75-1-Jan-Mar-20 14

Copyright
Regd. No. 17549/57 with the Registrar of Newspapers
Volume 75-1
January - March 2014
JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Volume 75-1
JOURNAL
OF THE
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
ISSN 0258-0500
` 20.00
Journal Of The
Indian Roads Congress
Volume 75-1
CONTENTS

Page
th
Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74 Annual Session

Paper No. 607 Critical Appraisal of Correlations Between CBR and Subgrade Modulus
Pawan Kumar, Deepthi Dilip and G.L. Sivakumar Babu
Paper No. 608 Laboratory Performance of Polymer Modified Warm Mix Asphalt
P.K. Jain, Uma Devi Rongali, Anita Chourasiya and Munshi Ramizraja M
Paper No. 609 Ultimate Limit Sate of Linear Elements for Bending Section 8 of
IRC: 112 Flexural Analysis of Beams
T. Viswanathan
Paper No. 610 Detailing Provisions of Irc:112-2011 Compared with Previous Codes (i.e. Irc:21 & Irc:18)
Part 2 : Detailing Requirements for Structural Members & Ductile Detailing for Seismic Resistance
(Section 16 & 17 Of Irc: 112)
Alok Bhowmick
Paper No. 611 Development of Level of Service Criteria for Pedestrians
Rajat Rastogi, Satish Chandra and Mithun Mohan
List of Advertisers
Inside Front Cover - New Publications
Inside Back Cover - Advertisement Tariff
Outside Back Cover - Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Metal Engineering & Treatment Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Guidelines for Submission of Technical Papers
Second Vivekananda Bridge Tollway Company Pvt. Ltd.
Khodiyar Developers & Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.
Techfab India
GR Infraprojects Ltd.
Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Request for Expression of Interest - PWD Assam
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The Indian Roads Congress

E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in/journal@irc.org.in
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IRC Website: www.irc.org.in
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Published by the Indian Roads Congress

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New Delhi
January-March 2014
The Rights of Publication and Translation are reserved.
The Indian Roads Congress as a body does not hold

itself responsible for statements made, or for opinions
expressed in the Papers published in this Volume.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House,
Shahjahan Road, New Delhi on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress. Printed by Shri Madan Lal Goel on behalf of the
Indian Roads Congress at Aravali Printers & Publishers (P) Ltd., W-30, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New Delhi.
14,000 copies, January-March, 2014
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2014
th
Glimpses ofHTechnical
held
during
the
Annual
ighlights of a TSessions
echnical Sessions
held
during the
74 A74
nnual
Session Session of
th
nd
the IRC at Guwahati (Assam) from 18 to 22 January, 2014
th
On the invitation of Government of Assam, the 74th Annual Session of Indian Roads Congress (IRC) was held at Guwahati from 18th
to 22nd January, 2014. The highlights of this Session have already been printed in edition of Indian Highways February, 2014.
The glimpses and gist of the Technical Sessions held during 74th Annual Session of IRC are covered in this edition.
Glimpses of Valedictory Session of 74th Annual Session of IRC
A view of Dais during Valedictory Session of 74th Annual Session
Shri Tarun Gogai, Honble Chief Minister, Assam; Smt. Ajanta Neog, Honble Minister of PWD Assam; Shri Monilal Goala,
Parliamentary Secretary, PWD, Assam; Shri C. Kandasamy, President, IRC and DG (RD) & SS, MoRTH; Shri V.K. Pipersenia, Additional
Chief Secretary, Govt. of Assam; Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC and Shri A.C Bordoloi, Commissioner
& Special Secretary to the Govt. of Assam during Valedictory Function of 74th Annual Session, IRC
Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74th Annual Session
Glimpses of Various Technical Sessions

I) Technical Presentations by National/International Organizations/Exhibitors of New Technology/Materials
Chairman Shri A.V. Sinha and

Co-Chairman Dr. Teiborlang Lyngdo
Ryntathiang alongwith Presenters
Shri Rolf Jenny,

M/s. Ammann Apollo India Pvt. Ltd.
Shri Jon Day,

M/s. Instrumentation Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Shri Andreas Korytowski,

M/s. CCL International Ltd.
Shri Sowmen Pradhan

M/s.Bentley Systems India Pvt. Ltd .
Shri Vikas Goel,

M/s. Shyam Steel India Ltd.
The Technical Presentation session was chaired by Shri A.V.

Sinha, Former DG(RD) & SS, MoRT&H and Co-chaired by
Dr. Teiborlang Lyngdo Ryntathiang, Associate Professor, Deptt.
of Civil Engg. IIT Guwahati. The Session covered the aspects
of new technology, new materials/products, new techniques, new
instrument/machines and equipment etc.
hh Use of Warm Asphalt by Shri Rolf Jenny,
M/s. Ammann Apollo India Pvt. Ltd. During presentation
Shri J. Rolf Jenny highlighted the salient features of their
product & production process of Warm Asphalt, field uses
of Warm Asphalt, & comparative advantages of Warm
Asphalt over conventional methods etc. For more details
please contact Presenter on e-mail: rolf.jenny@ammanngroup.com
hh Asset Management using Sideway-force Coefficient
Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM) by Shri Jon
Day, M/s. Instrumentation Solutions Pvt. Ltd. During
presentation Shri Jon Day highlighted the salient features
of machine SCRIM, various application of machine in
surveying of roads, daily survey capacity of machine,
details of experience from New Zealand, etc. For more
details please contact Presenter on e-mail: jon.day@wdm.
co.uk
hh Warm
Mix
Asphalt-Performance,
Potential
benefits & other Parameters by Shri Ahmed Asif,
M/s. Mead Westvaco India Pvt. Ltd. During presentation
Shri Ahmed Asif highlighted the salient features of their
product & production process of Warm Mix Asphalt, field
uses of Warm Mix Asphalt, & comparative advantages of
Warm Mix Asphalt over conventional methods etc. For
more details please contact Presenter on e-mail: ahmed.asif@
mwv.com
hh Mechanization Operation with Innovative Techniques
Practiced for Integrated Complex Project of Multilevel
Flyover with River Bridge and ROB by Shri J.S. Jadhav
hh
hh
hh
hh
& Shri K.B. Lawand, M/s. B.G. Shirke Construction

Technology Pvt. Ltd. The Presenter highlighted the salient
features of their project of Multilevel Flyover covering
environmental aspects, quality and safety aspects, plants
& laboratory, various challenges & problems faced &
solutions, thereto, etc. For more details please contact
Presenter on e-mail: jsjadhav@shirke.co.in
Composite Pavement Construction using Green Binder
Additives, Global Experience Made for India by
Shri Andreas Korytowski, M/s. CCL International Ltd.
During personation Shri Andreas Korytowski highlighted
the salient features of their product, hydration process
of this product when mixed with cement, its properties
and advantages, various application areas, details of case
studies from Serbia and India. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: korytowski@gmx.net
Designing Hill Road Alternatives Using MXRoad
(Powered by OpenRoads)" by Shri Sowmen Pradhan,
M/s. Bentley Systems India Pvt. Ltd. During persentation
Shri Sowmen Pradhan highlighted the salient features of
latest version of Bentley MXRoad for meeting the design
and modeling challenges of Hill Roads. For more details
please contact Presenter on e-mail: sowmen.pradhan@
bentley.com
Elvaloy Reactive Elastomeric Ter Polymers Enhancing the
Property of Bitumen by Shri Ashok Bansal, M/s. DuPont
Packaging & Industrial Polymers. During presentation
Shri Ashok Bansal highlighted the salient features of their
product including transportation mechanism, properties and
advantages alongwith the detailed case studies from India.
For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail: ashok.
bansal@dupont.com
Evolution of EQR TMT Re-bar from Primary production
route A desirable construction steel with super ductile

features particularly designed for Seismic Zones in
India by Shri Vikas Goel, M/s. Shyam Steel Industries
Ltd. During personation Shri Vikas Goel highlighted the
salient features & production process of their product,
field uses of TMT Rebar & comparative advantages

vis-a-vis other types of steel in particular related to seismic
prone zones etc. For more details please contact Presenter on
e-mail: vikash@shyamsteel.com
Parallel Session on Presentations by National/International Organizations/Exhibitors of New Technology/Materials
Chairman Dr. G.L. Sivakumar Babu and Co-Chairman

Dr. I.K. Pateriya alongwith Presenters
Mrs. Minimol Korulla, M/s. Maccaferri

Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Shri Vivek Ranjan,

M/s. Honeywell International India Pvt. Ltd.
Shri Girish Arekar, M/s. Active Software

Consultancy & Research Pvt. Ltd.
The Technical Presentation Session was chaired by Shri G.L.

Sivakumar Babu, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and Co-chaired by
Dr. I.K. Pateriya, Director, NRRDA.
The following
companies made presentations covering details of their
products/materials/technology, application methodology,
advantages etc.
hh Use of Bitumen Foaming by Shri Rolf Jenny,
M/s. Ammann Apollo India Pvt. Ltd. During presentation
Shri Rolf Jenny highlighted the salient features of their
product & production process of Bitumen Foaming, field
uses of Bitumen Foaming, & environmental advantages
etc. For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail:
rolf.jenny@ammann-group.com
hh Cost Effective & Energy Saving Honeywell Titan for
Bitumen Modification & Additive to Convert VG10/VG30
to Enhanced VG40 by Shri Vivek Ranjan, M/s. Honeywell
International India Pvt. Ltd. During presentation Shri Vivek
Ranjan highlighted the salient features of their product & mixing
process, field usage, advantages, etc. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: vivek.Ranjan@Honeywell.com
Shri Rajeeva R. Upadhyay,

M/s. Flexituff International Ltd.
hh Drainage Solutions Using Geocomposite drain and

Similar Flexible Materials by Mrs. Minimol Korulla,
M/s. Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd. During
presentation Mrs. Minimol Korulla highlighted the salient
features of their product, properties and advantages
alongwith detailed case studies from India.For more
details please contact Presenter on e-mail: minikorulla@
maccaferri-india.com
hh Active Road by Shri Girish Arekar, M/s. Active Software
Consultancy & Research Pvt. Ltd. During presentation
Shri Girish Arekar highlighted the salient features of latest
version of Active Road that empowers the road engineers
to design pavements, modeling, material requirement,
etc.For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail:
girisharekar@yahoo.com
hh Geosynthetics for Tomorrow by Shri Rajeeva
R. Upadhyay, M/s. Flexituff International Ltd. During
presentation Shri Upadhyay highlighted the salient
features of their product, field usage, overall advantages,
rajeeva@flexituff.com
II) Technical Session on Presentations by Research Organizations and Consultants
Chairman Shri C. Kandasamy and

Co-Chairman Dr. S. Velmurugan
alongwith Presenters
Shri S. Satheesh, Dy. Chief Engineer,

Highway Research Stn., Chennai
Prof. Ravinder Bir Singh SDD Global,

Freelance, Trainer & Consultant, Independent
Consultant, Mohali
The Technical Session was Chaired by Shri C. Kandasamy,

D.G. (RD) and SS, MoRTH and Co-Chaired by
Dr. S. Velmurugan, Principal Scientist, CRRI. Following
presentations were made:
hh T
he research presentation was made by Shri S.
Satheesh, Dy. Director (Traffic), HRS Chennai on
'Comparative Study of Journey Characteristics on Urban,
Semi-Urban & Rural Stretches. The presentation
highlighted the details of comparative study carried out
using floating car method for determining Journey time
and Journey speed for the test stretches selected in twin
cities namely Chennai & Madurai of Tamil Nadu, its
methodology, data collection, analysis of data, outcome
of study & results, etc. For more details please contact

Presenter on e-mail:satheesh.subramaniam@gmail.com
hh The presentation was made by Prof. Ravinder Bir
Singh, SDD Global changes, Mohali on 'Response of
Rigid Pavements, with or without Steel Fibres, w.r.t.
Environmental and Traffic Loadings. The presentation
covered the details of case study of replacement of the
existing bituminous approach road (2.48 km length), from
Hall gate to Golden Temple, Amritsar, with Rigid Pavement
using steel fibres (FRC), instrumentations carried out at
pavement during construction, performance of pavement,
comparison with conventional pavement methodology,
data collection, analysis of data, results, etc. For more
details please contact Presenter on e-mail: aarbesingh@
gmail.com
Parallel Session on Presentations by Research Organizations and Consultants
Chairman Dr. V.K. Raina and Co-Chairman

Shri Pratap S. Raizada
The Technical Session was chaired by Dr. V.K. Raina,

Professor, Emeritus, COEP and Co-Chaired by Shri Pratap S.
Raizada, Vice President (Corporate Affairs), M/s. Gammon
India Ltd. The following presentation was made:
hh T
he presentation was made by Shri R.K. Jaigopal,
Managing Director, Struct Geotech Research Laboratories
(P) Ltd., Bangalore on Àccelerated Bridge Construction
Technique. The presentation highlighted the salient
Shri R.K Jaigopal, Managing Director, Sruct Geothech

Research Laboratories (P) Ltd. Banglore
features of Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC)

Techniques, worldwide experience on ABC, current
scenario in bridge construction in India, advantages of
ABC like time saving, economy, environmental, etc over
conventional bridge construction technique, efforts needed
in India to shift towards ABC, etc. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: sgrlpl@yahoo.com
III) Presentations by the officer of State/Central Govt. Department(s)
Chairman Shri D.B. Deshpande

and Co-Chairman Shri Ashok
Basa alongwith Presenters
Shri K.S. Krishna Reddy

Managing Director, KRDCL
The technical session was Chaired by Shri D.B. Deshpande,

former Secretary PWD, Govt. of Maharashtra & Past
President, IRC and presently State Information Commissioner,
Maharashtra and Co-Chaired by Shri Ashok Basa, President,
Institution of Engineers (India). The following presentations
were made:
hh Shri K.S. Krishna Reddy, Managing Director, KRDCL,
Bangalore made the presentation on Innovations/
Innovative Techniques/Procedures highlighting brief of
KRDCL history, details of completed projects ranging
from BOT to EPC, fast track construction methodology
adopted for completion of projects, details of maintenance
contracts, salient features of some of the completed and
ongoing projects particularly illuminated raised pedestrian
Dr. I.K. Pateriya, Director,

NRRDA
Shri Shantanoo Bhattacharya,

Executive Engineer, PWD & NH
Department, Assam
crossing in the State and also covered the innovative

concept of utility crossing across the road using corrugated
HDPE pipes. For more details please contact Presenter on
e-mail: krishnareddy1987@gmail.com
hh Dr I.K. Pateriya, Director, National Rural Roads Development
Agency made the presentation on Guidelines on New
Technology Initiatives under Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana highlighting the details of targets and achievements
under PMGSY including those of PMGSY-II scheme,
launched by Ministry of Rural Development in April 2013.
The presentation focused on the need of guidelines on
technology initiatives, issues in using new technologies,
suggested provisions for promoting new technologies, need
for training and system of awards. He brought to notice that

in order to mainstream already developed technologies which
are forming part of IRC specifications but are not being
used on large scale, the States have been advised to propose
minimum 10 % length of annual proposals under PMGSY
using such technologies. Also, for promoting IRC accredited
materials and other waste materials, minimum 5 % length of
annual proposals is expected to be taken up using such new
materials/waste materials. At the end, he summarised the brief
of projects already completed using new technologies and
also a summary of the projects which have been sanctioned
in last one year. For more details please contact Presenter on

e-mail: ik.pateriya@pmgsy.nic.in
hh Shri Shantanoo Bhattacharya, Executive Engineer,
PWD & NH Department, Assam made the presentation
onInnovative Soil Stabilization Techniques in Assam
highlighting the salient features of Vetiver system and
other local materials like bamboo, methodology for usage,
various application of Vetiver in erosion control and slope
stabilization, successful case studies in Assam, advantages,
shantanoo.bhattacharyya@gmail.com
Parallel Session on Presentations by the officer of State/Central Govt. Department(s)
Chairman Shri D.P. Gupta and

Co-Chairman Shri S.M. Ramachandani
Shri G. Karbak, Asst.

