AUTOMATIC DRUNKEN DRIVE AVOIDING

SYSTEM FOR AUTOMABILES

ABSTRACT

AIM:
The main aim of this project is to detect drunken driver

LDR

automatically to avoid accidents for automobiles.

A photo resistor or light

dependent resistor (LDR)
or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is

DESCRIPTION:
In this project we have to detect that there are drunken driver
or is there any high temperature while driving in automobiles.
For this we are using LM35 (Temperature sensor), Alcohol

resistor whose resistance decrease

s with increasing incident light
intensity. It can also be referred to
as a photoconductor

sensor, ADC 0808 (Analog to Digital Converter), LDR,

Break Indicator, Relay, LCD (Liquid Crystal Display).
LM35 is precision integrated circuit temperature sensor.
Its output voltage is linearly proportional to temperature (in Celsius).
The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the
user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient
Centigrade scaling. AD converters are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to
be processed, stored, or transported in digital form.
For example drunken driver driving the car, then
SENSOR

alcohol sensor detects it and passes the

information
Sensor is the device which converts
Then
anyBreak
physical quantity to its

through ADC to Microcontroller.

OFF
Equivalent electrical signal. There
These
operations
are different
types of sensor are

automatically and displays LCD.

Microcontroller.
available there are: Temperature
sensor, Light sensor, Voltage sensor,
Smoke Sensor, Gas sensor, Fire
sensor, Alcohol Sensors, etc.

Indicator stops the car and bulb will

are controlled by

CHAPTER-1

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Introduction:
An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the
embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A generalpurpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist
the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an
integral part of the system. At the other extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to
control the operation of a large complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious.
All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these
computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer.
The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function or
set of functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application
program that enables the embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific
application determines the functioning of the embedded system. The ability to have programs
means that the same embedded system can be used for a variety of different purposes. In some
cases a microprocessor may be designed in such a way that application software for a particular
purpose can be added to the basic software in a second process, after which it is not possible to
make further changes. The applications software on such processors is sometimes referred to as
firmware.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip), which
may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated
Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or
activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine or, by operating a
valve, may control the flow of fuel to an engine.
As the embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware

Embedded
System

Software

Hardware

ALP

Processor

Peripherals

VB

memory
Etc.,

Figure: Block diagram of Embedded System

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals with
Processors, Peripherals, and Memory.
Memory: It is used to store data or address.
Peripherals: These are the external devices connected
Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task
Applications of embedded systems

Manufacturing and process control

Construction industry

Transport

Buildings and premises

Domestic service

Communications

Office systems and mobile equipment

Banking, finance and commercial

Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support

Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems

Processors are classified into four types like:

Micro Processor (p)
Micro controller (c)
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
Micro Processor (p):
A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor
and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations
sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from
clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions
per second the processor can execute.
In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at
25MHz. In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either
RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer).
A microprocessor has three basic elements, as shown above. The ALU performs all arithmetic
computations, such as addition, subtraction and logic operations (AND, OR, etc). It is controlled
by the Control Unit and receives its data from the Register Array. The Register Array is a set of
registers used for storing data. These registers can be accessed by the ALU very quickly. Some
registers have specific functions - we will deal with these later. The Control Unit controls the
entire process. It provides the timing and a control signal for getting data into and out of the
registers and the ALU and it synchronizes the execution of instructions (we will deal with
instruction execution at a later date).

Three Basic Elements of a Microprocessor

Micro Controller (c):
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core,
memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR
flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM.
Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors
used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.

ALU
CU
Memory

Timer, Counter, serial

communication ROM,
ADC, DAC, Timers,
USART, Oscillators

Figure: Block Diagram of Micro Controller (c)

Etc.,

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Digital Signal Processors is one which performs scientific and mathematical operation.
Digital Signal Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed
specifically for the types of operations required in digital signal processing. Like a generalpurpose microprocessor, a DSP is a programmable device, with its own native instruction code.
DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of floating point operations per second, and like
their better-known general-purpose cousins, faster and more powerful versions are continually
being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex "system-on-chip" devices, often
containing both analog and digital circuitry.
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
ASIC is a combination of digital and analog circuits packed into an IC to achieve the desired
control/computation function
ASIC typically contains
CPU cores for computation and control
Peripherals to control timing critical functions
Memories to store data and program
Analog circuits to provide clocks and interface to the real world which is analog in nature
I/Os to connect to external components like LEDs, memories, monitors etc.
Computer Instruction Set
There are two different types of computer instruction set there are:
1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) and
2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set computer)
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
A RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is a microprocessor that is designed to perform a
smaller number of types of computer instruction so that it can operate at a higher speed (perform
more million instructions per second, or millions of instructions per second). Since each
instruction type that a computer must perform requires additional transistors and circuitry, a
larger list or set of computer instructions tends to make the microprocessor more complicated
and slower in operation.

Besides performance improvement, some advantages of RISC and related design improvements
are:
A new microprocessor can be developed and tested more quickly if one of its aims is to be less
complicated.
Operating system and application programmers who use the microprocessor's instructions will
find it easier to develop code with a smaller instruction set.
The simplicity of RISC allows more freedom to choose how to use the space on a
microprocessor.
Higher-level language compilers produce more efficient code than formerly because they have
always tended to use the smaller set of instructions to be found in a RISC computer.
RISC characteristics
Simple instruction set:

In a RISC machine, the instruction set contains simple, basic instructions, from which more
complex instructions can be composed.
Same length instructions.

Each instruction is the same length, so that it may be fetched in a single operation.
1 machine-cycle instructions.

Most instructions complete in one machine cycle, which allows the processor to handle several
instructions at the same time. This pipelining is a key technique used to speed up RISC
machines.
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
CISC, which stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer, is a philosophy for designing chips
that are easy to program and which make efficient use of memory. Each instruction in a CISC
instruction set might perform a series of operations inside the processor. This reduces the number
of instructions required to implement a given program, and allows the programmer to learn a
small but flexible set of instructions.
The advantages of CISC
At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to optimize
computer performance.
Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less expensive than
hardwiring a control unit.

 The ease of micro-coding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines upwardly
compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier computers because the new
computer would contain a superset of the instructions of the earlier computers.
As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to implement a given
task. This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main memory.
Because micro program instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-level
languages, the compiler does not have to be as complicated.
The disadvantages of CISC
Still, designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including:
Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every new
version --- so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each generation of
computers.
So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least possible wasted
space, individual instructions could be of almost any length---this means that different
instructions will take different amounts of clock time to execute, slowing down the overall
performance of the machine.
Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence --approximately 20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program.
CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction. Not only
does setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to remember to examine the
condition code bits before a subsequent instruction changes them.
Memory Architecture
There two different types memory architectures there are:
Harvard Architecture
Von-Neumann Architecture
Harvard Architecture
Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data. There are two or more
internal data buses, which allow simultaneous access to both instructions and data. The CPU
fetches program instructions on the program memory bus.

