chapter 3 usual l y no consi stent cr i ter i a i f any are
encountered with respect to thi s parameter.
- 203-
LI ST OF SYMBOLS
Not e: Separ at or i nt er nal geomet r i es ar e char act er i zed separ at el y i n:
f i gur es 3- 36, 5- 17 and 6. 10 ( Axi al cycl ones)
f i gur e A. 9 ( Rever se f l ow cycl ones)
f i gur es A. 4 and A. 5 ( Vanes)
b f i l m t hi ckness ( m)
d di amet er of di sper sed par t i cl e ( m)
d_ dr opl et di amet er ( m)
d di amet er of spher i cal par t i cl e wi t h equal f r ont al ar ea ( m)
dsd dr opl et si ze di st r i but i on (-)
2
C. sur f ace ar ea of cycl one t ube (m)
D di amet er of f l ow duct ( m)
D, hydr aul i c di amet er of f l ow duct ( m)
f f r i ct i on f act or (-)
g gr avi t at i onal accel er at i on (ms )
k wave number (m )
2 - 2
t ur bul ent ki net i c ener gy (ms )
hei ght of f i l mi nst abi l i t i es ( m)
K St okes Cunni nghamCor r ect i on (-)
L separ at or l engt h ( m)
2
M f l ux of angul ar moment um (kg m
U
M f l ux of axi al moment um (kg ms
z
N vi scosi t y number (-)
- 1
u
P oper at i ng pr essur e ( kg m
r r adi us ( m)
- 2
R r eent r ai nment r at e (kg m
hi
S swi r l number (-)
t t i me ( s)
2
T. modul ar sur f ace ar ea of axi al cycl one (m)
T t ur ndown r at i o (-)
r
- 1
u, U axi al vel oci t y (ms )
v vel oci t y (ms )
V r adi al vel oci t y (ms )
- 204-
v%, vol # l i qui d vol ume per cent age (=*, / ( $, + ) )
1 1 g
w, W t angent i al vel oci t y
(-)
(ms )
Gr eek
V
n
U
v
P
O
T
*
0
1>
vol ume f r act i on
di ssi pat ed ener gy
separ at i on ef f i ci ency
angl e of r ot at i on
l oad f act or
7
S

g max
v
(p - p
vi scosi t y
ki nemat i c vi scosi t y
densi t y
sur f ace t ensi on
shear st r ess
vol ume t hr oughput
swi r l angl e of f l ow f i el d
vane angl e of swi r l er
St okes' par amet er
angul ar vel oci t y
- )
2 - 2
kg m s )
- )
- 1.
ms )
kg m s )
2 ,
ms)
kg m"
3
)
kg s
1 - 2,
kg m s
3 - 1
m s
- )
- )
- )
a"
1
)
I ndi ces
ac
g
gP
S2
i
1
P
sw
axi al cycl one
gas
pur ge gas
gas i n secondar y separ at i on zone
i nt er f ace
l i qui d, f i l m
par t i cl e
swi r l er
- 205-
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- Stenhouse, J . I . T . , et al . , "The behavi our of uni f l ow cycl ones" ,
Proceedi ngs of 2nd World Fi l trati on Congress, pp. 151-156 [1979].
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Nrnberg, 9-11 May [1984].
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Engi neeri ng Monographs, 6 [1979]
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A.l
APPENDIX A
3.3-2 Knock-out vessels
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t erat ure i nvest i gat i on)
Vertica l configura tion
When consi der i ng t he ver t i cal knock- out vessel of f i gur e 3- 6, i t can easi l y
be seen t hat t he dr opl et wi l l not be separ at ed when t he dr ag f or ce of t he
upf l owi ng gas st r eami s l ar ger t han t he gr avi t y f or ce.
A cr i t i cal si t uat i on i s r eached when t he t er mi nal vel oci t y of a cer t ai n
dr opl et si ze equal s t he gas vel oci t y.
Fol l owi ng f romt he equi l i br i umof gr avi t y and dr ag f or ces:
v =
dL ^. r^i^i/2
(A>1)
g max
L
3 C
D
J L
p
g
J
As v depends on t he mi ni mum val ue of d i t i s usual l y at t empt ed t o
g max
r
P
gener al i ze equat i on A. l by assumi ng a r el at i on bet ween v and d t hat
g P
pr edi ct s t he l ar gest dr opl et si ze at a cer t ai n maxi mal gas vel oci t y upst r eam
of t he separ at i on sect i on ( t hus wher e t he l ar gest shear f or ces ar e exer t ed
on t he dr opl et phase) .
2 .
p v d
We = S
Spm
P ( A. 2)
er o
l
'
i n which: We =cri ti cal Weber number for dropl et break- up = 15
v =maximal gas vel oci ty upstream of the separati on secti on;
gpm
v
usual l y the rati o of v and v i s taken as =E- IQ
gpm g v
g
a =surface tensi on
r
P
X
I f t he l oad f act or A i s def i ned as A =v J
B
, subst i t ut i on of
gmax
v
f>
x
- p
g
equat i on A. 2 r esul t s i n:
v 1/ 2 . ,. We g ,
g
D
D
P
S
A. 2
A depends onl y l i t t l e on t he physi cal pr oper t i es and amount s i n mos t
pr act i cal ci r cumst ances t o A ~ 0. 1 ( A. 4)
Al t hough some ver y cr ude assumpt i ons have been made ( uni f or m gas f l ow) t he
dependency of v on p, and p i s cl ear . For t hi s r eason t hi s equat i on i s
g max 1 g ^
usual l y appl i ed i n pr act i ce as a base f or desi gn pr ocedur es.
Hor i zont al conf i gur at i on
When consi der i ng t he hor i zont al knock- out vessel of f i gur e 3- 5. i t can be
deduced t hat t he dr opl et wi l l be separ at ed i f
- *=f v
DL 4 t er m
( A. 5)
Thi s t heor et i cal equat i on i s sel dom used when desi gni ng hor i zont al knock- out
vessel s, because many of t he necessar y assumpt i ons ( especi al l y uni f or m gas
f l ow) ar e f ar f r om r eal i st i c.
2B. Avai l abi l i t y and r el i abi l i t y of des i gn pr oc edur es ( l i t er at ur e
i nvest i gat i on)
The desi gn equat i ons and met hods used t o cal cul at e t he di mensi ons of t hese
s epar at or s ar e st r ai ght f or war d and easy t o under st and. I n t he f ol l owi ng
some pr esent l y appl i ed desi gn r ul es ar e i nvent ar i sed.
Vertica l configura tion
Vessel di amet er D : D i s det er mi ned as such t hat :
v v
a. upwar d gas vel oci t y wi l l per mi t t he set t l i ng of dr opl et s;
b. downwar d l i qui d vel oci t y wi l l per mi t t he escape of ent r ai ned gas bubbl es.
ad_a. v =3- S- 5 < 0. 07 ( f - )
4
n D
v S
1/ 2
( de Gr aauw [ 1984] )
v =
T
- S < 0. 06 ( ^)
1/ 2
( Younger [ 1955] )
v =^S- 5 < 0. 04 (^1
K 1 _ 2
l
p_'
1/ 2
( Ker ns [ I 960] )
( A. 5)
JI D
A. 3
ad b. v. =
2
-
18
;
10
" ( Ap) (de Gr aauw [ 1984] )
pL
1
' 1 1 _2
77 n D
4 v
< 0. 04 m/ s ( Younger [ 1955] ) ( A. 6)
Vessel l engt h L : L i s t he sumof t he l engt hs r equi r ed f or t he di f f er ent
compar t ment s f or :
a. degassi ng t he l i qui d hol d- up L . ;
b. i nl et devi ce ( est abl i shi ng a uni f or mgas f l ow) L
c. Set t l i ng chamber L _.
*1
ad a. t = 2 =
2
~5
mi n
-
L
i
>
-
6 m
( Schei mann [ 1964] )
4 v vl
l
rr n D
2
L .
4 v vl
5- 10 mi n. ( Younger [ 1955] )
A
2
1
f t <P
[ ^- ]
2
=2. 51 ( Lubi n and Spr i nger [ 1967] )
AP g
' vl ( A. 7)
ad b. L
2
=I D
v
L
y2
> 0. 5 m (de Gr aauw [ 1984] )
L
v2
=0. 4 D
y
L
v2
> 0. 3 m ( Marr and Moser [ 1975] )
L
y2
> 0. 15 m ( Ni emeyer [ 1961] ) ( A. 8)
ad c. L =0. 75 D L > 1 m ( Marr and Moser [ 1975] ) ( A. 9)
_2
I t can be seen t hat t he vel oci t y i n t he l i qui d pool , ( D ) , and t he
2- 1
v
r et ent i on t i me of t he l i qui d i n t he pool , (L . * D ) , are used i n desi gn
pr ocedur es as degassi ng cr i t er i on. I t seems t hat D i s t he most sensi bl e.
L - i s al so det er mi ned by t he possi bl e necessi t y t o accommodat e l ar ge sl ugs
t hat can not be dr ai ned i mmedi at el y.
I nl et nozzl e di amet er d. : d. i s chosen as such t hat no l ar ge mechani cal ,
dr opl et shat t er i ng f or ces can occur .
I f v . i s t he aver age vel oci t y t hrough t he i nl et devi ce:
p v
2
. S 1000 N/ m
2
( Marr and Moser [ 1975] , de Gr aauw [ 1984] ) ( A. 10)
g gi
A. 4
Out l et nozzl e di amet er d . : When v i s t he aver age gas out l et vel oci t y:
ui gu
v =20- 30 m/ s ( Marr and Moser [ 1975] )
gu p
p v S 3000 N/ m
2
(de Gr aauw [ 1984] ) ( A. 11)
Li qui d out l et nozzl e di amet er d _: To pr event pl uggi ng of nozzl e d _ shoul d
be chosen l ar ger t han d _ > 75 >and as such t he v _ > 1 m
( Marr and Moser [ 1975] ) ( A. 12)
I t i s recommended to i nstal l vortex breakers above the l i qui d to prevent
vortex formation with possible consequences for carry-under.
Horizontal configuration
Vessel diameter D : D i s determined as such that de-gassi ng of separated
l i qui d can take pl ace.
The same rul es apply here as to a verti cal separator and:
K

= 0.2 D
v
H
x
>0.3 m (Scheimann [1964])
H =0.5 D
v
(de Graauw [1984]) (A.13)
H. =l i qui d depth
Vessel l ength L : L i s determined as such that wi th prevai l i ng gas
vel oci ti es entrainment can reach the l i qui d surface (see figure 3-5)
0. 275 H 4> p j
L = ^