Engineer, PWD Govt. of
Arunachal Pradesh
The technical Session was Chaired by Shri D.P. Gupta,

Former D.G.(R.D.), MoRT&H and Co-Chaired by Shri S.M.
Ramchandani, Joint Managing Director, MSRDC, Mumbai.
The following presentations were made:
hh Shri G. Karbak, Assistant Engineer, PWD, Govt. of Arunachal
Pradesh made the presentation on Ùse of Rinolith as Soil
Cement stabilization in High Rainfall Areas of Arunachal
Hills highlighting concept of stabilization of pavement using
enzymes, properties of their product, mixing process, field
application process, brief about trial stretch project done in
Arunachal Pradesh under PMGSY scheme for promotion of
new technology/material, saving in terms of cost & aggregate,
advantages, etc. For more details please contact Presenter on
e-mail: karbakgambi@yahoo.in
hh Shri T.R. Shankar Raman, representative of World Wildlife
Federation made the presentation on `Mitigating Effects
of Linear Infrastructure on Wildlife Survival in India
highlighting concept of ecology & wildlife, effect of roads,
Shri T.R. Shankar Raman of

World Wildlife Federation
Shri I.O. Noronha, Managing

Director, Leown Solutions
Pvt. Ltd., Mangalore
vehicles passing through wildlife/forest on wildlife and

prevalent practices in some of the foreign countries for
facilitating safe movement of wildlife animals.Presentation
also highlighted the need for considering multi-disciplinary
approach in framing ecologically sound policies and
guidelines/standards on linear road infrastructure affecting
wildlife. For more details please contact Presenter on
e-mail: christy.williams@wwfnepal.org
hh Shri I.O. Noronha, Managing Director, Leown Solutions
Pvt. Ltd., Mangalore made the presentation on Fibrous
Road Concrete highlighting concept of use of innovative
additives in place of reinforcement for construction of Fibrous
Specialised concrete pavement (4 inch) that leads to saving in
thickness of conventional pavement slab (12 inch), material,
labour, curing time, etc and details of actual trial project carried
out at Mumbai (petrol pump at Goregoan , east, in 2000),
its performance after 13 years, etc. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: orwin_noronha@yahoo.co.in
Chairman Shri Mahesh Kumar and Co-Chairman

Shri J.S. Jadhav alongwith Presenters
Shri Atop Lego, Chief Engineer, PWD

Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh
The technical Session was Chaired by Shri Mahesh

Kumar, Engineer-in-Chief, Haryana PWD (B&R) and
Co-Chaired by Shri J.S. Jadhav, Chief Executive, M/s. B.G.
Shirke Construction Technology Pvt. Ltd. The following
hh Shri Atop Lego, Chief Engineer, PWD Arunachal Pradesh
made the presentation on Planning & Design of Bridges
in Hilly Areas of North East- Practical issues thereof
highlighting some of the pertinent issues like alignment
and location of bridges, configuration of bridges and
selection of suitable type of bridges in the hilly areas of
North East owing to the peculiar characteristics of rivers
hh
Shri R.K. Kansal, Executive Engineer,

Haryana PWD, B&R
in the region and unstable hills. For more details please

contact Presenter on e-mail: atoplego@gmail.com
Shri R.K. Kansal, Executive Engineer, PWD Haryana
made the presentation on Waste Material Utilization
in Construction Recycling Concrete. The Presenter
highlighted the various advantages of using recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA) and the details of research
work done in the lab for various trial mixes using all fresh
aggregates, 30% RCA, 40% RCA, 50% RCA and using
100% RCA and came out with some interesting findings.
For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail: pwd.
eepd1.ambala@gmail.com
Chairman Shri K.K.Y. Mahendrakar

and Co-Chairman Shri T. Elangovan
Shri Manv Prasad, S.E. B.R.O.
The Technical Session was Chaired by Shri K.K.Y. Mahindrakar,

Chief Engineer, DDG Persdte., and Co-Chaired by Shri T.
Elangovan, Director, NATPAC. The following presentations
were made;
hh Shri Manv Prasad, SE (Civil), BRO made the presentation
on Innovative Products and Techniques adopted in BRO
highlighting efforts of the Border Roads Organization
(BRO) in implementing new innovative products and
techniques viz soil stabilizers: MK III, RBI 81, Terracil etc;
additives to bitumen and cement: Zycosil, Micro Silica,
Recron etc; techniques to stabilize slopes using geo Webs
etc. in constructing roads in remote inaccessible steep hilly
terrain. BRO is implementing the successful techniques/
new materials in a big way. For more details please contact
Presenter on e-mail: manv_prasad@yahoo.co.in
hh Shri K.C. Dhimole, Resident Technical Advisor, Govt. of
Arunachal Pradesh made the presentation on Ìssues related
to Rural Roads in Hilly Areas of North East Region. He
highlighted the constraints faced in the planning and designing
of roads in hilly complex terrain vis-a-vis requirments for
development of environment friendly roads which included
Shri K.C. Dhimole, Resident

Technical Advisor, Govt. of
Arunachal Pradesh
Shri S.S. Porwal, VSM, Chief

Engineer, Project Swastik, BRO
development of geological maps in appropriate scales, hazard

mapping of vulnerable areas, appropriate pavement design for
snow bound area, adoption of ridge top alignment, adoption
of bio-engineering and retaining structures measures for cut
and fit process etc. For more appropriate planning and design
of rural roads in the hilly area need of digital terrain mapping
with 3D perspective on a GIS platforam with using latest
space technology was highlighted. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: dhimole123@gmail.com
hh Shri S.S. Porwal, VSM, Chief Engineer, Project Swastik,
BRO made the presentation on `Sonapur Cut & Cover
Structure: An Innovative Approach to solve 20 years old
problem highlighting salient features of tunneling project on
NH-44, details of problems, its severity, earlier steps taken to
overcome before introduction of new concept of cut & cover,
brief of investigation carried out to understand geology of
rock/landslide, methodology/machinery adopted, various
challenges faced during construction, experience learned and
its completion in 2008, etc. For more details please contact
Presenter on e-mail:ssporwal@yahoo.com
IV) Technical Session on Presentations by Research Scholars/Students
Chairman Shri G. Sharan and Co-Chairman

Shri Sunil Bhowmik alongwith Presenters
Ms. Sunitha K. Nayar, Doctoral Research

Scholar, IIT Madras, Chennai
The session was Chaired by Shri G. Sharan, Former DG (RD)

& SS, MoRT&H and Co-Chaired by Shri Sunil Bhowmick,
Engineer-in-Chief, PWD Tripura.The following presentations
were made:
hh Ms. Sunitha K. Nayar, Doctoral Research Scholar, IIT
Madras, Chennai made presentation on `The Design
for Fatigue Resistance of Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Pavements highlighting comprehensive methodology for
the design of FRC slabs-on-grade incorporating design
techniques and material characteristics specific to fibre
reinforced concrete. He also provided the comparison with
conventional practice of design of rigid pavement adopting
elastic theory bringing out limitation, design procedure for
FRC concrete slabs incorporating inelastic design for load
carrying capacity and a stress reduction factor for fatigue
loading specific to the material toughness, its advantages,
sunithasanthoshnair@gmail.com
hh S
hri Goutham Sarang, Research Scholar, NIT, Karnataka
made presentation on `Performance Studies on Bituminous
Concrete Mixes Using Waste Plastic highlighting details
of laboratory study conducted, brief about waste material
& ingredient of mix, preparation process of mix specimen
using various combination of ingredient of bitumen, plastic,
etc. Testing methodology adopted to judge performance
of specimen, details of various parameters determined
were alos discussed. The study concluded that BC mix
with 6% waste plastics gives the maximum Marshall
stability, flow & Marshall Quotient within limits, increased
ITS both for unconditioned and conditioned samples,
mix more resistence to moisture as revealed in TSR and
Boiling Tests, For more details please contact Presenter on
e-mail:gouthamsarang@gmail.com
V) Expert Talk
Shri Kiyoshi Dachiku, JICA

Expert delivering Expert Talk
Shri R.K. Jain, Rigid Pavement

Shri Philip Jordan, Road Safety

Dr. V.K. Raina, Bridge Expert

delivering Expert Talk
Expert Talk session on the following topics was held in order to

stretch about 180 meter length in aggregate is under observation
keep abreast with the latest technical developments & solutions
of Shri Dilbagh Singh Dhanda, E.E. and Shri Rahul Singh,
to the various challenges faced by highway sector. The following
SDE, Incharge of the Road. Till 3 months of the treatment,
there has not been any sign of ravelling on treated sections. The
hh Mobile Maintenance Management System by
treated stretch is under close observation of PWD Engineers of
Shri Kiyoshi Dachiku, JICA Expert
Provincial Division, Faridabad.
Mobile maintenance managment system helps in detecting an
hh Road Safety Management Strategy by Shri Philip
early symtoms of deterioration in roads and bridges through
Jordan, World Bank Expert
inspection using mobile and non-destructive devices which
The presentation highlighted the key Road Safety Engineered
ulternatively leads to an optimal treatement and execution
processes that are contributing towards safer roads in Australia
timings after thoroughly analyzing the inspection report. The
and other western countries. These includes adoption of a
presentation showed the number of devices which are generally
safety conscious approach to the planning and design of roads
used including ERSS (Emergency Report Support Sustem) for
(Road Safety audit crash prevention), gradual elimination of
detecting the various types of distresses in roads and highway
the most hazardous locations i.e. crash reduction black spot
structures. The presentation also highlghted the need of the
investigations, improved road side safety, safer work sites,
maintenance specialists, maintenance inspection companies,
good inter-agency coordination etc. The solutions may differ
inspection think Tank etc. for encouraging preventive
from country to country. These approaches and systematic
maintenance in India and importance of diagnostic inspection.
methods are readily applicable in emerging countries. There
For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail: kiyoshi.
is a requirement of experienced and dedicated road safety
dachiku@live.jp
engineers. He has also highlighted the need of Road Safety
hh Low Cost Pavement ProtectiveTechnique Collaborative
Audit, national accreditation system for auditors and a national
Research by Shri R.K. Jain, Chief Engineer (Retd.),
training programme courses for road safety auditors and semiHaryana PWD and Rigid Pavement Expert
auditor.
The presentation highlighted the details of an experiment
hh Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Mega
conducted on 17.10.2013 at Shooting Range at Surajkund Road
Coastal Seal links in India and Strategy for their
(Haryana Pattern) by IRC, CRRI, Haryana PWD, CMA and
Durability by Dr. V.K. Raina, Professor, Emeritus,
Ultra Tech Cement. There was ravelling in the wheel paths.
COEP
Photographs were taken and one section was designated as a
Dr. V.K. Raina made the presentation on the Guidelines for the
`Control Section. It had rained in the morning on the day of
Design and Construction of Mega Coastal Sea-Links in India
experiment. A mixture of 1:1 ratio of cement and sand mortar
and Strategy for their Durability based on his papers published
of flowable consistency was broomed in the interstices of the
in January-March 2013 and July-September 2013 issues of the
portion where ravelling had just started. The sand used was
Journal of the IRC, which was well received and applauded by
600 micron and below. The cement was OPC Ultra Tech. The
the august audience. For more details please contact Presenter
traffic was diverted from treated reaches for three days. The
on e-mail: rainavk@gmail.com
VI) Panel Discussion on Asset Management and Project Management in Road Sector
The Panel Discussion was held on Asset Management
Management Associates also made detailed presentation on
and Project Management in Road Sector. This Session
topic Project Management in Asset Management. Remaining
was Chaired by Shri V.L. Patankar, Additional Director
panelist briefed their views on topic Asset Management and
General, MoRT&H, New Delhi and the Panelists were
Project Management in Road Sector and presentation by
Shri Sunil Bhowmick, Engineer-in-Chief, PWD Tripura;
Shri Shishir Bansal, Project Manager, Flyover Circle, F-12
Dr. Ashok Kumar, World Bank Specialist; Shri Mahesh Kumar,
Green Infrastructure on Metropolitan City Delhi.
E-in-Chief, PWD Haryana, Dr. G.V.S. Raju, E-in-C, Rural
The presentation of Dr. Ashok Kumar on Asset Management
Roads PWD Andhra Pradesh, Shri S.K. Puri, Former, D.G.
highlighted the various facet of Asset Management for
(RD) & Spl. Secretary, MORTH, Shri Adesh Jain, National
efficient and qualitative management of road asset taking
President, Project Management Associates & Shri D.P. Gupta
into consideration of life cycle costs and other relevant issues.
Former, D.G.(R.D.), MOST.
The presentation covers the Key issues, international scenario
In this session Dr. Ashok Kumar, Senior Highway Engineer,
including India scene. Key steps of Asset Management
the World Bank made detailed presentation on topic Asset
Systems (AMS) such as Set Directions, align organisation and
Management and Shri Adesh Jain, National President, Project
Development and use of AMS have been widely discussed
10
Chairman Shri V.L. Patankar

alongwith Panelists
Dr. Ashok Kumar, Senior

Highway Engineer, World Bank
with emphasis on establishment of sound and reliable Asset

information system (AIS) covering Long term Financing Plans
(LTFP), risk based approach, preparation of Asset valuation
and depreciation reports including road safety modules for
Asset Management. The presentation also included the case
studies on New Zealand Transport Agency and some typical
international practices prevalent in Asset management for
ensuring resource efficiency in road construction, operation
and maintenance programs. For more details please contact
Presenter on e-mail: akumar1@worldbank.org
The Presentation of Shri Adesh Jain highlighted the role of
Project Management as integral part of Asset Management
in terms of its basic characteristicsProject Mind Set &
operational mind set-bringing out the major differences
between these two characteristics.The operation mind set
focussed on be realistic in setting up various targets/processes
to achieve the end objective. The presentation also covered
the project failure analysis considering planning, scheduling,
organizing, staffing, directing and controlling as core activities
and from the analysis it followed that the time overrun in
Projects is directly proportional to amount of rushing in the
beginning. In the end, the presentation highlighted the need
Shri Adesh Jain, National

