1

Contents
Clutches........................................................................................................................................... 3
Classification of clutches ............................................................................................................ 3
Positive clutches...................................................................................................................... 3
Friction clutches ...................................................................................................................... 3
Single plate clutch ................................................................................................................... 4
Multiple plate clutch................................................................................................................ 5
Cone clutch ............................................................................................................................. 6
Analysis....................................................................................................................................... 7
Brakes ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Analysis....................................................................................................................................... 9
Keys Joints and Couplings ............................................................................................................ 13
Keys .......................................................................................................................................... 13
Types of keys ........................................................................................................................ 13
Analysis................................................................................................................................. 15
Joints ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Cotter and cotter joints .......................................................................................................... 18
Socket and spigot cotter joint.................................................................................................... 19
Analysis of spigot cotter joint ............................................................................................... 19
Sleeve and cotter joints ............................................................................................................. 22
Analysis................................................................................................................................. 23
Gib head .................................................................................................................................... 23

Analysis................................................................................................................................. 23
Couplings .................................................................................................................................. 24
Analysis of rigid flange coupling .......................................................................................... 25
Flexible coupling ...................................................................................................................... 28
Analysis................................................................................................................................. 28
Shock absorbers ............................................................................................................................ 30
Applications .............................................................................................................................. 31
Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Strut Design ........................................................................................ 31
Metal springs ......................................................................................................................... 32
Elastomatic shock observers ................................................................................................. 33
Hydraulic Dashpot ................................................................................................................ 33
Collapsing Safety Shock Absorbers...................................................................................... 34
Air (Pneumatic) spring .......................................................................................................... 34
Self compensating Hydraulic ................................................................................................ 34

Clutches
By definition a Clutch is a device by which two shafts or rotating members may be connected or
disconnected either whilst at rest or in relative motion.

Classification of clutches
Clutches can either be categorized as:
Positive clutches
In this type of clutch, the engaging clutch surfaces interlock to produce rigid joint they are
suitable for situations requiring simple and rapid disconnection, although they must be
connected while shafts are stationery and unloaded, the engaging surfaces are usually of jaw
type. The jaws may be square jaw type or spiral jaw type. They are designed empirically by
considering compressive strength of the material used.
Advantages of Positive clutches

Simple

No slip

No heat is generated

Compact in design

Low cost

Friction clutches
Friction Clutches work on the basis of the frictional forces developed between the two or more
surfaces in contact. Friction clutches are usually over the jaw clutches due to their better
performance. There is a slip in friction clutch.

Advantages of friction clutch

They friction surfaces can slip during engagement which enables the driver to pickup and
accelerate the load with minimum shock.

Smooth engagement due to the gradual increase in normal force

They can be used at high engagement speeds since they do not have jaw or teeth

Friction clutches can further be subdivided into

1. Plate clutch ( single or multiple )
2. Cone clutch
3. Centrifugal clutch
4. Dry
5. Magnetic current clutches
6. Eddy current clutches
Single plate clutch
A single plate friction clutch consisting of two flanges. One flange is rigidly keyed in to the
driving shaft, while the other is free to move along the driven shaft due to spliced connection.
The actuating force is provided by a spring, which forces the driven flange to move towards the
driving flange. The face of the drive flange is linked with friction material such as cork, leather
or ferodo

Multiple plate clutch

The driving discs are splined to the driving shaft so that they are free to slip along the shaft
but must rotate with it. The driven discs drive the housing by means of bolts along which
they are free to slide. The housing is keyed to the driven shaft by a sunk key. In the clutch
shown there are five pairs of friction surfaces. The driving discs may be pressed against the
driven discs by a suitable mechanism so that the torque may be transmitted by friction
between the discs.

Cone clutch

A simple form of a cone clutch consists of a driver or cup and the follower or cone. The cup is
keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an inside conical surface or face which exactly
fits the outside conical surface of the cone. The slope of the cone face is made small enough to give
a high normal force. The cone is fitted to the driven shaft by a feather key. The follower may be
shifted along the shaft by a forked shifting lever in order to engage the clutch by bringing the
two conical surfaces in contact.
Advantages and disadvantages of cone clutch:
Advantages:
1. This clutch is simple in design.
2. Less axial force is required to engage the clutch.
Disadvantages :
1. There is a tendency to grab.
2. There is some reluctance in disengagement.