h
2
) ( Schei mann [ 1964] )
A R
2 dp
g
H =D- H.
g 1
A =i nt er f aci al sur f ace ar ea
g
* \ O. 56
q - 5 =v 0. 1 f ^- r ( T- T) (de Gr aauw [ 1984] ) ( A. l 4)
h<
g p
s
Fur t her mor e t he r at i o of L and D i s di ct at ed by economi c consi der at i ons as
v v
f ol l ows: L / D =3 f or P < 20 bar
v v
L / D =4 f or 20 < P < 40
v v
L / D =5 f or 40 < P < 60
V V
L / D =6 f or P > 60 ( A. 15)
v v
A. 5
Ot her cr i t er i a ar e anal ogous t o t hose f or t he desi gn of t he ver t i cal knock-
out vessel . The r el at i ve advant ages of a ver t i cal l y or a hor i zont al l y
posi t i oned vessel ar e gi ven i n sect i on 3- 6 wher e ot her , not yet descr i bed,
i nf l uenci ng f act or s ar e t aken i nt o account .
3. ^. 2 Mesh type sepa ra tors
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t erat ure i nvest i gat i on)
As, up t o now, no anal yt i cal or numer i cal model s exi st t hat can mor e or l ess
exact l y descr i be any of t he t hr ee char act er i st i cs separ at or s ar e j udged on
i n t hi s wor k ( f i gur e 3- 2) . Phenomenol ogi cal model s have been f or mul at ed
whi ch descr i be some aspect s of t he behavi our of t he mesh t ype separ at or wi t h
empi r i cal const ant s under cer t ai n ci r cumst ances.
On t he ot her hand empi r i cal cor r el at i ons exi st but i t i s not easy t o
t r ansf er t hem t o ot her appl i cat i ons t han t hose f or whi ch t hey wer e
or i gi nal l y devel oped. As i t appear s t o be di f f i cul t t o set up a gener al
val i d model , t hese empi r i cal cor r el at i ons ar e st i l l most popul ar f or desi gn
pur poses.
Col l ect i on ef f i ci enci es
I t i s assumed t hat t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency i s bui l t up of t wo par t s:
1. i mpact ef f i ci ency; t he ef f i ci ency wi t h whi ch par t i cl es hi t t he wi r es;
2. hol di ng ef f i ci ency; t he ef f i ci ency wi t h whi ch t hese par t i cl es ar e hel d by
t he l i qui d f i l mar ound t he wi r es upon i mpact .
ad 1. I mpact ef f i ci ency
The most popul ar model s assume i mpact ef f i ci ency t hat i s r eached st epwi se.
When t he i mpact ef f i ci ency of a si ngl e wi r e i s known, t he col l ect i ve i mpact
ef f i ci ency of a wi r e mesh pad can be deduced accor di ng t o LOf f l er [ 1983]
n( d
p
) =l - e
f
*
( d
p
)
( A. 19)
i n whi ch:
n( d ) =t he i mpact ef f i ci ency of t he t ot al mesh pad as a f unct i on of
dr opl et si ze;
A. 6
1 - z
f =a char act er i zat i on of mesh pr oper t i es f = -= ( A. 20)
w
4( d )=t he i mpact ef f i ci ency f or a si ngl e wi r e as a f unct i on of d ,
P p
physi cal pr oper t i es of t wo phase mi xt ur e and geomet r i cal aspect s;
d =t he wi r e di amet er ;
w
z =t he t hi ckness of t he mesh pad.
Up t o now, t he det er mi nat i on of *( d) has been t he r eason f or i nadequaci es of
t he model . Many cor r el at i ons exi st f or *( d) whi ch not al ways agr ee ver y
wel l . I n case of i ner t i al t r anspor t mechani sms and Re > 50 t he f ol l owi ng
equat i on shoul d agr ee wel l wi t h exper i ment al r esul t s ( L f f l er [ 1983] ) :
,|3 2p t '
W =-3 T^
+
3 (
R
f~ ) (A.21)
^ +f
1
(Re) t| > +f
2
(Re) t| >+f,(Re)
p
l
wi th
f . ( Re) =- 0. 0133 I n Re +0. 931
f
2
( Re) = 0. 0353 I n Re - O. 36
f - ( Re) =- 0. 0537 I n Re +O. 398
and t|i bei ng t he i ner t i al par amet er
, 2
P-, v d
* = ihV^ <
A
-
22
>
w
Brkholz [1972] finds a substantial disagreement between his experimental
results and following quantification of *(d):
6 ( - )
2 / 3
3 d
2
v
1
'
2
3"u p_
, M, - / - 1/ 2 2/ 3 1/ 2 , 11. 1/ 2 , j
*
( <U =
, f cl / 6 . . 1/ 2 . . 2/ 3 . 1/ 2
+
, u, l / 2 .
H
3/ 2
( A
-
23)
Obvi ousl y t he f i r st par t of above appr oxi mat i on appl i es t o di f f usi onal and
t he second par t t o i ner t i al t r anspor t at i on.
ad 2. Hol di ng ef f i ci ency
When t he cohesi ve f or ce of t he f i l mon t he i mpact of t he dr opl et i s l ar ger
t han t he ki net i c ener gy i nvol ved t he dr opl et wi l l be hol d by t he f i l mand
i t s ki net i c ener gy wi l l be di ssi pat ed.
A. 7
Analogous to Hiller [1980], who made this calculation for solid particles
attracted by Van der Waals forces, the following applies when the surface
tension reduction is in equilibrium with the transferred kinetic energy:
E
v
=E. . (A.2H)
surf tens Tcin
A a =i- m vf . k. . (A.25)
p 2 p d 11
A =sur f ace ar ea of par t i cl e
P
i n whi ch k. . i s a const ant t hat det er mi nes whi ch par t of t he ki net i c ener gy
i s not l ost by i nel ast i c ef f ect s dur i ng t he i mpact . Hi l l er [ 1980] quant i f i ed
k. . bet ween 0. 4 <k. . < 0. 9 f or sol i d par t i cl es. A conser vat i ve assumpt i on
11 11
f or l i qui d par t i cl es i s t hought t o be 0. 6 when consi der i ng t he f act t hat due
t o def or mat i on i nel ast i c ef f ect s wi l l pr obabl y be much l ar ger .
So i nt er cept i on wi l l t ake pl ace when:
v
d
< / ^| ( A. 26)
Thi s i s a condi t i on t hat set s conser vat i ve r est r i ct i ons, because l ar ge
dr opl et s wi l l di sper se i nt o smal l er dr opl et s on t he f i r st i mpact . These
smal l er dr opl et s ar e subsequent l y mor e suscept i bl e t o successf ul col l ect i on
deeper i n t he mesh pad.
Maxi mal capaci t y
As wi l l al so appear f romt he exper i ment al r esul t s i n t hi s r epor t , t he l i qui d
hol d- up i n t he hor i zont al mesh pad i ncr eases wi t h i ncr easi ng gas f l ow and/ or
i ncr easi ng l i qui d suppl y t o t he pad. Thi s i s caused by t he f act t hat t he
dr ai ni ng of t he separ at ed l i qui d f l ow f romt he mesh i s a f unct i on of bot h
l i qui d hol d- up ( i ncreased hol d- up r esul t s i n an i ncr eased dr ai n f l ow) and
gas vel oci t y ( i ncreased gas vel oci t y r esul t s i n a decr eased dr ai n f l ow) .
So, on i ncr ease of ei t her gas vel oci t y or l i qui d suppl y t he hol d- up i n t he
mesh pad wi l l i ncr ease unt i l a new equi l i br i umbet ween l i qui d suppl y and
dr ai nage has been r eached. The meshpad can onl y cont ai n a cer t ai n maxi mal
hol d up, wi t h an accompanyi ng maxi mal dr ai nage f l ow. When t he l i qui d suppl y
sur passes t hi s val ue t he meshpad st ops f unct i oni ng and f l oods.
A. 8
Sever al t heor et i cal model s exi st t hat descr i be t hi s phenomenon under t he
assumpt i on of f i l mf l ow of t he l i qui d phase and ar e gener al l y devel oped f or
t he oper at i on of packed col umns.
The r esul t s of t he der i vat i on of Bi l l et [ 1987] i s t aken as an exampl e:
s
'max *g
i n which:
- the flow factor under fl oodi ng condi ti ons:
C
P 1
=
S
( A.28)
f l
V
p
l
l
V
c- was exper i ment al l y f ound t o var y bet ween 1. 5 and 3- 0 f or di f f er ent
packi ngs f or 5 < Q-, < 80 m
3
/ m
2
hr .
71 , was exper i ment al l y f ound t o be i nvar i abl y - 0. 19' +.
n
1
P 0, 05
- t he l i qui d hol d- up under f l oodi ng condi t i ons h. . =0, 37^1 e ( * )
' 1
( A. 29)
for 0.1 <q. <200 m
3
/m
2
hr and
n
>10 kg/ms
Another more empi ri cal l y ti nged but wel l - known rel ati onshi p between the
fl oodi ng poi nt of a packed column and the gas/l i qui d l oadi ng of f ered to i t
i s f ormul ated by Sherwood [1938]. He def i ned two parameters of which he
determi ned the i nfl uence on the fl oodi ng poi nt. The gas l oad i s represented
by:
P 0.5 a 0.5 n 0.05
" -
V
*
l
# ' ^g ' ^
( A
-
30)
i n whi ch a =speci f i c sur f ace of packi ng
E =por osi t y of packi ng
q
l
p
l
The gas/ l i qui d r at i o i s det er mi ned by t he f l ow par amet er * = ()
q
e
p
er
1/ 2
g
r
g
A.9
Figure A.l gives the flooding correlation for three types of packing.
Figure A.l Flooding correlation
of Sherwood
Figure A. 2 Flooding correlation
of Brkholz
The correl ati on appears not to be completely geometry independent. I t gives
a good i ndi cati on, though, of the i nf l uence of di f f erent physi cal
properti es. After a sl i ght modi fi cati on of n (the i nfl uence of n, was
doubled and n omitted), Btlrkholz used these parameters to represent the
resul ts of hi s experi ments wi th di f f erent meshpads under di f f erent
circumstances and appears to have found good agreement (figure A.2).
Pr essur e dr op
The pr essur e dr op acr oss t he mesh pad AP wi l l consi st of t wo par t s:
a. pr essur e dr op AP
M
_ acr oss dr y mesh;
b. pr essur e dr op AP. . . caused by l i qui d hol d- up.
As t he l i qui d hol d- up of t he mesh pad i s a f unct i on of bot h l i qui d suppl y
and gas vel oci t y, AP may st r ongl y i ncr ease when t he gas f l ow i ncr eases.
Many cor r el at i ons exi st f or AP. , . Saemundson [ 1968] has f or mul at ed a model
i n whi ch al l r el evant geomet r i cal mesh pr oper t i es have been i ncl uded.
AP,
MD
- . h ( 1 - e) 2
2 $ p
J
5<- v
D
v
g
e
3 g
(A. 3D
i n whi ch: D =di amet er of meshpad
v
h =hei ght of meshpad
e =por osi t y of meshpad
A. 10
3A
+
i.t
Re
h
Re
h
'
2
( f r i ct i on f act or )
( A. 32)
Re, .
4( l - e)
v
g " K
d v p
w g g
i ( l - c) u
( A. 33)
Re. r ef er s t o t he hydr aul i c di amet er of t he pad.
d =di amet er of wi r es
w
As t he model set up by Bi l l et [ 1987] , summar i zed by equat i on A. 27, gi ves an
1 2
expr essi on f or t he pr essur e dr op at t he f l oodi ng poi nt ( AP =^ r p v ) a
<- g g
qual i tati ve impression can be formed of the influence of the di fferent two-
phase properti es. To thi s purpose fi gure A.3 gi ves an example of the
influence of the l i qui d loading on pressure drop (Marr and Moser [1975])-
DP
nbar I 1 dry
I 2 iust welted ,
I 3 80 k g/ nj . bf
5
VG H/ S
Figure A.3 Effect of liquid loading on maximal capacity
2.B A vai l abi l i ty and r el i abi l i ty of desi gn procedures (l i terature
investigation)
In practi ce the design of the maximal gas velocity through a mesh-pad i s
carried out very empirically. More sophisticated methods (such as suggested
by Bi l l et) have not found wide-spread application.
This may be due partl y to the uncertai nty wi th which the operati ng
conditions of a separator are formulated and partl y to the very conservative
nature of the oi l industry.
A. 11
The desi gn equat i ons most of t en appl i ed have t he f ormof :
v =A J - ^- S- ( A. 34)
g max
v
p
Obvi ousl y t hi s equat i on has been ' borrowed' f romt he si t uat i on i n whi ch t he
gr avi t y and dr ag f or ces det er mi ne whet her a dr opl et i s separ at ed or not
( equat i on 3- 5) - Usual l y A i s a f unct i on of l i qui d l oadi ng, l i qui d- and gas
vi scosi t y, sur f ace t ensi on and even p. and p . Never t hel ess A i s assumed
const ant (A ~ 0, 1) i n a br oad r ange of appl i cat i ons. Accor di ng t o Sor oki n
[ 1968] A shoul d be quant i f i ed as
1 g
i n whi ch i s i ndependent of t he physi cal pr oper t i es.
When subst i t ut i ng t hi s i n equat i on ( A. 34) i t wi l l appear t hat t he or i gi nal
r
p
l "
p
K
dependency of t he v on J ~ i s decr eased.
S P
k
These separators cl earl y bear much resemblance with the separators of
section 3-3- The popular design procedures are also very analogous.
For the verti cal separator two differences can be mentioned:
- D i s chosen according to the maximum allowable vel oci ty v through
v g max
t he pad;
- v i s det er mi ned accor di ng t o t he pr ocedur e descr i bed above.
g max
Accor di ng t o Mar r and Moser vel oci t y of t he i nl et devi ce can be chosen so
t hat p v
2
. < 1500 N/ m
2
. ( A. 36)
For t he hor i zont al meshpad separ at or t he same desi gn equat i ons appl y as
gi ven i n sect i on 3- 3- 2 f or t he hor i zont al knock- out vessel , but accor di ng t o
Mar r and Moser t he i nl et vel oci t y can be chosen hi gher ( cor r espondi ng t o
equat i on A. 36) .
A.12
3-4.3 Va ne type sepa ra tors
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t erat ure i nvest i gat i on)
I n t hi s subsect i on at t ent i on i s pai d t o exi st i ng t heor i es ( accordi ng t o
f i gur es 3- 1 and 3- 2) descr i bi ng:
a. col l ect i on ef f i ci ency
b. maxi mal capaci t y
c. pr essur e dr op
Collection efficiency
A popul ar way of predi cti ng the col l ecti on effi ci ency of a vane type
separator i s to approximate the efficiency of a si ngl e bend and consider the
cummulative effect of al l bends on the col l ecti ve separation efficiency.
Many authors assume a regularly osci l l atory motion of the gas flow between
the paral l el vane bl ades. The droplets are considered to be influenced by
i nerti al and drag forces.
Ranz [1985], Cal vert [1974], BUrkholz and Muschelknautz [1972], Ushiki
[1982] amongst others approximated the gas flow motion as connected ci rcl e
segments (figure A.4).
Figure A. 4 Plate form assumed Figure A. 5 Plate form assumed
in equation A. 37 in equation A.38
A. 13
I n t hi s case t he ef f i ci ency of a si ngl e bend can be wr i t t en as:
d
2
"B =
9
*P =
9
Vf s*
(A
-
37)
i n whi ch: 8 =bend angl e
b =pl at e spaci ng per pendi cul ar t o gasf l ow
Gar dner [ 1984] assumed t he bends of t he gas f l ow t o be si nusoi dal ( f i gure
A. 5) , but st i l l consi der ed cent r i f ugal and dr ag f or ces t he onl y i nf l uenci ng
f or ces on t he mot i on of t he dr opl et s. I n t hi s case t he ef f i ci ency of a
si ngl e bend can be wr i t t en as:
" B =
2
T t
1 +
*
P
2)
"
1/2
<
A
-38)
in which: Y =the amplitude of the wave plate
t|i according to equation A.22
These two determinations of n
R
apply only to horizontally flowed through
vanes. For verti cal l y flowed through vanes Gardner [1977] derived the
following equation:
2[1 V ^]
n
B
=
y
t i - L j
(A
.
39)
=*[(! S- J (1 V ^ ^Fr)]
172
2 2'
l
4 2 4 2'
(1-wr * (1-w) <T (1-w) *
in which w =2
v
P =the wave plate length
As potential flow i s assumed in the deri vati ons that lead to above
expressions of n , no remixing of the two phases will take place after the
bends. This would mean that after the very first bend no more liquid would
be separated because the amplitude of the motion of the remaining droplets
would not be large enough to reach the blades. As this is hardly a realistic
A. 14
r epr oduct i on of t he act ual event s , BUr khol z [ 1972] , and Cal ver t [ 1974]
assume compl et e mi xi ng of bot h phases af t er each bend, and t he r est or i ng of
pot ent i al f l ow bef or e each next bend.
Under t hese assumpt i ons t hey der i ve t he f ol l owi ng equat i on f or n , t he
t ot al col l ect i on ef f i ci ency:
v
= 1
-
(1
' V
n
(
A
-
4
)
Gar dner [ 1984] al l ows f or i ncompl et e mi xi ng and st at es:
n
v t
=1 - ( 1 - *
B
)
m
( A. 41)
a i s det er mi ned exper i ment al l y; Gar dner r epor t ed val ues of a bet ween 0. 5 and
0. 63, but r ecommends a = 1 as he enc ount er ed unexpec t ed addi t i onal
separ at i on mechani sms.
Fr om above descr i pt i on i t becomes cl ear t hat t he exi s t i ng model s f or
pr edi ct i ng t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency ar e f ar f r om exact , unr eal i st i c i n
t hei r assumpt i ons ( f or i nst ance t he assumpt i on of pot ent i al f l ow wi l l pr ove
t o be ver y much i n cont r ast t o r eal event s) and obsol et e i n r espect t o t he
ut i l i zat i on of moder n numer i cal si mul at i on t echni ques.
The mai n shor t comi ngs ar e:
1. quant i f i cat i on of t he f or ces on t he par t i cl e i s not cor r ect ; t he appl i ed
cent r i f ugal f or ce woul d onl y be j ust i f i ed i f t he par t i cl e woul d f ol l ow
t he gas st r eam l i nes.
2. t he assumpt i on of pot ent i al f l ow does not al l ow f or r emi xi ng of dr opl et s
i n gas, or t aki ng i nt o account ef f ect s caused by eddy cur r ent s, gr owi ng
t ur bul ence, et c.
3. no consi der at i on i s gi ven t o possi bl e ef f ect s as r eent r ai nment .
4. t he geomet r y of t he vane bl ades i s of qui t e subor di nat e si gni f i cance i n
t he model .
Maxi mal capaci t y
The maxi mal gas vel oci t y t hr ough a vane pack i s usual l y det er mi ned by t he
onset of r eent r ai nment of t he f i l mon t he vane bl ades f or med by separ at ed
dr opl et s. One except i on i s f or med by ver t i cal l y f l owed t hr ough vane packs
A.15
wi thout shi el ded l i qui d drai nage sl ots at hi gher l i qui d l oadi ng. Then,
comparabl e to wi re mesh packs, the maxi mal gas f l ow wi l l be set by
i nsuf f i ci ent l i qui d drai nage capabi l i ty which wi l l l ead to fl oodi ng.
Usual l y fl oodi ng wi l l take pl ace at consi derabl e lower gas vel oci ti es than
those at which the rate of reentrai nment starts to pl ay a si gni f i cant rol e.
Two other di f f erences between f l oodi ng and r eentr ai nment r est r i ct ed
separati on, i s that i ) fl oodi ng l eads to an immediate col l apse of separati on
capabi l i ty, whi l e reentrai nment only causes a gradual decl i ne of ef f i ci ency
wi th i ncr easi ng gas vel oci ty and i i ) i n case of f l oodi ng r estr i cted
separati on, the maximal gas vel oci ty strongl y depends on the l i qui d l oadi ng
of the gas, whi l e i n case of reentrai nment thi s dependency wi l l hardl y be
noti ceabl e. Al so i n case of over- rectangul ar, hori zontal l y f l owed- through
vane separators fl oodi ng can take pl ace at hi gh l i qui d l oadi ngs i n the lower
part of the vane-box when l i qui d drai nage sl ots overfl ow.
Capaci ty l i mi ted by reentrai nment
When reentrai nment sets the l i mi t Cal vert [197**] assumes that f or hori zon-
t al l y f l owed- through vanes the maximal gas vel oci ty i s determi ned as
fol l ows:
^ =/ <L J ^si
( A
.42)
g max p o
v
'
g
i n which g- i s the thi ckness of the l i qui d fi l m, perpendi cul ar to the gas
flow (fi gure A.6) and reentrai nment takes pl ace at the end of the baf f l e.
I n a l ater publ i cati on Cal vert [1978] deri ves an expressi on f or <5, under
assumpti on of equal l i qui d di stri buti on across the pl ates (no shi el ded
drai nage!). For a pl ate angl e of 45 he fi nds the r esul ts gi ven i n f i gure
A.7. Al though thi s i s the onl y exampl e of thi s vane type, i n which i t i s
attempted to descri be phenomenologically the physi cal events that set the
l i mi ts for the gas capaci ty, the predi cti ons unf ortunatel y bear l i ttl e
resemblance to the experi mental resul ts descri bed i n l ater chapters.
A.16
Figure A. 6 Reentrainment on baffle edges
Cal vert [1972] set up an elegant phenomenological model for predicting the
maximal gas capacity for verti cal l y flowed through vanes under the same
assumptions as for hi s hori zontal model. The predi cti ons of thi s model
rel ate much more to actual experi mental resul ts from capaci ty tests of
verti cal l y flowed-through vanes without shielded drainage. However, i t i s
sti l l questi onabl e i f thi s model wi l l be sui tabl e f or ' uni versal '
appl i cati on, because the capaci ty l i mi ts for these vane packs are set by
fl oodi ng and not by reentrai nment. The predi cti ons of the model are
summarized i n figure A.8.
Q
L
/0|; Collected on Baffle, mVrnS
9.6 10.8
Gas velocity, m/sec.
Figure A. 7 Effect of liquid loading Figure A. 8 Maximum liquid loading versus
on reentrainment gas velocity in horizontal vanes
A. 17
The r eason f or di scr epanci es l i es mai nl y i n t he f act s t hat :
a. t he r eent r ai nment cr i t er i umi s r udi ment al ;
b. t he l i qui d f i l mi s assumed much t hi cker t han i n r eal i t y;
c. geomet r y of t he vane pl at es i s of i nsubor di nat e si gni f i cances.
Capaci t y l i mi t ed by f l oodi ng
I f t he maxi mal capaci t y i s set by f l oodi ng i n a ver t i cal l y f l owed t hrough
vane pack, t he anal ogy t o t he gener al i zat i ons made f or t he mesh pad i n t he
pr evi ous chapt er i s cl ear . Gar dner [ 1977] l i st s some aut hor s who
speci f i cal l y t ri ed t o quant i f y t he f l oodi ng behavi our of vane packs. Most of
t hese aut hor s gener al i ze ver t i cal l y f l owed t hr ough separ at i on devi ces as
mesh pads, vane packs and dumped packi ngs and suggest empi r i cal f l oodi ng
cor r el at i ons set up f or t he l at t er t o be appl i cabl e t o t he f or mer t wo
separ at or t ypes as wel l ( Bradi e [ 1969] ) .
Mai nl y because of t he f act t hat t he behavi our of t he gas f l ow bet ween t he
vane bl ades has har dl y been quant i f i ed, i t appear s t hat i t i s ver y di f f i cul t
t o der i ve exact model s f or pr edi ct i ng t he maxi mal capaci t y t hr ough t he vane
under gi ven ci r cumst ances. Al t hough some phenomenol ogi cal model s have been
set up, st i l l most pr act i cal desi gni ng t akes pl ace wi t h st r i ct l y empi r i cal
equat i ons.
Pr essur e dr op
The onl y r ef er ence i n l i t er at ur e t o t he cal cul at i on of t he pr essur e dr op
acr oss a vane pack was f ound i n Cal ver t [ 197^] :
2
v
AP =n f
D
p
g
f- ( A. 43)
in which: n =the number of bends
f
n
=the drag coeffi ci ent of a si ngl e pl ate hel d at a certai n
angle to the flow
As these are the only characteri sti cs of the geometry of the vane pack,
equati on A. 43 wi l l probably not be very accurate. Especi al l y not for
verti cal l y flowed through vane packs wi thout l i qui d drai nage, as no
consideration i s given to a possible liquid hold-up.
A.18
I t appears very cl earl y that hardl y any sol i d theory i s avai l abl e to
descri be ef f i ci ency, maximal capaci ti es or pressure drop as a functi on of
thei r i nf l uences. The desi gn of vane type separators i s a very good exampl e
of propri etary practi ce cl oaked i n secrecy, based on practi cal experi ence of
the votari es of thi s art.
2.B A vai l abi l i t y and r el i abi l i t y of desi gn procedures ( l i ter atur e
i nvesti gati on)
I n thi s secti on attenti on i s onl y pai d to the desi gn of the actual vane pack
i tsel f , not to the total separator. Vane packs are usual l y appl i ed i n two
stage separators of which the f i rst stage i s a knock-out vessel . Thi s type
of separator i s descri bed i n secti on 3- 6.
From personal communi cati on the wri ter f i nd out that i n many cases the
ubi qui tous equati on (A.44) i s used i n i ndustri al practi ce. The expressi on
for the l oad factor A becomes very compl i cated now and depends nearl y on al l
physi cal properti es that are i nvol ved i n the separati on process.
Many mani f estati ons of A exi st i n di f f erent parts of the separati on
i ndustry, which usual l y do not bear any resembl ance, but which are regarded
as a hi ghl y propri etary pi ece of i nformati on.
I n SI quanti ti es A vari es from 0.3 i n atmospheri c water/ai r systems down to
0.1 i n hi gh pressure appl i cati ons wi th vi scous l i qui ds.
Maximal capaci ty
Hori zontally flowed through vane packs
Accordi ng to the ear l i er descri bed empi ri cal equati ons a maxi mal gas
vel oci ty i s determined through the vanes as fol l ows:
v = A