President, Project
Management Associates
Shri Shishir Bansal,

Project Manager, Flyover
Project Circle, PWD Delhi
of preparedness of certified project professionals at different

levels and provided the overview of the Global Project
management certification programme. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: president@pma-india.org
During presentation, Shri Shishir Bansal highlighted various
actions being taken by PWD, Delhi on asset management,
mainly created during the two mega events hosted by the city
i.e. IXth ASIAN Games in 1982 and XIXth Commonwealth
Games in 2010. More than 20% of the citys transportation
corridors were developed specifically for conducting these
two mega events for the smooth movement of sports persons
and sports lovers to the games venue. He stressed the need to
have proper maintenance of these structures so that they stay
beyond their designed service life and deliver its services in a
most sustainable manner for which a data bank consisting of
Birth Certificates for the property created in recent past and
Rebirth certificates for old properties is being generated by
PWD. Once the data bank in the shape of Birth certificates
is made available, it will become easier to undertake day to
day maintenance, special repairs and retrofitting as and when
required in a sustainable manner. For more details please
contact Presenter on e-mail: bansal.shishir@gmail.com
VII) Presentations made during the 69th Meeting of the Highway Research Board
and National Highways and its use in determining the structural
health monitoring scheme of bridges covering both hardware
& software. The presentation also covered the geometric
parameters of MBIU, safety aspects of MBIU, strength aspects
of MBIU, mounting on truck and functionality aspect of MBIU,
stability of MBIU, software, fabrication & testing of components
of MBIU, sequence of operation, safety features, etc For more
details please contact Presenter on e-mail: lakshmy.crri@nic.in
Dr. Mrs. Lakshmy Parameswaran,
Sr. Principal Scientist & Head,
CSIR-CRRI
Shri Abhijeet S. Gandage,

Student MIT, Pune
The following presentations were made:

hh M
obile Bridge Inspection Unit Development
and Challenges at CSIR_CRRI by Dr. Lakshmy,
Parameswaran, Chief Scientist, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi
The presentation highlighted the necessity of Mobile bridge
inspection unit to carry out visual inspection of bridges on State
hh Study of Alkali Aggregate Reactivity Using Thin Section

Petrographic Analysis by Shri Abhijeet S. Gandage,
Student, MIT Pune
The presentation highlighted salient features of study on Alkali
Aggregate Reactivity in concrete covering effect of AAR on
performance of structures, details of preparation of test specimen
and testing methodology to judge performance of specimen,
with respect to various parameters and conclusion/ outcome of
study, etc. For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail:
abhijeetgandage@hotmail.com
11
VIII) Secretaries/E-in-C/Chief Engineers' meeting held during 74th IRC Session at Guwahati
Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji, Honble Minister for Road Transport &
Highways, Govt. of India being welcomed in Traditional Manner
Mrs. Blossom Mathias Fernandes Ji, W/o Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji

Honble Minister for Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India
being welcomed in Traditional Manner
Meeting View of dais during Secretary/E-in-C/Chief Engineers'
The highlights of Secretaries/E-in-C/Chief Engineers'

meetting have already been published in Indian Highways
February 2014 (Volume 42 No. 2). The brief of the
presentation made during this meeting is given below:
hh D
r. P.K. Jain, Advisor (R&D), Pavement Engineering
Area, CRRI, New Delhi made presentation on Use of
Cold mix Technology in Construction and Maintenance
of Road Using Bitumen Emulsions. In his presentation

he highlighted the comparative advantages of emulsion
based cold mix technologies over hot mix technologies.
The factors such as energy scarcity, carbon foot print
and health of construction workers beside applicability
of emulsion based technologies in construction and
maintenance applications were defined. Presentation
12
Dr. P.K. Jain, Chief Scientist & Head, Flexible

Pavement Dn., CRRI
Dr. C.V. Kand, Former

C.E.MP PWD
highlighted details of various types of cold mix

technologies such as Fog Seal, Sand Seal, Slurry
Seal, Micro-surfacing, Cape Seal, Chip Seal Patching,
Premix, Mix Seal Surface, Bituminous Macadam, Dense
Bituminous, Concrete, Recycling etc. Precautions
needed in handling of bitumen emulsions and cold mixes
were also dealt in the presentation. Experience of field
studies using cold mix technology was also shared. The
use of cold mix technology and its limitations (warrants)
were also discussed. Details of pothole repair machine
developed by CRRI were also highlighted. For more
details please contact Presenter on e-mail: pk_crri@
rediffmail.com
hh Dr. C.V. Kand, Advisor, Bhopal made presentation on
Condition Survey of Bridges. In his presentation, he
highlighted the conditions of the various types of bridges
based on the observation (survey) of bridges in 1963
(total 294 bridges) and as observed during condition
survey of bridges in 2012 (total 291 bridges). During
1963, moving load tests were carried out at the mid span
of the bridge and the observation was made form below
for any distress whereas in 2012, condition survey
was carried out in accordance with IRC: SP-35. The
presentation highlighted the important points considered
in the condition survey, the type of distress observed and
remedial measures thereof besides showing some of the
prominent bridges covered in the condition survey along
with some of the very old bridges (more than 200 years
or so) termed as heritage bridges with humble appeal that

record of bridges survived more than 200 years should
be collected, technology used be studied and printed for
guidance of engineers to know why these could survive
for more than 200 years. For more details please contact
Presenter on e-mail: cvkand@yahoo.co.in
hh Ms. Minimol Korulla, Chief Technical Officer,
Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd., made
presentation on Design and Construction of Rockfall
Mitigation Systems. The presentation highlighted the
protective measures for Rockfall (modification of slope
geometry, barriers and wire nets, rock sheds and rockfall
protection embankments); rockfall mitigation measures
(retention, protection and prevention measures)
and design analysis of protection system and other
factors governing the design aspects including the fair
assessment of slope instabilities and counter measures
needed thereto for efficacy of protection system. The
presentation also covered the case studies of rockfall
protection works in India at ZirakpurParwanoo Section
NH-22; at Sapthashrungi Gad and in Italy at Piazza
Nuova Cliffs slope protection, Numana (Ancona).
For more details please contact Presenter on e-mail:
minikorulla@maccaferri-india.com
The paper presented during the 74th Annual Session were
published in IRC Journal Volume 73 part 4 and Volume 74
Part 1 to 3. The proceedings of the discussed papers will be
published in the forthcoming IRC Journal Volume 74 Part 4.
Dr. C.V. Kand the oldest member of IRC being

honored by Shri P.N. Jain, Past President, IRC
Shri D.P. Gupta the oldest member of IRC being honored by

Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC
GUIDELINES FOR SUBMISSION OF TECHNICAL PAPERS

A) Preparation of Manuscript:
i) The language of the IRC publications is English. The mode of
presentation should be in third person.
13
of work, method used, results obtained and conclusions

reached;
iv) Keywords and List of Notations, where applicable;
ii) The length of the paper should not exceed 5000 to 8000 words
including Tables, Figures, Photographs (black & white) etc on
A 4 size paper with 12 pt font size of Times New Roman typed
in 1.5 line space.
v)
Authors business address and email id as a footnote to the

front page;
vi)
iii) Only SI units and their multiples should be used in the papers
and other units, if used, should be given only in the parentheses
preceded by SI units.
Body of the paper: Organized into logical sections, with

preferably not more than two grades of sub-headings;
vii) Acknowledgements: Sources of quotations appearing in the

papers should be stated and acknowledgement should be
made for all information called from books, periodicals and
proceedings of sister societies, etc.
iv) All numbers, quantities and amounts in the paper should

be written as per the Standards of Weights and Measures
(Numeration) Rules, 1987.
v) Mathematical symbols should be typed or neatly hand
written, care should be taken to differentiate between similar
characters (for example 1 and l), capital and lower case letters
and superior and inferior types as per clause 10.2 of IS 12 :
2005.
B) The preferred order of contents is:
i) Title of Paper;
ii) Author(s) name(s) and IRC membership No.;

It is customary for the author/co-author to be a member of IRC

before publishing of his paper;
iii) Synopsis of not more than 200 words, covering the aims
viii) References: References cited in the paper should be numbered

sequentially in order of citation and given in the text by
a superscript numeral, with a reference list, in numerical
order, at the end of the paper. The list should give name(s)
with initial(s) and the exact title of the paper or the book. For
Journals this should be followed by the title, volume number,
month and year of issue and page numbers of the article. For
books this should be followed by the name(s) of the editor(s)
(if appropriate), the name of the publisher and the place and
the year of publication. In case of conference proceedings this
should be followed by the exact title of the conferences, year
and date. All references in this list should be indicated at some
point in the text and vice versa. Unpublished data or private
communications should not appear in the reference list.
Paper No. 607
Critical appraisal of correlations between CBR and

subgrade modulus
Pawan Kumar*, Deepthi Dilip* and G.L. Sivakumar Babu**
Abstract
Ever since its inception in 1929, the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test has been the most preferred strength test when it comes to evaluating subgrade
strength for pavement design. It still remains popular due to the ease and the low cost with which it can be carried out. But the highly empirical nature of
the test often makes the results unreliable, and the countless correlations such as the ones between CBR and subgrade modulus hard to fathom. Since CBR
is purely a penetration-based test, it becomes hard to attribute the various elastic and plastic phenomena associated with soil. A better understanding needs
to be developed about the deformation behaviour of soil. A precursor to that would be to study the relationships that have been established (E-CBR) and
also the influence of other soil parameters (cohesion, friction angle, etc). This paper aims at reviewing these correlations and also to study the influence of
cohesion and friction angle on these equations through numerical simulations using the Finite Element Method (FEM).
Introduction
An essential part of the design of flexible pavements

is the characterisation of the unbound earth materials
(soil, gravels, etc) on which the pavement is to be laid.
The performance of a flexible pavement is largely
dependent on the strength and deformation behaviour
of the soil. In this regard, the California State Highway
Department developed the California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) Test to assign an empirical number to subgrade
soil to quantify its strength. The CBR test is essentially
a penetration test in which the stress levels at prescribed
penetrations are compared to the corresponding stress
levels for a standard sample of well graded crushed
rock. The other test that is used for subgrade strength
characterisation is the Cyclic Triaxial Test. Even though
this test gives a much clearer picture of the resilient
modulus of the subgrade, it is not preferred by a vast
majority of transportation agencies because of the high
cost of operation and the requirement of highly skilled
technicians. Thus the CBR test continues to be a popular
test for evaluation of subgrade strength and, along with
the number of traffic load repetitions, is a primary input
parameter based on which design charts have been
prepared in most of the countries. But many researchers
have concluded that using some prefabricated

empirical charts based on one single empirical soil
parameter is a rather crude design approach, and the
design methodology needs proper consideration of the
mechanics of the materials involved.
As far as the design is concerned, the common practice
followed these days is to use the CBR value to compute
the Subgrade Modulus and use it in a multi-layered
model with limiting values of fatigue and rutting as
the failure criteria. Following the same procedure for
different values of CBR and load repetitions, the design
charts are formulated. The computation of Youngs
Modulus (E) from CBR is done through any one of
the numerous correlations that have been developed
between E and CBR. The earliest of such correlations
was developed by Heukelom and Klomp (1962), which
was followed by many other similar equations by a
host of other researchers and transportation boards. A
good number of studies are also available in literature
that assess the suitability of these relationships, and
also possible correlations of E with certain other soil
parameters. The work presented in this paper aims
at reviewing some of these correlations and also the
studies that have been done on them. In addition to
* Research Fellow
Deptt. of Civil Engg. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, E-mail: glsivakumar@gmail.com
** Professor
Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 30th May, 2014.
Critical Appraisal of Correlations Between CBR and Subgrade Modulus

this, the influence of cohesion (c) and angle of internal
friction () on the relationship between E and CBR is
studied using numerical analysis via the Finite Element
Method (FEM). This study will give us a better
understanding of the correlations and will suggest the
extent up to which they are acceptable.
2 Review of E-CBR Correlations
and Relevant Literature
It must be stated right at the outset that correlating
subgrade modulus and CBR is a vague idea, since the
two parameters are significantly different in nature.
Resilient Modulus is determined based on the permanent
strains from dynamic load tests, which is only a fraction
of the total strain that is induced. On the other hand,
the CBR value corresponds to the peak resistance that
is developed to a monotonic shear failure. Also, it has
been shown that the resilient modulus depends on the
applied stress levels. Black (1961) developed a relation
between CBR and bearing capacity which enables the
in-situ CBR value to be calculated from knowledge of
the cohesion, true angle of internal friction, and suction
of the soil. A method of correcting the in-situ value to
take into account the confining action of the mould
used in laboratory tests was also proposed. Since the
CBR was found to be a simple test which could be
effectively used for the characterisation of subgrade
strength, correlating the CBR with the resilient
modulus was deemed necessary. The earliest of such
correlations was developed by Heukelom and Klomp
(1962) [Eq. 1].