The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and signal
pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark I relay-based
computer, which stored instructions on punched tape (24 bits wide) and data in electromechanical counters. These early machines had limited data storage, entirely contained within
the central processing unit, and provided no access to the instruction storage as data. Programs
needed to be loaded by an operator, the processor could not boot itself.

Figure: Harvard Architecture

Modern uses of the Harvard architecture

The principal advantage of the pure Harvard architecture - simultaneous access to more than one
memory system - has been reduced by modified Harvard processors using modern CPU cache
systems. Relatively pure Harvard architecture machines are used mostly in applications where
tradeoffs, such as the cost and power savings from omitting caches, outweigh the programming
penalties from having distinct code and data address spaces.
Digital signal processors (DSPs) generally execute small, highly-optimized audio or video

processing algorithms. They avoid caches because their behavior must be extremely
reproducible. The difficulties of coping with multiple address spaces are of secondary concern to
speed of execution. As a result, some DSPs have multiple data memories in distinct address
spaces to facilitate SIMD and VLIW processing. Texas Instruments TMS320 C55x processors,
as one example, have multiple parallel data busses (two write, three read) and one instruction
bus.
Microcontrollers are characterized by having small amounts of program (flash memory) and data

(SRAM) memory, with no cache, and take advantage of the Harvard architecture to speed
processing by concurrent instruction and data access. The separate storage means the program
and data memories can have different bit depths, for example using 16-bit wide instructions and
8-bit wide data. They also mean that instruction pre-fetch can be performed in parallel with other

activities. Examples include, the AVR by Atmel Corp, the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc.
and the ARM Cortex-M3 processor (not all ARM chips have Harvard architecture).
Even in these cases, it is common to have special instructions to access program memory as data
for read-only tables, or for reprogramming.

Von-Neumann Architecture
A computer has a single, common memory space in which both program instructions and data
are stored. There is a single internal data bus that fetches both instructions and data. They cannot
be performed at the same time
The Von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer that
uses a central processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage structure ("memory") to hold
both instructions and data. It is named after the mathematician and early computer scientist John
von Neumann. Such computers implement a universal Turing machine and have a sequential
architecture.
A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as its
data, in read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were
advancement over the program-controlled computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and the
ENIAC, which were programmed by setting switches and inserting patch leads to route data and
to control signals between various functional units. In the vast majority of modern computers, the
same memory is used for both data and program instructions. The mechanisms for transferring
the data and instructions between the CPU and memory are, however, considerably more
complex than the original von Neumann architecture.
The terms "von Neumann architecture" and "stored-program computer" are generally used
interchangeably, and that usage is followed in this article.

Figure: Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.

Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture
The primary difference between Harvard architecture and the Von Neumann architecture is in the
Von Neumann architecture data and programs are stored in the same memory and managed by
the same information handling system.
Whereas the Harvard architecture stores data and programs in separate memory devices and they
are handled by different subsystems.
In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central processing unit
(CPU) can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data to/from the memory. Both of
these operations cannot occur simultaneously as the data and instructions use the same system
bus.
In a computer using the Harvard architecture the CPU can both read an instruction and access
data memory at the same time without cache. This means that a computer with Harvard
architecture can potentially be faster for a given circuit complexity because data access and
instruction fetches do not contend for use of a single memory pathway.
Today, the vast majority of computers are designed and built using the Von Neumann
architecture template primarily because of the dynamic capabilities and efficiencies gained in
designing, implementing, operating one memory system as opposed to two. Von Neumann
architecture may be somewhat slower than the contrasting Harvard Architecture for certain

specific tasks, but it is much more flexible and allows for many concepts unavailable to Harvard
architecture such as self programming, word processing and so on.
Harvard architectures are typically only used in either specialized systems or for very specific
uses. It is used in specialized digital signal processing (DSP), typically for video and audio
processing products. It is also used in many small microcontrollers used in electronics
applications such as Advanced RISK Machine (ARM) based products for many vendors.

CHAPTER-2

Introduction to Project
There many different types of accidents are occurred in day to day life time system. In order to
accidents we implement project. Accidents may cause due to many regions it may a break failed
system; it may any regions most offen accidents are occurred due to over drunken person. Most
of accidents are due to over drunken drivers. Due to that consumption of alcohol in order to
avoid these accidents we implemented a one proto types project in these project we place an
alcohol sensor. This sensor used to sense the drunken person from 200ppm onwards.
If the person is drunk, Initally we check the person weather person is dunked are not .This
module inserted in cars or any vehicles. If the driver is dunked then sensor will sense the amount
of alcohol consumed by the person and it will intimate by buzzing with the help of buzzer.
In these vehicle automations also consider whenever under night times we need to ON the your
vehicle headlights instead of ONing headlight with the a key we placed a LDR in the module. On
night times with the help of LDR headlight will be automatically we can ONed.Similary, we
consider the one more parameter engine temperature here we controlling the engine, by placing
the thermistor sensor we continuously monitoring the engine, whenever over heat is occurred we
automatically the cooling section in this way we are controlling the engine from damages.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Break
Indicator

POWER SUPPLY:

Block Diagram Explanation

In this project we interface the alcohol sensors to ADC 0804.Output of LDR is in digital form so
we can directly interface to microcontroller (AT 89S52) and we interface the LCD to
microcontroller port pins here we operating the LCD in the 4-bit mode .We can operate the LCD
in two modes it may be 8-bit mode and 4-bit mode.
Accidents may cause due to many regions it may a break failed system; it may any regions most
offen accidents are occurred due to over drunken person. Most of accidents are due to over
drunken drivers. Due to that consumption of alcohol in order to avoid these accidents we
implemented a one proto types project in these project we place a alcohol sensor. This sensor
used to sense the drunken person from 200ppm onwards.
We are taking inputs from sensor i.e., MQ3 this is one type of alcohol sensor is given to ADC
whenever some amount is alcohol detected ADC will take that analog data and converted into its
equivalent digital format, these data will given to microcontroller. If maximum amount alcohol is
detected then it will give intimate by buzzer sound.
During in night condition we automatically controlling the headlight with the help of LDR.
Similarly , we controlling and protecting the engine from over heat. If engine is over heated then
we need to cool the engine in that case we providing a cooling section with the help of normal
DC fan.

CHAPTER-3

Hardware Explanation
Block Diagram For Power Supply

Figure: Power Supply

Description
Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic
field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.

Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)
Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like a
transducer.

Figure: Transformer
Basic Principle
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron core to
efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the voltage is
raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

Figure: Basic Principle

Transformer Working
A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as shown in
figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are linked by a
magnetic field created in the core.

Figure: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of
power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing magnetic
field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce
voltage (step-down).
Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing magnetic
field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and the changing
strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If the
secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make an induced current flow. The
correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated
to induced e.m.f.
The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents
produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that
induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but
they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the
electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties.
Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:
1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely
used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out /
power in) of 95% or more.
Classification of Transformer
Step-Up Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage is
greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage applied

to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country with a
220v supply.
Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration usually
down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power distribution, and
control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers typically rely on the principle
of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and/or current levels.
Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound around a core
made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input) it
magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil, (frequently called the
secondary or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings determines the amount of
voltage transformation.

Figure: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a ratio of
2 to 1.
Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.
With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will mirror the
"turns ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have compensated secondary). A
practical application of this 2 to 1 turns ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage step down. Note that
if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio between input and
output voltage will stay constant. Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the

nameplate rating, but may be operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible
to do some non-standard applications using standard transformers.
Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse connected to stepdown or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized less than 1
KVA should not be reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional turns to
overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the output voltage will
be less than desired.)
Step-Up Transformer
A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a larger
induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer because the voltage
output is larger than the voltage input.
Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary
voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up
transformer is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v supply.
A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to another
voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it can be designed
to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases the voltage and a step
down transformer decreases the voltage.
The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core and coil.
The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one another or to
ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials. As
a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy between 20 and 25
years.

Figure: Step-Up Transformer

Applications
Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.
Types of Transformer
Mains Transformers
Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce the AC mains
supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer low voltage.
The standard mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and 240V are the
values usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases.

Figure: Main Transformer

To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two separate primary coils
(windings) labeled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two coils are connected in series for 240V (figure
2a) and in parallel for 120V (figure 2b). They must be wired the correct way round as shown in
the diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense (direction):

Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 0-9V, 0-9V) which may
be used separately to give two independent supplies, or connected in series to create a centretapped coil (see below) or one coil with double the voltage.
Some mains transformers have a centre-tap halfway through the secondary coil and they are
labeled 9-0-9V for example. They can be used to produce full-wave rectified DC with just two
diodes, unlike a standard secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce full-wave
rectified DC.

A mains transformer is specified by:

1. Its secondary (output) voltages Vs.
2. Its maximum power, Pmax, which the transformer can pass, quoted in VA (volt-amp). This
determines the maximum output (secondary) current, Imax...

...where Vs is the secondary voltage. If there are two secondary coils the maximum
power should be halved to give the maximum for each coil.

3. Its construction - it may be PCB-mounting, chassis mounting (with solder tag

connections) or toroidal (a high quality design).
Audio Transformers
Audio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage, low current output of an audio
amplifier to the low voltage, high current required by a loudspeaker. This use is called
'impedance matching' because it is matching the high impedance output of the amplifier to the
low impedance of the loudspeaker.

Figure: Audio transformer

Radio Transformers
Radio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains and audio
transformers and they have adjustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The ferrite cores can be
adjusted with a non-magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver. The whole transformer is
enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as a shield, preventing the transformer radiating too
much electrical noise to other parts of the circuit.

Figure: Radio Transformer

Turns Ratio and Voltage

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the ratio of the
voltages...

...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the number
of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary coil.
Diodes
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.

Figure: Diode Symbol

A diode is a device which only allows current to flow through it in one direction. In this
direction, the diode is said to be 'forward-biased' and the only effect on the signal is that there
will be a voltage loss of around 0.7V. In the opposite direction, the diode is said to be 'reversebiased' and no current will flow through it.

Rectifier
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR) Rectifier
converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different rectification
circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components called diodes to
convert AC into DC.
The Half-wave Rectifier
The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as shown in
figure.

Figure: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As you can see,
when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through. When
the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any current
through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the
peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

Figure: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as a
power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and Vs0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
The Full-wave Rectifier
The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output
voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of the
AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

Figure: Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure: Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.
While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't
suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and
Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.
Capacitor Filter
The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek letter
pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or undesired
frequencies from a signal.

Figure: Capacitor Filter

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier
output, an inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.
1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while
it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an
appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey
to the inductor L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero
reactance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the
inductor while the AC component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As
a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.

Figure: Centered Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier with a Capacitor Filter

Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.
Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and
Negative Voltage Series (79xx)
78xx:
78 indicate the positive series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805 produces
the maximum 5V.05indicates the regulator output is 5V.
79xx:
78 indicate the negative series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.05indicates the regulator output is -5V.
These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure: Regulator

CHAPTER-4

Microcontroller (AT89S52):
Description of Microcontroller 89S52:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit micro controller with
8Kbytes of in-system programmable flash memory. The device is manufactured Atmels highdensity nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51
micro controller. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system
or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with
in-system programmable flash one monolithic http; the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful micro
controller, which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to any cost effective
solution to any embedded control applications to any embedded control applications.
The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of
RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, full duplex
serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with
static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power
saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM timer/counters, serial port,
and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents
but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt Or hardware
reset.
Architecture of 8052C:

Figure: Microcontroller Architecture

Features:
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
256K Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
3 16-bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
Watchdog Timer
Dual Data Pointer
Power-off Flag
Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:
VCC 40
Supply voltage.
GND 20
Ground.
Port 0 (32-39):
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink
eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance
inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash Programming and outputs the code bytes during program
verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification
Port 1 (1-8):
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 Output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the
timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input P1.1/T2EX),

respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes
during Flash programming and verification.

Port 2 (21-28):
Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during
fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses
16-bit addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI),
Port 2emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order
address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification
Port 3 (10-17):
Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are writ 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of
various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table.
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets
the device.
ALE/PROG
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address
during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during
Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of1/6 the oscillator
frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one
ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can
be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a
MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable
bit has no effect if the micro controller is in external execution mode.
PSEN
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.
EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. A should be
strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-voltProgramming
enables voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that
can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or
ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an External clock source, XTAL2
should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven.

Oscillator Connections
Special Function Register (SFR) Memory:
Special Function Registers (SFR s) are areas of memory that control specific
functionality of the 8051 processor. For example, four SFRs permit access to the 8051s 32
input/output lines. Another SFR allows the user to set the serial baud rate, control and access
timers, and configure the 8051s interrupt system.
Accumulator: The Accumulator, as its name suggests is used as a general register to accumulate
the results of a large number of instructions. It can hold 8-bit (1-byte) value and is the most
versatile register.
The R registers: The R registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1.
Etc. up to R7. These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations.

