Generator Basics

GENERATOR BASICS

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Generator Basics
Generator Structure
Generator is a machine which converts
Mechanical energy to Electrical energy
Magnetic Induction Principle
An emf is induced in a coil whenever
a) a coil cuts through a magnetic field
b) a magnetic field cuts through a coil

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Generator Basics
Generator Structure
emf induction is due to relative motion
between two parts ( coil & magnetic field)
Relative motion is by Rotation
Two mechanical parts :
Field - Part which produces magnetism (Rotor)
Armature part where emf is induced (Stator)

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Generator Basics

Generator Structure

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Generator Basics
Generator components

Prime Mover
Rotor (Exciter)
Stator

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Generator Basics
Generator components- Prime mover
Source of mechanical power for
relative motion
Two classes of Prime movers :
High Speed : Steam & Gas Turbines
Low Speed : IC engines, Water turbines and
DC motors

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Generator Basics
Generator components- Prime mover
Type of prime mover plays an important role
in a generator installation
Many characteristics of alternator
and its construction depend upon
Speed at which the rotor is turned.

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Generator Basics
Generator components- Rotors
Two types are used in rotating field alternators
- Turbine driven rotor
( used where prime mover is a high speed turbine)
- salient pole rotor
( used with low speed prime movers)

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Generator components- Rotors

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Generator Basics

Generator Basics
Generator components- Stators

Many types based on

-

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Power out put

Voltage output
Type of cooling
Number of phases

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Generator componentsSimplified schematic of 3 ph. Stator

Generator Basics

Three single phase windings

displaced by 120 degrees
Star or Delta connection
Neutral may or may not be
brought out
No. of terminals can be
3,4, or 6

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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator

Three phase ac power at :

-Rated Voltage
-Rated Frequency

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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator Common Ratings
Small Generators :

25 kVA to 300 kVA

Medium Size Generators : 500 kVA to 1 MVA

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Large size Generators :

1 MVA to 25 MVA

Power Plant Generators:

110 MW to 500 MW

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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Frequency
Frequency depends up on the
Speed of Rotation ( direct proportion)
F = PN / 120 where
F = frequency in Hz
P = No. of poles
N = speed of rotation in RPM
( 120 is a constant to convert minutes to seconds
and poles to pole pairs)
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Frequency
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Generator frequency can vary due to
load fluctuations
Frequency Regulation is mainly
by adjusting the speed
speed is controlled by varying the fuel
input to the prime mover ( Governor control)
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Governors
Governor ensures frequency at a set value
by increasing / decreasing the fuel input

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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Governors
Two types of Governors :
Pneumatic : Fuel flow is controlled by
valve position control
Control Input : DC Voltage
Electronic : Fuel flow is controlled by
a total servo mechanism
Control input : DC Voltage pulses
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Generator Basics
Droop Characteristics of Governors

Speed

Load
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator - Voltage
Voltage is induced in the stator winding
Terminal voltage depends upon :
1) No. of conductors in series per winding
2) Speed at which magnetic field cuts the winding
3) Strength of the magnetic field
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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator Voltage Control
Nominal Voltage = 415 V, 11 kV
Voltage can vary due to load fluctuations
Terminal voltage is controlled by
varying the Strength of magnetic field
= varying the current through the field coil
= varying the voltage applied to the field coil
(Exciter control)
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Generator Basics

Typical Exciter

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Generator Basics
Out-puts from a Generator Exciters

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External to
Generator

Exciter Transformer
Rectifier Unit
Controls

Built on the
Generator

Small DC machine
attached to same shaft
of generator
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Generator Basics

Typical Exciter

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Generator Basics
Neutral terminal
Very important from the point of view of
a) reducing the fault currents
b) providing effective protection
should be used for medium size and above

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Generator Basics
Neutral Grounding Resistors

Protect generators from excessive fault currents

Provides safety for operators
Provides protection for connected equipment

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Generator Basics
Generator Impedance
X

Synchronous Reactance
Transient reactance

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
= 0o (360O)

FORWARD RESISTIVE

= +30o
= +60o

FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE

FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE

= +90o

FORWARD CAPACITIVE (LOSS OF FIELD)

= +120o
= +150o

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWADRD CAPACITIVE

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE

= +180o

REVERSE RESISTIVE

= +210o (-150O)
= +240o (-120O)

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE

= +270o (-90O)

FORWARD INDUCTIVE

= +300o (-60O)
= +330o (-30O)

FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE

FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE

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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Influence of Rotor on Stator
Influence of Stator on Rotor
Effect of Load on Generator
Effect of excitation on Generator Impedance
Influence of generator on prime mover

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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour

Influence of Rotor on Stator

Only variable is excitation current
Terminal voltage is proportional to
Excitation current
Will influence Generator impedance

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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour

Influence of Stator on Rotor

Only variable is the load
Unbalance loads can cause rotor heating
Excessive loads can cause out of step

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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Effect of Load on Generator
Load will decide the pF of generator
Over loads can cause speed reduction
Unbalance loads can cause over heating

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Generator Basics
Generator Behaviour
Effect of excitation on Generator Impedance

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Generator Basics
Power output from Generator

Active power kW

Controlled by Governor

Reactive Power kVA

Controlled by Exciter

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GENERATOR PROTECTION

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
TYPES OF GENERATORS

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TURBO GENERATOR
DIESEL GENERATOR
HYDRO GENERATOR
WIND GENERATOR

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
SUB SYSTEMS OF GENERATORS







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PRIME MOVER
EXCITATION SYSTEM
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
GOVERNOR
COOLING SYSTEM

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FAULTS IN GENERATOR






EXTERNAL FAULTS
INTERNAL FAULTS
ROTOR EARTH FAULT
FAULTS RELATED TO SUB SYSTEMS

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EXTERNAL FAULTS

OVER LOADING
UNBALANCE LOADING
SHORT CIRCUIT
EARTH FAULT

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INTERNAL FAULTS

 PHASE TO PHASE FAULTS IN

WINDINGS
 PHASE TO EARTH FAULTS

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ROTOR EARTH FAULT

 DOUBLE EARTH FAULT TRIPPING

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FAULTS RELATED TO SUB-SYSTEMS








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UNDER VOLTAGE
OVER VOLTAGE
UNDER FREQUENCY
OVER FREQUENCY
REVERSE POWER
LOSS OF EXCITATION
LOW-FORWARD POWER
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
TYPES OF FAULTS (STATOR SIDE)
VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT
THERMAL OVER LOAD
CURRENT UNBALANCE
OVER VOLTAGE
UNDER VOLTAGE
OVER FREQUENCY
UNDER FREQUENCY
LOSS OF FIELD
REVERSE POWER
UNDER POWER
OUT OF STEP
INADVERTANT ENERGISATION
EARTH FAULT (100%)
EARTH FAULT (95%)
GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL
OVER EXCITATION (V/Hz)
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GENERATOR PROTECTION

TYPES OF FAULTS (ROTOR SIDE)

ROTOR EARTH FAULT
EXCITATION UNDER VOLTAGE
EXCITATION UNDER CURRENT
DIODE FAILURE

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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

GENERATOR PROTECTION

11 kV
11000/110v

27
49

400/5

51V 46

59
40

400/5
87G
6.6 MW

G
400/5
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81
32

37

64

GENERATOR PROTECTION
VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT

- WHEN O/C FAULT, TERMINAL VOLTAGE REDUCES.

- RELAY MAY NOT TRIP, SINCE FAULT CURRENT
THROUGH RELAY MAY BE LESS THAN SET POINT

NECESSARY TO VARY THE O/C PICK UP SETTING

WITH RESPECT TO VOLTAGE

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT
I*/ [I>]
1.0

0.2
0.2
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0.8
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V/Vs

GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD IN GENERATORS
GENERATOR WILL OVER SPEED &
OPERATE AS AN INDUCTION GENERATOR
(OVER SPEEDS OF THE ORDER OF 2 TO 5% )
GENERATOR WILL CONTINUE TO DELIVER POWER
WILL DERIVE EXCITATION FROM THE SYSTEM
STATOR CURRENT WILL BE 200%
THERE WILL BE HEAVY ROTOR CURRENT
RESULTS IN OVER HEATING

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD IN GENERATORS
PHASE
ANGLE

ANGLE BETWEEN
VOLTAGE & CURRENT

IMPEDANCE
ANGLE

REPLICA OF
PHASE ANGLE

= 360O -
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD IN GENERATORS

Z
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GENERATOR PROTECTION
= 0o (360O)

FORWARD RESISTIVE

= +30o
= +60o

FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE

FORWARD RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE

= +90o

FORWARD CAPACITIVE (LOSS OF FIELD)

= +120o
= +150o

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWADRD CAPACITIVE

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD CAPACITIVE

= +180o

REVERSE RESISTIVE

= +210o (-150O)
= +240o (-120O)