Analysis
Pn = Intensity of pressure with which the conical friction surfaces are held together (i.e. normal
pressure between the contact surfaces),
r1 = Outer radius of friction surface,
r2 = Inner radius of friction surface,
R = Mean radius of friction surface = r1 + r2 / 2
= Semi-angle of the cone (also called face angle of the cone) or angle of
the friction surface with the axis of the clutch,
= Coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces, and
b = Width of the friction surfaces (also known as face width or cone face).

Consider a small ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in Fig below. Let dl is the length of
ring of the friction surface, such that,

Brakes
A brake is defined as a machine element used to control the motion by absorbing kinetic
energy of a moving body or by absorbing potential energy of the objects being lowered
by hoists, elevators, etc. The absorbed energy appears as heat energy which should be
transferred to cooling fluid such as water or surrounding air. The difference between a clutch
and a brake is that whereas in the former both the members to be engaged are in motion, the
brake connects a moving member to a stationary member.
Energy considerations during braking
It has been noted that the most common brakes employ friction to transform the braked system's
mechanical energy, irreversibly into heat which is then transferred to the surrounding
environment.
1. Kinetic energy is absorbed during slippage of either a clutch or brake, and this energy
appears as heat.
2. If the heat generated is faster than it is dissipated, then the temperature rises. Thorough
design of a brake therefore requires a detailed transient thermal analysis of the interplay
between heat generated by friction, heat transferred through the lining and the
surrounding metalwork to the environment, and the instantaneous temperature of the
surface of the drum as well as the lining. For a given size of brake there is a limit to the
mechanical power that can be transformed into heat and dissipated without the
temperatures reaching damaging levels. Temperature of the lining is more critical and the
brake size is characterized by lining contact area.
The capacity of a brake is therefore limited by two factors:

The characteristics of the material and,

The ability of the brake to dissipate heat.

Analysis
Heat generated in Braking
During deceleration, the system is subjected to an essentially constant torque ,T, exerted by the
brake, and in the usual situation this constancy implies constant deceleration too. Application of
the work or energy principle to the system enables the torque exerted by the brake and the work
done by the brake. The energy absorbed by the brake and transformed into heat must be
dissipated to the surrounding air in order to avoid excessive temperature rise of the brake lining.
The temperature rise depends
upon the mass of the brake drum, the braking time and the heat dissipation capacity of the brake.
The
highest permissible temperatures recommended for different brake lining materials are given as
follows :
1. For leather, fiber and wood facing = 65 70C
2. For asbestos and metal surfaces that are slightly lubricated = 90 105C
3. For automobile brakes with asbestos block lining = 180 225C

Since the energy absorbed (or heat generated) and the rate of wear of the brake lining at a
particular speed are dependent on the normal pressure between the braking surfaces, therefore it
is an important factor in the design of brakes. The permissible normal pressure between the
braking surfaces depends upon the material of the brake lining, the coefficient of friction and the
maximum rate at which the energy is to be absorbed. The energy absorbed or the heat generated
is given by

= Coefficient of friction,
Rn = Normal force acting at the contact surfaces, in Newtons,
p = Normal pressure between the braking surfaces in N/m2,
A = Projected area of the contact surfaces in m2, and
v = Peripheral velocity of the brake drum in m/s.

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The heat generated may also be obtained by considering the amount of kinetic or potential
energies which is being absorbed and also by using the heat loss formula mc. In brakes, it is
very difficult to precisely calculate the temperature rise. In preliminary design analysis, the
product p.v is considered in place of temperature rise. Using a table is used to estimate the
values.

Classification of brakes
1. Hydraulic brakes
2. Electric brakes
3. Mechanical brakes
And mechanical can further subdivided according to the direction of acting force.

Radial

Axial brakes

When the brake is applied, the lever with the block can be considered as a free body in
equilibrium under the action of the following forces.
Applied force F at the end of the lever.
Normal reaction Fn between the shoe and the wheel.
Frictional or tangential braking force Fq between the shoe and the wheel.
Pin reaction.
Let
F = Operating force
M1 = Torque on the wheel
r = Radius of the wheel
2q = Angle of contact surface of the block
= Coefficient of friction
F = Tangential braking force =
Fn = Normal force =
a = Distance between the fulcrum pin and the center of the shoe
b = Distance between the center of the shoe to the end of lever where the

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effort is applied
c = Distance between the fulcrum pin and the line of action of Fg

Considering the following three cases;

1. Line of action of tangential force F0 passes through fulcrum

2. Line of action of tangential force Fq is in between the center of the drum and the fulcrum

Force in direction of fulcrum

Force in direction away from fulcrum

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3. Line of action of tangential force Fq is above the center of the drum and the fulcrum

Force in direction toward to fulcrum

Force in direction away from fulcrum

Self blocking brake

The brake is self -energizing when the friction force helps to apply the brake. If this effect is
great enough to apply the brake with zero external force, the brake is called self-locking i.e.,
the brake is self locking when the applied force F is zero or negative.