E (MPa) = 10 x CBR
...1
This equation was developed based on Rayleigh Wave

and Dynamic Impedance testing in the Netherlands and
the UK. The equation was derived from the results of
wave propagation testing conducted at very low strain
levels and dynamic deflection testing. The results were
modified for suitable values of Poissons Ratio and the
modulus was correlated to a series of CBR values. The
catch here is that the wave velocities were calculated
in the horizontal plane whereas the dynamic moduli
were calculated in the vertical plane. The equation
15
was originally developed for a modulus range of

2-200 MPa.
A study by Brown (1966) stated that the present design
methods based on use of the California Bearing Ratio
test were abandoned in California, and advocated the
study of soil mechanics to understand the response
of soils and granular materials to repeated loading.
This study also highlighted the need for incorporating
the non-linear stress-strain characteristics in design
and evaluation. Duncan and Chang (1970) proposed
simple, practical procedure for representing the
nonlinear, stress-d ependent, inelastic stress-strain
behavior of soils. The values of the required parameters
employed in the stress-strain relationship were derived
from the results of standard Triaxial tests on plane
strain compression tests involving primary loading,
unloading, and reloading. The relation developed in the
study was validated using finite element stress and the
results obtained were in good agreement with empirical
observations and applicable theories.
Most of the equations that followed were based on
the results of the Heukelom and Klomp tests. The
differences between the equations can be attributed to
the degree to which the results were modified to account
for the fact that the wave propagation was done at very
low strain levels. A similar equation was developed by
the US Army Corps (Green and Hall, 1975):

E (MPa) = 37.3 x CBR0.71
...2
The South African Council on Scientific and Industrial

Research (CSIR) adopted modified equations of the
form E = k x CBR, where k is the factor that accounts
for local factors and additional laboratory testing
(Paterson et al, 1978). Despite of many other equations
that were formulated thereafter, the Heukelom
and Klomp equation continued to be the preferred
relationship. However, many authors, including Powell
et al (1984) have noted that when the wave propagation
data is compared with repeated load tests at more
realistic stress levels, the observed values of E were
found to be significantly lower than ones predicted by
the Heukelom and Klomp equation. The same paper
Kumar, Dilip and Babu on
16
also presented another equation, which was adopted by

the Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRL),
Crowthorne, UK:

E (MPa) = 17.6 x CBR0.64
...3
In the course of time, other researchers such as Angell

(1988) decided that the Heukelom and Klomp equation
was not accurate since the test data seem to indicate
that the equation underestimates the modulus for CBR
values less than 5, and overestimates the same for
CBR values greater than 5. This ideology led to the
formulation of correlations that consisted of different
equations for different ranges of CBR values. The Main
Roads Department, Queensland (QDMR) adopted the
following relationship:

E (MPa) = 21.2 CBR0.64 (CBR < 15), and

E (MPa) = 19 CBR0.68 (CBR > 15)
...4
An analytical procedure for predicting subgrade rut

depth based on the resilient and permanent deformation
characteristics of the subgrade was proposed by Lofti
et al (1988). The analytical results suggest a new
criterion for compaction moisture content that
minimizes subgrade rutting. Contour plots illustrating
the trade-offs among compaction level, compaction
depth, and natural subgrade conditions were also
presented in the study. Livneh (1989) presents a
validation for the correlation between the bearing
capacity of the subgrade or of existing pavements.
This was made possible by simultaneously carrying
out penetration tests in combination with the in situ
CBR test after test pits had been dug, on existing Israeli
roads and airport runways. The results indicated that
the existing correlations are valid for translating the
values of the above penetration tests into in situ CBR
values.
Due to difficulties associated with cyclic testing used
to characterize the soil subgrade, the other approximate
methods often used for design estimates of resilient
modulus are often based only on shear strength
measures and do not account for the dependence on
the magnitude of cyclic deviator stress. A procedure
to relate the soil-index properties and the moduli

obtained from unconfined compression tests, to
resilient modulus has been described by Drumm
et al (1990). Researchers seem to agree that while
the resilient behavior of granular materials, defined
by resilient modulus and Poissons ratio, is affected
by factors such as stress level, density, grading, fines
content, maximum grain size, aggregate type, particle
shape, moisture content, stress history and number of
load applications, the resilient response is influenced
most by the level of applied stresses and the amount of
moisture present in the material. In an extensive study
conducted by Frederick et. al. (2000), the stress-strain
relationship was characterized by a stress-dependent
resilient modulus and a constant or stress-dependent
Poissons ratio as well as by decomposing both stresses
and strains into volumetric and shear components.
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC, 2001) adopted
a relationship that was a direct combination of the
Heukelom and Klomp equation and the TRL equation:

E (MPa) = 10 x CBR (CBR < 5), and E (MPa)

...5
= 17.6 x CBR0.64 (CBR > 5)
Sukumaran et al (2002) studied the suitability of the

some of the aforementioned equations for soils with CBR
ranging from 11 to 40, and also used a finite element
analysis to determine a correlation between CBR and
resilient modulus. The conclusion drawn was that a
suitable correlation cannot be developed between the
2 parameters using the Heukelom and Klomp equation.
It was suggested that a more accurate estimation of
the resilient modulus can be done using correlations
with the unconfined compressive strength. Rosyidi
et al. (2006) conducted a study similar to Heukelom and
Klomp by using a method called the spectral analysis
of surface wave (SASW). Correlations were formulated
between CBR and the dynamic shear moduli of the
samples and good agreements were found between the
correlations and field observations. Erlingsson (2007)
analysed 20 samples with a CBR range of 40-140 and
concluded that the CSIR relationship is the best in
terms of prediction of subgrade modulus. It was found
to be more conservative than the Heukelom and Klomp

equation. Usluogullari et al (2008) also carried out finite
element studies to predict CBR values and found the
model to give reasonable predictions when compared
to experimental values of CBR. Austroads (2009)
presented a report that compared the various E-CBR
correlations developed and used in various countries
and suggested that the main limiting factors of using
these relationships are dependency of subgrade modulus
on subgrade stress, variability of the subgrade modulus
relationship with material type and dependency of the
subgrade strain relationship on subgrade modulus.
Ekwulo et al (2009) studied the suitability of 3 known
CBR-dependent methods for pavement design using
a layered elastic analysis and concluded that flexible
pavements designed using these methods are prone to
failure due rutting deformation and recommended the
use of mechanistic procedures in the design of flexible
pavements in developing tropical countries. AnochieBoateng et al (2010) examined the validity of the
Heukelom and Klomp and the TRL relationships for
14 subgrade soils and found that the resilient modulus
could not be well predicted by the 2 equations, either
overestimating it by 40% or underestimating by 100%
or more. They also tried to fit the E-CBR values into a
variety of mathematical forms, including exponential,
linear and logarithmic functions, but could not find any
suitable relation (based on statistical analysis). Putri
et al (2010) compared E values computed from CBR
and Unconfined Cyclic Triaxial (UCT) tests and found
that values estimated from the CBR test were much
higher than those computed from the UCT test.
With a realisation of the fallacies in the E-CBR
correlations, attempts have been made to correlate
the subgrade modulus with other soil parameters.
Sukumaran et al (2002) noted that both the sub
grade modulus and CBR could be correlated with the
undrained shear strength, su:

CBR = 0.62su (psi)
...6
E (psi) = 100 500su (PI>30), and E (psi)

...7
= 500 1500su (PI<30)
Where PI = plasticity index.
17
It was also noted that on combining Eq. 6 and Eq. 7,

the correlation between E and CBR could range from
E (psi) = 160 CBR to E (psi) = 2420 CBR, which is
too big a range to be even considered as a correlation.
The conclusion was that the best correlation for
subgrade modulus could be done with the unconfined
compressive strength, Qu:

E (ksi) = 0.307Qu (psi) + 0.86
...8
Al-Amoudi et al (2002) conducted laboratory and

in-situ tests to correlate the CBR value to the Clegg
Impact Hammer (CIH) values, and found suitable
correlations between the 2 parameters. Rao et al (2008)
carried out a similar study to develop a model for the
prediction of CBR from the modulus calculated from
Portable Falling Weight Deflectometer (PFWD) tests.
Patel et al (2010) correlated CBR to a host of soil
index properties, including Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit,
Shrinkage Limit, Plasticity Index, Optimum Moisture
Content and Maximum Dry Density. But these types of
correlations defeat the very purpose of getting accurate
estimates of the subgrade modulus, since the modulus
will then have to be calculated from estimated values
of CBR, which can only worsen the scenario.
George (2004) adopted a different approach by
reviewing and formulating correlations of the modulus
itself with the index properties of soil. The report that
was prepared recommended the use of repeated triaxial
load tests for pavement design, and analysed some
of the equations that correlate the resilient modulus
with the index properties of soil. Two of the models
discussed were based on the Unified Soil Classification
system, one for fine-grained soils and another for
coarse-grained soils [Eq. 9 and Eq. 10].
For coarse-grain soils:

Log MR = 0.5230.025(wc) + 0.544(log )

+ 0.173(SM) + 0.197(GR)
...9
Where, MR = Resilient Modulus, ksi;

wc = moisture content, %;
= bulk stress (1+2+3), psi;
18
SM = 1 for SM soils (Unified Soil Classification)

= 0 otherwise; and
GR = 1 for GR soils (GM, GW, GC or GP)
= 0 otherwise.
For fine-grain soils:

MR = 37.4310.4566(PI)0.6179(wc)0.1424
(P200)+0.1791(3)0.3248(d)+36.72(CH)
+17.097 (MH)
...10
Where, PI = plasticity index, %;

P200 = percentage passing #200 sieve;
3 = confining stress, psi;
d = deviator stress, psi;
CH = 1 for CH soil
= 0 otherwise (for MH, ML or CL soil); and
MH = 1 for MH soil
= 0 otherwise (for CH, ML or CL soil).
to Proctor density can be evaluated based on soil

classification tests, a Nomograph based on wet sieve
analysis data or using two sets of equations for plastic
and non-plastic soils respectively. These correlations
were developed based on the equations developed by
the NCHRP (2001), which describes the relationship
between Soil Index Properties and the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) and Resilient Modulus (MR) of
unbound materials such as base, subbase, and subgrade
layers in pavement systems.
It is evident from literature that attempts have been
made to study the effect of the various index properties
and stress states on the subgrade modulus, but there
havent been any studies on the effect of shear strength
parameters such as cohesion (c) and friction angle ()
on the E-CBR relationships. Since c and are essential
parameters that characterise the deformation behaviour
of soils, it makes sense to study how a change in these
affects the commonly used correlations between CBR
and subgrade modulus. The following section discusses
the use of the Finite Element Method to study the effect
of c and on the relationship between E and CBR and
compares it with 2 of the commonly used correlations.
3 Finite Element Analysis of the
Correlations
Other equations that were analysed were the ones based

on the stress state of the soil. It was stated that the
necessity for these correlations was two-fold: resilient
modulus has been proven to be affected by the applied
stress levels; and the correlations with index properties
involved way too many parameters. Abu-Farsakh
et al. (2005) developed regression models for pavement
design based on other empirical parameters such as
FWD and Plate Load Test (PLT) using the Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (DCP) for quality control purposes,
and found these models suitable for evaluation of
stiffness and strength of pavement materials.
For the purpose of Finite Element Modelling in the

present study, the finite element code Phase2 was used.
This program was developed by Rocscience Inc. Phase2
is a general purpose finite element code for excavations
and soil mechanics problems in general.
Where adequate testing facilities are not available or

the project is of such a size as not to warrant elaborate
testing procedures, guidelines to estimate the CBR of
the subgrade have been given in the IRC:SP:72 (2007),
wherein the CBR values for soil samples compacted
b) Comparison of stress level generated for

standard CBR sample (crushed rock)
3.1
Validation of the Fe Code
Two problems were first considered for the purpose of

validation:
a) Comparison of displacement values with a
linear elastic model (KENPAVE)
For the first case, an example problem solved using the

program KENPAVE was modelled in Phase2. This was

modelled in KENPAVE as a 3-layer flexible pavement
section with wearing course thickness 14 cm and a
71 cm thick granular layer (Base plus Sub-base).
19
For the second part of the validation, a CBR test was

simulated on a sample of crushed rock. Details of how
the CBR test was modelled are discussed in the next
sub-section. The methodology for computing CBR
makes use of a stress value of 6.9 MPa for crushed
rock for 0.1 inch penetration. The crushed rock was
modelled as a purely frictional material (c = 0) with
a friction angle of 35, E = 500 MPa and = 0.4. The
stress level below the load was found to be about
6.6 MPa, which provides us with a satisfactory
validation of the model.
3.2 Simulation of The CBR Test Using Phase2
The CBR test is a penetration test that is carried out in a
cylindrical steel mould of diameter 6 inches (152.4 mm)
and height 7 inches (177.8 mm). The load is applied
through a plunger 1.95 inches (49.6 mm) in diameter. The
load is applied such that the penetration takes place at a
rate of 1.27 mm/min up to a value of 0.3 inches (7.62 mm).
The CBR is calculated using the following equation:
...11
Fig. 1 Finite Element Model for Validation with KENPAVE
A single wheel tyre pressure of 810 kPa was

considered, with a contact radius of 20 cm. The vertical
displacements at the 2 critical locations, viz. bottom of
the wearing course and top of the subgrade were found
to be 2.6 mm and 1.7 mm, respectively. The same
problem was modelled in Phase2 as shown in Fig 1.
An axisymmetric model of overall depth 2 m was used,
with the tyre load simulated by a distributed load of
810 kPa. All three layers were modelled as elastic
materials with E value and Poissons Ratio () same
as those used in KENPAVE. The finite element
discretisation was done using 3-noded triangular
elements. The model had a total of 436 elements and
249 nodes. The displacements at the 2 critical locations
using Phase2 were found to be 2.55 mm and 1.76 mm,
which are comparable to the values obtained from
KENPAVE.
The stress is calculated for 0.1 inch and 0.2 inch

penetration, with the corresponding values for standard
sample (crushed stone) being 6.9 MPa and 10.3 MPa,
respectively. The above arrangement was simulated
using the model shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2 Finite Element Model to Simulate the CBR Test
20
An axisymmetric model was used with dimensions

that match those of the CBR apparatus. The symmetry
boundary and the bottom boundary were provided with
roller supports and the external boundary was fixed. The
plunger load was simulated by means of a prescribed
displacement (Fig 2). The displacement was applied in
6 stages, starting from 0.05 inch all the way up to 0.3
inch. The discretisation was done using graded 3-noded
triangular elements and Gaussian Elimination was used
for solving the problem. A default discretisation was first
done and then the mesh was refined to increase the fineness
in the vicinity of the plunger. The model had a total of
821 elements and 453 nodes. The soil was modelled
using the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The Poissons
Ratio used throughout was 0.4, and the parameters that
were varied were E, c and . Upon computation, the
stress distribution was studied in order to determine the
stress levels generated at 0.1 inch and 0.2 inch penetration
(Fig 3). Those stress values were then divided by 6.9 MPa
(for 0.1) and 10.3 MPa (for 0.2), and the higher of the 2
values was taken as the CBR value.
The values of c and were varied in order to study their
effect on the E-CBR correlations, with a comparison
to the Heukelom and Klomp and the TRL equations.
For both the cases, the value of E was varied 5 MPa
to 150 MPa in steps of 5 MPa. In addition to this, the
14 sets of experimental values of modulus and CBR
provided by Anochie-Boateng et al (2010) were also
included as a scatter in both the plots for comparison
with experimental results.
Fig. 3 Stress Distribution Diagram for Stress Calculation
3.3 Effect of Cohesion