The B registers: The B register is very similar to the accumulator in the sense that it may
hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value. Two only uses the B register 8051 instructions: MUL AB and DIV
AB.
Data Pointer:
The Data pointer (DPTR) is the 8051s only user accessible 16-bit (2Bytes) register. The
accumulator, R registers are all 1-Byte values. DPTR, as the name suggests, is used to point to
data. It is used by a number of commands, which allow the 8051 to access external memory.
Programs counter & Stack pointer:
The program counter (PC) is a 2-byte address, which tells the 8051 where the next
instruction to execute is found in memory. The stack pointer like all registers except DPTR and
PC may hold an 8-bit (1-Byte) value.
Memory:
Special Function Registers (SFRs) are areas of memory that control specific functionality of
the 8051 processor. For example, four SFRs permit access to the 8051s 32 input/output lines.
Another SFR allows the user to set the serial baud rate, control and access timers, and configure
the 8051s interrupt system.
Interrupt Registers:
The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register . Two priorities can be
set for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.

Timer 0:
Timer 0 functions as either a timer or event counter in four modes of operation .
Timer 0 is controlled by the four lower bits of the TMOD register and bits 0, 1, 4 and 5
of the TCON register. Mode 0 ( 13-bit Timer) Mode 0 configures timer 0 as a 13-bit
timer which is set up as an 8-bit timer (TH0 register) with a modulo 32 pre-scale

implemented with the lower five bits of

register are indeterminate and should be
TH0 register. Mode 1 ( 16-bit Timer )Mode
Timer register is being run with all 16

the TL0 register . The upper three bits of TL0

ignored. Pre-scale overflow increments the
1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the
bits .

Mode 1 configures timer 0 as a 16-bit timer with the TH0 and TL0 registers
connected in cascade. The selected input increments the TL0 register. Mode 2 (8-bit
Timer with Auto-Reload)Mode 2 configures timer 0 as an 8-bit timer ( TL0 register )
that automatically reloads from the TH0 register . TL0 overflow sets TF0 flag in the
TCON register and reloads TL0 with the contents of TH0, which is preset by
software. Mode 3 ( Two 8-bit Timers )Mode 3 configures timer 0 so that registers TL0
and TH0 operate as separate 8-bit timers. This mode is provided for applications requiring
an additional 8-bit timer or counter.
Timer 1:
Timer 1 is identical to timer 0, except for mode 3, which is a hold-count mode.
Mode 3 (Halt) Placing Timer 1 in mode 3 causes it to halt and hold its count. This can
be used to halt Timer 1 when TR1 run control bit is not available i.e., when Timer 0
is in mode 3.
Baud Rates:
The baud rate in Mode 0 is fixed. The baud rate in Mode 2 depends on the
value of bit SMOD in Special Function Register PCON. If SMOD = 0 (which is its
value on reset), the baud rate is 1/64 the oscillator frequency. If SMOD = 1, the baud
rate is 1/32 the oscillator frequency. In the 89S52, the baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are
determined by the Timer 1 overflow rate. In case of Timer 2 , these baud rates can
be determined by Timer 1 , or by Timer 2 , or by both (one for transmit and the other for
receive ).
TCON REGISTER: Timer/counter Control Register
7
TF1

Bit

6
TR1

Bit

TF0

TR0

IE1

IT1

IE0

IT0

Description

Number Mnemonics
7

TF1

Timer 1 overflow flag

Cleared by hardware when processor vectors to interrupt routien.

Set by hardware on timer/counter overflow, when the imer 1 register
overflows.
6

TR1

Timer 1 run control bit

Clear to turn off timer/counter 1.
Set to turn on timer/counter 1.

TF0

Timer 1 overflow flag

Cleared by hardware when processor vectors to interrupt routien.
Set by hardware on timer/counter overflow, when the timer0 register
overflows.

TR0

Timer 1 run control bit

Clear to turn off timer/counter 0.
Set to turn on timer/counter 0.

IE1

Interrupt 1 Edge flag

Cleared by hardware when interrupt is processed if edge-triggered (IT1)
Set by hardware when external interrupt is detected on INT1 pin.

IT1

Interrupt 1 type control bit

Clear to select low level active (level triggered) for external interrupt 1.
Set to select falling edge active (edge triggered) for external interrupt 1.

IE0

Interrupt 0 Edge flag

Cleared by hardware when interrupt is processed if edge-triggered (IT0)
Set by hardware when external interrupt is detected on INT0 pin.

IT0

Interrupt 0 type control bit

Clear to select low level active (level triggered) for external interrupt 0.
Set to select falling edge active (edge triggered) for external interrupt 0.

TMOD REGISTER: Timer/Counter 0 and 1 Modes

7

GATE1

C/T 1

M11

M01

GATE0

C/T 0

M10

M00

Bit

Bit Mnemonics

Description

GATE1

Timer 1 Gate Control Bit

Number
7

Clear to enable timer 1 whenever the TR1 bit is set.

Set to enable timer 1 only while the INT1 pin is high & TR1 bit is set.
6

C/T 1

Timer1 counter/timer select bit

Clear for timer operation: timer1 counts the divided down system
clock.
Set for counter operation: timer1 counts negative transition on external
pin T1.

M11

Timer 1 mode select bits

M01

M11
0

M01
0

operating mode
Mode0: 8 bit timer/counter (TH1) with 5 bit

prescaler (TL1).

GATE 0

Mode1: 16 bit timer/counter.

Mode2: 8 bit auto reload timer/counter (TL1).

Mode3: timer 1 halted. Retains count.

Timer 0 Gate Control Bit

Clear to enable timer 0 whenever the TR0 bit is set.
Set to enable timer 0 only while the INT0 pin is high & TR0 bit is set.

C/T 0

Timer0 counter/timer select bit

Clear for timer operation: timer0 counts the divided down system

clock.
Set for counter operation: timer0 counts negative transition on external
pin T0.
1

M10

Timer 0 mode select bits

M10

M00

operating mode
Mode0: 8 bit timer/counter (TH1) with 5 bit

pre-scaler (TL1).
0

Mode1: 16 bit timer/counter.

Mode2: 8 bit auto reload timer/counter (TL1).

Mode3: timer 1 halted. Retains count.

TH0 is an 8 bit timer using timer1s TR0 & TF0 bits.