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Keys Joints and Couplings

Keys
A key is the piece inserted in an axial direction between a shaft and hub of the mounted machine
element such as pulley or gear etc, in order to prevent relative rotation or sometimes may allow
sliding movement along the shaft if required. When placed in
position the shaft and mating part rotate as a single unit without any slipping. The torque
then can pass from shaft to mating part and vice versa

Types of keys

There are several types of keys.

1. Round key is a cylinder and requires a hole to pass. Half of the hole is in the shaft and
other half in the hub. It is used when load is low and shaft diameter is small. Making of
hole is not easy and costly if made separately in two halves in two parts. Since the
cylindrical holes do not have sharp corners they still represent a better choice. Taper
round keys produce tighter joint. The taper may be as gentle as 1 : 100.
2. Saddle key sits on the curved surface of shaft and fits in the rectangular slot of hub. No
keyway in the staff is required and frictional force between the seat of key and surface of
the shaft is responsible for transmission of the torque. Either for transmission of light
torque or holding the mating part in position during assembly such saddle key is used.
3. Key on Flat is similar to saddle key on three sides except at the bottom where it is flat. It
will of course require a flat narrow surface machined on the shaft, while it fits into the
keyway made in the hub. Such flat region machined on the surface of the shaft does not
affect the strength because much material is not removed no corners are created as will
happen if keyway is machined.

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4. Flat key or rectangular key and square key are essentially same and used universally
between shaft and any mating part like gear and pulley. Very large torque or power can
be transmitted by both but square key is often preferred for equal strength in shear and
crushing.
5. Splines can be regarded as keys integral with the shaft. The shafts are weakened by
creating keyways whose depth could be as large as 1/4 of diameter of the shaft. Hence,
splines are created on the shaft surface fit into the grooves made in the mating part.
Splines are routinely used when mating parts are required to slide on the shaft. Examples
are change gear boxed in automobile. The cross section of the splines may be rectangular,
triangular or involute. A spline normally has larger width (w) and smaller height (h).
There may be four, six or 10 splines and both w and h reduce with increasing number of
splines. w and h for permanent splined connections are respectively 0.28d and 0.09d for
four splines, 0.278d and 0.056d for six splines and 0.17d and 0.05d for 10 splines. For
sliding the dimensions increase.
6. The jib headed key is in fact a rectangular cross section prismatic bar with taper (1 : 100)
along the length and having a jib head at largest cross section. It is inserted in the key slot
and head helps both in insertion and extraction of the key. The jib head, being a
projection on the shaft, presents a hazard of collecting loose garments or cotton waste,
hence should be protected. It may be pointed out here that a taper key is not preferred in
precise machines because it causes varying information of the mating hub.
7. Woodruff key as shown in Figure 5.1(h) is a segment of a disc whose rounded part enters
the corresponding shape cut in the shaft. The key provides the advantage of easy
assembly and disassembly but weakens the shaft due to deep groove. The key is cut from
a disc of radius R = 0.4 D with w = 0.2 D. Its total depth is 95% of radius and radius is
0.4 D. Three fourths of depth is in shaft.

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Analysis

Strength of a key

T = Torque transmitted by the shaft,

F = Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft,
d = Diameter of shaft,
l = Length of key,
w = Width of key.
t = Thickness of key, and

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and c = Shear and crushing stresses for the material of key.

The tangential shearing force acting at the circumference of the shaft,

Torques transmitted by shaft

The tangential crushing force acting at the circumference of the shaft

Torque transmitted by shaft

Equating the above formulas

The permissible crushing stress for the usual key material is at least twice the permissible
shearing stress. Therefore from last equation we have w = t. In other words, a square key is
equally strong in shearing and crushing.

Finding length of key

To find the length of the key to transmit full power of the shaft, the shearing strength of
the key is equal to the torsional shear strength of the shaft.