(AAk)
gmax
p
g
A =0.1 - 0.3
Thi s vel oci t y set s t he mi ni mal i nl et ar ea of t he vane. I t i s not recommended
t o r el y on t hi s pr ocedur e.
Accor di ng t o sever al sour ces t he r at i o bet ween l engt h and wi dt h of t he i nl et
ar ea shoul d not exceed a val ue var yi ng f r om 1. 5 t o 2. 25 t o pr event
mal di st r i but i on and over f l owi ng of t he l ower par t s of t he l i qui d sl ot s at
A. 19
hi gher l i qui d l oadi ngs. Somet i mes when a mor e unf avour abl e r at i o can not be
avoi ded a per f or at ed pl at e i s mount ed i n f r ont and at t he back of t he
vanepack t o i nduce a f l ow equal i zi ng pr essur e dr op. Of t en r ecommended
per f or at ed pl at es f eat ur e a f r ee ar ea of appr oxi mat el y 20$ and ar e mount ed
30- 50 mmi n f r ont of t he vane.
Ot her speci f i c geomet r i cal pr oper t i es of t he separ at or as di amet er s of t he
nozzl es ar e usual l y cal cul at ed accor di ng t o t he appr opr i at e equat i ons gi ven
i n t he mesh pad sect i on A 3- 4. 2 and knock- out vessel sect i on A 3- 3. 2.
Vertica lly flowed through va ne pa cks
When mount ed i n hor i zont al vessel s t he above appl i es equal l y t o ver t i cal
f l owed t hr ough vanes. When mount ed i n ver t i cal vessel s t he di amet er of t he
vessel i s chosen as such t hat t he maxi mal al l owabl e vel oci t y t hr ough t he
vanes i s not exceeded.
The ot her geomet r i cal par amet er s can be det er mi ned accor di ng t o ear l i er
descr i bed cr i t er i a ( sect i ons 3- 3- 2 and 3- 4. 2) .
3.4.4.2 Reverse flow cyclones
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t erat ure i nvest i gat i ons)
I n f i gur e A. 9 a st andar d nomencl at ur e i s gi ven f or t he t ype of cycl one t hat
i s most of t en encount er ed i n pr act i ce and f or whi ch most t heor et i cal and
exper i ment al wor k has been per f or med.
0
Figure A.9 Nomenclature for cyclone geometry
A. 20
Col l ect i on ef f i ci ency
The publ i shed t heor i es used f or est i mat i on of t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency of
cycl ones can usual l y be subdi vi ded i nt o t hr ee gr oups:
a. model s t hat det er mi ne a cr i t i cl e par t i cl e di amet er . Par t i cl es of t hi s
si ze ar e assumed t o be separ at ed f or 50% ("cri ti cal di amet er model s") .
b. model s based on t he assumpt i on t hat t he r esi dence t i me of a par t i cl e i s
det er mi ni ng f or col l ect i on ( "resi dence t i me model s") .
c. model s t hat , wi t h t he hel p of power f ul comput at i onal t echni ques, at t empt
t o descr i be t he compl ex f l ow i nsi de t he cycl one mor e accur at el y t han i s
possi bl e under t he assumpt i ons of above ment i oned model s r ef er r ed t o as
"numer i cal model s".
ad a. Cr i t i cal di amet er model s
I n t hese concept ual l y ver y si mpl e model s i t i s assumed t hat t he hi ghest
t angent i al accel er at i ons t ake pl ace at t he sur f ace of an i magi nar y cyl i nder
whi ch ext ends downwar ds t hr ough t he cycl one under t he vor t ex f i nder .
Out si de t hi s cyl i nder t he gas moves downwar d; i nsi de t hi s cyl i nder upwar d.
The downf l owi ng gas i s t hought t o r ever se di r ect i on pr opor t i onal l y
di st r i but ed acr oss t he sur f ace of t hi s cyl i nder .
Under t hese assumpt i ons anywher e on t he ment i oned sur f ace t her e wi l l be a
const ant r adi al l y i nwar d vel oci t y, opposi ng t he out war d movement of t he
par t i cl es ( f i gure A. 10) .
Figure A.10 Concept of critical diameter model
A. 21
I t i s possi bl e t o cal cul at e t he cr i t i cal di amet er of par t i cl es t hat ar e i n
equi l i br i umat t he sur f ace of t hi s cyl i nder . I t i s assumed t hat t hey wi l l be
separ at ed wi t h 50% ef f i ci ency.
The model pr edi ct s t hat par t i cl es smal l er t han t hi s di amet er wi l l not be
separ at ed at al l , whi l e l ar ger par t i cl es wi l l be separ at ed compl et el y. Thi s
i s cl ear l y qui t e unr eal i st i c and t he gr adual sl ope of t he gr ade ef f i ci ency
cur ve i s br ought i nt o t he model by empi r i cal val ues.
These empi r i cal val ues of t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency ar e pl ot t ed agai nst t he
par t i cl e si ze, whi ch i s expr essed as a r at i o t o t he cr i t i cal di amet er . The
mer i t of t he model i s t hought t o l i e i n t he f act t hat once an exper i ment al
cur ve has been det er mi ned f or a cer t ai n geomet r y, t he cur ve can be
t r ansponed t o ot her geomet r i es t hr ough t he t heor et i cal descr i pt i on of t he
cr i t i cal di amet er . I n pr act i ce t ur ned out t hat t hese model s ar e ver y f ast
and wor t hwhi l e met hods t o desi gn cycl ones wi t h f i xed geomet r i cal r at i os, but
har dl y appl i cabl e t o desi gn cycl ones wi t h a geomet r y t ype di f f er ent f romt he
or i gi nal cycl one.
Lappl e [ 1951] gi ves t he f ol l owi ng expr essi on f or d
5
, , whi ch seems t o have
been der i ved f romear l i er wor k f romRosi n et al . [ 1932] (see equat i on A. 45) .
t
b
-
1/2
Sp
d