The different values of c that were used in the analysis
were 1 kPa, 2 kPa, 3 kPa, 4 kPa, 5 kPa, 10 kPa and
20 kPa. For each of these values, E was varied from
5-150 MPa and the CBR was calculated for each case.
The value of was kept at 30 throughout. These results
were plotted in the form an E versus CBR plot, and the
values of CBR for all the E values were plotted from
the Heukelom and Klomp and the TRL equations for
comparison. The 14 sets of experimental values were
also included in the plot as a scatter (Fig 4).
Fig. 4 Effect of Cohesion on the E-CBR relationship
It can be seen from Fig 4 that a change in the cohesion

affects the E-CBR relationship significantly, thus
confirming once again that using one single equation
relating E and CBR is not an appropriate approach.
The CBR values of soils having cohesion of 20 kPa
are much higher than those having c = 1 kPa. On
comparing the plots with the 2 equations, it can be seen
that the Heukelom and Klomp equation by and large
covers the range of values from c = 1 kPa to c = 5 KPa,
i.e. this equation will provide the least error for this
range of c. Similarly, the TRL equation, which was an
improvement of the Heukelom and Klomp equation,
seems to cover the range of values from c = 1 kPa to
c = 20 kPa, thus proving that it is not as erroneous as
the Heukelom and Klomp relation. But this still doesnt
justify the use of either of these equations, or any
equation for that matter, since the expected error could
still be very high. As far as the experimental data is
concerned, most values seemed to fall within the range

defined by the plots, with most of them within the plots
of c = 1 kPa to c = 5 kPa, which is a reasonable result
for randomly selected samples. Only a couple of values
were on the higher side of the 10 kPa plot, which is
again acceptable since that is a relatively high value of
cohesion.
3.4
Effect of Friction Angle
In the next part, the value of was varied from 25

to 40 in steps of 5 (25, 30, 35 and 40), with a
constant cohesion value of 1 kPa. The procedure
followed was similar to that of the cohesion study, with
E being varied form 5-150 MPa and the inclusion of the
Heukelom-Klomp and TRL equations along with the
experimental values in the plot.
Fig. 5 Effect of Friction Angle on the E-CBR relationship
An observation similar to the cohesion study could

be made for the variation of , with a change in
considerably altering the E-CBR relationship. The plot
for = 40 went beyond a CBR value of 70, which
is understandable since 40 is a very high value of
the angle of internal friction. Considering the plots of
= 25 to = 35, both the correlations as well as
the experimental values seem to be falling within the
range of values defined by the plots, which is again a
reasonable result.
4
Conclusions
On reviewing the various correlations between E

and CBR, we can conclude that these equations must
be used with caution, since the subgrade modulus
21
is an elasticity property and it cannot be estimated

accurately using a penetration-based value such as
CBR. Experimental studies conducted in this regard
also show that these correlations either underestimate
or overestimate the value of E, with the error being
more than 100% in some cases. Using such values for
designing pavements will only yield inefficient results.
It is also obvious that correlating CBR with other
soil parameters makes the estimation of the modulus
even more uncertain. Correlating E with the index
properties or the stress state of the soil seems like a
viable alternative, but involves too many parameters
and needs a more detailed analysis in order to formulate
a generic framework within which any type of soil can
be characterised.
The results of the Finite Element analysis suggest that
shear strength parameters such as c and significantly
alter the relationship between E and CBR, thus
confirming the fact that it is inappropriate to use a single
equation for all types of soils. Experimental results also
fall within the range defined by these plots. Among the
2 equations studied for comparison, the TRL equation
provides better results and covers a much wider range
of values when compared to the Heukelom and Klomp
equation. But it is clear from the plots that using either
of these equations still implies a high chance of an
error in the estimation of E. For instance, for soils with
low friction angles, these equations will overestimate
the value of E by a large margin. Since the thickness
of the pavement layers is determined based on the
estimated E values, using these E-CBR relations
without considering the soil properties may lead to
the providing inadequate pavement layers above the
subgrade. Given the large variations of CBR and
modulus along the road alignment, such inaccuracies
in the design parameters can lead to the premature
failure of the pavement. Although the consideration
of the type of soil and its shear strength properties
may result in increased layer thicknesses, which
translates directly into increased cost of construction,
the errors in the estimation of E and other parameters
can be minimized.
The IRC-37:2012 clearly states that in the absence of
experimental data, the Triaxial testing facility being
22
expensive and not widely available, the Resilient

Modulus can be determined using CBR values, based
on findings of the research schemes of Ministry of
Road Transport & Highways, Government of India.
The pavement performance data was collected from
all over India by academic Institutions and Central
Road Research Institute for pavement design using a
semi-analytical approach. Hence it is recommended
that, while in the absence of proper testing facilities
the correlation suggested by IRC-37:2012 is generally
acceptable for Indian conditions for elastic modulus
parameters, and for accurate and in-depth analysis,
more studies needs to be carried out.
6.
lack, W.P.M. (1961). The Calculation of

B
Laboratory and In-situ Values of California
Bearing Ratio from Bearing Capacity Data,
Geotechnique, Vol. 11, pp. 14-21.
7.
rown, S.F. (1996). Soil Mechanics in

B
Pavement Engineering, Geotechnique, Vol. 46,
pp. 383-426.
8.
rumm, E.C. et. al. (1990). Estimation of

D
Subgrade Resilient Modulus from Standard
tests, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol. 116, No. 5, pp. 774-789.
9.
uncan, J.M and Chang, C.Y. (1970). NonD

linear Analysis of Stress and Strain in Soils,
Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, ASCE, Vol. 96, pp. 1629-1653.
10.
rederick, L., Ulf, I. and Andrew, D. (2000).

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State of the Art. I:Resilient Response
of Unbound Aggregates, Journal of
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No. 1, pp. 66-75.
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kwulo, E.O. and Eme, D.B. (2009), Fatigue

E
and Rutting Strain Analysis of Flexible
Pavements Designed Using CBR Methods,
African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 3 (12), pp. 412-421.
12.
rlingsson, S. (2007), On Forecasting the

E
Resilient Modulus from the CBR Value of
Granular Bases, Road Materials and Pavement
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eorge, K.P. (2004), Resilient Modulus

G
Prediction Employing Soil Index Properties,
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14.
reen, J.L. and Hall, J.W. (1975), NonG

Destructive Vibratory Testing of Airport
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Development of Evaluation Methodology
and Procedure, FAA-RD-73-205, Federal
Aviation Administration, Washington D.C.
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A
K. and Seyman, E. (2005), Soil Parameters
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Penetrometer in Pavement Construction
Control, Journal of the Transportation Research
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l-Amoudi, O.S.B., Asi, I.B., Wahhab, H.I.A.
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and Khan, Z.A. (2002), Clegg Hammer
California-Bearing Ratio Correlations, Journal
of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE,
December 1, 2002, 14 (6), pp. 512523.
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ngell, D.J. (1988), Technical Basis for

A
the Pavement Design Manual, Main Roads
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nochie-Boateng, J., Tutumluer, E., Apeagyei,

A
A. and Ochieng, G. (2010). Resilient Behavior
Characterization of Geomaterials for Pavement
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Japan, August 1-6, 2010, pp. 10.
5.
ustroads (2009), Review of Relationship

A
to Predict Subgrade Modulus from CBR
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eukelom, W. and Klomp, A.J.G. (1962),

H
Dynamic Testing as a Means of Controlling
Pavements During and After Construction,
Proceedings of the International Conference
on the Design of Asphalt Pavements, 1st,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI,
pp. 667-79.
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owell, W.D., Potter, J.F., Mayhew, H.C. and

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Nunn, M.E. (1984), The Structural Design of
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I RC (2001). Guidelines for the Design of

Flexible Pavements (Second Revision).
IRC:37-2001.
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I RC(2007). Guidelines for the Design of

Flexible Pavements for Low Volume Rural
Roads, IRC:SP:72-2007.
utri, E.E., Rao, N.S.V.K. and Mannan,

P
M.A. (2010), Evaluation of the Modulus
of Elasticity and Resilient Modulus for
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ivneh, M. (1989). Validation of

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Correlations between a Number of
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ofti, H.A., Schwartz, C.W., and

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witczak, M.W. (1988). Compaction
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R
(2008), PFWD, CBR and DCP Evaluation
of Lateritic Subgrades of Dakshina Kannada,
India, The 12th International Conference of
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and Ismail, A. (2006), Estimating G-Max &
Field CBR of Soil Subgrade Using a Seismic
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atel, R.S. and Desai, M.D. (2010), CBR

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Predicted by Index Properties for Alluvial
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ukumaran, B., Kyatham, V., Shah, A. and

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Sheth, D. (2002), Suitability of Using
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National Institute for Transport and Road
Research, Pretoria, South Africa.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail :glsivakumar@gmail.com
Paper No. 608
LABORATORY PERFORMANCE OF POLYMER MODIFIED

WARM MIX ASPHALT
P.K. Jain*, Uma Devi Rongali**, Anita Chourasiya** and Munshi Ramizraja M.**
ABSTRACT
Polymer modified bituminous mixes (pmbm) are used in road construction for improved performance. The drawbacks in use of pmbm over mixes of
conventional bitumen are need of higher mixing, laying and rolling temperatures, leading to higher consumption of fuel. Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) is
produced at lower temperature, while maintaining key advantage of hot mixes. Therefore, WMA is becoming attraction in highway profession. The aim
of this paper is to report findings of the mechanistic study undertaken on polymer modified warm mix asphalt (pmwma) for reduction of mixing, laying
and rolling temperature. The optimum dose of organic surfactant type additive for reduction of operational temperatures is determined based on viscosity
temperature relationship and performance properties of pmwma. From the laboratory studies it is found that optimum dose of organic surfactant additive
lies in the range of 1.5 to 2.0% by weight of pmb to achieve lower mixing, laying and rolling temperature. The reduction in temperatures by a factor of 15
to 25C is achieved. Values of creep modulus and resilient modulus of pmwma are found superior at different temperatures, indicating better performance.
Rutting in pmwma mix is found lower compared to traditional pmb mix. Fatigue life of pmwma mixes determined by four point bending beam fatigue test
is observed higher than conventional pmb mix. The better retained indirect tensile strength ratio values indicate potential of pmwma towards prevention
of moisture damage even after compaction at lower temperature. Improved performance of pmwma alleviate compaction problem of traditional hot pmb
mixes at lower temperature.
INTRODUCTION
Flexible pavements constitute over 90% of road

network in India. The increased volume of traffic,
overloading of axles beyond permissible limits and
higher tyre pressure, are causing widespread problems
addressed to performance of flexible pavements in
India. The statistics of various performance studies
indicate that useful life of bituminous overlay with
traditional unmodified binders has declined from
average value of 6-8 years in past to about 3-5 years in
recent years. It is well known that under the prevailing
heavy traffic and extreme climate conditions, overlays
made up of traditional bituminous binders, in general,
are not meeting the durability requirement. Polymer
modified bitumen (pmb) known as higher performance
binders, allows the engineer to design and build durable
bituminous surface [1]. These, binders, as proven all
over the world, have better field performance, and
are economical, when life cycle cost is taken into
consideration. Guidelines issued by Indian Roads
Congress [2] on use of pmb in road construction
describe various types of pmb, applications, design

criteria, operational temperatures and uses.
The acceptable compaction of bituminous mixes
always requires an optimum value of viscosity [3].
For the satisfactory coating on mineral aggregates and
adequate compaction, a viscosity value of 0.1 to 0.3 Pa.s
is needed. During compaction of bituminous mixture,
higher value of viscosity reduces workability of mixture,
leading to poor density of compacted bituminous layer.
It is widely recognized that optimum binder viscosity
for rolling lies between 2 and 20 Pa.s. Bitumen Test
Data Chart developed by Heuklom [3-4] is a useful tool
for determination of correct application temperature
for hot mix construction. The optimum values of
temperature based upon test data chart for PMB 40 are
165-185C for spraying, 150-175C for mixing and
125-150C for rolling. Production of bituminous mixes
at such high temperatures requires higher quantity of
fuel, eventually contributes to higher green house gases.
Higher working temperature is also harmful to crew at
construction sites. Mixing and compaction of pmb
* Chief Scientist and Advisor

CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi 110 025, E-mail : pramodj.crri@nic.in
** Scientist
Laboratory Performance of Polymer Modified Warm Mix Asphalt
25
mix at lower temperature lead to poor performance of

bituminous surfacing due to inadequate compaction of
surface, higher voids eventually affinity to ingress of
moisture in bituminous layer.
performance. It is also reported that WMA saves 13.5%

energy in road construction. A few studies with limited
scope have also been conducted on polymer modified
warm asphalt mixes [16-17].
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
In view of literature cited above, an investigation was

taken up to optimize dosage of organic surfactant type
WMA additive to reduce spraying, mixing and rolling
temperature of high energy pmb mixes to save fuel and
reduce greenhouse gases during construction. Reduction
in operational temperatures of pmb mixes lead to an
advantage to working crew due to reduction of harmful
gases in surrounding areas and the ability to work at
lower temperature. The paper addresses optimization
of the dose of additive and performance properties
of polymer modified warm asphalt mix. These are
deformation and rutting at high pavement temperature
and fatigue properties at moderate temperature, besides
moisture sensitivity, which is highly significant at lower
compaction temperatue.
Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) technology is likely to be

an appropriate solution, which allows the mixing, laying
and rolling at lower temperatures [5-6]. It is reported by
Betz et al [5] that WMA reduces production and laying
temperatures as much as upto 30C depending upon the
method and additive used. The lower production and
placement temperature bring several benefits such as
fuel saving, reduced pollutants and safety to crew.
A number of laboratory and field studies [7-16] have
been conducted by various researchers in recent past
on various types of warm mix additives Barthel et
al [7] and Prowell [9] broadly classified warm mix
technology in three types such as technology using
water, technology use paraffin wax type additives and
technology use organic surfactants as additives. Zeolites
containing 21% water, when added to a hot bituminous
mix, release water converting bitumen to microscopic
foam, and improve workability at lower temperature.
Paraffin wax based compounds having microcrystalline
structure reduce viscosity at mixing and compaction
temperature without any adverse effect on performance
of mix on road. The decrease in viscosity allows lower
operational temperature depending upon nature and
dose of additive. The addition of the organic surfactant
type warm mix asphalt additives reduce the viscosity
of the binders at high temperatures as reported by
Gandhi and Amirkhanian [10]. Recently Kandhal
[11] reported a comprehensive review of various
WMA technologies used globally. The decrease of the
viscosity at operational temperature makes the binders
workable at lower temperature and stiff and resistant
to rutting in middle temperatures rande. Ambika et al
[14] reported results of field and laboratory studies on
use of wax as well as surfactant modified traditional
warm mixes. Kakade et al [15] reported results of their
investigations on warm and half warm bituminous
mixes. Use of foaming agent is reported to give better
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials
PMB-40 (SBS elastomers) conforming to IS: 15462
was used as binder in this study and it was procured
from a local manufacturer. The properties of binder are
given in Table 1. Aggregate from a local quarry is used
for preparation of bituminous mixes.
Table 1 Properties of PMB 40