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE

REVERSE RESISTIVE + FORWARD INDUCTIVE

= +270o (-90O)

FORWARD INDUCTIVE

= +300o (-60O)
= +330o (-30O)

FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE

FORWARD INDUCTIVE + FORWARD RESISTIVE

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD
PROTECTION

Z
NORMAL

LOSS OF
FIELD

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
LOSS OF FIELD
PROTECTION

Z
NORMAL

R
K1

LOSS OF
FIELD

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K2

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
REVERSE POWER GENERATORS
GENERATOR WILL BECOME MOTOR
HARMFUL TO THE PRIME MOVER
( STEAM TURBINE WILL OVER HEAT)
(DIESEL ENGINE WILL EXPLODE DUE
TO UNBURNT FUEL)
(HYDRAULIC TUBINE WILL HAVE CAVITATION)

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
STATOR EARTH FAULT

95% EARTH FAULT

NORMAL RELAY

100% EARTH FAULT

SPECIAL RELAY
SENSES ABSENCE
OF 3RD HARMONICS

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
STATOR EARTH FAULT
0%

95 TO 100%

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95%

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GENERATOR PROTECTION
INADVERTANT ENERGISATION
- APPLICATION OF FULL VOLTAGE AT
STANDSTILL
COASTING TO STOP
BEFORE SYNCHRONISM
- PRESENCE OF UNBALANCE VOLTAGE DUE TO
FLASH OVER AT IONE OR TWO POLES OF BREAKER

GENERATOR FORCED TO START AS

INDUCTION MOTOR RESULTING IN MECHANICAL
DAMAGES TO PRIME MOVER AND EXCESSIVE
HEATING IN THE ROTOR
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GENERATOR PROTECTION

V/Hz PROTECTION
- INCORRECT VOLTAGE REGULATOR ACTION
- LOAD THROW - OFF
- SUDDEN OVER VOLTAGE / OVER FREQUENCY

RESULTS IN OVER FLUXING OF GENERATOR

AND OVER HEATING

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LOAD SHARING OF GENERATORS

BC1

BUS-1

r B1

r B2

PT1
L
S
R

L
S
R

CT1

G1

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER

BC2

BUS-2

BUS-3

r B3

PT2
L L
S S
R R

L
S
R

L
S
R

CT3

CT2

G2

PT3

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER

G3

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER

LSR = LOAD SHARING RELAY

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Fig. -1

GRID ISLANDING SCHEME

GRID INCOMER
TRANSFORMER
REVERSE POWER RELAY
LOW FORWARD POWER RELAY
UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
DIRECTIONAL O/C + E/F RELAY

r
r

DG
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rr r
dF/dT RELAY
UNDER FREQ. RELAY
OVER FREQ. RELAY
VECTOR SURGE RELAY

PLANT
LOADS

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Fig. -2

SYNCHRONISATION OF GENERATORS

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SYNCHRONISING IS THE PROCESS OF

ELECTRICALLY CONNECTING
TWO AC POWER SOURCES WITH
ROTATING MACHINES
WITHOUT ANY DISTURBANCE TO
EXISTING SYSTEM AND
WITHOUT ANY DAMAGE TO THE
EXISTING SYSTEM

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SYNCHRONISATION

SINGLE GENERATOR TO A BUS

(DEAD BUS / LIVE BUS SYNCH.)
MULTIPLE GENERATORS TO A BUS
(SIZE, VINTAGE, RESPONSE TIMES)
AUTO CHANGEOVER IN BUS CONNECTIONS
MANUAL & AUTO SYNCHRONISATION
REVERSE SYNCHRONISATION
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PARAMETERS GOVERNING
SYNCHRONISATION :
VOLTAGE
FREQUENCY
PHASE ANGLE

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SYNCHRONISING OF GENERATORS

COMMON BUS

r B1

PT2

PT1

SCM 21

G1

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G2

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B2

RESULTS OF INCORRECT SYNCHRONISATION

FREQUENCY

ACTIVE POWER FLOW

HIGH FREQ. TO LOW FREQ.