CHAPTER-5

Sensor
Definition:
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be
read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts
the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a
calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be
read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against known standards
(OR)
Sensor is the device which converts any physical quantity to its equivalent electrical
signal. There are different types of sensor are available there are: Temperature sensor, Light
sensor, Voltage sensor, Smoke Sensor, Gas sensor, Fire sensor, Magnetic Sensors, etc.
Classification of measurement errors
A good sensor obeys the following rules:

Is sensitive to the measured property

Is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application

Does not influence the measured property

Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to some simple mathematical function of the
measurement, typically logarithmic. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to
the value or simple function of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio
between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and

has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because
the ratio is constant at all points of measurement

Sensor deviations
If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:

The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity
error, but the sensor is still linear.

Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually
reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full
scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.

If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an
offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.

If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity.
Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full
range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.

If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is a
dynamic error. Often, this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error
and phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.

If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined
as drift (telecommunication).

Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long
period of time.

Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there
is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one
direction than in the other.

If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the
measured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.

If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a
dynamic error, or if the variable or added noise noise changes periodically at a frequency
near a multiple of the sampling rate may induce aliasing errors.

The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors
can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a
random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of
the dynamic behavior of the sensor.

Resolution
The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is measuring.
Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that
magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the
measurement is made. For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects
an electron tunneling current) can resolve atoms and molecules.
Different Types Sensor:
1] Acoustic, sound, vibration

Geophone

Hydrophone

Lace Sensor a guitar pickup

Microphone

Seismometer

Accelerometer

2] Automotive, transportation

Air-fuel ratio meter

Crank sensor

Curb feeler, used to warn driver of curbs

Defect detector, used on railroads to detect axle and signal problems in passing trains

Engine coolant temperature sensor, or ECT sensor, used to measure the engine
temperature

Hall effect sensor, used to time the speed of wheels and shafts

MAP sensor, Manifold Absolute Pressure, used in regulating fuel metering.

Mass flow sensor, or mass airflow (MAF) sensor, used to tell the ECU the mass of air
entering the engine

Oxygen sensor, used to monitor the amount of oxygen in the exhaust

Parking sensors, used to alert the driver of unseen obstacles during parking manoeuvres

Radar gun, used to detect the speed of other objects

Speedometer, used measure the instantaneous speed of a land vehicle

Speed sensor, used to detect the speed of an object

Throttle position sensor, used to monitor the position of the throttle in an internal
combustion engine

Tire-pressure monitoring sensor, used to monitor the air pressure inside the tires

Transmission fluid temperature sensor, used to measure the temperature of the

transmission fluid

Turbine speed sensor (TSS), or input speed sensor (ISS), used to measure the rotational
speed of the input shaft or torque converter

Variable reluctance sensor, used to measure position and speed of moving metal
components

Vehicle speed sensor (VSS), used to measure the speed of the vehicle

Water sensor or water-in-fuel sensor, used to indicate the presence of water in fuel

Wheel speed sensor, used for reading the speed of a vehicle's wheel rotation

3] Chemical

Breathalyzer and Alcohol Sensor

Carbon dioxide sensor

Carbon monoxide detector

Catalytic bead sensor

Chemical field-effect transistor

Electrochemical gas sensor

Electronic nose

Electrolyteinsulatorsemiconductor sensor

Hydrogen sensor

Hydrogen sulfide sensor

Infrared point sensor

Ion-selective electrode

Nondispersive infrared sensor

Microwave chemistry sensor

Nitrogen oxide sensor

Olfactometer

Optode

Oxygen sensor

Pellistor

pH glass electrode

Potentiometric sensor

Redox electrode

Smoke detector

Zinc oxide nanorod sensor

4] Electric current, electric potential, magnetic, radio

Ammeter

Current sensor

Galvanometer

Hall effect sensor

Hall probe

Leaf electroscope

Magnetic anomaly detector

Magnetometer

Metal detector

Multi-meter

Ohmmeter

Radio direction finder

Telescope

Voltmeter

Voltage detector

Watt-hour meter

5] Environment, weather, moisture, humidity

Bedwetting alarm

Dew warning

Fish counter

Gas detector

Hook gauge evaporimeter

Hygrometer

Leaf sensor

Pyranometer

Pyrgeometer

Psychrometer

Rain gauge

Rain sensor

Seismometers

Snow gauge

Soil moisture sensor

Stream gauge

Tide gauge

6] Flow, fluid velocity

Air flow meter

Anemometer

Flow sensor

Gas meter

Mass flow sensor

Water meter

7] Ionizing radiation, subatomic particles

Bubble chamber

Cloud chamber

Geiger counter

Neutron detection

Particle detector

Scintillation counter

Scintillator

Wire chamber

8] Navigation instruments

Air speed indicator

Altimeter

Attitude indicator

Depth gauge

Fluxgate compass

Gyroscope

Inertial reference unit

Magnetic compass

MHD sensor

Ring laser gyroscope

Turn coordinator

Variometer

Vibrating structure gyroscope

Yaw rate sensor

9] Position, angle, displacement, distance, speed, acceleration

Accelerometer

Capacitive displacement sensor

Free fall sensor

Gravimeter

Inclinometer

Laser rangefinder

Linear encoder

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Liquid capacitive inclinometers

Odometer

Piezoelectric accelerometer

Position sensor

Rotary encoder

Rotary variable differential transformer

Selsyn

Sudden Motion Sensor

Tilt sensor

Tachometer

Ultrasonic thickness gauge

10] Optical, light, imaging

Charge-coupled device

Colorimeter

Contact image sensor

Electro-optical sensor

Flame detector

Infra-red sensor

LED as light sensor

Nichols radiometer

Fiber optic sensors

Photodetector

Photodiode

Photomultiplier tubes

Phototransistor

Photoelectric sensor

Photoionization detector

Photomultiplier

Photoresistor

Photoswitch

Phototube

Proximity sensor

Scintillometer

Shack-Hartmann

Wavefront sensor

11] Pressure

Barograph

Barometer

Boost gauge

Bourdon gauge

Hot filament ionization gauge

Ionization gauge

McLeod gauge

Oscillating U-tube

Permanent Downhole Gauge

Pirani gauge

Pressure sensor

Pressure gauge

Tactile sensor

Time pressure gauge

12] Force, density, level

Bhangmeter

Hydrometer

Force gauge

Level sensor

Load cell

Magnetic level gauge

Nuclear density gauge

Piezoelectric sensor

Strain gauge

Torque sensor

Viscometer

13] Thermal, heat, temperature

Bolometer
Calorimeter
Exhaust gas temperature gauge
Gardon gauge
Heat flux sensor
Infrared thermometer
Microbolometer
Microwave radiometer
Net radiometer
Resistance temperature detector
Resistance thermometer
Silicon bandgap temperature sensor
Temperature gauge
Thermistor
Thermocouple
Thermometer

14] Proximity, presence

Alarm sensor

Motion detector

Occupancy sensor

Passive infrared sensor

Reed switch

Stud finder

Triangulation sensor

Touch switch

Wired glove

Doppler radar

Alcohol Sensor (MQ 3)