3
^ A v iJ
(A
-
45)
g
i n whi ch N, t he number of t ur ns of t he gas.
V
N
n Dab
i n whi ch V i s t he vol ume of t he cyl i ndr i cal body out si de t he vor t ex f i nder .
( Act ual l y, t hi s model i s not based on t he assumpt i ons ment i oned bef or e, but
on t hose i n t he next subsect i on. The r eason i t i s gi ven her e i s t hat
exper i ment al val ues ar e necessar y f or t he compl et e gr ade- ef f i ci ency cur ve) .
St ai r mand [ 1951] st at es:
, * u D 1/ 2
% =V ^ [
2
n A*p ?H -
g
)
D
3 <A. *6>
A.22
i n whi ch:
,
u ?
, 4 f X 1/2
[I I
1
/
2
, fl
+
2- ,
l
X '
L
X ab
J
] (A .47)
v = -
L
i n which:
,, 2 (D -
X
l " D
0
and
a)
2 f X
2
ab
( A.48)
,X
2
=jjn (D
2
- D
2
) + n Dh + n D
o
s + |n (D + a) [(H - h)
2
+ |( D - a)
2
]
1 / 2
(A .49)
and t he val ue of t he f r i ct i on f act or , f , t ypi cal l y, 0. 005.
St ai r mand [ 1951] assumed t hat t he maxi mumt angent i al vel oci t y t akes pl ace at
r =j r D ( Thi s was a qui t e pr ogr essi ve assumpt i on t hat has been j ust i f i ed
much l at er . )
Bar t h [ 1956] der i ved t he f ol l owi ng expr essi on:
u * 1/ 2
* , =3 [
S
-
E
=] ( A. 50)
5
n A p (H - S) v^
r
o
i n whi ch v,_ i s t he t angent i al vel oci t y at -^ D
t r d. o
o
1 2
I T "
D D
V
t r
= V
gi '
K
1 ,
H
_.
n
, . =
V
gi 2f H D v .
( A
-
51)
o ab + j (H - S) D n 4f n + Si
o v
t
D
t o
f =0. 02
These val ues f or f speci f i cal l y appl y t o dust cycl ones. I n chapt er 5 val ues
f or gas/ l i qui d syst ems ar e gi ven.
A. 23
4 o
( A. 52)
v can al so be est i mat ed by t aki ng v r =const ant i n whi ch 0. 7 < x <
o
0. 9, see Muschel knaut z [ 1972] .
The equat i ons of Bar t h have been conf i r med by Muschel knaut z [ 1970] [ 1972] .
Wi t h t he above ment i oned cor r el at i ons an expr essi on can be der i ved f or t he
d
5
o of a t ypi cal cycl one geomet r y. The f r act i onal ef f i ci ency cur ve i s
det er mi ned exper i ment al l y f or one t ypi cal geomet r y.
Because di f f er ent geomet r y t ypes wi t h an equal d
s
have di f f er ent gr ade
ef f i ci ency cur ves, t he weakness of t hi s desi gn met hod becomes ver y cl ear i f
a cer t ai n cur ve i s t aken as gener al l y appl i cabl e.
I n f i gur e A. 11 t hese cur ves have been dr awn t oget her wi t h exper i ment al
val ues f or t hr ee di f f er ent cycl one geomet r i es of whi ch t he par t i cul ar s ar e
gi ven i n t he f i gur e.
Figure A. 11 Comparison of grade efficiency curves
Sever al aut hor s have set up mat hemat i cal expr essi ons t o appr oxi mat e t he
empi r i cal cur ve t hat bel ongs t o a cer t ai n geomet r y- f ami l y:
Rosi n et al . [ 1932] assumed t hat
100
x 1/ 2
( A. 53)
A.24
This applies to the cyclone geometry suggested by Lapple [1951].
Dirgo and Leith [1985b] suggest the following expression for the
experimental curve of Barth:
n = ^-"2 (A.5t)
1 +x
3
*
i n whi ch x i s t he r at i o of t he set t l i ng vel oci t y of a cer t ai n par t i cl e to
t he set t l i ng vel oci t y of a par t i cl e of t he cr i t i cal di amet er .
n ( H- S) v\
r
Ap d^
Accor di ng t o t he t heor y of Bar t h x = r^ ( A. 55)
g P
g g
(If x =1 the earlier given equation for d, can be derived).
ad b. Residence time models
These models assume that a particle will only be separated on the wall of
the cyclone. The time i t needs to get there should not exceed the residence
time of the particle.
In i ts simplest form a model like this consists of calculation of the
different radial velocities of particles of different sizes (Stokes' law,
gravity constant replaced by tangential acceleration). With these 'settl i ng
vel oci ti es' and under the assumption of uniformly mixed particles in the
i nl et duct the grade efficiency curve can be calculated for a certain
average residence time. The residence time of the particles is assumed to be
equal to that of the gas.
Leith en Licht [1972] recognized the importance of the profile of the
tangential velocity in radial direction (also mentioned by Davies [1980],
Stairmand [1951] and StraufJ [1966]) and moreover, allowed for the turbulence
induced backmixing of particles. According to their model the separation
efficiency TI can be expressed as:
, "
2 C
* 2nT2
TI = 1 - e
(A.56)
A. 25
i n whi ch:
A p d v (n + 1)
n - 1 - [
(
i - o. 67D
0
-
l 4
) . ( ^) - 3]
283'
( A. 57)
( A. 58)
Tt D'
D 2
ei i t S a
ab
L
"
11
D
J J l
D 2D' 3
l
D
J l l
D
l
D
J
' D D
l
D^
)
" D^
1
= ^ - 3 D m
, 2. 1/ 3
e
L
ab
J
( A. 59)
( A. 60)
d =D - (D - B) [
S + 1 + h,
H - h '
( A. 61)
I n a l at er publ i cat i on Di r go and Lei t h [ 1985a] gi ve a cor r ect i on f or C
x
. I n
case d < D
e
, C shoul d be det er mi ned as f ol l ows:
C* =C +
db D- d
( A. 62)
In fi gures A . 12, A . 13 , A . l 4 and A .15 the predi ct i ons of t h i s model are
plotted agai nst experimental res ults obtained with three d i f f eren t cyclone
geometri es.
Stalraaad uptrkMntai ITM1)
t i l t h aad Uht thtary 11972)
1
n
Parrutt dia. M>
m-
1
t ' -
|
I- o.
I-
20-
0
^^sz^^^
*?**
Jr Patersaa aad Whtrby aiparlaeatal 119651
JT Ui t aad Lkht HUWT CH72I
M
j
I
1 1
Parttclt till. |ia -
Figure A,12 Validation of model (1) Figure A.13 Validation of model (2)
A.26
Mothes experimental (19831
Lelth and Licht theory (19721
2 0.1, -
Lelth and Licht
1
Dlrgo and Lel th
experimental (19851
I. 5 6 7
Particle dia. pm
Figure A.14 Validation of model (3) Figure A. 15 Validation of model (4)
Di etz [1972] developed further refi nements and proposed a model whi ch does
not assume a wel l mixed core and annul ar regi on and whi ch al l ows for
di stri buti on of gas resi dence ti mes and exchange of par ti cl es between the
core and annul us.
The model exi sts of three i nteracti ve sub- model s that descri be the i nl et
regi on (between wal l and vortex f i nder), the annul us regi on (i n which the
gas flow i s di rected downwards) and the core regi on (i n whi ch the gas i s
f l owi ng upwards). Accordi ng to Di rgo and L ei th [1985a] Di etz deri ved the
fol l owi ng expressi on for n:
1 - [K
0
- (K-
-
/ 0
-n (2S-a) p d v .
K )
1/ 2
1 exn r - Si-
K
2
) J exp L 18 u ab
M
g
(A.63)
i n whi ch:
D 2n 9 u ab
g
n. p I d v .
P. P Si
(A.6ny
1
D
Q
2 n
K1
= \ [1 - if-) (1
9 p ab
n p' 1 d v .
P P gi
-n
(A,65)
D 2n
K
2 " 1 ^
(A.66)
A. 27
i n whi ch: 1 ( f ree vor t ex l engt h) =2. 3 D (-r)
, 2. 1/ 3
I n f i gur es A. 16, A. 17 and A. 18 t he pr edi ct i ons of t hi s model ar e pl ot t ed
agai nst exper i ment al r esul t s obt ai ned on t hree di f f er ent cycl one geomet r i es. ,
00
80 .
60 -
1.0-
20-
0
Dietz ^
S ^ Lapple experimental (1951)
yS
^ ^
Normalized particle dia.
Figure A. 16 Validation of model (5)
Dirgo and Leith
experimental (19851
1 I I r
I. 5 6 7
Particle dia,, pm -
Figure A.17 Validation of model (6)
Mot hes [ 1984a] suggest ed f ur t her r ef i nement s t o t he model of Di et z and
ext ended t he t hr ee r egi on model t o a f our r egi on model of whi ch t he f our t h
r egi on symbol i zed t he dust cont ai ner under neat h t he vor t ex. Fr omt hi s r egi on
an exchange of par t i cl es t o t he act i ve par t of t he cycl one i s possi bl e. Thi s
way i t becomes possi bl e t o al l ow f or r eent r ai nment . Apar t f romt hi s asset
hi s model t akes al so i nt o account a concent r at i on gr adi ent of t he par t i cl es
i n t he annul ar r egi on, whi ch depends on par t i cl e si ze.
Thi s i s i n accor dance t o ear l i er work of Mot hes [ 1982] , and has hi t her t o not
been consi der ed by t he model s of Lei t h and Li cht and Di et z, t hat empl oyed
uni f or mconcent r at i on. The pr edi ct i ons of t hi s model ar e pl ot t ed agai nst
exper i ment al r esul t s obt ai ned on t he l i st ed cycl one geomet r y i n f i gur e A. 19.
Mothes experimental 11983)
0.2 0.5
Figure A.18 Validation of model (7) Figure A.19 Validation of model -'(.8)
A. 28
As appear s f r om t hese f i gur es t her e i s no t heor y t hat cl osel y f ol l ows
al l exper i ment al r esul t s. Ver y di sencour agi ngl y, r el at i vel y si mpl e model s
set up f or a speci f i c geomet r y t ype, ar e j ust as usef ul as compl i cat ed
uni ver sal model s. Some t heor et i cal l y t i nged model s gi ve ver y good r esul t s
wi t h t hei r bel ongi ng geomet r y f ami l i es ( Mot hes and Di et z wi t h Bar t h
cycl ones) . The di scr epanci es of t he model s can l ar gel y be expl ai ned by a t oo
si mpl i st i c r epr esent at i on of t he compl ex f l ow f i el d i nsi de t he cycl one. Too
l i t t l e at t ent i on i s pai d t o ef f ect s i nduced by t ur bul ence. Real i st i c f l ow
f i el d model l i ng woul d r esul t i n a much mor e compl ex model wi t h compl et el y
ot her comput at i onal r equi r ement s t han t he model s descr i bed bef or e.
ad c. Numer i cal model s
Because t he f l ow f i el d i n a cycl one i s gover ned by physi cal l aws t hat are
not ver y easi l y model l ed t hr ough an anal yt i cal appr oach, some ef f or t s have
been under t aken i n t he past f ew year s t o model t he behavi our numer i cal l y.
The f i ni t e el ement or f i ni t e di f f er ence met hods used f or t hese numer i cal
si mul at i ons t end t o r equi r e consi der abl e sof t war e devel opment ef f or t s and
har dwar e i nvest ment s. However , t he popul ar i t y of t hese met hods i s st r ongl y
i ncr easi ng wi t h t he i nt r oduct i on of conf i gur abl e sof t war e packages and t he
possi bi l i t y of i mpl ement i ng t hose on smal l er comput er s wi t h gr owi ng
comput i ng power f or money r at i os.
One of t he f i r st r ef er ences i n l i t er at ur e t o an appar ent l y ver y
sat i sf act or i l y f unct i oni ng numer i cal si mul at i on of t he behavi our of a dust
cycl one i s t he wor k of Boysan and Swi t henbank et al . [ 1Q82] . An exampl e of
t he pr edi ct i ng possi bi l i t i es of t hei r model i s gi ven i n f i gure A. 20.
ParNcle dla. um
Figure A. 20 Validation of numerical simulation
A.29
Karvinen [1985] presented also a good cyclone si mul ati on. Of both models,
though, no extensive proof was given of geometrical independence.
Pericleous [1984] gives an example of a useful hydrocyclone model.
As l ater i n thi s report the numerical approach wi l l be extensively covered,
specific detai l s are not given here. I t must be remarked, though, that
numerical si mul ati on i s a very powerful technique that has proven to have
the possi bi l i ti es to predi ct the behavi our of a cyclone more or l ess
independent of geometry type. This way i t wi l l become possible for the f i rst
time to perform cyclone design optimization for a speci fi c application.
Correl ati ons and models for predi cti ng the pressure drop across a dust
cyclone
As i n t he desi gn of dust separ at or s t he pr essur e dr op acr oss t he cycl one i s
consi der ed as a measur e f or t he maxi mal capaci t y of t he cycl one, many model s
and cor r el at i ons exi st f or pr edi ct i ng t he pr essur e dr op.
I t appear s t o be possi bl e t o pr edi ct t hi s oper at i ng pr oper t y accur at el y much
easi er t han t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency.
Lei t h and Met ha [ 1976] gi ve an excel l ent r evi ew of pr essur e dr op
cor r el at i ons up t o 1976 and r ecommend t he cor r el at i ons of Bar t h [ 1956] ,
St ai r mand [ 1951. Shepher d and Lappl e [ 1940] i n t hi s or der af t er t est i ng 12
di f f er ent geomet r i es.
Al l cor r el at i ons ar e gi ven as a f act or of t he ent r y vel oci t y head:
2
P v .
4P = -
S

S L
, i n whi ch accor di ng t o: ( A. 67)
ah
( 1) Shepher d & Lappl e [ 1910] 5 =K ~ ( A. 68)
e
i n whi ch:
K =16 f or a cycl one wi t h a st andar d t angent i al i nl et
K =7- 5 f or a cycl one wi t h an i nl et vane ( t he i nner wal l of t he
t angent i al ent r y ext ends past t he cycl one i nt er wal l t o a poi nt
hal f way t o t he opposi t e wal l )
A. 30
( 2) St ai r mand [ 1951] 6 =1 2 *
2
(
2(
g"
b)
- l ) + 2 ( M^) , ( A. 69)
f
t ab,
1
2
n D
i n whi ch:
D
g
1/ 2 D *4 f A 1/ 2
^2(D- b) J * ^2( D- b) * ~~at P
2 f A
ab
A =% ( D
2
- D
2
) r, Dh * D
e
S f (D B) . [ (H - h)
2
+ ( 5- ^_B)
2
]
1/ 2
f =f r i ct i on f act or =0. 005
St ai r mand assumes i n t hi s cor r el at i on t hat t he pr essur e dr op consi st s of
ener gy l oss i n t he cycl one vor t ex and ent r ance and exi t l osses.
u. 2 H ab 2
( 3) Bar t h [ 1956] 6 =(^) ( 2' '
c
e
+ e
i '
( A
-
? 0)
i n D
e
i n whi ch:
D
e
e - --
e D
l
u. 2 2'
(1 - ( - i ) ( H- S) (
r
f ] J
1
HA
1
e
i =~I~2n
+x
1
u. \ D (D - b) n .
1 2 e ' ' _ . 1 p k
v