PHASE ANGLE

JOLT TO THE SYSTEM

FATIGUE TO SHAFT
DAMAGE TO BEARINGS
OVER HEATING OF STATOR

VOLTAGE

REACIVE POWER FLOW

HIGH VOLTAGE TO LOW VOLTAGE

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REVERSE SYNCHRONISATION

GRID INCOMER
TRANSFORMER

r
r

rr r

DG
PLANT
LOADS
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
TYPES OF PARALLEL OPERATION

MULTIPLE GENERATORS ON A COMMON BUS

WITHOUT CONNECTION TO GRID

GENERATORS CONNENCTED TO GRID IN

IMPORT ONLY MODE

GENERATORS CONNECTED TO GRID IN

IMPORT + EXPORT MODE
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED
BASIC PROTECTIONS
SEQUENTIAL STARTING & SYNCHRONISATION
NEUTRAL SWITCHING LOGIC
INSTABILITY & HUNTING AT HIGHER POWER O/P
CASCADED TRIPPING ON LOAD FLUCTUATION
REVERSE POWER FLOW DUE TO BREAKER FAILURE
POOR POWER FACTOR
EFFECT OF GRID DISTURBANCES &
GRID ISLANDING SCHEMES
LOAD MANAGEMENT AFTER ISLANDING
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REVERSE

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
BASIC PROTECTIONS

OVER CURRENT + E/F

THERMAL OVER LOAD
UNDER VOLTAGE + OVER VOLTAGE
UNDER FREQUENCY + OVER FREQUENCY
LOSS OF FIELD
CURRENT UNBALANCE
REVERSE POWER
DIFFERENTIAL + REF
ROTOR E/F

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
SEQUENTIAL STARTING & SYNCHRONISATION
AMF SCHEME
STARTING LOGIC
AUTO SYNCHRONISATION
- DEAD BUS SYNCHRONISATION (FIRST MACHINE)
STARTING/ STOPPING OF GENERATOR NEXT IN LINE
- LIVE BUS SYNCHRONISATION
(SUBSEQUENT MACHINES)
PT SWITCHING LOGIC

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
SEQUENTIAL STARTING & SYNCHRONISATION

MAINS FAILURE
DETECTION
I/C TRIP &
STARTING LOGIC
3 ATTEMPT
STARTERS
PT SWITCHING
LOGIC
AUTO SYNCH. OF
GENERATORS
CUT IN CUT OUT
LOGIC
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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
NEUTRAL SWITCHING LOGIC

MASTER GENERATOR NEUTRAL TO BE GROUNDED

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
INSTABILITY AT HIGHER O/P & CASCADED TRIPPING

ERRATIC RESPONSE TO LOAD FLUCTUATIONS

- DIFFERENT SIZES OF GENERATORS
- DIFFERENT VINTAGES OF GENERATORS
IMROPER LOAD ALLOCATION TO
EACH GENERATOR
OPERATORS LIMITATIONS

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GENERATORS ON COMMON BUS AUTO LOAD SHARING SCHEME

BC1

BUS-1

r B1

r B2

PT1
L
S
R

L
S
R

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER

BUS-3

r B3

PT2
L L
S S
R R

G2

PT3
L
S
R

L
S
R

CT3

CT2

CT1

G1

BC2

BUS-2

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER

G3

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER

LSR = LOAD SHARING RELAY RRS

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Fig. -1

GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
REVERSE POWER FLOW

BC1

BUS-1

r B1

RELAY
R1
CT1

G1

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BUS-2

B1 WILL NOT TRIP

r B2

PT1

G1 STOPS DUE TO
MECHANICAL PROBLEMS

CT2

G2 WILL FEED G1
PT2

RELAY
R2

G2

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Fig. -2

GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
POOR POWER FACTOR
GRID

KEEP RATIO OF
KW/KVAr CONSTANT

r
BUS-1

REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
SOURCE

PT1
L
S
R

L
S
R

CT1

G1
LSR09873171145
= LOAD SHARING RELAY

PULSES FOR
GOVERNOR &
EXCITER
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Fig. -3

GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
HANDLING OF GRID DISTURBANCES

 GRID FAILURE
 GRID FAULT
 OVER LOAD IN THE GRID
 UNDER / OVER VOLTAGE IN THE GRID

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
GRID ISLANDING SCHEME
GRID INCOMER
TRANSFORMER

REVERSE POWER RELAY

LOW FORWARD POWER RELAY
UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY
DIRECTIONAL O/C + E/F RELAY

DG
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rr r
dF/dT RELAY
UNDER FREQ. RELAY
OVER FREQ. RELAY
VECTOR SURGE RELAY

PLANT
LOADS

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
LOAD MANAGEMENT AFTER ISLANDING

 LOAD SHEDDING
- FREQUENCY BASED
- POWER BASED

 LOAD SHADING

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GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
REVERSE SYNCHRONISATION

 AUTO SYNCHRONISING
 LOCATION OF SYNCHRONISING

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THANK YOU

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