Features
High sensitivity to alcohol and small sensitivity to Benzene.
Fast response and High sensitivity.
Stable and long life.
Simple drive circuit.
Application
They are suitable for alcohol checker, Breathalyzer.
Basic Operation
Structure and configuration of MQ-3 gas sensor is shown as Fig. 1 (Configuration A or B),
sensor composed by micro AL2O3 ceramic tube, Tin Dioxide (SnO2) sensitive layer, measuring
electrode and heater are fixed into a crust made by plastic and stainless steel net. The heater

provides necessary work conditions for work of sensitive components. The enveloped MQ-3
have 6 pin, 4 of them are used to fetch signals, and other 2 are used for providing heating current.
Electric parameter measurement circuit is shown as Fig.2
E. Sensitivity characteristic curve

Sensitivity Adjustment
Resistance value of MQ-3 is difference to various kinds and various concentration gases. So,
when using these components, sensitivity adjustment is very necessary. we recommend that you
calibrate the detector for 0.4mg/L ( approximately 200ppm ) of Alcohol concentration in air and
use value of Load resistance that( RL) about 200 K(100K to 470 K).When accurately
measuring, the proper alarm point for the gas detector should be determined after considering the
temperature and humidity influence.

Temperature Sensor (LM 35):

The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage
over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a
large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does
not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 14C

at room temperature and 34C over a full 55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is
assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35s low output impedance,
linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry
especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it
draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The
LM35 is rated to operate over a 55 to +150C temperature range,while the LM35C is rated for
a 40 to +110C range (10 with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged
in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also
available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead
surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package.
Features
Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor
0.5C accuracy guaranteeable (at +25C)
Rated for full 55 to +150C range
Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
Operates from 4 to 30 volts
Less than 60 A current drain
Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air
Nonlinearity only 14C typical
Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

Typical Application

LM35 interface with the ADC 0804:

Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more so
than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are
widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting over current protectors,
and self-regulating heating elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range [usually 90 C to
130 C].

Thermistor symbol
Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and
temperature is linear, then:

where
R = change in resistance
T = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of k. If k is positive, the
resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as close to zero as possible
(smallest possible k), so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature
range.
Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance
(alpha) or T is used. It is defined as.

For example, for the common PT100 sensor, = 0.00385 or 0.385 %/C. This T coefficient
should not be confused with the parameter below.
Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor, refers to a device whose
electrical resistance, or ability to conduct electricity, is controlled by temperature. Thermistors

come in two varieties; NTC, negative thermal coefficient, and PTC, positive thermal coefficient,
sometimes called posisitors.
The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases proportionally with increases in temperature. They
are most commonly made from the oxides of metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel and
copper. The metals are oxidized through a chemical reaction, ground to a fine powder, then
compressed and subject to very high heat. Some NTC thermistors are crystallized from
semiconducting material such as silicon and germanium.

NTC thermistors
The RS range of NTC thermistors includes standard tolerance negative temperature coefficient
thermistors, a range of small close tolerance R/T curve matched thermistors and a range of DO35 package devices.
Standard tolerance thermistors
A range of 13 negative temperature coefficient bead thermistors and 4 disc thermistors
constructed from a compound of nickel magnetite. Of the 13 bead thermistors, ten types are
sealed in glass and three are incorporated into stainless steel probe assemblies. This range was
designed primarily for temperature
measurement and control, flow measurement and liquid level detection. The four NTC disc
thermistors are intended for use in temperature compensation, measurement and control
applications. Disc diameter in all cases is 10mm with a lead pitch of 5mm (nominal).
The range of DO-35 packaged NTC thermistors is designed for temperature measurement and
control in applications which demand cost effective reliability. Typical applications include
domestic appliances, automotive systems, data processing equipment and heating/ventilating/air
conditioning control. The hermetically-sealed construction combines the advantages of high
temperature operation and high reliability of glass bead types with the closer tolerances
associated with chip devices. The glass encapsulation offers the additional benefit of high
voltage insulation.
Basic formulae

The temperature coefficient at any temperature within the operating range may be obtained
from the
Formula:

To determine the resistance at any temperature within the operating range may be obtained from
the formula:

B = characteristic temperature constant (K)

T = bead temperature in (K)
R1 = resistance of thermistor at temperature t1 ()
R2 = resistance of thermistor at temperature t2 ()
e = 2.7183
(Temperature in K = temperature in C +273).
Application notes
Typical applications include temperature control of ovens, deep freezers, rooms and for process
control, etc. Can also be used to drive high and low temperature alarms. In the basic circuit
below, calibration should be carried out by comparison with a known standard (e.g. a
thermometer or thermocouple). In the case of 0C, a mixture of ice and water can be used and for
+100C, use boiling water.
Note: That non-linearity should be expected at extended temperatures.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

A photo-resistor or light
dependent
resistor or cadmium
sulfide
(CdS)
cell is
a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be
referred to as a photoconductor.
A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of
high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner)
conduct electricity, there by lowering resistance.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its
own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the
only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy
to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also
called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the
electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

The symbol for a photo-resistor

Applications:
Photo-resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in
many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms, and
outdoor clocks.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent
lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium
antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent resistor) are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used
for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.Transducers are used for changing energy
types.

A Light Dependent Resistor

ADC
The ADC0808 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-todigital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. The 8-bit
A/D converter uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. The converter
features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog
switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly
access any of 8-single-ended analog signals. The device eliminates the need for external zero
and full-scale adjustments. Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and
decoded multiplexer address inputs and latched TTL tri-state outputs. The design of the
ADC0808 has been optimized by incorporating the most desirable aspects of several A/D
conversion techniques. The ADC0808 offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature
dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability, and consumes minimal power. These
features make this device ideally suited to applications from process and machine control to
consumer and automotive applications.
Features:
1.

Easy interface to all microprocessors.

2.

Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference.

3.

No zero or full-scale adjust required.

4.

8-channel multiplexer with address logic.

5.

0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply.

6.

Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications.

7.

Standard hermetic or molded 28-pin DIP package.

8.

28-pin molded chip carrier package.

9.

ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949.

Key Specifications:
1. Resolution 8 Bits
2. Total Unadjusted Error 1/2 LSB and 1 LSB
3. Single Supply 5 VDC
4. Low Power 15 mW
5. Conversion Time 100 s
Pin diagram:

Types of ADC:
Digital-Ramp ADC.
Successive Approximation ADC.
Flash ADC.
Digital-Ramp ADC:
Conversion from analog to digital form inherently involves comparator action where the value of
the analog voltage at some point in time is compared with some standard. A common way to do
that is to apply the analog voltage to one terminal of a comparator and trigger a binary counter
which drives a DAC. The output of the DAC is applied to the other terminal of the comparator.
Since the output of the DAC is increasing with the counter, it will trigger the comparator at some
point when its voltage exceeds the analog input. The transition of the comparator stops the binary
counter, which at that point holds the digital value corresponding to the analog voltage.