Properties
Penetration at
250 C, 100g , 5s
Unit
Method of
test
Test
Value
Limits
0.1 mm
IS 1203
48
30-50
Softening point,
Ring and Ball
IS 1205
61
>60
Elastic Recovery
of half thread in
ductilometer at
150C
IS:15462
75
>70
Viscosity 1500C
Poise
IS 1206
8.7
6-9
Specific gravity at
270C
-------
IS 1202
1.01
Ductility at 270C,
5cm/min
cm
IS 1208
75+
75+
Jain, Rongali, Chourasiya and Munshi on
26
Test data on physical properties of mineral aggregates

are given in Table 2. PMB was further modified in the
laboratory by heating it to 1600C and adding 1.5, 2 and
2.5% dose of organic surfactant. Blends were agitated
vigorously at 1600C +50C for about 30 minutes. Grading
I of aggregates was chosen as per Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways Specifications [8] For 50 mm
Thick Bituminous Concrete.
Table 2 Properties of Mineral Aggregates

(Granite)
Properties
Test Method
Value
MoRTH
Specifications
Aggregate
Impact Value, %
IS 2386 (Part IV)
11.23
30 max
Water Absorption IS 2386 (Part III)

Value, %
0.85
2 max
Specific Gravity,
IS 2386 (Part II)
2.61-2.69
2.5-3.0
Combined (EI +
FI) Index, %
IS 2386 (Part I)
29.5
30 max
IS 6241
99
Min retained
coating 95
Stripping, %
El: Elongation Index
3.2.2 Preparation of Mixes

Samples of bituminous mixes were prepared by Marshall
method [20]. Aggregates are heated at temperature
1500C and binder is mixed to this aggregate. Mixing
temperature of neat PMB 40 is 170-1750C and modified
bitumen is 160-1640C heated. These modified mixtures
were then compacted in the temperature range of
150-155C and for neat PMB 40 is 160-1650C. These
mixing and compaction temperatures are determined
from Fig. 1.
3.2.3 Testing of Specimens
Stability [20], flow and indirect tensile strength tests
[21] were conducted on Marshall specimen of 101 mm
diameter and 63 mm height prepared using 75 blows
on each face. These samples were prepared by standard
rammer at different temperatures as per procedure
described in ASTM D 1559. Effect of additive dosage
on stability and voids is shown in Fig. 2 and 3. The
FI: Flakiness Index
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Viscosity of the Blends
The viscosity measurements on pmb binders
(conventional as well as modified by warm mix
additive) were done using the Brookfield viscometer
by standard method using cylindrical spindle number
27 and at a speed of 20 rpm is used [19]. Viscosity
temperature relationship curve is given in Fig 1.
Fig. 2 Effect of mixing and compaction temperature on

stability of mix
Fig. 3 Effect of mixing and compaction temperature on air

voids of mix
Fig. 1 Viscosity Temperature relationship curve of

PMB and blends
Indirect tensile strength (ITS) test was performed by

loading Marshall specimen by compressive load,
which acted parallel to and along vertical diametrical
plane test is done as per AASHTO T 283. This loading

configuration develops relatively uniform tensile stress
perpendicular to the direction of the applied load
along the diametric plane, which ultimately causes the
specimen to fail by splitting along the vertical diameter.
The failure was recorded and the indirect tensile
strength was calculated using following equation
P is the load (kg), d is the diameter in cm of the

specimen; t is the thickness of the specimen in cm.
The test was conducted at 250C and the failure load is
taken as the indirect tensile strength of mix. The most
common test procedure for evaluating the moisture
sensitivity of bituminous mixes in the ratio of indirect
tensile strength for this test, specimen (3 Nos) were
placed in water bath maintained at 600C for 24 hrs and
then immediately placed in an environmental chamber
maintained at 250C for two hours. These conditioned
specimen were then tested for their indirect tensile
strength. The ratio of the indirect tensile strength of the
water conditioned specimen (average of 3) to that of
unconditional specimens (average of 3) is the tensile
strength ratio. Results of ITS ratio are plotted in Fig. 4.
27
uni-axial static load was measured as a function of time,

and the sample dimensions and test conditions were
standardized. After initial elastic response when the
loading is done, the creep portion of the response curve
eventually becomes linear, giving constant slope. After
the release of the applied stress the elastic deformation
recovers followed by the time dependent recoverable
elastic deformations, the residual strain which exists
after complete elastic recovery is the non recoverable
permanent deformation. Permanent deformation risk
was greater under heavy loads and high temperature.
So the following test parameters were selected: the
uniaxial load was 100 KPa (0.1 MPa), the temperature
were 35C and 45C, and the load duration was
3600s. The results of creep deformation obtained
during test at 45C are plotted in Fig. 5. Effect of
temperature on creep modulus of pmb mix (Control
mix) and pmwma (Warm mix) is shown in Fig. 6.
Results of creep recovery of control mix and warm mix
are illustrated in Fig. 7.
Fig. 5 Typical creep curve of control and warm mix at 45C

Fig. 4 Comparison of retained stability and ITS of control
and warm mix
3.2.4 Static Creep Test

The static creep test is conducted by applying a static
load to a marshall specimen and then measuring
the permanent deformation of the specimen after
unloading for 60 minutes. The test is used to determine
the permanent deformation of the bituminous mixtures.
The observed permanent deformation of the bituminous
mixtures was then correlated with the rutting potential.
The creep deformation of a cylindrical specimen under a
250 C
350 C
450 C
Fig. 6 Effect of temperature on creep modulus of

control and warm mix
28
150C for PMB 40 and 120C for PMB 40 mix containing

2% warm mix additive. Slabs were cured at room
temperature for 24 h and then placed in the computer
controlled wheel-tracking system for conditioning at
50C. The samples were subjected to repetition of load
for 20,000 passes or until 20 mm rut depth on the slab
surface. Method [20] described in BS 598-1998 was
adopted for rut depth studies using Wheel Tracking
System supplied by M/s Proeti, SA and Madrid. The
rate of tracking was kept 42 passes per minute. The
results of rutting studies are plotted in Fig. 9.
Fig. 7 Effect of temperature on creep recovery of
control and warm mix
3.2.5 Resilient Modulus (MR) Test

Resilient Modulus (MR) is one of the most important
mechanistic properties of bituminous mixture. To
check the effect of composite on the resilient modulus
values at different temperatures, the repeated loading
indirect tensile test on compacted bituminous mixtures
was performed as per ASTM D-4123. The test was
conducted by applying the compressive load in the
form of haversine wave at 25, 35, and 45C for
unmodified and modified mixtures. The specimens were
conditioned for 24 h in the environmental chamber at
the given temperature and then subjected to repeated
loading pulse width of 100 ms, and pulse repetition
period of 1000 ms. The results are plotted in Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 Rutting by wheel tracking test in control and warm mix
The fatigue life [23]of bitumen mixture is determined

by the flexural bending beam test. A constant haversine
loading was applied on bituminous mix beam with load
repetitions till failure of the beam. Fatigue failure is
defined as 50% reduction of initial stiffness. The four
point beam fatigue test is done at a constant strain level
of 500 micro strains at 10Hz frequency. The testing of
the beam was conducted at 40C and 20C. Performance
factor is defined as the ratio of cycles to failure of pmb
to that of conventional pmb mixes, which is given by
Nf is the number of cycles to failure.
Results are given in Table 6 and Fig. 10.

Fig. 8 Effect of temperature on MR value of control
and warm mix
The rut depth of mixes was measured as per method

given in BS 598 [22]. Rut depth studies [22] were
carried out on rectangular specimen of 305 mm
305 mm 50 mm size at 50C. In the present study,
test specimen were compacted in standard moulds by
a static compression machine with 6% air voids at
4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Effect on Viscosity
Temperature of Mixture
on
Production
The results of viscosity for various blends of pmb and

warm mix additive are given in Table 3. Relationship
between viscosity and temperature of blends is shown
Table 3 Properties of PMB 40 Containing

1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% Additive
Properties
Unit
Penetration at 250
C, 100g, 5s
0.1 mm
Method of 1.5% 2.0% 2.5%

test
IS 1203:
1978
47
44
43
IS
1205:1978
62
63
64
Elastic Recovery
at 150 C
IS 15462 :
2004
76
78
79
Viscosity, 1500 C
Poises
IS 1206
(Part 2):
1978
8.0
6.2
4.5
Softening point
in Fig 1. It can be seen from the plots given in Fig. 1

that production and rolling temperatures of pmb mixes
containing 1.5 to 2.0% additive are 15 to 25C lower
then mixes prepared by conventional pmb binder.
Therefore, a dose of 1.5 to 2.0% can be considered as
an optimum dose of additive for compaction at lower
temperature. The higher dose of additive likely to be
uneconomical. It is inferred from results that additive
help in reduction of viscosity in higher temperature
range of 110 to 160C. Values of penetration, softening
point and elastic recovery are also observed better for
pmb modified with 1.5% and 2.0% doses of additive
by weight of the binder. It is also concluded from these
data that modification of pmb by 2.0% dose of additive
improve properties of binder besides considerable
reduction of mixing and compaction temperatures of
the pmb mixes. The values of physical properties of
pmb and pmb modified by warm mix asphalt additive
are in conformity with the values specified in IS:
15462-2004, a specification for pmb.
4.2
ffect of Warm Mix Additive on Design and

E
Compaction Temperature
The mixes made with conventional pmb as well as

pmb modified with warm mix additive were designed
using mineral aggregate (Granite) having gradation as
given in Table 4. The volumetric properties of designed
bituminous concrete mixes are given in Table 5. These
data indicate that optimum binder content is same for
pmbm (hot mix) and pmwma (warm mix). Stability
values of mixes with both the binders are acceptable
29
Table 4 Gradation of Mineral Aggregates for

Bituminous Concrete Mixes
Sieve Size in mm
Cumulative percentage Passing

Specified
grading
Grading of mixed
materials
26.5
100
100
19
79 100
100
13.2
59 79
76
9.5
52 72
60
4.75
35 55
44
2.36
28 44
34
1.18
20 34
25
0.6
15 27
23
0.3
10 20
14
0.15
5 13
0.075
28
and meet the requirement of the design and specified

value of 9.0 kN given in specification. The values of
Marshall quotient of pmbm (hot mixed) and pmwma
(warm mixed) materials are comparable as well as
meeting specifications. The effect of dose of warm mix
additive on stability and voids in the mix compacted
at lower tempearture is shown in Fig. 2 and 3. It is
inferred from the plots (Fig. 2 and 3) that the optimum
dose of additive is 2% for 30 to 40C reduction of
compaction temperature. The voids in pmwma (warm
mix) compacted at 120C are less than conventional
pmbm compacted at 150C.
Table 5 Volumetric and Mechanical Properties

of Warm Asphalt Mixes
Properties
Method
PMB 40 PMB 40
+1.5%
Additive
PMB 40
+2%
Additive
PMB 40
+2.5%
Additive
Bulk density, ASTM D

2726
g/cm3
2.32
2.32
2.33
2.33
Air voids, %
ASTM D
3203
4.5
4.5
4.26
4.5
Voids filled
by bitumen,
%
ASTM D
3203
71.7
73.3
74.4
71.7
Voids in
mineral
aggregate,%
ASTM D
3203
16.6
17.8
17.0
17.7
Bitumen
content, %
ASTM D
3203
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
30
1685
1507
1645
1011
Marshall
stability,
kN,600C
ASTM D
1559
Marshall
flow, mm at
600C
ASTM D
1559
3.9
3.6
3.7
3.6
Marshall
quotient, kg/
mm
Stability/
flow
432
280
445
277
Retained
ASTM D
stability after
1075
immersion,
%
78
81
82
81
AASHTO
Indirect
T 283
tensile
strength after
immersion
kg/cm2 at
250C
7.62
7.72
7.81
6.91
89
90
93
90
Indirect
Tensile
Strength
(ITS) ratio
(%)
pmb mix (hot mixed).