The shearing strength of key

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Torsional shear strength of the shaft

Equating the two above equations we have

When the key material is same as that of the shaft, then = 1.

l = 1.571 d
Effects of using keyways
when a keyway cut into the shaft reduces the load carrying capacity of the shaft. This is due to
the stress concentration near the corners of the keyway and reduction in the cross-sectional area
of the shaft. It other words, the torsional strength of the shaft is reduced.
The analysis of the weakening is based on experimental data which was carried out H.F.Moore.

e = Shaft strength factor. It is the ratio of the strength of the shaft with
keyway to the strength of the same shaft without keyway,
w = Width of keyway,
d = Diameter of shaft, and
h = Depth of keyway = thickness of key (t) / 2

It is usually assumed that the strength of the keyed shaft is 75% of the solid shaft, which is
somewhat higher than the value obtained by the above relation. In case the keyway is too long
and the key is of sliding type, then the angle of twist is increased in the ratio k as given by the
following relation.

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Joints
Cotter and cotter joints
A cotter is a metallic strip of uniform thickness but tapers in width. The taper may be
very small like 1 : 100 but may be as large as 1 : 30. The cotter passes through slots made
in two coaxial parts and thus prevent the relative motion between them. The cotter can
pass through two specially made ends of two coaxial bars which may be circular in
section or rectangular or it may pass through sleeve put on the plain ends of rod
(two cotters will be needed). We shall now see both types of joints. The cotter joints are
used only to transmit axial pull between two rods and they are not made to rotate.
Sleeve cotter joints
Two plain cylindrical ends are made to butt each other and a single sleeve covers both.
Two slots are made in the sleeve, each coinciding with the slot in the rod end. The rod
end may be enlarged to compensate for the slot.
Comparison between keys and cotters
1. Key is usually driven parallel to the axis of the shaft which is subjected to torsional or
twisting stress. Whereas cotter is normally driven at right angles to the axis of the
connected part which is subjected to tensile or compressive stress along its axis.
2. A key resists shear over a longitudinal section whereas a cotter resist shear over two
transverse section.

Different types of cotter joints

1.

Socket and spigot cotter joint

2.

Sleeve and cotter joint

3.

Gib and cotter joint

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Socket and spigot cotter joint

Socket and spigot cotter joint is an attachment of 2 rods in such a way that it can transfer axial
compression or tensile load for a very simple construction. Socket can be considered as a hollow
pipe having one side solid and the other hollow while the spigot is a solid rod. The solid spigot is
nearly of the size of the internal radii of the socket where it can fit. Once they 're fit, consider that
a rectangular cavity of tapering construction through both the parts, i.e., spigot and socket.

Analysis of spigot cotter joint

Using letters to represent the following criteria.

P = Load carried by the rods,
d = Diameter of the rods,
d1 = Outside diameter of socket,
d2 = Diameter of spigot or inside diameter of socket,
d3 = Outside diameter of spigot collar,
t1 = Thickness of spigot collar,
d4 = Diameter of socket collar,
c = Thickness of socket collar,
b = Mean width of cotter,
t = Thickness of cotter,
l = Length of cotter,
a = Distance from the end of the slot to the end of rod,

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t = Permissible tensile stress for the rods material,

= Permissible shear stress for the cotter material, and
c = Permissible crushing stress for the cotter material.

In designing the socket and cotter pins several design conditions are considered
1. Failure of the rods in tension

From this equation, diameter of the rods (d) may be obtained.

2. Failure of spigot in tension across the weakest section (or slot)

From this equation, the diameter of enlarged end of the rod (d2) may be obtained. The thickness
of cotter is usually taken as d2 / 4.

3. Failure of the rod or cotter in crushing

From this equation, the induced crushing stress may be checked

4. Failure of the socket in tension across the slot

From this equation, the outside diameter of sleeve (d1) may be obtained.

5. Failure of cotter in shear

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From this equation, width of cotter (b) may be determined

6. Failure of cotter in shear

From this equation, distance (a) may be determined.

7. Failure of the socket collar in crushing

From this equation, distance (c) may be determined.

8. Failure of rod end in shear

From this equation, the distance from the end of the slot to the end of the rod (a) may be
obtained.

9. Failure of spigot collar in crushing

From this equation, the diameter of the spigot collar (d3) may be obtained

10. Failure of the spigot collar in shearing

From this equation, the thickness of spigot collar (t1) may be obtained.