Successive Approximation ADC:

The successive approximation ADC is much faster than the digital ramp ADC because it uses
digital logic to converge on the value closest to the input voltage. A comparator and a DAC are
used in the process. A flowchart explaining the working is shown in the figure below.

Flash ADC:

Illustrated is a 3-bit flash ADC with resolution 1 volt (after Tocci). The resistor net and
comparators provide an input to the combinational logic circuit, so the conversion time is just the
propagation delay through the network - it is not limited by the clock rate or some convergence
sequence. It is the fastest type of ADC available, but requires a comparator for each value of
output (63 for 6-bit, 255 for 8-bit, etc.) Such ADCs are available in IC form up to 8-bit and 10-bit
flash ADCs (1023 comparators) are planned. The encoder logic executes a truth table to convert
the ladder of inputs to the binary number output.
Applications:
AD converters are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be processed, stored,
or transported in digital form. Fast video ADCs are used, for example, in TV tuner cards. Slow
on-chip 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs are common in microcontrollers. Very fast ADCs are needed in
digital oscilloscopes, and are crucial for new applications like software defined radio and in
music recording. ADC's dynamic range is also important.

Relays
A relay is used to isolate one electrical circuit from another. It allows a low current control circuit
to make or break an electrically isolated high current circuit path. The basic relay consists of a
coil and a set of contacts. The most common relay coil is a length of magnet wire wrapped
around a metal core. When voltage is applied to the coil, current passes through the wire and
creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field pulls the contacts together and holds them there
until the current flow in the coil has stopped. The diagram below shows the parts of a simple
relay.

Figure: Relay
Operation:
When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is
mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection
with a fixed contact. When the current is switched off, the armature is usually returned by a
spring to its resting position shown in figure 6.6(b). Latching relays exist that require operation
of a second coil to reset the contact position.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay operates
a thyristor or other solid-state switching device with a transformer or light-emitting diode to
trigger it.

Pole and throw

SPST
SPST relay stands for Single Pole Single Throw relay. Current will only flow through the
contacts when the relay coil is energized.

Figure: SPST Relay

SPDT Relay
SPDT Relay stands for Single Pole Double Throw relay. Current will flow between the movable
contact and one fixed contact when the coil is De-energized and between the movable contact
and the alternate fixed contact when the relay coil is energized. The most commonly used relay
in car audio, the Bosch relay, is a SPDT relay.

Figure: SPDT Relay

DPST Relay
DPST relay stands for Double Pole Single Throw relay. When the relay coil is energized, two
separate and electrically isolated sets of contacts are pulled down to make contact with their
stationary counterparts. There is no complete circuit path when the relay is De-energized.

Figure: DPST Relay

DPDT Relay
DPDT relay stands for Double Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but has
twice as many contacts. There are two completely isolated sets of contacts.

Figure: DPDT Relay

This is a 4 Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but it has 4 sets of isolated
contacts.

Figure: 4 Pole Double Throw relay

Types of relay:
1.

Latching Relay

2.

Reed Relay

3.

Mercury Wetted Relay

4.

Machine Tool Relay

5.

Solid State Relay (SSR)

Latching relay
Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet operates a
cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving
and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi-stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved
with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with
an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while
the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the
coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one
coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has
the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains

its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to make it change state.

Figure: Latching relay

Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which protects
the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic field generated
when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster
switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.

Mercury-wetted Relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of their
low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.

Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normallyclosed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many

relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
Solid-state relay
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle.
As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.

Figure: Solid relay, which has no moving parts

Specification

Number and type of contacts normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

Contact sequence "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old
style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get
dropped while dialing the number.

Rating of contacts small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up
to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current

Voltage rating of contacts typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive
types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V

Coil voltage machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few milliamperes

Applications:
Relays are used:
To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems,
To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile,
To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),
To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are
easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also
be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realized by
connecting relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting contacts in parallel.
Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely used
in safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste handling
machinery.
As oscillators, also called vibrators. The coil is wired in series with the normally closed
contacts. When a current is passed through the relay coil, the relay operates and opens the
contacts that carry the supply current. This stops the current and causes the contacts to
close again. The cycle repeats continuously, causing the relay to open and close rapidly.
Vibrators are used to generate pulsed current.
To generate sound. A vibrator, described above, creates a buzzing sound because of the
rapid oscillation of the armature. This is the basis of the electric bell, which consists of a
vibrator with a hammer attached to the armature so it can repeatedly strike a bell.

 To perform time delay functions. Relays can be used to act as an mechanical time delay
device by controlling the release time by using the effect of residual magnetism by means
of a inserting copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly.

LCD(Liqiud Crystal Display )

One of the most common devices attached to an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most
common LCDs connected to the controllers are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16
characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines,
respectively. But in this project we are interfacing the 16*2 LCD it consists a 16 pins.
Schematic Diagram:

Figure: Schematic Diagram

Pin Description

Symbol

Level

VSS

Power, GND

VDD

Power, 5V

Vo

Power, for LCD Drive

Pin

Function

Register Select Signal

4

RS

H/L H: Data Input

L: Instruction Input

R/W

7-14 DB0-DB7
LCD
the

H/L

H: Data Read (LCD->MPU)

L: Data Write (MPU->LCD)

H,H->L Enable
H/L Data Bus; Software selectable 4- or 8-bit mode

15

NC

NOT CONNECTED

16

NC

NOT CONNECTED

line

consist
three
control
(RS,

R/W,&En), eight data lines (D0-D7), Supply Voltage (Vcc), Contrast control (Vee) and
ground (Vss).
Control Pins Description
EN (Enable)
Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it data. To
send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other
two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready,
bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this
varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
RS (Register Select)

Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a command or
special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data
being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter
"T" on the screen you would set RS high.
R/W (Read write)
Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data bus is
being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading)
the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write
commands, so RW will almost always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected by the
user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4,
DB5, DB6, and DB7.
Logic status on control lines:
E - 0 Access to LCD disabled
- 1 Access to LCD enabled
R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD
- 1 Reading data from LCD
RS - 0 Instructions
-

1 Character

Writing data to the LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to low
2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low
Read data from data lines (if it is reading) on LCD:
1) Set R/W bit to high
2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)
4) Set E line to high
5) Set E line to low

CHAPTER-6

Software Components:
ABOUT SOFTWARE
Softwares used are:
Keil software for c programming
Express PCB for lay out design
Express SCH for schematic design.
What's New in Vision3?
Vision3 adds many new features to the Editor like Text Templates, Quick Function Navigation,
and Syntax Coloring with brace high lighting Configuration Wizard for dialog based startup and
debugger setup. Vision3 is fully compatible to Vision2 and can be used in parallel with
Vision2.
What is Vision3?
Vision3 is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that helps you write, compile, and
debug embedded programs. It encapsulates the following components:
A project manager.
A make facility.
Tool configuration.
Editor.
A powerful debugger.
To help you get started, several example programs (located in the \C51\Examples,
\C251\Examples, \C166\Examples, and \ARM\...\Examples) are provided.
HELLO is a simple program that prints the string "Hello World" using the Serial
Interface.