=
2 ab a + (H - S) ( D - b) n f
: a
~ " D
:
f ( f ri ct i on f act or ) * 0. 02
Bar t h assumes i n t hi s cor r el at i on t hat t he pr essur e dr op i s t he sura of t wo
cor r el at i ons; e r epr esent s t he ent r ance l osses and i nt er nal f r i ct i on, e.
e i
t he exi t l osses.
The det er mi nat i on met hod suggest ed by Bar t h has f ound wi de appl i cat i on.
A.31
Muschelknautz and Krambrock [1970] and Muschelknautz [1972] suggested some
f urther ref i nements that essenti al l y af f ect the esti mated val ues of the
f ri cti on f actor and the l osses caused by di f f erent i nl et geometri es.
I n f i gures A.21 and A.22 the resul ts of thei r detai l ed measurements of the
f ri cti on f actor are gi ven.
t
\
10-1
1
1
'
" i ^ ^
10'
=
J l .,o->
I.10-
---~"
! .6.10-' =
smooth wi l l
10' 10
Fig. A.21 Hall friction factors (I) Fig. A. 22 Wall friction factors (II)
Furthermore, Muschel knautz [1972] makes di sti ncti on between three ki nds of
swi rl i nduci ng geometri es; the tangenti al i nl et wi th gui de vane, the
tangenti al sl i t i nl et and the axi al i nl et (fi gures A.23A, B and C).
A
Fig. A.2SA Inlet I Fig. ,23B Inlet II
Fig. A.23C Inlet III
For determi ni ng the f actor a whi ch i s of i nf l uence on the pressure drop
cal cul ati on of the i nl et secti on he states:
- vane type tangenti al i nl et: a =1 +
/ 3 " (D - | b)
J" ab
sl i t t ype t angent i al i nl et : a accor di ng t o f i gur e A. 2h
- axi al i nl et a =0. 9"0. 95 f or cur ved gui de vanes
a =0. 85 f or si mpl e st r ai ght gui de val ues
A. 32
a 0. 7 5-
0.50
0.7 5
Figure A. 24 Determination of a for slit entry cyclones
He r ecommends axi al i nl et s f or cycl ones wi t h: zr~ =1. 5 - 2
o
( t he sl i t woul d ot her wi se become t oo nar r ow) and f or , mul t i cycl one bat t er i es
( f or pr event i ng mal di st r i but i on) . The val ues of f ment i oned i n t hi s sect i on
ar e t ypi cal f or dust cycl ones. I n chapt er 5 t ypi cal val ues f or mi st cycl ones
wi l l be der i ved.
Af t er t hese r easonabl y r el i abl e cor r el at i ons had been devel oped, l i t t l e work
was done on new cor r el at i ons. Al so numer i cal met hods as di scussed bef or e
appear t o have l i t t l e pr obl ems i n pr edi ct i ng t he pr essur e dr op acr oss a
cycl one as can be seen i n f i gur e A. 25 Boysan and Swi t henbank [ 1982] .
11.00 -
1200
1000 -
800
600
400
200 -
0
O Experiment
Theory
0.00
I
0.01
I
0.02
0.03
I
0.01.
Q,, mV s
Figure A. 25 Predicted pressure drop by numerical simulation
A. 33
Model s f or pr edi ct i ng maxi mal capaci t y of dust cycl ones
The maxi mal capaci t y t hr ough a cer t ai n dust cycl one i s l i mi t ed by t wo
const r ai nt s:
1. a maxi mal pr essur e dr op set by pr ocess condi t i ons;
2. a maxi mal vel oci t y i nsi de t he cycl one above whi ch separ at ed dust wi l l be
r eent r ai ned.
ad 1. Wi t h t he gi ven pr essur e dr op cor r el at i ons i t wi l l be st r ai ght f or war d
t o pr edi ct whet her a cycl one can meet possi bl e pr essur e dr op
r equi r ement s.
ad 2. No quant i t at i ve r ef er ences have been f ound i n l i t er at ur e t o dust
r eent r ai nment cr i t er i a.
Ot her i nl et geomet r i es
Sof ar most l y model s and cor r el at i ons have been di scussed t hat concer ned
essent i al l y onl y si ngl e dust cycl ones, wi t h one t angent i al i nl et .
Except f or a f ew exampl es ( e. g. Muschel knaut z [ 1972] ) no i nf or mat i on coul d
be f ound wi t h whi ch t he i nf l uence coul d be quant i f i ed of ot her i nl et
geomet r i es as axi al , doubl e or t angent i al even quadr uppl e t angent i al i nl et s,
of whi ch some ar e of t en appl i ed i n pr act i ce.
2. B Avai l abi l i t y and r el i abi l i t y of desi gn pr ocedur es ( l i t er at ur e
i nvest i gat i on)
St ai r mand [ 1951] r ecommends t wo t ypes of cycl ones. One geomet r y f or a hi gh
ef f i ci ency, t he ot her f or a hi gh t hr oughput cycl one. Bot h geomet r i es and
accompanyi ng dat a ar e gi ven i n f i gur es A. 26 and A. 27. St ai r mand based hi s
suggest i ons on ext ensi ve exper i ment al r esul t s, of whi ch most have been
obt ai ned under at mospher i c condi t i ons.
Bar t h [ 1956] r ecommends i n t he same l i ne f i ve t ypes of geomet r i es and uses
t he pr essur e dr op acr oss and r equi r ed ef f i ci ency of t he cycl one as t wo
pr i mar y mut ual l y dependent cr i t er i a f or t he desi gn. As Muschel knaut z [ 1972]
l at er r ef i nes t hi s met hod i t wi l l be super f l uous t o gi ve mor e det ai l s her e.
Rumpf [ 1968] suggest s a met hod t o opt i mi ze cycl one geomet r y t o pr essur e dr op
and col l ect i on ef f i ci ency r equi r ement s. Hi s opt i mi zat i on pr ocedur e st ar t s
wi t h t he t wo char act er i st i c cycl one par amet er s t hat Bar t h and Lei neweber
descr i bed and t hat wi l l be used agai n by Muschel knaut z. Unf or t unat el y Rumpf
does not gi ve any exper i ment al ver i f i cat i on of hi s pr edi ct i ons.
A.34
0.5D.0.2O
0/D.1.5 n/ j .
aplair at 20, 1 bir
.0.07 N/ml
1^3/tOj
0.750.0.3750- W
Figure A. 26 Stairmand High Efficiency Figure A. 27 Stairmand High Throughput
Muschelknautz [1970], [1972] starts from the same poi nt and proposes a
procedure with which the pressure drop across a cyclone can be minimized
while maintaining constant col l ecti on efficiency and cyclone volume.
He theoreti cal l y described some experi mental l y developed optimal cyclone
desi gns with standard expressions with respect to pressure drop and cyclone
geometry (developed by Barth and Leineweber) and condensed these findings in
the graphs of figure A.28.
c
15
2.5
1.6
1.2
10
1.
1*1
i
P-3
1.75
0.7
2.2
35
\
I
I
2r,.g.R'.H
Figure A. 28 Geometry optimization proposed by Muschelknautz
A. 35
The char act er i st i c number s he pr oposes:
AP
* =; r ; t he r esi st ance coef f i ci ent and
a l <i
r p V*
2
K
g a
_s a
g D
; whi ch char act er i zes cycl one si ze r equi r ed col l ect i on
ef f i ci ency.
w* r epr esent s t he t er mi nal set t l i ng vel oci t y of par t i cl e under gr avi t y
s
A p g d
w* = s
E
s 18 ti
v* r epr esent s a char act er i st i c vel oci t y i nsi de t he cycl one
a
a
KW*\
m
\
For a gi ven geomet r y Ap can be cal cul at ed accor di ng t o t he met hod descr i bed
by Bar t h and Muschel knaut z gi ven i n t he pr evi ous subsect i on. By an i t er at i ve
t r i al and er r or met hod, D and H ar e var i ed f or a gi ven val ue of D as such
t hat E* i s mi ni mi zed. Thi s i s possi bl e as Muschel knaut z der i ved f r omhi s
a
cycl one t heory an unambi guous r el at i on bet ween t he t wo ment i oned par amet er s
( l i ne b) . He succeeded t o pr ove t hi s ki nd of r el at i onshi p wi t h cycl ones of
var yi ng geomet r i es t hat had appear ed t o be pr act i cal i n r eal i t y ( l i ne c ) .
Muschel knaut z suggest s t o use t hi s cur ve under t he f ol l owi ng r est r ai nt s:
A ~ 0. 01
St i l l , ver y much car e has t o be t aken not t o t ake t he geomet r i es devel oped
wi t h t hi s met hod f or an absol ut e t r ut h: a l ar ge par t of t hi s desi gn
pr ocedur e i s st i l l based on si mpl i f i cat i ons ( f or i nst ance t he assumed f l ow
f i el d) .
A. 36
Lei t h and Met ha [ 1976] devel oped an al gor i t hm t hat was based on t he
col l ect i on ef f i ci ency t heor y of Lei t h and Li cht [ 1972] . Basi cal l y they
r ewr ot e t he or i gi nal t heory as such t hat cycl one di mensi ons coul d easi l y be
changed, under obser vat i on of t heor et i cal consequences of t hese changes. As
onl y one of al l possi bl e geomet r i es has been t est ed t o ver i f y t he r esul t s
t hi s met hod i s not r ecommended f or pr act i cal pur poses.
I n an over vi ew ar t i cl e Lei t h and Di r go [ 1985b] t est ed f our desi gns t hey
obt ai ned wi t h a geomet r i cal opt i mi zat i on based on f our di f f er ent t heor i es
f or pr edi ct i ng cycl one behavi our . They t est ed t hese new desi gns bot h
t heor et i cal l y ( wi t h t he concer ni ng t heor y used f or opt i mi zat i on) and
exper i ment al l y agai nst t he St ai r mand hi gh ef f i ci ency cycl one. Al t hough t he
f our new desi gns wer e pr edi ct ed t o be much mor e ef f i ci ent , t hr ee had l ower
col l ect i on ef f i ci enci es and onl y one new desi gn was about as ef f i ci ent .
Thi s cycl one was devel oped by usi ng t he Bar t h pr essur e dr op and a
modi f i cat i on of hi s ef f i ci ency t heor i es.
The t heor i es f or pr edi ct i ng col l ect i on ef f i ci ency used by Lei t h and Di r go
wer e t hose of Lei t h and Li cht and a modi f i cat i on of t he Bar t h t heor y.
Theor i es used f or pr edi ct i ng pr essur e dr op wer e of Bar t h and St ai r mand.
The modi f i cat i on of t he or i gi nal Bar t h t heor y consi st s of an empi r i cal
al t er at i on of t he empi r i cal cur ve suggest ed by Bar t h t o f i t ot her par t i cl e
si zes t han t he cr i t i cal di amet er t o obt ai n t he f r act i onal ef f i ci ency cur ve
( see par t 1 of t hi s appendi x) .
As t he above cl ear l y i l l ust r at es, i t i s st i l l mor e advi sabl e t o r el y on
empi r i cal desi gn i nf or mat i on t han t o use bl i ndl y some of t he t heori cal
desi gn pr ocedur es descr i bed bef or e. Especi al l y f or f i el ds of appl i cat i ons of
whi ch r el at i vel y l i t t l e i nf or mat i on i s avai l abl e ( as on ear l i er emper i cal l y
devel oped opt i mal desi gns) t her e i s qui t e an i ncent i ve t o devel op mor e
power f ul t heor i es f or pr edi ct i ng cycl one behavi our . Mul t i pl e exper i ment s t o
achi eve t hi s can be qui t e expensi ve, i n case of f or i nst ance hi gh pr essur e
appl i cat i ons. To t hi s pur pose ext ensi ve at t ent i on i s pai d t o t he devel opment
of a numer i cal appr oach t o si mul at e t he cycl one behavi our i n chapt er J.
A.37
3.4.4.3 Mist cyclones
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t er at ur e i nvest i gat i on)
Col l ect i on ef f i ci ency and pr essur e dr op
I t i s r ef er r ed t o t he cor r espondi ng sect i on of t he dust cycl ones; no
speci f i c t heor i es have been publ i shed t hat t ake i nt o account t he di f f er ences
i n r eent r ai nment behavi our bet ween t he t wo separ at ed phases.
Maxi mal capaci t y
The maxi mal capaci t y t hr ough a cer t ai n cycl one i s l i mi t ed by t wo const r ai nt s
1. a maxi mal pr essur e dr op set by pr ocess condi t i ons;
2. a maxi mal gas vel oci t y i nsi de t he cycl one above whi ch r eent r ai nment of
t he separ at ed l i qui d wi l l t ake pl ace.
I f t he maxi mal pr essur e dr op pr escr i bed by t he appl i cat i on l eads t o
vel oci t i es l ower t han t he r eent r ai nment vel oci t y, t he cor r el at i ons gi ven i n
t he pr evi ous chapt er can be appl i ed.
I n t he next chapt er t he physi cal phenomena t hat accompany r eent r ai nment are
ext ensi vel y descr i bed. Wi t h t hi s i nf or mat i on t he maxi mal al l owabl e vel oci t y
can be det er mi ned.
Cal ver t [ 1974] ci t es Zhi vai ki n [ 1962] and r ecommends t he f ol l owi ng cr i t er i a
f or det er mi ni ng t he onset of r eent r ai nment i n cycl ones:
( A. 7D
1
00
f t - ~ - =Re - f or ^ ^ - Re, S a ^ ( A. 72)
43. 2 g
ma x : X
=Re
1
"
0
f or Re, i ^ S . ( A.
7
4)
g max'
M
l - 4
= Re
l
1
*
ma x 1
=Re"
k
a
v
g max-
u
l
R
1. 25
0
0. 085
f or Re. S ^=-
v
l
f or
2^85. ,
Rei
, 28. 8
v
l
w
. l
f or Re, ^
1
v
i
A. 38
I t wi l l , however , be quest i onabl e i f t hese cor r el at i ons appl y t o t he
si t uat i on at hand as no consi der at i on i s gi ven t o i ncr eased gr avi t y f or ces
i nsi de t he t angent i al f l ow f i el d.
St ai r mand [ 1951] gi ves an even mor e gener al cr i t er i on and st at es t hat :
2
p v . < 1800 kg/ ms
2
i n case of gas/ wat er separ at i on and ( A. 74)
2
p v . < 3600 kg/ ms
2
i n case of gas/ oi l separ at i on. ( A. 75)
St ear man and Wi l l i amson, quot ed by St r auB [ 1966] , have suggest ed val ues f or
above l i mi t s of 1330 and 2660 kg/ ms
2
r espect i vel y.
Wi t h an at mospher i c wat er and ai r syst em t hese cor r el at i ons l ead t o t he
f ol l owi ng maxi mal al l owabl e gas vel oci t i es.
Zhi vai ki n/ Cal ver t : v . =10- 50 m/ s ( A. 76)
St ai r mand : v .
ma x
=*3 m/ s ( A. 77)
St ear man/ Wi l l i amson : v . =33 m/ s ( A. 78)
' gi max ' '
I t i s expect ed t hat i n r eal i t y t hi s l i mi t val ue wi l l al so depend st r ongl y on
ot her oper at i ng condi t i ons and t he cycl one geomet r y. The above ment i oned
f i gur es shoul d onl y be r egar ded as i ndi cat i ve.
2. B Avai l abi l i t y and r el i abi l i t y of desi gn pr ocedur es ( l i t er at ur e
i nvest i gat i on)
The basi c f or m of a mi st cycl one can be det er mi ned anal ogous t o t he
pr ocedur es f or dust cycl ones. At t he same t i me ext r a desi gn Feat ur es as
ski r t s and st r ai ght di schar ges, descr i bed bef or e, can be added. Meanwhi l e
car e shoul d be t aken t hat t he maxi mal al l owabl e i nl et vel oci t i es, descr i bed
i n t hi s appendi x but r ef i ned i n chapt er 5
a r e n
t exceeded.
A. 39
3- 4. 4. 4 Mul t i cycl ones
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t erat ure i nvest i gat i on)
The over al l ef f i ci ency of a ' mul t i cycl one' i s not necessar i l y equal t o t he
ef f i ci ency of a uni t cycl one t est ed si ngl e. Kr opp [ 1981] and Pot apov [ 1976]
f ound det er i or at i ons of t he over al l ef f i ci ency f r om1 up t o 35%i n r espect
t o t he ef f i ci ency of a si ngl e cycl one under compar abl e condi t i ons.
They at t ri but ed t hi s ef f ect mai nl y t o t wo r easons:
a. const r uct i onal car el essness, l i ke ai r l eaks bet ween bi n and i nl et sect i on
( 0- l l #) ;
b. mal di st r i but i on of t he gas/ dust mi xt ur e t o t he di f f er ent cycl ones i n t he
bundl e ( 1- 24%) ;
Al t hough i t i s not ver y di f f i cul t t o avoi d t he f or mer def ect , mi ni mi zat i on
of t he l at t er i s l ess t r i vi al . Mal di st r i but i on of t he gas/ dust mi xt ur e
ef f ect s t he pr essur e of t he cycl one dust ( l i qui d) out l et whi ch can cause
dust l aden gas t o be t ransf erred f romone cycl one t hr ough an ot her t o t he
cl ean gas out l et .
The gas phase can be mal di st r i but ed among t he cycl ones because of par t i al
cl oggi ng of i nt er nal par t s of t he cycl ones but al so because of cycl ones t hat
ar e not pr oper l y posi t i oned i n r espect t o each ot her . When var yi ng r el at i ve
posi t i ons of cycl ones i n a mul t i cycl one Kr opp [ 1981] and Pot apov [ 1976]
f ound t he over al l separ at i on ef f i ci ency t o var y f r om 82%t o 99%. They
at t r i but e t hi s ef f ect not onl y t o mal di st r i but i on of t he gas phase. They
al so f ound consi der abl e var i at i ons i n over al l separ at i on ef f i ci ency when
var yi ng t he dust di st r i but i on among cycl ones under ot her wi se compar abl e
ci r cumst ances ( f rom91%t o 99%) . They expl ai n t hi s ef f ect by st at i ng t hat
t he r el at i ve dust cont ent of a cycl one i n oper at i on i s of consi der abl e
i nf l uence on i t s pr essur e dr op. Thi s i s i n accor dance wi t h exper i ment s of
Muschel knaut z [ 1972] , Mot hes [ 1984b] .
J ackson [ 1963] ment i ons t he det r i ment al ef f ect of unequal di st r i but i on of
ei t her phase t o i ndi vi dual cycl ones di schar gi ng i n a common hopper as wel l .
He descr i bes an exper i ment per f or med by Smel l i e [ 1942] i n whi ch t he
car r y- over of t hr ee i dent i cal cycl ones rel at ed t o each ot her as 2 : 1, 5 : 1
because of non uni f or mdust di st r i but i on.
A.40
Kof fman [1953] reports a reduction in efficiency from 96% to 92% when a 1,5
inch cyclone i s grouped with 13 others to feed a common hopper.
The necessi ty to arrange the flow condi ti ons of both gas and parti cul ate
phase to be similar for each individual cyclone in a multicyclone to ensure
optimal operation has been stressed on many occasions.
None of the above mentioned authors, though, succeeded i n formul ati ng a
general l y appl i cabl e model or correl ati on. The nature of these
gas/parti cul ate phase di stri buti ons and pressure drop i nteracti ons i s
complicated to such an extent that only numerical simulations as described
before could be of use when attempting to predict the multicyclone effect on
the overall separation efficiency.
2.B Avai l abi l i ty and r el i abi l i ty of desi gn procedures ( l i terature
investigation)
The si zi ng of these mul ti cycl ones si mpl i fi es to chosing the number of
cyclones and setti ng up a plan as how to di stri bute the cyclones over a
certai n minimal area.
The determination of the number of cyclones i s very often done on the basis
of a maximum pressure drop that can be allowed across the separator, at
which the individual cyclone sti l l functions well.
The importance of the di stri buti on of both gas and parti cul ate phase to the
cycl ones, however, seems hardly to be real i sed in thi s field of application
and no standard design rules were found.
3.4.4.5 Straight-through cyclones
2.A Operating characteri sti cs (l i terature investigations)
Again most models that are mentioned in l i terature concerned dust separating
cycl ones. Under the same precondi ti ons as i n the case of reverse flow
cycl ones, these models appl y equal l y well to thei r mist separati ng
counterparts.
A. 41
Col l ect i on ef f i ci ency
As t he f l ow f i el d i n t he separ at i on chamber of t hi s t ype of cycl one i s
easi er t o pr edi ct t han t hat of a r ever se f l ow cycl one, di f f er ent aut hor s
have succeeded i n f or mul at i ng r esi dence t i me t ype model s. Anal ogous t o t he
r ever se f l ow r esi dence t i me model s t hey achi eved r easonabl y good agr eement
wi t h exper i ment al r esul t s f or speci f i c geomet r i es, whi l e t he behavi our of
ot her geomet r y t ypes was l ess adequat el y pr edi ct ed ( al t hough, gener al l y,
mor e sat i sf act or i l y t han i n t he case of r ever se f l ow cycl ones) . Good
exampl es of t hese f i r st model s ar e t hose of Dani el s [ 1957] and Sol bach
[ 1958] .
Cr owe and Pr at t [ 197**] al r eady succeeded i n f or mul at i ng a sophi st i cat ed
numer i cal model based on a f i ni t e di f f er ence f or mul at i on of t he Navi er
St okes equat i ons, based on ear l i er wor k of Spal di ng ( see al so [ ] ) . Lar ge
comput er s wer e necessar y at t he t i me. Dobbi ns et al . [ 1979] suggest ed a ver y
si mpl i f i ed way t o r epr esent t he f l ow f i el d. Never t hel ess, t he model seems t o
r ender some agr eement s t hat ar e f ai rl y geomet r y i ndependent .
St enhouse and Tr ow [ 1979] succeeded i n f or mul at i ng a compar abl e ki nd of
model i n whi ch t hey used exper i ment al f l ow f i el d measur ement s t o car r y out
par t i cl e t r aj ect or y cal cul at i ons. They val i dat ed i t wi t h ext ensi ve
exper i ment al r esul t s.
The col l ect i on ef f i ci ency model s t hat have been f or mul at ed sof ar l ack t he
r el i abi l i t y t hat i s necessar y f or t he exact i nf or mat i on f or desi gni ng
pur poses. Thi s can, t o a gr eat ext ent , be expl ai ned by t he si mpl i f i cat i ons
of t he f l ow f i el d ( except f or t he model of Cr owe and Pr at t ) and by
i nsuf f i ci ent l y accur at e t ur bul ence model s t hat have been used.
Pr essur e dr op
Pl ekhov [ 1972] summar i zed hi s pr essur e dr op measur ement s acr oss t he cycl one
depi ct ed i n f i gur e A. 29 wi t h t he f ol l owi ng cor r el at i ons:
Ap = C I p Vg