4.4 Static Creep Studies
AASHTO
T 283
Table 6 Fatigue Test Results

Types of Types Temperature Initial
Flexural
Binder of Mix
(0C)
Stifness
(Mpa)
PMB 40 Control
25
1137
mix
Warm
1326
mix
Number of
Cycles to
failure
Effectiveness
factor
254656
1.27
322442
4.3 Effect of Warm Mix Additive on Moisture

Sensitivity
Bituminous mixture should have an acceptable
resistance to changes in performance properties caused
by ingress of moisture. In this study two tests are used
to evaluate this parameter; Retained Stability Test
and Indirect Tensile Strength Ratio Test. The values
of retained stability as well as ratio of indirect tensile
strength (Fig. 4) of pmwma (warm mix) specimen
are better than conventional pmb mix (hot mixed),
indicating better performance during static immersion
test in water at 60C for 24 hours. From the data plotted
in Fig. 4, it is clear that resistance to moisture damage
under influence of water is better for polymer modified
asphalt (warm mixed) as compared to conventional
Fig. 5 shows the typical creep curve of a traditional

pmbm (hot mixed) and pmwma (warm mix) at 45C
temperature. Results shown in Fig. 6 indicated that creep
modulus values of pmwma (warm mix) are lower than
pmbm (hot mixed) at 25C but comparatively higher
values are obtained at 35C and 45C temperature.
These results indicate higher resistance of warm mix to
permanent deformation at higher temperature. Results
shown in Fig. 7 indicate higher value of creep recovery at
higher temperatures for pmwma (warm mix) compared
to traditional pmbm (hot mixed). Results showed that
pmwma (warm mix) has a noticeable positives effect
on permanent deformation behavior.
4.5 Resilient Modulus Studies
Effect of temperature on resilient modulus values of
traditional hot mix and warm mix is shown in Fig 8.
Resilient modulus values for pmwma (warm mix) are
higher than traditional pmbm (hot mix) at 25C, 35C
and 45C temperatures, which indicate pmb (warm mix)
has better load spreading properties than traditional
pmbm (hot mixed). Binder may lose its ability to
bind the aggregates at high temperature. Therefore,
as the temperature increases, the recoverable strain
increases resulting in lower modulus values, leading
to faster permanent deformation. Resilient modulus is
good indicator of load-spreading ability of bituminous
mixture. This parameter controls the quantum of tensile
strain in underlying layers of pavement. Therefore,
materials with higher values of resilient modulus have
potential for better load spreading ability, which reduces
deflections in pavement due to traffic loads.
4.6 Rutting Studies
Rutting is one of the most common failure modes
in flexible pavement. It occurs due to densification
followed by shear deformation. Rutting is influenced
by the properties of binder, aggregate and mixture.
The data of rut depth studies are plotted in Fig. 9. It
can be seen from the curves given in Fig. 9 that rutting
after 20,000 cycles at 45C is higher in case of pmbm
(hot mixed) as compared to wpmbm (warm mix). The
observed value of rut depth is 5.2 mm for hot mixed

specimen of pmb as compared to 2.7 mm for warm
mixed specimen of pmb. Therefore, it is concluded
that pmbm (hot mix) as well as wpmbm (warm mix)
are resistant to rutting at higher pavement temperature.
Results show that pmwam (warm mxi) had a noticeable
improvement on the rutting resistance of mixture.
31
3.
Viscosity Temperature relationship indicate

that viscosity of pmb at spraying, mixing, and
rolling temperature can be reduced considerably
by adding 2% surfactant type organic additive.
4.
Results of void analysis indicate that polymer

modified bitumen mix containing 2% warm
mix additive can be compacted at 15-25C
lower temperature to achieve designed voids in
the mix.
5.
Results of stability test indicate that comparable

and acceptable values of the stability are
obtained on modification of pmb with 2% warm
mix additive.
6.
Laboratory moisture sensitivity test conducted

by measurement of indirect tensile strength
ratio indicated better performance of polymer
modified warm mix asphalt compared to
traditional hot mixed polymer modified mix.
7.
Fig. 10 Flexural fatigue test on control and warm mix
The modified mix with 2% surfactant has higher

resistance to permanent deformation and higher
creep recovery at high temperature indicating
better performance of warm pmb mixes.
8.
results of pmbm and wpmbm are shown in Fig. 10. It

can be seen from the test data plotted in Fig. 10 that
pmwma (warm mixed), can take more number of traffic
loads, compared to traditional hot mixes of pmb. The
fatigue life value of wpmbm (warm mix) is higher than
conventional pmbm (hot mix), indicating resistance of
pmwma towards fatigue failure.
Polymer modified bituminous mixes are having

better resistant to rutting, fatigue cracking and
damage due to ingress of moisture compared to
conventional hot mixes of pmb.
9.
Laboratory performance of polymer modified

warm asphalt mixes is found better than
conventional hot mixed polymer modified
bitumen mixes indicating suitability of these
mixes for road construction under heavy traffic
with less consumption of fuel and reduced
emission of green house gases.
4.7
Flexural Fatigue Test
Fatigue failure is one of the most important distress

mechanism associated with performance of flexible
pavements. Fatigue is caused by repeated traffic
loading which result in cracking. Flexural-fatigue test
PMB 40
CONCLUSIONS
1.
Polymer modified warm mix asphalt (pmwma)

is found an emerging technology, which
allows the mixing, lay down and compaction
of bituminous mixtures at significantly lower
temperature compared to hot mixed polymer
modified mixtures.
2.
Polymer modified warm mix asphalt offers

many advantages, over traditional hot pmb mix
such as (a) energy savings in producing mix,
(b) decreased emissions from hot mix plants,
(c) decreased binder aging during production,
(d) extended paving season especially in winter
months and/or in places located on high attitudes,
and (e) compaction aid for stiffer pmb mixes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thankfully acknowledge the permission of
Director, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
to publish this paper. Also, our sincere gratitude toward
Dr. Devesh Tiwari, Pavement Evaluation Division,
CRRI, New Delhi for his valuable support during entire
study.
REFERENCES
1.
Prithvi Singh Kandhal & M.P. Dhir, Use

of Modified Bituminous Binders in Indian:
Current Imperatives, Journal of Indian Roads
Congress, Vol. 72-3 (2011) pp. 169-174.
32
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

IRC SP: 53, Indian Roads Congress Special
Publication Guidelines on Use of Rubber
and Polymer Modified Bitumen in Road
Construction , (2002), pp. 1-10.
Heukelom, W., A Bitumen Test Data Chart
for Showing the Effect of Temperature on the
Mechanical Behavior of Asphaltic Bitumen,
Journal of Inst Pet, Vol 55 (1969) pp. 404-417.
Heukelom, W, An Improved Method of
Charactering Asphalt Bitumen with the Aid of
Mechanical Properties. J. Ass Aspha. Pave.
Tech, Vol 42 (1973) pp. 62-98.
Butz T., Rahimian, I and G. Hildebrand
Modifications of Road Bitumen with the
Fischer Tropch Paraffin Sasobit, Journal of
Applied Asphalt Binder Technology No. 10
(2001), pp. 70-86.
Damm, K.W., Abraham, J., Butz, Hildebrand
G, and Riebeschl, G Asphalt Flow Improvers
as Intelligent Fillers for Hot Asphalts., Journal
of Applied Asphalt Binder Technology, (2002)
pp. 36-69.
V. Barthel, M.W. and Marchand, J.P., Warm
Mixes by Adding Synthetic Zeolites.,
Proceedings of 22nd World Road Congress,
Durban, South Africa (2003).
Vijay Kakade, D. Das., M.A. Reddy and B. B.
Pandey, Investigation on Warm and Half Warm
Bituminous Mixes, Journal of Indian Roads
Congress, Vol. 72-3 (2011) pp. 169-174.
Prowell, B.D., Hurley, G.C. and Crews, E,
Field Performance of Warm Mix Asphalt,
Transportation Research Rescored No 1998
(2007), pp. 96-102.
Biro, S., Gandhi, T.S. and Amirkhanian,
S.N. Mid Range Temperature Rheological
Properties of Warm Asphalt Binder,
Journal on Materials in Civil engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers (2009),
pp. 316-323.
Kandhal, P.S., Warm Mix Asphalt
Technologies: An Overview, Journal of Indian
Roads Congress, Vol. 2 (2010) pp. 143-152.
Kunnawee, K., Samak, S., Kitae, K., Wilfung,
M & Hussain, B, Laboratory Study on Warm
Asphalt Additive, Presented at 86th the Meeting
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
of Transportation Research Board, Washington

D.C.
D.C. Button, J.W., Estakhri, C and Wimsatt,
A., Study on Warm Asphalt Additive, 86th
Annual Meeting of the TRB, Washinglon,
Report on Synthesis of Warm Mix Asphalt
Texas Transportation inst (2007).
Ambika, B, Bose S, Kumar, G and Sharma,
G, Journal of Indian Roads Congress Vol. 72(2011).
Kakade, V., Das, D. Reddy, M. A., Pandey B.
B., Low Energy Asphalt Mixes, Proceedings
of International Seminar on Reducing Carbon
Foot Print in Road Construction New Delhi
(2011) pp. 31-37.
Suetal, Laboratory Evaluation of WMA
Mixture for Use in Airport Pavement and
Rehabilitation Construction and Building
Materials, Vol. 23 (2007).
Shang et al, Pysolized Wax from Recycled
Eross Linked Polyethy Lueas Warm Mix
Asphalt Additive for SBS Modified Asphalt,
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 25
(2011).
Specification of Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways (MoRT&H), Section 509, Design
of Bituminous Concrete (2004).
ASTM D-4402, Standard Test Method for
Viscosity Determinations of Asphalts at
Elevated Temperatures Using the Brookeld
Thermosel Apparatus.
ASTM D-1559, Test Method for Resistance
to Plastic flow of Bituminous Mixtures Using
Marshall Apparatus.
ASTM D 6931-07 (2007), Standard Test Method
for Indicate Tensile Strength of Bituminous
Mixture, (2007).
BS 598-110: 1998, Sampling and Examination
of Bituminous Mixtures for Roads and
Other Paved areas, Method of Test for the
Determination of Wheel Tracking Rate and
Depths (1998).
Francken, L., Bituminous Binder and Mixes,
State of the Art and Inter-laboratory Test on
Mechanical Behaviors and Mix Design,
RILEM REPORT 17 (1998), pp. 137.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail :pramodj.crri@nic.in
Paper No. 609
Ultimate Limit STate of Linear Elements

for Bending Section 8 of IRC: 112 Flexural
Analysis of Beams
T. Viswanathan*
Synopsis
This paper explains the section 8 IRC 112 Ultimate Limit States of Linear Elements for Bending Covering the flexural analysis of beams. It covers the basic
principles, different stress blocks and also design of rectangular beams, T.Beams and doubly Reinforced beams. Uses of Horizontal branch and sloping
branch of stress strain diagrams for steel also have been explained. Examples of designing beams as well as checking of beams have been covered in great
detail.
Introduction
The limit state code for concrete bridges was

published during November 2011. As per this
code, the structure has to be designed for ultimate
limit state and checked for serviceability limit
state requirements. As the approach is new to the
bridge engineers, in order to popularize the code,
several measures have been adopted by various
agencies. The Indian Roads Congress is in the
process of bringing out an explanatory handbook.
The Indian Concrete Institute, New Delhi Centre
had organized a 3 days workshop in New Delhi.
Similar workshop is also expected to be arranged
by IABSE shortly.
In order to make the engineers more familiar with
IRC: 112, this article will explain a part of section 8 of
limit state code giving a detailed procedure, along with
worked out examples for the design of beams which
are under flexure.
2 Stress Blocks
The code describes three types of stress blocks for
calculating the ultimate moment of resistance which
are shown below.
Fig. 1 Stress Blocks
The value of
can be obtained from
table 6.5 of IRC: 112 and the value of of and can be
obtained from clause 2.9 of Annexure A2. Designer can
use any of the stress blocks, but the most common are,
the parabolic stress block and rectangular stress block.
The design value of concrete compressive strength
. For accidental
combination m=1.2.
3 Average Stress Approach
It will be difficult to compute the total compress force
in the parabolic stress block due to the nature of the
diagram. The degree of this parabola is given in column
No. 11 of Table 6.5. The parabola is of second degree
up to M60 grade, beyond which the degree of parabola
* Director Aarvee Associates E-mail : tvish123@hotmail.com

34
Viswanathan on
varies from 1.9 to 1.4 for grades M65, to M90. Hence,

it will become more difficult to compute the total force
for grades of concrete from M65 to M90. Therefore,
in order to simplify the calculation, the average stress
concept will be introduced.
3.1
1) Evaluation of total force under parabolic

rectangular stress block diagram.
a) Evaluation of force in the curved portion of

diagram which is shaded.
Principle of Average Stress Concept for

Parabolic Rectangular Stress Block
The parabolic-rectangular stress block will be converted

into equivalent rectangular stress block having uniform
compressive stress spread up to neutral axis giving the
same total compressive force. The CG of the diagram
will be maintained same as that of the parabolic
rectangular stress block. For the designer it will become
very easy to handle the rectangular stress block. When
the parabolic-rectangular stress block is converted
into equivalent rectangular stress block,obviously the
average stress fav will work out to be lesser than fcd. As
a first step we need to work out the equivalent stress
factor for arriving at fav for various grades of concrete
from fcd value.
Total force in the shaded portion =
Fig. 2 Conversion of Parabolic Rectangular Stress Block to

equivalent rectangular stress block
3.2
Derivation of Formula for Average Stress for

Let us assume the average stress for stress block as fav

which is equal to 1 fcd .We need to arrive at the 1 factor
for various grades of concrete.
b) Evaluation of total force in parabolic

rectangular stress block.
If the average stress is taken as fav to give

the same force.
Ultimate Limit Sate of Linear Elements for Bending Section 8 of IRC: 112 Flexural Analysis of Beams 35
first the CG of the shaded portion will be worked out
from the start of parabola point.
Table 1 The Average Stress Factor for

[Refer Table 6.5 of IRC: 112]
Grades
c2
cu2
Up to
M 60
M 65
2.0
.002
.0035
0.8095
1.9
.0021
.0033
0.7805
M 70
1.7
.0022
.0031
0.7371
M 75
1.6
.0023
.0029
0.6949
M 80
1.5
.0023
.0028
0.671
M 85
1.5
.0024
.0027
0.644
M 90
1.4
.0024
.0026
0.615
3.3 Determination of CG of the Stress Block

Form Top
We need to work out the Centre of gravity of the
Parabolic Rectangular stress block. For equivalent
rectangular stress block diagram also the CG will be
kept at the same distance as that of parabolic rectangular
stress block in order to maintain the same resisting
moment.
The distance of the CG of the force of the shaded

portion is from the point where parabolic part of stress
diagram starts. Whereas we require the CG distance
from the bottom of stress diagram. This means the
above distance has to be subtracted from.
To determine the distance of the action point of the

compressive force of parabolic rectangular stress block,
Viswanathan on
36
Hence distance from bottom of the shaded area
CG distance of force from the top of the parabolic

rectangular diagram
Taking moment of all the forces from the bottom of the
diagram:
1 x1 is the CG distance of the compression stress block

from the bottom of stress block.
Where 2 is ratio of the CG of the compression stress

block from top of stress block to the depth of neutral
axis.
3.4 Determination of 2 for Various Grades
For grades up to M60 2 factor will be worked. For
other grades the figures will be shown in the table.
The compressive force acts 0.416 x1 from top, where x1

is the depth of Neutral axis.
Proceeding similarly for other mix grades the values
are shown in the table.
Table 2 Average Stress and the CG Distance

Factor of the Compressive Force from Top
Grades
of
Concrete
3.5
Factor 1
Stress fav
Ratio of
distance of
centroid to
the depth of
NA axis 2
20
7.2317
0.416
25
9.0396
0.416
30
10.847
0.416
35
12.655
0.416
40
14.463
0.416
45
16.271
0.416
50
18.079
0.416
55
19.887
0.416
60
21.6952
0.416
65
22.62
0.406
70
23.05
0.390
75
23.28
0.377
80
23.92
0.370
85
24.39
0.365
90
24.72
0.357
Principle of Average Stress Concept for

Rectangular Stress Block
The rectangular stress block which is comparatively

easier stress block can also be converted into average
stress block diagram concept. The CG of the equivalent
stress block shall be kept at the same distance of the
original stress block in order to have the moment
capacity unaltered.
Strain diagram
Stress diagram
Fig. 3 Stress-Strain diagram for rectangular stress block
and are defined in equations A2-33, 34, 35, 36 of