11. Failure of cotter in bending

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This bending stress induced in the cotter should be less than the allowable bending stress of
the cotter.
12. The length of cotter (l) is taken as 4 d.
13. The taper in cotter should not exceed 1 in 24. In case the greater taper is required, then a
locking device must be provided
14. The draw of cotter is generally taken as 2 to 3 mm

Sleeve and cotter joints

This cotter joint is also used to connect circular rods. This joint has better strength compared to
the socket and spigot cotter joint. Here instead of a socket arrangement, a sleeve is used. Sleeve
has two slots where two cotters are placed in different slots and going through different rods.

Applications
It is used in the connection of piston rod to the cross head of the steam engine, in the foundation
bolt, connecting two halves of fly wheel, joining of tail rod with piston rod of a wet air pump.

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Analysis
In the analysis steps 1 to 7 outlined above for cotters is used. The same formula applies.

Gib head
Gib and cotter joints are used for rods of square or rectangular cross section .the end of one rod
fits the end of the other rod which is made in the form of a strap. A gib is used along with the
cotter to make this joint. Gib is likely a cotter but with two gib heads at its ends . The thickness
of the gib and cotter are same.

Analysis
Thickness of cotter

Where B1 = width of strap ( generally taken as taken equal to the diameter of the adjacent end of
the round part of the rod ( d ).
Thickness of gib = Thickness of cotter (t)
Height (t2) and length of gib head (l3) = Thickness of cotter (t)
Failure of strap in tension

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From this equation, the thickness of the strap at the thinnest part (t1) may be obtained. When an
oil hole is provided in the strap, then its weakening effect should be considered.
The thickness of the strap at the cotter (t3) is increased such that the area of cross-section of the
strap at the cotter hole is not less than the area of the strap at the thinnest part.

the value of t3 may be obtained from this expression.

Failure of the gib and cotter in shearing

The total width of gib and cotter (B) may be obtained with the above equation

Width of gib, b1 =0.55 B ; and width of cotter, b = 0.45 B

The other dimensions may be fixed as follows :
Thickness of the strap at the crown,
t4 = 1.15 t1 to 1.5 t1
l1 = 2 t1; and l2 = 2.5 t1

Couplings
Couplings are used to connect two shafts for torque transmission in varied applications. It may
be to connect two units such as a motor and a generator or it may be to form a long line shaft by
connecting shafts of standard lengths say 6-8m by couplings. Coupling may be rigid or they may
provide flexibility and compensate for misalignment. They may also reduce shock loading and
vibration. A wide variety of commercial shaft couplings are available ranging from a simple
keyed coupling to one which requires a complex design procedure using gears or fluid drives etc.

There are two main types of couplings:

1. Rigid coupling
2. Flexible

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Rigid couplings are used for shafts having no misalignment while the flexible couplings can
absorb some amount of misalignment in the shafts to be connected. These couplings cannot
absorb any misalignment the shafts to be connected by a rigid coupling must have good lateral
and angular alignment.

Analysis of rigid flange coupling

It essentially consists of two cast iron flanges which are keyed to the shafts to be joined. The
flanges are brought together and are bolted in the annular space between the hub and the
protecting flange. The protective flange is provided to guard the projecting bolt heads and nuts.
The bolts are placed equi-spaced on a bolt circle diameter and the number of bolt depends on
the shaft diameter d. A spigot A on one flange and a recess on the opposing face is provided
for ease of assembly.
The design procedure is generally based on determining the shaft diameter d for a given torque
transmission and then following empirical relations different dimensions of the coupling are
obtained. Check for different failure modes can then be carried out.

Design procedure is given in the following steps:

1. Shaft diameter d based on torque transmission is given by

26

where T is the torque and is the yield stress in shear.

y

2. Hub diameter d =1.75d +6.5mm

1

3. Hub length L = 1.5d

But the hub length also depends on the length of the key. Therefore this length L must be
checked while finding the key dimension based on shear and crushing failure modes
4. Key dimensions - If a square key of sides b is used then b is commonly taken as d4 . In
that case, for shear failure we have

where is the yield stress in shear and L is the key length.

y

If L determined here is less than hub length L we may assume the key length to be the same as
k

hub length.