(A.80)
i n whi ch:
-, /,
M
, 0- 08
C =(5- 2 m
- 1, 4
+ ?
2
k) (10 + 1)
G
A. 42
m =t he r at i o of t he ar ea of t he t angent i al i nl et sl ot s t o t he cr oss
sect i onal ar ea of t he t ube 0. 2 < m< 1. 0
5 =hydr aul i c r esi st ance coef f i ci ent of t he i nt er nal r i ng at t he
out l et of t he sl eeve 0 < , < 3
M =l i qui d f eed i n kg/ s
M =gas f eed i n kg/ s
M
L
s
- 100<6^
o
* Without ring Wlth-rlno,
tin
,|i
tfifl)
t
Figure A. 29 Axial cyclone of Plekhov (1972)
Maximal capacity
As i s the case for reverse flow cyclones the maximal capaci ty i s ei ther
determi ned by the maximal al l owabl e pressure drop or by the maximal
allowable velocity inside the cyclone pri or to the onset of reentrainment.
Because no convincing pressure drop models could be ci ted, no expl i ci t
information i s available for determining the former cri teri on.
As for the second cri teri on the same models can be used as given for the
reverse flow cyclones. The maximum occuring velocity i s di f f ul t to predi ct
inside a straight-through cyclone because of operation of the swirl element.
A safe guess i s that the maximal l ocal vel oci ti es near the wall are 2-3
times the average axi al vel oci ty. In figures A.30 and A.31 the resul ts of
Plekhov [1972] are presented, obtai ned with experiments under di fferent
conditions with a cyclone of earl i er described geometry.
A.43
0.6 -
O.t -
0.3 -
0. 2 -
0.1 -
0.06 -
0.01. -
0.03 "
0.02 -
/ /
/ / y
/ / / >r
^// 5^ /^
^
X
\ / jT yS /
***"
I I 1 1 1 1 1
0 15 20 30 1.0 50 60 80
w
I
,.
k
9
/ l
"
2
-i r
0.2 0.3 0. * 0.6 1.0
. . L/G
Figure A.30 Relations between reen- Figure A.31 Relations between reen-
trainment and geometry (I) trainment and geometry: (II)
Designs and design procedures for axial cyclones
Sofar for axi al cyclones no general design procedures exi st. Therefore
different designs wi l l be described with specific information regardi ng the
geometry given by the manufacturer that could be of importance to the
operating characteri sti cs of that design.
Length of separation chamber
Daniels [1957] found an optimal rati o between body length (L) and di ameter
(D) of 5: 1. Stenhouse et al . [1982] an optimal rati o of 2.5:1. Most
commercial uni ts have values that l i e in thi s range. However, both authors
did not find a strong dependence of the separation efficiency on this design
characteri sti c. Pl ekhov [1972] found a mi ni mal pressure drop when
L/D * 1.0 - 1.3-
Diameter of gas outl et, De (axial discharge)
Dani el s [1957] and Stenhouse [1982] reported experiments i n which D was
e
var i ed bet ween 0. 8 and O. 96 D, r espect i vel y 0. 25 and 0. 5 D. Bot h f ound
dr ast i cal i mpr ovement s of ef f i ci ency wi t h decr easi ng D at t he cost of
hi gher pr essur e dr op ( St enhouse r epor t ed a 5- 3 f ol d i ncr ease wi t h a t wof ol d
decr ease of D ) .
A. 44
Ar ea of gasout l et ( radi al di schar ge)
No i nf or mat i on has been f ound wi t h r espect t o t hi s subj ect .
Lengt h of i nser t i on of gas out l et L ( axi al di schar ge)
I n most commer ci al desi gns L / D < 0. 3- No exper i ment s descr i bi ng t he
i nf l uence of L / D ar e r epor t ed.
I nl et sect i on
The speci f i c advant ages of bot h axi al and t angent i al i nl et s have al r eady
been descr i bed i n t he mai n t ext . I n most cases commer ci al desi gns make use
of f ai r l y si mpl e f i xed- angl e swi r l el ement s. To pr event a r egi on of vi ol ent
t ur bul ence i n t he cent r e of t he t ube Umney [ 1948] suggest s r est r i ct i ons f or
t he geomet r y of t he swi r l er .
Smi t h [ 1962] concl uded t hat a vane angl e of 45# t o t he cycl one axi s was
opt i mal ; a rapi d r i se i n pr essur e l oss was showed when vane angl es wer e
i ncr eased above 45"
3-5 Diffusiona l sepa ra tion
2. A Oper at i ng char act er i st i cs ( l i t er at ur e i nvest i gat i on)
Col l ect i on ef f i ci ency
Theor i es descr i bi ng t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency of a di f f usi onal separ at or
cl osel y f ol l ow t hose set up f or mesh t ype mi st ext r act or s. Anal ogous t o
equat i on ( A. 19) t he t ot al i mpact i on ef f i ci ency can be r epr esent ed by
n( D) =1 - e
f
*
( D)
( A. 81)
i n whi ch t he geomet r y const ant f equal s
4 1 - e z
e d
w
( A. 82)
*( D) i n equat i on ( A. 81) r epr esent s t he col l ect i on ef f i ci ency of a si ngl e
f i ber and i s quant i f i ed as f ol l ows ( accor di ng t o an over vi ew gi ven by
LOf f l er [ 1983] ) .
A. ^5
I n case of di f f usi onal separ at i on (v ~ 0. 1 m/ s, d < 0. 5 um) Re << 1.
" = i/i
2
'
9
o<i
+
% ^ <
F uc hs e t al
- [ ^W] . L f f l er [ 1983] ) ( A. 83)
k
l / 3
Pe
2/ 3 Pe
K =- 1/ 2 l n( l - e) - 0, 5
Pe =
S
D
w
; D ( di f f usi on coef f i ci ent ) =^
n
T
^
k* =const ant of Bol t zmann; Cn =Cunni nghamcor r ect i on
I nert i al f or ces wi l l pr evai l above t hese val ues ment i oned of v and d
g P
i f Re < 1; (v > 0. 1 m/ s d < 10 um)
g P
n ( D) =1. 03 + ( 0. 6 Re - 1. 5) O ^ *
+
*
5)
( Hi l l er [ 1980] ,
L f f l er [ 1983] ) ( A. 84)
i f 0. 5 < Re < 50
( D) =( d * ( 1- ^- 0. 23 i n Re . 0. 0167 i n
2
Re) , '
2
+
, _! W ^
g
( A. 85)
2 p * 1/ 2
( Sunej a [ 1974] ) ,
t
1 +
3( ^) ]
As t he ki net i c ener gi es of t he dr opl et s wi l l be much smal l er t han t hose t hat
wi l l occur i n mesh t ype separ at or oper at i on, i t can be assumed t hat a
dr opl et wi l l be hel d by t he l i qui d f i l mupon i mpact i on. Thi s means t hat t he
t ot al col l ect i on ef f i ci ency of a f i ber bed can be r epr esent ed by equat i on
A. 81.
A.46
Maximal capacity
As the film of separated l i qui d moves in the same di recti on as the gas flow,
the permi tted maximal velocity through a fiber bed i s very low (unless the
fi ber bed i s operated as a coalescing element).
No speci f i c correl ati ons were found that gave indications how thi s maximal
velocity i s influenced by gas and l i qui d physi cal properti es and by the
geometry of speci f i c desi gns. I n most practi cal cases the f abri cators
provide the necessary information.
Pressure drop
The same as for mesh type separators applies here: adequate and well known
general theori es exi st to cal cul ate the pressure drop across porous media,
but no effects of the l i qui d hold up in the fiber bed are taken into account
in these cal cul ati ons.
However, the most influencing factor on pressure drop i s the rate of fouling
of the fibre bed.
The maximal al l owabl e pressure drop in thi s respect i s the l i f eti me
determining characteri sti c.
2.B Avai l abi l i ty and r el i abi l i ty of desi gn procedures ( l i terature
investigation
As has become cl ear from the previous chapter, hardly any theoreti cal model
can subsist a design procedure.
I t can be expected that with i ncreasi ng operati ng pressure forces on the
l i qui d fi l m that lead to reentrainment grow, and that the permitted maximal
vel oci ty of 0.15 m/sec i n case of water and ai r operati on wi l l be
substanti al l y lower in case of high pressure oi l fi el d operation.
In practi ce val ues of v =0.05 m/sec have been encountered i n case of
operating pressures of 70 bar.
Usually the required surface area i s determined accordi ng to a maximally
al l owabl e pressure drop; a practi cal form of such a design correl ati on i s
for instance:
A. 47
i n whi ch:
A =requi red sur f ace ar ea
r
P =oper at i ng pr essur e
=gas f l ow i n Nm
3
/ s ( at mospheri c condi t i ons)
I n case of coal esci ng oper at i on i t can be expect ed t hat a maxi mal vel oci t y
i s pr escr i bed f or t he out l et vel oci t y. I f t he out l et vel oci t y woul d be t oo
hi gh, r edi sper si on of t he coal esced dr opl et s can be expect ed. I n pr act i ce
v i k m/ s. The above onl y appl i es t o t he si t uat i on i n whi ch t he coal escer
out
el ement i s f l owed t hr ough out si de - i nwar ds. The r ever se woul d be mor e
l ogi cal f or coal escer oper at i on i f no f oul i ng i s expect ed.
B. 1
APPENDIX B
REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF SWIRLING FLOW CHARACTERIZATIONS
B.1 Swirling flow in a smooth pipe
Loxham [ 1976] measur ed t he evol ut i on of a swi r l i ng f l ow i n t he vor t ex f i nder
of a r ever se f l ow cycl one. The vor t ex f i nder had a di amet er of 50 mm.
The measur ed axi al and t angent i al vel oci t y pr of i l es ar e depi ct ed i n f i gur es
B. 1 and B. 2. The decay of t he swi r l number S i s cal cul at ed f r om t hese dat a
and depi ct ed i n f i gur e B. 3-
posi t i on
10
U l m/ s l
20
HI i n
0
40
31 en
20
0
40
21 [ 9
;
:
.
J
' ,
" ' .
*.
" .
*
' ,
.
**
. *
**
' ' ' '
/ - ~
.**
.**
/ "
..*
' '.*
-
r/R _ 0 0.4 OB
W(m/s$" !
40'
20
60
40
20 '
60
40
20
60
40
20
60
40
20
60
40
20
i.0
20
0
""*.,
,.-..
/"***.,
******..
_1
** **
..-.