 MEASURE is a data acquisition system for analog and digital systems.

TRAFFIC is a traffic light controller with the RTX Tiny operating system.
SIEVE is the SIEVE Benchmark.
DHRY is the Dhrystone Benchmark.
WHET is the Single-Precision Whetstone Benchmark.
Additional example programs not listed here are provided for each device architecture.
Building an Application in Vision2
To build (compile, assemble, and link) an application in Vision2, you must:
1. Select Project -(forexample,166\EXAMPLES\HELLO\HELLO.UV2).
2. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.
Vision2 compiles, assembles, and links the files in your project.
Creating Your Own Application in Vision2
To create a new project in Vision2, you must:
1. Select Project - New Project.
2. Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.
3. Select Project - Select Device and select an 8051, 251, or C16x/ST10 device from the
Device Database.
4. Create source files to add to the project.
5. Select Project - Targets, Groups, Files. Add/Files, select Source Group1, and add the
source files to the project.
6. Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note when you select the target device
from the Device Database all special options are set automatically. You typically only
need to configure the memory map of your target hardware. Default memory model
settings are optimal for most applications.
7. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.
Debugging an Application in Vision2
To debug an application created using Vision2, you must:

1. Select Debug - Start/Stop Debug Session.

2. Use the Step toolbar buttons to single-step through your program. You may enter G,
main in the Output Window to execute to the main C function.
3. Open the Serial Window using the Serial #1 button on the toolbar.
Debug your program using standard options like Step, Go, Break, and so on.
Starting Vision2 and creating a Project
Vision2 is a standard Windows application and started by clicking on the program icon. To
create a new project file select from the Vision2 menu.
Project New Project. This opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you
for the new project file name.
We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project. You can simply use the icon Create
New Folder in this dialog to get a new empty folder. Then select this folder and enter the file
name for the new project, i.e. Project1. Vision2 creates a new project file with the name
PROJECT1.UV2 which contains a default target and file group name. You can see these names
in the Project.
Window Files.
Now use from the menu Project Select Device for Target and select a CPU for your project.
The Select Device dialog box shows the Vision2 device database. Just select the micro
controller you use. We are using for our examples the Philips 80C51RD+ CPU. This selection
sets necessary tool options for the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way the tool
Configuration.
Building Projects and Creating a HEX Files
Typical, the tool settings under Options Target are all you need to start a new application. You
may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build Target toolbar
icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, Vision2 will display errors and warning
messages in the Output Window Build page. A double click on a message line opens the source

file on the correct location in a Vision2 editor window. Once you have successfully generated
your application you can start debugging.
After you have tested your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX file to download the
software into an EPROM programmer or simulator. Vision2 creates HEX files with each build
process when Create HEX files under Options for Target Output is enabled. You may start your
PROM programming utility after the make process when you specify the program under the
option Run User Program #1.
CPU Simulation
Vision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be mapped for read, write,
or code execution access. The Vision2 simulator traps and reports illegal memory accesses.
In addition to memory mapping, the simulator also provides support for the integrated
peripherals of the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals of the CPU you have
selected are configured from the Device.
Database selection
You have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more Information about
selecting a device. You may select and display the on-chip peripheral components using the
Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of each peripheral using the controls in the dialog
boxes.
Start Debugging
You start the debug mode of Vision2 with the Debug Start/Stop Debug Session command.
Depending on the Options for Target Debug Configuration, Vision2 will load the application
program and run the startup code Vision2 saves the editor screen layout and restores the screen
layout of the last debug session. If the program execution stops, Vision2 opens an editor
window with the source text or shows CPU instructions in the disassembly window. The next
executable statement is marked with a yellow arrow. During debugging, most editor features are
still available.

For example, you can use the find command or correct program errors. Program source text of
your application is shown in the same windows. The Vision2 debug mode differs from the edit
mode in the following aspects:
_ The Debug Menu and Debug Commands described on page 28 are Available. The additional
debug windows are discussed in the following.
_ The project structure or tool parameters cannot be modified. All build Commands are disabled.
Disassembly Window
The Disassembly window shows your target program as mixed source and assembly program or
just assembly code. A trace history of previously executed instructions may be displayed with
Debug View Trace Records. To enable the trace history, set Debug Enable/Disable Trace
Recording.
If you select the Disassembly Window as the active window all program step commands work on
CPU instruction level rather than program source lines. You can select a text line and set or
modify code breakpoints using toolbar buttons or the context menu commands.
You may use the dialog Debug Inline Assembly to modify the CPU instructions. That allows
you to correct mistakes or to make temporary changes to the target program you are debugging.
Steps for executing the Keil programs:

1.

Click on the Keil uVision Icon on Desktop

2.

The following fig will appear

3.

Click on the Project menu from the title bar

4.

Then Click on New Project

5.

Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own folder
sited in either C:\ or D:\

6.

Then Click on save button above.

7.

Select the component for u r project. i.e. Atmel

8.

Click on the + Symbol beside of Atmel

9.

Select AT89C51 as shown below

10.

Then Click on OK

11.

The Following fig will appear

12.

Then Click either YES or NOmostly NO

13.

Now your project is ready to USE

14.

Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option Source group 1 as
shown in next page.

15.

Click on the file option from menu bar and select new

16.

The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double
clicking on its blue boarder.

17.

Now start writing program in either in C or ASM

18.

For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension . asm and for C
based program save it with extension .C

19.

Now right click on Source group 1 and click on Add files to Group Source

20.

Now you will get another window, on which by default C files will appear.

21.

Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file

22.

Click only one time on option ADD

23.

Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.

24.

If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously.

25.

The new window is as follows

26.

Then Click OK

27.

Now Click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as shown
in fig below

28.

Drag the port a side and click in the program file.

29.

Now keep Pressing function key F11 slowly and observe.

30.

You are running your program successfully

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Schematic Explanation