Chapter 11

Frequency Response
Analysis

Overall Course Objectives

Develop the skills necessary to function as
an industrial process control engineer.
Skills

Tuning loops
Control loop design
Control loop troubleshooting
Command of the terminology

Fundamental understanding
Process dynamics
Feedback control

Frequency Response Analysis

Is the response of a process to a sinusoidal
input
Considers the effect of the time scale of the
input.
Important for understanding the propagation
of variability through a process.
Important for terminology of the process
control field.
But it is NOT normally used for tuning or
design of industrial controllers.

Process Exposed to a Sinusoidal

Input

c(t)

Gp(s)

ys(t)

Key Components of Frequency

Response Analysis
D tp

ay

ac

ys
Time

Ar

ay
ac

Dt p

360
2

Effect of Frequency on Ar and

D tp

D tp

ys
c

Time

Time

Bode Plot: A Convenient Means

of Presenting Ar and versus
10

Ar

1
0.1
0.01
0.01

0.1

10

100

Ways to Generate Bode Plot

Direct excitation of process.
Combine transfer function of the process
with sinusoidal input.
Substitute s=i into Gp(s) and convert into
real and imaginary components which yield
Ar() and ().
Apply a pulse test.

Developing a Bode Plot from the

Transfer Function
G p (i ) R( ) i I
Ar ( )

R 2 ( ) I 2 ( )

I ( )
( ) tan

R( )
1

Derivation of the Bode Plot for a

First Order Process
G p ( s)

Kp

G p (i )

p s 1

Kp
i p 1

After rationaliz ation

Kp
K p p
G p (i ) 2 2
i 2 2
p 1
p 1
Ar ( )

K K
2
p

2
p

2 2
p

1
2 2
p

( ) tan ( p )
1

Kp

2 2p 1

Properties of Bode Plots

Consider :
Ar

Ga ( s) Gb ( s)
G p (s)
Gc ( s) Gd ( s)

Ga ( s ) Gb ( s)
Gc ( s) Gd ( s )

or

ln[ Ar ( )] ln Ga (i ) ln Gb (i ) ln Gc (i ) ln Gd (i )

( ) Ga (i ) Gb (i ) Gc (i ) Gd (i )

Bode Plot of Complex Transfer

Functions
Break transfer function into a product of
simple transfer functions.
Identify Ar() and of each simple
transfer function from Table 8.1.
Combine to get Ar() and () for complex
transfer function according to properties.
Plot results as a function of .

Example of a Bode Plot of a

Complex Transfer Function
K p e s

1
G p (s) 2 2
K c 1

p s 2 p s 1 I s
360
s
e
Ar 1

2

Kp
Kp
2 2
Ar
2
2 2 2
p s 2 p s 1
1 p 2 p

2 p
tan
2 2
1

Example Continued

1
1
Ar K c 1 2 2
K c 1
I
I s
For overall process:
Ar

K p Kc
2

2 2
p

2 p
360
1

tan
2 2
2

1
tan
I
1

2 I2

1 1
tan

Ysp(s)

Bode Stability Criterion

-

Gc(s)

Ga(s)

Ysp(s)

Ys(s)

Gc(s)
Ys(s)

Gp(s)

Y(s)

Gs(s)

Ga(s)

Gp(s)

Gs(s)

Y(s)

Bode Stability Criterion

A system is stable if Ar is less than 1.0 at the
critical frequency (i.e., that corresponds
to =-180)
Closed loop stability of a system can be
analyzed by applying the Bode Stability
Criterion to the product of the transfer
functions of the controller and the process,
i.e., Gc(s)Gp(s).

Gain Margin
10

Ar

1
M
0.1
0.01
0.01

0.1

10

100

Gain Margin
Gain Margin = 1/Ar*
Where Ar* is the amplitude ratio at the critical
frequency.
Controllers are typically designed with gain
margins in the range of 1.4 to 1.8 which implies
that Ar at the critical frequency varies between
0.7 and 0.55, respectively.

Phase Margin
10

Ar

1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.01

0.1

co
1

10

100

Phase Margin
PM = 180
Where * is at the crossover frequency.
Controllers are typically designed with a PM
between 30 to 45.

Tuning a Control from the Gain

Margin
Problem: Determine K c for a gain margin equal 1.7 for a FOPDT
process ( K p 2, p 3, p 1.5).
Solution: From Table 8.1, one can determine A r
and .

First,

determine

such that 180

180 tan 1 (3 ) 85.9

By trail and error, 1.218 radians per unit time
Rearranging the equation for A r ,
A*r 9 2 1
Kc
1.12
2

Tuning a Control from the Phase

Margin
Phase margin determines the phase angle at
the crossover frequency.
The amplitude ratio at the crossover
frequency is one; therefore, the controller
gain can be calculated from the equation for
the amplitude ratio.

Example of a Pulse Test

ys

Time

Developing a Process Transfer

Function from a Pulse Test
A( )
C ( )

ys (t ) cost dt
c(t ) cos t dt

B( )
D( )

A( ) C ( ) B( ) D( )
R( )
C 2 ( ) D 2 ( )
A( ) D( ) B( ) C ( )
I ( )
C 2 ( ) D 2 ( )
Ar ( )

R 2 ( ) I 2 ( )

I ( )
( ) tan

R
(

ys (t ) sin t dt
c(t ) sin t dt

Limitations of Transfer Functions

Developed from Pulse Tests
They require an open loop time constant to
complete.
Disturbances can corrupt the results.
Bode plots developed from pulse tests tend
to be noisy near the crossover frequency
which affects GM and PM calculations.

Imaginary Axis

Nyquist Diagram

Ar

Real Axis

Nyquist Diagram
(Complex Plane Plot)
R( ) Ar cos
I ( ) Ar sin
Therefore, you can use the same
equations used to develop a Bode
plot to make a Nyquist diagram.

Nyquist Stabilty Criterion

2

Imaginary Axis

unstable

(-1,0)
stable
-2
-2

0
Real Axis

Closed Loop Frequency

Response
D(s)

Gd(s)

Ysp(s)

Gc(s)
Ys(s)

Ga(s)

Gs(s)

Gp(s)

Y(s)

Example of a Closed Loop Bode

Plot
1.2

Ar

0.8
0.4
0
0.01

0.1

pf

10

100

Analysis of Closed Loop Bode

Plot
At low frequencies, the controller has time to
reject the disturbances, i.e., Ar is small.
At high frequencies, the process filters
(averages) out the variations and Ar is small.
At intermediate frequencies, the controlled
system is most sensitive to disturbances.

Peak Frequency of a Controller

The peak frequency indicates the frequency
for which a controller is most sensitive.

Overview
Understanding how the frequency of inputs
affects control performance and control
loop stability is important.
The analytical aspects of frequency
response analysis are rarely used
industrially.