For crushing failure

where is crushing stress induced in the key

c

27

and if < , the bearing strength of the key material , the key dimensions chosen are in order
c

cy

5. Bolt dimensions The bolts are subjected to shear and bearing stresses while transmitting
torque.
Considering the shear failure mode we have

where n is the number of bolts, d the nominal bolt diameter, T is the torque transmitted,
b

yb

is

the shear yield strength of the bolt material and dc is the bolt circle diameter. The bolt diameter
may now be obtained if n is known. The number of bolts n is often given by the following
empirical relation.

where d is the shaft diameter in mm. The bolt circle diameter must be such that it should provide
clearance for socket wrench to be used for the bolts. The empirical relation takes care of this.

Considering crushing failure

where t is the flange width over which the bolts make contact and
2

cyb

is the yield crushing

strength of the bolt material. This gives t . Clearly the bolt length must be more than 2t and a
2

suitable standard length for the bolt diameter may be chosen from hand book.
6. A protecting flange is provided as a guard for bolt heads and nuts. The thickness t is less
3

than2t2. The corners of the flanges should be rounded.

7. The spigot depth is usually taken between 2-3mm.
8. Another check for the shear failure of the hub is to be carried out. For this failure mode
we may write

28

where d is the hub diameter and is the shear yield strength of the flange material.
1

yf

Knowing we may check if the chosen value of t is satisfactory or not.

yf

Finally, knowing hub diameter d , bolt diameter and protective thickness t we may decide the
1

overall diameter d .
3

Flexible coupling
In a rigid coupling the torque is transmitted from one half of the coupling to the other through the
bolts and in this arrangement shafts need be aligned very well
However in the bushed coupling the rubber bushings over the pins (bolts) provide flexibility and
these coupling can accommodate some misalignment. Because of the rubber bushing the design
for pins should be considered carefully.

Analysis
1. Bearing stress

Rubber bushings are available for different inside and outside diameters. However rubber bushes
are mostly available in thickness between 6 mm to 7.5mm for bores up to 25mm and 9mm
thickness for larger bores. Brass sleeves are made to suit the requirements. However, brass
sleeve thickness may be taken to be 1.5mm.
The outside diameter of rubber bushing d is given by
r

where d is the diameter of the bolt or pin , t is the thickness of the brass sleeve and t is the
b

thickness of rubber bushing

br

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where d is the bolt circle diameter and t the flange thickness over the bush contact area. A
c

suitable bearing pressure for rubber is 0.035 N/mm and the number of pin is given by dn25 =+
where d is in mm.
The d here is different from what we had for rigid flange bearings. This must be judged
c

considering the hub diameters, outside diameter of the bush and a suitable clearance. A rough
drawing is often useful in this regard.
From the above torque equation we may obtain bearing pressure developed and compare this
with the bearing pressure of rubber for safely.

2. Shear stress
The pins in the coupling are subjected to shear and it is a good practice to ensure that the
shear plane avoids the threaded portion of the bolt. Unlike the rigid coupling the shear stress
due to torque transmission is given in terms of the tangential force F at the outside diameter
of the rubber bush. Shear stress at the neck area is given by

where d

neck

is bolt diameter at the neck i.e. at the shear plane.

3. Bending stress
The pin loading

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Clearly the bearing pressure that acts as distributed load on rubber bush would produce bending
of the pin. Considering an equivalent concentrated load F= pt d the bending stress is
2

Knowing the shear and bending stresses we may check the pin diameter for principal stresses
using appropriate theories of failure.
We may also assume the following empirical relations:
Hub diameter = 2d
Hub length = 1.5d
Pin diameter at the neck = 0.5 / n1/2

Shock absorbers
The basic function of the shock absorber is to absorb and dissipate the impact kinetic
energy to the extent that accelerations imposed upon the airframe are reduced to a tolerable
level. Existing shock absorbers can be divided into two classes based on the
type of the spring being used: those using a solid spring made of steel or rubber and those

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using a fluid spring with gas or oil, or a mixture of the two that is generally referred to as
oleo-pneumatic. The high gear and weight efficiencies associated with the oleo-pneumatic
shock absorber make it the preferred design for commercial transports.