-'*".
*
.** **
.*
*****
.

0.8' 1.6
Svl rl number (s)
Fig. B.1 Axial profiles Fig. B.2 Tangential profiles Fig. B.3 Decay of S
Vel oci t y measur ement s wer e car r i ed out wi t h a pi t ot t ube of 3 "^.
B.2
B.2 Swirling flow in a xia l cyclones
St enhouse [ 1979] car r i ed out Laser Doppl er Vel oci met r y measur ement s i n axi al
cycl ones.
The geomet r y i s gi ven i n f i gur e B.k. Hi s r esul t s ar e depi ct ed i n f i gur e B. 5.
The r adi al pl anes at whi ch t hese measur ement s have been car r i ed out ar e
i ndi cat ed i n f i gur e B. 4.
1
\
\
iv
/ .
s 0
u c
30 B
- 5 0 A
u-
u
UH
0.1
0.6-
0.6-
loutioi a
J tuiutlal alocltj
A ulit tlacttj
o-h
ir
t*- l
u-
u
M

0.4'
I J
I
l etatka *
taageaNal velocity
A t i l al vt Ut l t y
t i -
ll
u
M -
0.
locatloa 0
laaaaattal
TT TT^
u-

0. i '
0.-
0.2'
0
Isiatlea C
laagieNal
A "lal
' 1 '
IT
Fig. B.4 Geometry of Stenhouse Fig. B.5 Velocity measurements
B.3
B.3 Swirling flow in reverse flow cyclones
Mot hes [ 1983] char act er i zed wi t h LDV t echni ques t he cycl one of f i gur e B. 6.
Hi s r esul t s ar e gi ven i n f i gur e B. 7
D/ 2
A
B
De/2
D/2
X
H
S
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
95
37
30
100
522
120
130
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
20 -
5
:
25;
5 "
25-
5 "
'N
^
^_
'
N|
25- /
5H
25
r\
Figure B.6 Geometry of Mothes
Figure B.7 Tangential profiles
C l
APPENDIX C
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Physica l properties of test fluids (20C, 1 ba r)
SF
6
wat er
et hyl ene gl ycol
but anol
P
g
=
P
g
=
P
g
=
p
l
=
1
=
a =
p
l =
^ 1 =
a =
Pi =
1.3
1.9 '
6.5
1000
1.0
7- 3 '
1113
21
3- 6
806
2. 9 '
2. 5
kg/ m
3
10"5 Pa. s
kg/ m
3
kg/ m
3
10~
3
Pa. s
10~
2
N/m
kg/ m
3
10"
3
Pa. s
10"
2
N/m
kg/m
3
10"
3
Pa .s
10"
2
N/ m
TABLE 6.II
10-
0-
Run 1
r
s
1 ' ' 1
/-C
^
-1.00 -0.67 -0.33 0 0.33 0.67 1.0
- i 1 \
-1.00 -0.67 -0.33 0 0.33 0.67 1.0
-I 1 1 r
-1.00 -0.67 -0.33 0 0.33 0.67 1.0
-1.00 -0.67 -0.33 0 0.33 0.67 U
C.2
r r 1
-
I 1 1
-0.8 -0.1, 0 0.4 0.8 1 1~I
Run 6
4 O 0.4 0.8 1
10 -
5"
Run 7
^ \ \
\
\
- , . - ^
y ^
/ / N
/ / ^
/
y
-1 -0.8 -0.4 O 0.4 0.8 1
20-
10-
Run 9
> ~
1
*^
^
1
**T
/ * ^ > ^
1 1 1
-1 -0.8 -0.4 O 0.4 0.8 1
20-
10-
Run 11
' N J
-Y
V A - .
i
^
\
- >
A /
v
y.
i i
-1 -0.8 -0.4 O 0.4 0.8 1
20-
10-
-1
Run 12
-.8 -o'.4 I
y*'
o'.4 o.'e
C.3
l O 0.4 0.8 1 -i -.8 - T 6 <T
1
30
20-
10-
Run 15
\
~ \
-0.8 -O.'t
K
7 ^
<U
X
A
0.8 1
-1 -0.8 -O.t
C.4
TABLE 6.I V
A Pg.15kg/n'
Pg.20kg/m>
O Pg.lOkg/i )
0 " 5 ? 55 t 5 5 6 75 i o 9 00
gasflow (t n' /hrl
<! -( >
A pg15kg/ni
a Pgs20kg/mJ
pg40kg/n*
i m i i i 1 1 1 r
-
10 20 30 40 50 0 70 BO 90 100
gasftow taV hr)
>. 90
7-3
^ N>
4 \
PgIS k g / a'
DPg' 2 k g / '
SPg.tO k g / '
\
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
gasflow (actual nV hr )
00
Part i cl e size (pro)
C.5
TA BLE 6.V
-1.00 -0.61. -0.24 76 Tii
r /R
30
M/S
20
-1.00 -0.64 -0.24
T r
0.16 0.56 0.96
r /R
Run 4
\ u Vn
1 I I I I
-1.00 -.068 -0.35 -0.03 0.30 0.62 0.9
r /R
Effi ci ency I*/.) Efficiency (%> Effi ci ency (*/.)
*
o -
i s )
o '
u* .
o
** -
o
K/l
o "
c*
o -
J -
o
a
o -
o _
o
c i S -
t o
l/ l
- - o
o
c
K >- |
O
3
u .
\ L U -
I T
-
i
1 1 1

_
r sj
O
w
o
S
' l
a
P*
?
u i
<
o

1 1 1 1 i
o
W
o ofca
< Ml
o Mi .
X
Fi-
l l
in
p
1
R
ff
JJ
fa
IT
In
- J GO NO
M O W
X*
3
^ S
vO SO O *0 >0
- N i n i - i n
I I I t i
SS*

r
ra
o
ON
C.7
TABLE 6.VI I
99-
** 98-
l\l
93-
Efficiency curve of cyclone t ype Lwat er /ai r 1 bar.
.
A
O 2.10-SvolX
a 6.10-SvolX
' l 2.10-' vol
rr^-^.
-^Sv ^ -
N-
20 30 10 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV hr l
99
B 98
97-
S 95'
94-
93-
92-

Efficiency
o
D
A
curve of cyclone type Iwat er /ai r 3 bar.
2.10-
5
voUS \ \ \
6
12
~r
10-
s
volX \ \ \
10-
5
.ol% \ \ \
- 1i i 1l i i l i Tl '
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gasflow ImV hr .)
99-
2 98-
Si
94-
93-
92-
91-
efficiency curve of cyclone t ype Lwat er/al r 5 bar
O 2.10-
5
ol X U .
o 6 .10-
s
vol% \ \ \
12.10-
5
vol \ | \
Efficiency curve of cyclone type H,wat er /ai r 1 bar.
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV hr ]
99
2 98
B
94-
93-
92H
91
O 2. 10-YOI X
o 6.10-5vol%
a, 12.10-SvolX
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow I mV hr )
Efficiency curve of cyclone type l l .wat er /al r 3 bai
Efficiency curve of cyclone type l l .wat er /ai r 5 bar .
99
I:
94-
93-
92-
91-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV hr l
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow I mV hr l
Efficiency curve of cyclone type Hwat cr /ai r 8 bar.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Efficiency, curve of cyclone type Hwat er / ai r 1 bar.
99-1
2 98
97
| 96'
w
95-
94-
93-
92-
91
O 2.10-SvolX
o 6.10-Svol%
A 12.10-SvolX
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gasflow I mV hr l
C.8
99-
3 98-
S-97-
1 "'
E 95-
94-
93-
92"
91-
Efficiency curve of cyclone type l l l .wat er/ai r 3 bar.
0
0
A
^ 3 fr^r-fr- x?
* "~~^o
2.10-S.ol X
6.10-SvolX
12.10-SvolX
10 20 30 ( 0 50 ( 0 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gasflow (mV hr )
Efficiency curve of cyclone type lll.water/air 5 bar.
99
B8-
ra
= 95-
94-
93-
92-
91-
O
o
A
^ =
o
2.10-' vol!S
6.10-s.ol X
12.10-Svol%
10 20 30 10 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow I n V h r . l
Efficiency curve of cyclone type u1.water/alr 8 bar.
99
2 98
| 97H
| 94
Z 95-|
94-
93-
,2]
91-^
O 2.10-SvolX
o 6.10-SvolX
A 12.10-'volX
- 1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 B0 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV hr .l
Efficiency curve of cyclone fype l . wat c r / SF
t
2 bar.
99
2 98
ia
94-
a
91
o 6.10-SvolX
A 12.10-'vol%
- 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 f 1I 1 1 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ( mV t i r l
99-
98-
97-
96'
95-
94-
93-
92-
91-
Efficiency curve of
0
A
A.
o
6.10-SvolX
I2.10-Svol%
cyclone type Evat er / SF j 4 bar.
_.
rrtr ^
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flowlmVhrl
99-
98-
'
7
'
2 96-
IS95-
94-
93-
92-
91-
Efficiency curve of cyclone type Kbut anol /ai r
o

A
B 5 fl 1 o B
2.10-Svol%
6.10-SvolX
12.10-SvolX
bar.
1 '
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow (mV hr )
Efficiency curve of cyclone type m, but anol /ai r 3 bar
99-|
S
9 8
I 97-
5 96"
E 95-
94-
93-1
92-
91
O 2.10-SvolX
o 6.10-Svol
A 12.10-5volX
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow Im' /t i r l
99
2 98
97 -
| 6 '
" 95 -
94-
93-
92-
91-
Efficiency curve of cyclone type HLbutanol /ai r 5 bar.
OO 1
0 2.10-Svol%
6.10-i vol %
4 12-10-sol54
3
^ >- ^ o T " " "
5

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV t i r l
C.9
99
5 96
97 -
96-
E 95.
94-
93-
92"
91-
Efficiency curve of cyclone type HLbutanol/air 8 bar.
0 2.10-volX
D 6.10-*volX
1 12.10-
s
vol%
Efficiency curve of cyclone type l l l .gl ycol /ai r 5 bar .
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gasflow I n V h r l
20 30 40 50 60 70 B0 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ( mV hr )
99
98 -
S-97-
5 96-
2 95-
94-
93-
92-
91-
ifficiency curve of cyclone type IV .wat er /ai r
O
a
ar
r ^ "
-
^
</
2.10-SvolX
6.10-SvolX
1M0-Sol%
bar.
99-
2 98-
CT97-
l 6 -
S?5-
94-
93-
92-
91-
Efficie
0
0
A
ncy curve of
^ S
^
2.10-
s
vol5S
6 .10-
s
vol %
12 .10-
s
vol X
cyclone-type IV .waf er /ai r 3 bar .
fc^*==~*__
, C ~ ^
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV hr .l
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Cas flow I mV hr . )
Efficiency curve of cyclone type IV .waf er /ai r 5 bar.
99
98 -
S-97-
I'
6
'
S9S'
94-
93
92-
91
2.10-' vol X
6 .10-
!
vol %
12.10-
5
vol
-
/4
10 20 30 40 S0 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow ImV hr .l
99-
2 98-
97 -
: =96-
~ 9S'
94-
93-
92-
91-
Efficiency curve of
0
0
A
2.10-^ 01%
6 .10-
s
vol %
12.10-
s
<ol %
-1 1 1r
cyclone type IV .waf er /ai r 8 bar.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Gas flow I mV hr .l
C.10
Partiele size i\im)
pressuredrop -across cyclone IV
n iM l ui
GASFLOW M3/HR
C.11
TABLE 6.X
50
y SO-
IT 100
PARTICLE SIZE (uml
"15" 1O
PARTICLE SIZE (uml
>-
>-
50
10 10
PARTICLE SIZE (Mm)
1 5 " 100
PARTICLE SIZE (urn)
D.l
APPENDIX D
TURBULENCE MODELS
I t appear ed f romsect i on 7- 2 t hat assumpt i ons have t o be made wi t h r espect
t o t he quant i f i cat i on of t he t ur bul ent shear st r esses i n or der t o be abl e t o
sol ve t he Navi er St okes equat i ons. These assumpt i ons ar e usual l y r ef er r ed t o
as t ur bul ence model s.
D.l Turbulence model s ba sed on the concept of Boussinesq
D. 1. 1 Backgr ound of Boussi nesq model s
Al r eady i n 1877 Boussi nesq assumed t hat , anal ogous t o vi scous st r esses i n
l ami nar f l ows, t ur bul ent st r esses ar e pr opor t i onal t o t he aver age vel oci t y
gr adi ent s.
T. .
- <u' .u' .> =- 3J - =v . D. . - f k 6 . . i , j =r, *, z ( D. l )
i J P t i j 3 i j
v
'
i n whi ch: 6. . = t he Kr onecker del t a; 6. . =0 f or i f j ; d. . =1 f or i =j
v =t he t ur bul ence vi scosi t y (' eddy vi scosi t y' )
D. . =t he def or mat i on vel oci t y t ensor .
The di f f er ent component s of D. . f or cyl i ndr i cal coor di nat es ar e:
D
=
2
T- D
t
=D
t
4- ^^r
rr or r *r r r r<5
n ? [<Sw V| _ _ u w^
00 ' r* r' 0z ~ z* r 0 z
D =2 ^- D =D =^
+
| ^ ( D. 2)
zz 6z zr r z z or
The reason f or the second term i n equati on D.l i s the fact that the sum of
the <u'
2
>, <v'
2
> and <w'
2
> (normal stresses) determi ned wi th onl y the
def ormati on tensor wi l l amount to zero. Thi s assumption i s not real i sti c as
D. 2
t he nor mal shear st r esses, t hat act as a pr essur e, ar e al ways posi t i ve i n
2
t ur bul ent f l ows. Ther ef or e, each nor mal st r ess i s assi gned r- k r esul t i ng i n
<u'
z
> + <v
w
> + <w'
2
> =2k, t he or i gi nal def i ni t i on of k, r epr esent i ng t he
t ur bul ent ki net i c ener gy.
The det er mi nat i on of t he si x unknown st r esses has been r educed t o t he
det er mi nat i on of v . Thi s t ur bul ence vi scosi t y i s a scal ar , whi ch means t hat
an i sot r opi c gas f l ow f i el d i s assumed. The l at t er aspect i s t he l ar gest
di sadvant age of t hi s model concept when pr edi ct i ng ani sot r opi c f l ow f i el ds.
The model s t o det er mi ne v ar e t r adi t i onal l y subdi vi ded wi t h r espect t o t he
number of par t i al di f f er ent i al equat i ons ( PDE) t hat has t o be sol ved.
I n t he f ol l owi ng subsect i ons t ur bul ence model s wi l l be descr i bed t hat ar e
based on t he concept of Boussi nesq, wi t h 0, 1 and 2 PDE' s.
D. l . 2 Zer o PDE model s
A r epr esent at i ve exampl e of a zero PDE model i s t he Pr andt l - mi xi ng l engt h
model . Pr andt l assumed t hat eddy cur r ent s i n a f l ui d f l ow woul d behave
cor r espondi ng t o mol ecul es i n t he ki net i c gas t heor y. They col l i de and
exchange i mpul se moment um. He assumed t hat t he t ur bul ence vi scosi t y woul d be
dependent of a t ur bul ent vel oci t y scal e U and a mi xi ng l engt h L . Anal ogous
t o t he aver age vel oci t i es of gas mol ecul es and t hei r aver age f r ee pat h t hey
can t r aver se i n t he ki net i c gas t heor y. The aver age vel oci t y U ' i s def i ned as
t he mi xi ng l engt h mul t i pl i ed by t he gr adi ent of t he t i me aver aged vel oci t y
( deri ved f r omt he Reynol ds decomposi t i on) .
\) =L U
t m
i n whi ch: =L ( ^ *]
m
l
6z or '
s

