CD-1

Fate of the
Germ Layers
The three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm) give rise to all the tissues
and organs of the body. Most organs receive
contributions from more than one germ layer.
A summary of the derivatives of each germ
layer is given below.

DERIVATIVES OF ECTODERM
Lining Epithelia
The epithelium lining the following is of
ectodermal origin:

1. Skin, including its pigment cells (from

neural crest cells).
2. Mucous membrane of lips, cheeks, gums,
part of the oor of the mouth, part of
the palate, nasal cavities and paranasal
sinuses.
3. Lower part of anal canal.
4. Terminal part of male urethra.
5. Outer surface of labia minora and whole
of labia majora.
6. Anterior epithelium of cornea, epithelium
of conjunctiva, epithelial layers of ciliary
body and iris.

ECTODERM
Surface ectoderm

Neural tube

Neural crest

Epidermis of skin

Brain & spinal cord

Medulla of suprarenal

Sweet and sebaceous glands

Retina

Pigment cells (melanocytes)

Mammary gland

Pineal body

Schwann cells

Hair

Posterior pituitary

Dorsal nerve root ganglia

Nail

Cranial nerve ganglia

Enamel of teeth

Sympathetic ganglia

Epithelium of lip, cheeks, gums

Dentine of teeth

Lens of eye

Bones of head (skull)

Anterior pituitary

Connective tissue of head

Internal ear

Dermis of face and neck

Outer layer of tympanic membrane

Pharyngeal arch cartilage

Epithelium of cornea, conjunctiva,

ciliary body & iris

Bulbar and conal ridge in heart

Fig. CD-1.1. Derivatives of ectoderm. Derivatives of surface epithelium, neural tube and neural crest are listed
separately.

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CD-2

HUMAN EMBRYOLOGY

7. Outer layer of tympanic membrane.

epithelial lining of membranous labyrinth
including the special end organs.

(a) Exocrine: Sweat glands, sebaceous glands,

parotid (and other salivary glands?),
mammary gland, lacrimal gland.
(b) Endocrine: Hypophysis cerebri, adrenal
medulla.

Other Derivatives

5.

6.
7.
8.

Lining Epithelia
The following lining epithelia are of endodermal
origin.

Glands

1.
2.
3.
4.

DERIVATIVES OF ENDODERM

Hair.
Nails.
Enamel of teeth.
Lens of eye; musculature of iris; ciliary
muscles (from neural crest?); vitreous(?).
Nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
including all neurons, neuroglia (except
microglia), and Schwann cells (from neural
crest).
Pia-arachnoid (from neural crest).
Branchial cartilage (from neural crest?).
Substance of cornea, sclera and choroid
(from neural crest?).

1. Epithelium of part of the mouth, part

of the palate, tongue, tonsil, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines and upper part of anal canal.
2. Epithelium of pharyngo-tympanic tube,
middle ear, inner layer of tympanic
membrane, mastoid antrum and air cells.
3. Epithelium of respiratory tract.
4. Epithelium of gall bladder and extrahepatic
duct system; epithelium of pancreatic
ducts.
5. Epithelium of urinary bladder except
trigone (mesoderm); female urethra except
part of its posterior wall (mesoderm); male
urethra except part of the posterior wall of
its prostatic part (mesoderm) and except
the part of the penile urethra lying in the
glans penis (ectoderm).
6. Epithelium of greater part of vagina, vestibule
and inner surface of labia minora.

ENDODERM
Epithelium of G.I. tract

Epithelium of
respiratory system

Epithelium of
pharyngeal pouches

Trachea

Pharynx

Gut
Liver
Gall bladder

Bronchi

Thyroid gland

Pancreas

Lung alveoli

Tympanic cavity

Urinary bladder

Auditory tube

Urethra

Mastoid air cells

Tonsils
Thymus
Parathyroid

Fig. CD-1.2. Derivatives of endoderm listed under three different heads. 1. From epithelial lining of gut (including
urinary bladder). 2. Respiratory system and epithelial lining of pharynx. 3. Derivatives of pharyngeal pouches

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FACE OF THE GERM LAYERS

CD-3

MESODERM
Paraxial

Intermediate

Lateral

Skeletal muscle of head trunk and

limbs

Gonads and gametes

Pleura, pericardium and peritoneum,

mesenteries

Skeleton except bones of cranium

Kidney

Skeleton of limbs

Dermis of skin (partly)

Mesonephric duct

Blood cells

Connective tissues

Adrenal cortex

Endothelium and endocardium

Paramesonephric duct

Myocardium

Vagina, uterus and uterine tubes

Wall of gut
Wall of respiratory tract

Fig. CD-1.3. Derivatives of mesoderm. Structures derived from paraxial, intermediate and lateral mesoderm are
listed separately.

Glands
(a) Endocrine: Thyroid, parathyroid, thymus,
islets of Langerhans.
(b) Exocrine: Liver, pancreas, glands in wall
of gastrointestinal tract, greater part of
prostate (except inner glandular zone) and
its female homologues.

DERIVATIVES OF MESODERM
1. All connective tissues including loose
areolar tissue lling the interstices between
other tissues, supercial and deep fascia,
ligaments, tendons, aponeuroses, and the
dermis of the skin.
2. Specialized connective tissues like adipose
tissue, reticular tissue, cartilage and
bone.
3. Dentine of teeth.
4. All muscles (smooth, striated and cardiac)
except the musculature of the iris

Chapter-20.indd 3

5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

(ectoderm) and ciliary muscles (neural

crest?).
Heart, all blood vessels and lymphatics,
and blood cells.
Kidneys, ureters, trigone of bladder,
posterior wall of part of the female urethra,
posterior wall of upper half of prostatic part
of male urethra, and the inner glandular
zone of the prostate.
Ovary, uterus, uterine tubes, upper part of
vagina.
Testis, epidydimis, ductus deferens, seminal
vesicle, ejaculatory duct.
Lining mesothelium of pleural, pericardial
and peritoneal cavities; and of tunica
vaginalis.
Lining mesothelium of bursae and joints.
Substance of cornea; sclera; choroid. (?)
Substance of ciliary body and iris.
Duramater; pia-arachnoid (?); microglia
Adrenal cortex.

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