Applications
Shock absorbers are an important part of automobile and motorcycle suspensions, aircraft
landing gear, and the supports for many industrial machines. Large shock absorbers have also
been used in structural engineering to reduce the susceptibility of structures to earthquake
damage and resonance. A transverse mounted shock absorber, called a yaw damper, helps keep
railcars from swaying excessively from side to side and are important in passenger railroads,
commuter rail and rapid transit systems because they prevent railcars from damaging station
platforms

Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Strut Design

The basic weight support function of the oleo-pneumatic shock struts, which have a
high efficiency under dynamic conditions both in terms of energy absorption and
dissipation, is provided by a compressed cylinder of air and oil. A single-acting shock
absorber, which is the most commonly used design for commercial transports, This type of shock
strut absorbs energy by first forcing a chamber of oil against a
chamber of dry air or nitrogen and then compressing the gas and oil. During the
compression process, the oil and gas either remain separated or are mixed depending on
the type of design. After the initial impact, energy is dissipated as the air pressure forces the
oil back into its chamber through recoil orifices.
Although the compression orifice could be merely a hole in the orifice plate, most
designs have a metering pin extending through it, and by varying the pin diameter the
orifice area is varied. This variation is adjusted so that the strut load is fairly constant under
dynamic loading. If this can be made constant, the gear efficiency would be 100 percent. In
practice, this is never obtained and efficiencies of 80 to 90 percent are more usual.

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Shock Absorber types

1. Metal Spring
2. Rubber Buffer
3. Hydraulic Dashpot
4. Collapsing safety Shock Absorbers
5. Pneumatic Cylinders
6. Self compensating Hydraulic

Metal springs
Simply locating metal springs to absorb the impact loads are a low cost method of reducing the
collision speed and reducing the shock loading. They are able to operate in very arduous
conditions under a wide range of temperatures. These devices have high stopping forces at end of
stroke. Metal springs store energy rather than dissipating it. If metal sprint type shock absorbers

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are used then measures should be provided to limit Oscillations. Metal springs are often used
with viscous dampers.

Elastomatic shock observers

These are low cost options for reducing the collision speed and reducing the shock loading and
providing system damping. They are conveniently moulded to suitable shapes. These devices
have high stopping forces at end of stroke with significant internal damping. Elastomeric
dampers are very widely used because of the associated advantages of low cost and mouldability
together with performance benefits. The inherent damping of elastomers is useful in preventing
excessive vibration amplitude at resonance much reduced compared to metal springs. However
elastomeric based shock absorbers are limited in being affected by high and low temperatures.
And are subject to chemical attack. Silicone rubber is able to provide reasonable mechanical
properties between temperatures of -50O to +180O deg. C- most other elastomer has inferior
temperature tolerance

Hydraulic Dashpot
This type of shock absorber is based on a simple hydraulic cylinder. As the piston rod is moved
hydraulic fluid is forced through an orifice which restricts flow and consequently provides a
controlled resistance to movement of the piston rod. With only one metering orifice the moving
load is abruptly slowed down at the start of the stroke. The braking force rises to a very high
peak at the start of the stroke and then falls away rapidly. On completion of the stroke the system
is stable - the energy being dissipated in the hydraulic fluid as heat. This type of shock absorbers
are provided with Springs sufficient to return the actuator to its initial position after the
impacting load is removed.

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Collapsing Safety Shock Absorbers

These are single use units which are generally specially designed for specific duties. They are
designed such that at impact they collapse and the impact energy is absorbed as the materials
distort in their inelastic/yield range. They therefore are more compact compared to devices based
on deflections within their elastic range.

Air (Pneumatic) spring

These devices use air as the resilient medium. Air has a high energy storage capacity compared
to metal or elastomer materials. For duties with high loads and deflections the air spring is
generally far more compact that the equivalent metal or elastomer device. Due to the
compressibility of air these have a sharply rising force characteristic towards the end of the
stroke. The majority of the energy is absorbed near the end of the stroke. The force on an air
cylinder buffer is determined by the relation PVn=constant. Air springs require more
maintenance than meal or elastomer based springs and the temperature range is restricted
compared to metal springs.

Self compensating Hydraulic

These devices are similar to the hydraulic dashpot type except that a number of orifices are
provided allowing different degrees of restriction throughout the stroke. These devices are
engineered to bring the moving load is smoothly and gently to rest by a constant resisting force
throughout the entire shock absorber stroke. The load is decelerated with the lowest possible
force in the shortest possible time eliminating damaging force peaks and shock damage to
machines and equipment. These type of shock absorbers are provided with springs sufficient to
return the actuator to its initial position after the impacting load is removed.

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Bibliography
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R.S. Khurmi, J. G., 2005. A Textbook of Machine Design. 12th ed. New Delhi: EurasiaPublishing
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