:
% = K (f-
+
)
(D
-
3)
t m 02 or
As appear s f r om t he not at i on used above, i t i s assumed t hat a mai n f l ow
di r ect i on exi st s and t hat i t i s par al l el t o t he z axi s i n t he coor di nat e
syst em. These t wo assumpt i ons ar e not val i d i n cycl ones wi t h swi r l
i nt ensi t i es necessar y f or pr act i cal oper at i on. L i s usual l y det er mi ned by
m
D. 3
empi r i cal r el at i ons t hat wi l l not be ci t ed her e, see f or i nst ance Pel sma
[ 1987] or Rodi [ 1984] .
D. 1. 3 One PDE model s
I n t hese model s one ext r a par t i al di f f er ent i al equat i on i s f or mul at ed t hat
i s sol ved i t er at i vel y. I n t he Pr andt l Kol mogor of f r el at i on t hi s equat i on
account s f or t he t r anspor t of t he t ur bul ent ki net i c ener gy ( k) . Thi s
quant i t y i s used as a measur e f or t he vel oci t y scal e U of t he eddy cur r ent s:
v. =L U
t m
=c' k
1
'
2
u
i
v =L c' k
1/ 2
( D. 4)
t m u '
L and c' ar e agai n det er mi ned empi r i cal l y, k i s det er mi ned wi t h t he
t r anspor t equat i on f or t he t ur bul ent ki net i c ener gy t hat can be der i ved f rom
t he Navi er - St okes equat i ons. Thi s t r anspor t equat i on i s descr i bed i n t he
next subsect i on.
D. l . U Two PDE model s
These model s accommodat e a second par t i al di f f er ent i al equat i on wi t h whi ch
t he var i at i on of L can be quant i f i ed.
I n t he wel l - known k- e model a t r anspor t equat i on f or e i s f or mul at ed.
e r epr esent s t he di ssi pat i on of t urbul ent ki net i c ener gy and r el at es t o L
i n t he f ol l owi ng way:
, 3/ 2
L - ^
1/ 2
when U =c' k t hen:
u
D.4
i n which: c' =0,09
u
The transport equati ons f or k and e are deri ved from the Navi er Stokes
equati ons and are represented as fol l ows:
6k k 6 v k 16 v 6k
k: u -r- +v . =-r- +- r + P - E (D.6)
z or z o z r r o r
v
'
c c
convecti on di ffusi on produc- di ssi -
ti on pati on
e 6c 6 v <5e 1 6 v 6c e e
2
u
6z"
+ V
6r =z" 5" 6
+
? F
r
o~6?
+ C
cl
P
k "
c
e2 T
( D
-
7)
c c
.1 I I I I I .
convect i on di f f usi on pr oduct i on di ssi pat i on
a , c - and c _ ar e det er mi ned exper i ment al l y. I n bot h codes ( Phoeni cs and
Fl uent ) f or si mul at i on model l i ng t hey amount ed t o:
a
c
C -
c l
c
- >
e2
=
=
=
1,
1
1,
.3
44
.92
Thi s k- c model i s gener al l y appl i ed f or f l ui d f l ows wi t h a di st i nct mai n
f l ow di r ect i on. I t i s not sui t ed f or t he model l i ng of st r ongl y r ot at i ng
f l ows as has been demonst r at ed i n chapt er 7-
D.2 Direct model l ing of turbulent shea r stresses
I n t hi s sect i on wi l l be demonst r at ed how t he equat i ons f or t he i ndi vi dual
t ur bul ent shear st r esses can be sol ved i ndi vi dual l y. The si x par t i al
di f f er ent i al equat i ons can be sol ved di r ect l y, i n whi ch case t he model i s
r ef er r ed t o as Reynol ds st r ess model .
The si x PDE' s can al so be si mpl i f i ed t o al gebr ai c equat i ons, i n whi ch case
t he r esul t i ng model i s t he Al gebr ai c St r ess model . A shor t descr i pt i on of
bot h model s i s gi ven bel ow.
D. 5
Reynol ds st r ess model
St ar t i ng f r om t he f ul l Navi er St okes equat i ons t he t r anspor t equat i ons f or
t he i ndi vi dual t ur bul ent shear st r esses can be der i ved. Thi s wi l l be done
f i r st f or a Car t hesi an coor di nat e syst em, af t er whi ch t he expr essi ons wi l l
be der i ved f or cyl i ndr i cal coor di nat es.
The gener al t r ans por t equat i on f or t he i ndi vi dual shear st r ess i s
r epr esent ed by:
D <u' . u' . > u. u. 6u' . u' .
r ^H- =- <u' . u, ' > T- ^- <u*u. *> T-
1
~ 2 v < T -
A
T
J
- >
Dt j K ox. i k x, x, ox
k " k " k
.1
pr oduct i on =p. . di ssi pat i on
6<u' . u' . > p'
6^ t* ~ x ^ "
<U
i
U
j
U
k> " V
( U
1 V
+ U
j

i k^]
I
di f f usi on
p' u' . u' .
< [~ + j-
1
) ( D. 8)
p
l
X. X. '
J 1
pr essur e/ st r ess
cor r el at i on
To expr ess t he di ssi pat i on, di f f usi on and pr essur e/ st r ess cor r el at i on i n
quant i f i abl e uni t s some assumpt i ons have t o be used:
1. The di ssi pat i on i s si mpl i f i ed by:
u' . u' .
2 v <-
r
i
x
-
i
> =~ e . .
k
6x
k ^ !J
u' . u' .
i n whi ch: c =v <- T ~>
x
k
x
k
D. 6
Thi s onl y hol ds when t he di ssi pat i on i s equal i n al l di r ect i ons, whi ch i s
t he case i n ar eas wher e t he l ocal t ur bul ent Reynol ds number s ar e l ar ge.
Al so i n non- i sot r opi c f l ows t hi s assumpt i on appear s t o be a si mpl i f i ca-
t i on t hat does not i nf l uence t he r esul t s st r ongl y.
2. The t ur bul ence di f f usi on i s, accor di ng t o Donal dson [ 1968] , appr oxi mat ed
by:
<5 <5<u' .u' .>
D. . = ^- "
L
i j 6x^ t 6x^
i n whi ch D. . i s the total di f f usi on and v,_ the scal ar tur bul ence
i j t
vi scosi ty, as fol l ows from the k- e model.
3. The pressure/ stress correl ati on i s, accordi ng to Gi bson and Launder
[1976], approximated by:
p' <5u'. <5u'. c _
< [-r-^ * T
JL
)> = " c
1
z (<u'.u'.> - |- k <5.,) - c_ (P. . - f P 6. .)
p
l
x 6x ' 1 k a j 3 l j ' 2 i j 3 i j '
i n whi ch: c
1
and c_ ar e const ant s
1
2 i l .
<5u. u.
P. . =- <u' . U, *> r j - i - - <U' . U,
,
>
T
JL
i j j Tc Xj ^ i k x^.
Subst i t ut i on of t he t hr ee assumpt i ons i n equat i on D. 8 gi ves:
D<u' . u' >
p
e
*
J
=P . . - f e 6 . . +D. . - c , r (<u' . u' > - f k6. . ) - c, ( P. . - f P <5. . )
Dt i j 3 i j i j I k 1 j 3 i J 2
V
i j 3 i j '
( D. 9)
Thi s forms a set of si x par ti al di f f erenti al equati ons. With the three
Navi er Stokes equati ons and the transport equati ons for k and e, 11 PDE's
have to be sol ved for thi s Reynolds stress model.
Although i t i s possi bl e to accommodate thi s model and i ts sol uti on scheme i n
presentl y avai l abl e hardware, i t i s sometimes pref erabl e to si mpl i fy the
f i rst si x PDE's mentioned above to an al gebrai c form.
D. 7
Al gebr ai c St r ess model
To si mpl i f y t he si x PDE' s r epr esent ed by equat i on D. 9 t o an al gebr ai c f or m,
Rodi [ 1984] made an ext r a assumpt i on: The t r anspor t of Reynol d st r esses i s
pr opor t i onal t o t he t r anspor t of k.
Thi s assumpt i on i s j ust i f i ed i f t he changes of t he r at i o bet ween Reynol ds
st r esses and K wi t h r espect t o t i me and l ocat i on ar e smal l i n compar i son t o
t he changen of t he Reynol d st r esses t hemsel ves. I f t he convect i on and
di f f usi on t er m ar e combi ned t o a t er mT. . , t he assumpt i on of Rodi i s
i j
r epr esent ed by:
<u' u' . >
T. . = .
3
(
p
"
e
)
i j k
( D. 10)
Subst i t ut i on i n equat i on D. 9 gi ves t he gener al al gebr ai c f ormof t he Reynol d
st r esses.
? (1 - c. ) 7
<u!u' . > =f k 6. . [l - 5 * * ]
1
J
3 1J
- i c
e
x c
l
1 + c,
e 1
k
- (P.
i j
f P 6. . ) +
3 i J
1 + c. e
e l
- A. .
i j
( D. l l )
A. . i s t he ' added convect i on' t er m, whi ch i s f or med i n t he t r ansf or mat i on
f roma car t hesi an t o a cyl i ndr i cal coor di nat e syst em.
I n case of a r ot at i ng f l ow A. . i s of gr eat i mpor t ance. I t consi st s of :
A. .
i j
<u' w' > -
<u' v' >
<u' w' >
2 <v' w' >
( <v'
2
> - <w'
2
>)
<u' v' > -
r
- (<v' *> - <w'
2
>) -
v
' r
- 2 <v' w*>
( D. 12)
When equat i on 7. 5 i s subst i t ut ed i n equat i on 1 .h t he al gebr ai c f or m of the
expr essi ons f or t he i ndi vi dual Reynol d st r esses i s obt ai ned.
D.8
<U
'
2> =
: J- k6
U
[f
k
f
1
""? ) - 2aJ <u' V >g] (D.13)
1 + 2 a
F &
<v
'
2>
= " - T ^
[
3
k ( 1
-
a
F > - 2a ^<u ' v ' >f
+
2( a
+
A) ^<W > ^
1 + 2 a - .
e <5r
(D.14)
<"> = S n ? [ f " ( l - f ) - 2 a j <u'W> g 2 J w >( &
+
A ]
1 + 2 a
F F
(D.15)
, , ,. k
2
r
<u'
z
> 6w <v'w'> u <u'v'>
f
<5w A w
n
, . ,_ , , .
<u'w'> =- a I : -z : T+: I - j
-
+ ] I / A, (D.16)
e
L
k z k or k
l
r a r' ' 1 * '
<u-V> =- a ^ [ ^ ^
+
^ f ^
+
^ - ( l ^ ) *] / A . (D.17)

L
k r k z k
l
a' r
J
' 2 ' ' '
. , ,. k
2
r
<v"> r<5w w, <u'v'> ~w <u'w'> 6v-\ , .
<v'w-> - - a [
n r
- [ ^ -
F
) - - ^ ^ +- j ^ / A
3
Ver si on 2. 9 of Fl uent ( t hat has been used i n some of t he model s i n chapt er
7) accommodat ed t he al gebr ai c st r ess model descr i bed above.
I n t hi s ver si on t he used const ant s had t he f ol l owi ng val ues:
A = (1 - a * P-) = 1
1
l
E r '
A
2
= d - a ^ ) = l
(1 - c
2
) f~ ~ 1 e,)
c
3
-* ( D. 19)
- l c,)
D.9
c
x
=2,5 c
2
=0,55 c
3
=1
The production of turbul ent ki neti c energy, P, i s given i n cyl i ndri cal
coordinates by:
P . . <
u
. . > g - <
v
. . > g - <
w
. . > ^- < u . w. > g
- <u' V> ( g
+
g ) - <W> ( g- =) (D.20)
VI TAE
Naam : Swanbor n
Voor namen : Rombout Adr i aan
Gebor en : 15 august us I 960 t e Poi nt For t i n, Tr i ni dad
Adr es : Oost er kade 69
3011 TV Rot t er dam
Opl ei di ng : Gymnasi umfS t e Cur acao en Bussum, 1978
Mi j ni ngeni eur , Techni sche Hogeschool Del f t , 1984
Af gest udeer d op de af r egel i ng en opt i mal i sat i e van een
i nst al l at i e omgoud ui t de t ai l i ngs van een ( goud) mi j n
t erug t e wi nnen.
Wer kgever : vanaf okt ober 1987 wer kzaam bi j Uni l ever Engi neer i ng,
Vl aar di ngen
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I l i ke t o t hank Shel l I nt er nat i onal e Pet r ol eum Maat schappi j B. V. , The
Mi ni st r y of Economi c Af f ai r s, Sombr oek ZaandamB. V. and St or k Ket el s B. V.
f or maki ng t hi s pr oj ect possi bl e.
I l i ke t o t hank my pr omot or s, pr of . i r . E. J . de J ong and pr of . dr . i r .
J . de Gr aauw f or i ni t i at i ng t hi s pr oj ect , f or al l owi ng me a gr eat deal of
f r eedom i n t he execut i on of i t and f or t he many hour s of f r ui t f ul
di scussi ons.
I l i ke t o t hank al l empl oyees of t he Labor at or y f or Pr ocess Equi pment f or
t hei r ski l f ul assi st ance whi ch pr oved t o be ver y val uabl e f or t he pr ogr ess
of t he pr oj ect .
I l i ke t o t hank al l mechani cal and chemi cal engi neer i ng st udent s who
par t i ci pat ed i n t hi s pr oj ect . Wi t hout t hei r cont r i but i ons i t woul d never
have been possi bl e t o cover t he vast col l ect i on of subj ect s t hat have been
i nvest i gat ed.
I l i ke t o t hank t he f ol l owi ng per sons or compani es t hat have cont r i but ed t o
t he pr ogr ess of t hi s r esear ch pr oj ect :
- L. R. Haf kamp, H. E. A. van den Akker and G. W. Col enbr ander of Koni nkl i j ke/
Shel l - Labor at or i um, Amst er dam
- B. J ager of Wol f Endoscopi e GmbH
- G. KUper s of Ner at oomB. V.
- F. Koene and R. Di ekmann of Bur gess Manni ng
- Eurof ormGmbH
- Pal adon Engi neer i ng Lt d.
Finally, I l i ke to thank my present employer, Uni l ever Engi neeri ng, for
supporting thi s work.