Appendix A2 of IRC 112. As the stress block is spread
over larger depth, compared to the actual stress block,
in order to have the same force, the outer fiber stress
has to be reduced to arrive to fav. When compared with
fcd.
3.6
Derivation of Formula for Average Stress for

Rectangular Stress Block
For mix grade less than M 60, the depth of stress block
will be restricted to 80% of neutral axis depth. In the
average stress block concept the depth of the block
will be increased to full depth of neutral axis. Hence,
the stress will be reduced to 80% of the fcd value.
The average stress upto M 60 grade concrete will
For other
be
grades, at first the reduced stress using h value shall be
worked out and then the average stress will be worked
out by using reduction factorl.
Taking an example of M 70 grade, the l value works
out to 0.78 instead of 0.8 and value works out to
0.96 instead of 1. fcd for this grade will work out to
. The average stress
will work out to
substituting fck = 70 MPa the average stress fcd will work
Viswanathan on
38
out to 23.40 MPa. The CG of the compressive diagram

will be at
distance from the top of the diagram.
Table 3 Average Stress and the CG Distance

Factor of the Compressive Force from the Top
Grades
of
Concrete
in MPa
fav factor
=
0.446666
For grades
up to M 60
20
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
7.146
0.40
25
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
8.933
0.40
30
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
10.719
0.40
35
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
12.506
0.40
40
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
14.293
0.40
45
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
16.079
0.40
50
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
17.866
0.40
55
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
19.650
0.40
60
1.0
0.8
0.35733 fck
21.430
0.40
65
0.98
0.79
0.345 fck
22.425
0.395
70
0.96
0.78
0.3344 fck
23.408
0.390
75
0.94
0.77
0.323 fck
24.225
0.385
80
0.92
0.76
0.3122 fck
24.98
0.380
85
0.90
0.75
0.314 fck
25.623
0.375
90
0.88
0.74
0.2908 fck
26.17
0.370
fav stress Ratio of

in MPa distance of
centroid to
the depth
of NA axis
2
For mix grade upto M 60 the factor is 0.361587 to

get the average stress. For other grades the respective
factor can be taken from the table.
MR=0.3615 fck bx [d - 0.416x] - (1)
The depth of NA axis for balanced section for concrete
grades upto M 60 using fy=500 N/mm2
4 Examples
This expression is known to all engineers. The term

0.3615 is a factor to convert the allowable stress into
average stress. Substituting for M 60 grade 0.1658 x 60
x bd^2 = 9.948 bd2.
The design engineer will come across two sets of

problems. One is to design the section and another
is to check the capacity of the section. Some typical
worked out examples will be covering both these sets
of problems will be presented.
Suppose if an engineer wants to use the average stress

straight away from the table, the moment of resistance
will be 21.696 x b x 0.617d x 0.7438d = 9.95 bd2. One
can estimate the depth for a given moment or depth
adequacy can be checked.
4.1
B.
Capacity of Balanced Section
The capacity of balanced section will be worked out for

both the stress blocks.
A.
Taking moment about steel level
Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
The factor for rectangular stress block is

0.3573 fck Moment of resistance =
0.3573 fck b x 0.617 d = 0.1660 fck bd2
Previously we obtained moment of resistance as 0.1658
fckbd2 practically no difference. The rectangular stress
block will give slightly higher moment of resistance.
4.2 Design of Section
A. In a design Dituation where the moment is
available and the section has to be designed,
the following steps may be followed.

1. Determine the depth required from the

moment of resistance formula
MR = 0.1658 fck bd2 for Fe500 and mix

grade M 60.

2. Estimate the balanced section Neutral axis

which equal to 0.617d for Fe500 and mix
grade upto M 60.
3. Work out the area of steel Ast=
for the above
grade of steel and concrete.
4. If depth provided is more or equal to depth

of balanced section the steel will yield. If
the depth provided is less than the required
depth, the neutral axis has to be worked
out, the steel strain is to be established and
the stress in steel has to be arrived. Based
on stress, the area of steel to be arrived.
In the above example the steel will yield and it is correct

to assume steel stress as fyk.
B.
Next section is available, moment is also

available, steel to be worked out
1. D
etermine the depth required for moment of
resistance using formula. If the depth is adequate
proceed further. If the depth is inadequate the section
has to be designed as doubly reinforced beam or the
depth has to be increased.
2. D
etermine the depth of neutral axis for the given
moment by following the method given below.
In the previous example, if the depth provided is
more than the requirement then also the following
method to establish the NA axis can be followed.
M= fav bx [d-2 x] where 2 x is the location of CG of
compression block from top of section.
This will be a uneconomical solution.

Alternatively shall be designed as a doubly
reinforced section.
Example 1 Ultimate moment in a section
150 kNm/m, cover 50 mm concrete M 45
grade, steel Fe 500. Design the section.
Fig. 4 Strain-Stress diagram for equvalant stress block
Viswanathan on
40
Taking the minimum value
If ratio is less than balanced section neutral axis ratio,

then the steel will yield.
3.
Estimate the area of steel =
1.1
Example 2: Ultimate moment = 150 kN/m, cover

50 mm concrete M 45 grade steel Fe500, depth provided
is 250 mm. Determine the steel required assuming
20 mm bars.
Suppose anybody assumes the balanced section lever

arm itself and estimates the reinforcement then Ast=
2443 mm2 18% Variation in steel. The Neutral axis

depth changes from 117.23 m to 55.1 m and the ratio
x/d from 0.617 to 0.290.
Hence, it is better to estimate the neutral axis and
arrive at the steel, in case of depth provided is more
than the requirement.
C.
Next case will be, section is given,

reinforcement is given and to work out the
moment capacity of section
1. Equate the tensile force and compressive

force and arrive at the depth of neutral
axis.

1. Evaluate the neutral axis for the given steel

area.
2. Check whether steel yields or not. For

over reinforced section the steel will not
yield.
3. Assume N.A axis position. Estimate the

compressive force.
4. Determine the strain in

subsequently force in steel.
steel
and
2.
is less than balanced section neutral
axis ratio,then the steel will yield otherwise
not.
5. Total compressive force should be equal to

total tensile force.
3. If steel yields the moment of resistance will

be
6. If it does not match repeat the procedure till

it matches.
7. Once force equilibrium is achieved;

multiply the force by lever arm and obtain
the moment.
4. In case if the steel does not yield the

moment of resistance shall be worked
by strain compatibility method.
Example 3: Determine the moment

of resistance for a slab per meter
width.
This will be shown by the following worked out

examples.
Example 4: Determine the moment of resistance of a
slab per meter width.
Thickness of slab 250 mm, cover 50

mm, concrete M 45 grade, steel Fe500,
Ast Provided is 2100 mm 2 /m
Thickness of slab = 250 mm, Cover 50 mm, Concrete

M 45 grade, Fe 500
Step: 2 Steel Does not yield. Hence, over reinforced
section.
D. Strain compatibility method
Step: 3 Assume N. A axis as 150 mm for 1st trial.
Step 4: Proceed as shown in the table and repeat the

operations.
In case the steel does not yield the strain

compatibility method shall be used.
Viswanathan on
42
Table 4 Compatibility Analysis Table

Trial
NA axis
Reinforcement
Steel strain
from top of depth form NA axis
slab
in mm
150
40
130
60
120
70
127
63
121.5
68.5
Steel force in kN (Tensile)
Concrete force in kN
compression
= 2066
= 1973
= 1977
E. Use of sloping upper branch of stress diagram

of steel
The stress diagram of steel always plays an important
role in arriving at the resistance capacity of section. In
para 4.1, the resistance capacity has been arrived using
Horizontal branch of the stress-strain diagram of steel.
If any engineer wishes to use the sloping branch, he
can also provided,the calculation done properly. The
IS:1786 gives at ultimate tensile stress, the elongation
as 5%. This shall be taken as uk. Taking 0.9 of this
value as ud= .045. Referring to table 18-1 of the code
for Fe500. Tensile strength = 500 x 1.08 = 540 MPa.
Example 5 use of sloping branch of stress-Strain

diagram
Same example 2 will be taken from explanation.
N.A axis depth: 0.290 x 190 = 55.1 mm
Strain in steel
8.56 x 10-3=.00856
At yield the steel strain is .00217.

If one desires to use the sloping branch of stress Strain
diagram the neutral axis has to be again found by trial
and error.
For steel strain of .00856, the steel stress can be worked
out as follows.
Fig. 5 Stress-Strain Diagram showing upper branch
Tensile force = 2100 x 434.78 = 913.0 kN as per
Horizontal branch of stress strain diagram.
Tensile force as per actual steel strain = 2100 x 439.428
= 923 kN
Based on sloping branch of stress strain diagram
In order to accommodate this increase in steel force,
NA axis has to be lowered.
The strain in steel has to be compatible with the
force and the force equilibrium has to be obtained.
Previously the NA axis was 55.1 mm. Now let us take
N.A axis as 56.5 mm in order to accommodate the extra
compressive force.

1. Strain in steel =
8.269 x 10-3
2. Stress in steel =
F. Design of Doubly Reinforced Beams

When the depth of the member cannot be increased
and the moment applied is more than its capacity,
the designer needs to design the beam as a doubly
reinforced beam.
Steps to be followed are given below.
Step 1: As a singly reinforced beam calculate the
moment of resistance.
Step 2: Taking it as a balanced section arrive at the
tensile steel requirement.
Step 3: The difference between the applied moment
and the capacity shall be worked out.
Step 4: Divide the moment obtained in step 3 by the
distance between the reinforcements and obtain the
force.
There is no change in stress in steel.
3. Force in steel = 439.21 x 2100 = 922 kN
4. Force in concrete =
= 920 kN
Value can be accepted : Moment =
Step 5: The additional tensile steel shall be worked by

dividing the above force by the yield stress of steel as
the tensile steel will yield. Add this steel to the steel
arrived in step. 2.
Step 6: To arrive at the compression steel, from the
strain diagram estimate the strain in compression steel
and thus the stresses. Divide the force by the stress and
arrive at the required of compressive steel.
Step 7: Check the equilibrium of forces and the moment
equilibrium.
Above steps will be explained by taking an example.
It can be seen that the change in the moment

carrying capacity is only 2% and maximum it can
go upto 7%. Hence, it may not be worthwhile to
do this exercise. In case if someone is interested to
use the upper branch assume N.A axis for the trail
taking the steel force as constant and the NA axis
position shall be verified. The steel force will not
change much but the NA axis will be dictated by
the compressive force.
Example 6: Design of Doubly Reinforced Beam.

Design a beam to carry a moment of 5000 kNm.
B = 500 mm, D = 1000 mm, Cover 40 mm,
Grade M 45, Fe = 500, dia of bars 20 mm.
Step 1:
The balanced section moment carrying capacity
Viswanathan on
44
Check total force

Concrete compressive force = fav bx =
Force in compressive steel = 1816 kN.
Force in tensile steel =
Step 3: Difference between Applied moment and

capacity
= 5000 3366 = 1634 kNm
Step 4: Additional force =
1816 kN
Additional tensile steel =
4177 mm2
Step 5: Total tensile steel = 10965 + 4177 =

15142 mm2
Step 6: Strain in compressive steel.
Fig. 6 Strain Diagram
6583 kN
Total 4767 + 1816 - 6583 = 0

Taking moment about top of beam.
1816 x 50 + 4767 x 0.416 x 586
-6583 x 950
= -5000 kN
Net force on the section is zero and moment of resistance
and applied moment is matching. Hence, the solution is
in order.
G. Design of T beam
Design procedure is same as explained before. However
clause no. 8.2.1 (3) of the code has to be taken care. As
per this clause if an element is fully under compressive
stress, the mean strain should be limited to c2 only. This
means the outer fiber cannot be subjected to a strain of cu3
or cu2. This case will occur when neutral axis lies outside
the flange and the flange is under compressive stress only.
In case where the neutral axis lies with in flange the clause
will not be applicable, as the extreme fibers of the flanges
will have tensile and compressive stresses.
Example 7: Design of a tee beam having following
dimensions:
Strain in compressive steel =
Design the beam using the parabolic rectangular

stress block.
Compression steel yields
M = 7000 knm, Cover 50 mm, Concrete M 45 grade,

Fe = 500
.00377>.00217
Area of Compression steel =
Fig: 7 Cross Section of Beam
Fig. 8 Cross Section of Tee Beam
Step 1: Assume 3 layers of reinforcement:
Effective d = 1400 - 50 - 28 - 28 =1280 mm
2
Step 2: Assume NA axis to lie in the flange to calculate
the lever arm for the first trial.
Step 3: The above steel works out to 21.92 bars of

28 .
Step 7: Slightly increase the depth of Neutral axis

and use parabolic rectangular stress block. Neutral
axis:Assume 289 mm.
Fig. 9 Cross Section, Strain and Stress Diagram
Provide slightly extra steel to compensate the reduction

in lever arm as NA axis will come down and the NA
axis will lie in the web.
Distance of Start of parabola =
Provide 8 x 3: 24 bars of 28 Area = 6.157 x 24 =

14778 mm2
Rectangular portion of stress block in flange = 289-165

= 124 mm.
Step 4: Strain in steel =

.00217 in 1st layer of steel.
Parabolic stress block in flange = 200-124 = 76 mm.
176) = 0.1792 >
Steel will yield and the force in the steel = 14778 x

434.78 = 6425 kN
Step 5: Use rectangular compression stress block to
fix the position of neutral axis. Let x be the depth of
neutral axis from top.
Stress at bottom of flange =
Average stress in parabolic portion =
1. Force in flange due to rectangular stress

block 1500 x 124 x 20.097 x 10-3 = 3738 kN
2. Force in flange due to parabolic portion

of stress block 18.67 x 1500 x 76 x 10-3 =
2128 kN
3. Force in the web =
The NA axis will be around 285.14 mm for first trial

Step 6: Steel strain in the first layer of steel
(1115 - 176) = .0115 > .00217
Steel will yield: but force in steel will be same.
Force in tensile steel = 6425 kN.
Viswanathan on
46
Natural axis assumed position is ok.

1. CG of force in flange, from top for

62 mm
rectangular stress block =
2. CG of force in flange from top of parabola
3. For the remaining portion
The strain in outer fiber has to be limited as the flange

h from
will have compressive strain only. At
top of the flange the strain has to be .002. The distance
will work out to 0.4285 x 200 = 85.7 mm.
From top 124 + 121.69 = 245.69 mm

Moment = [3738 x 62 + 2128 x 152.5 + 554 x 245.69 6425 x 1224] x 103 = - 7172 kNm> 7000 kNm
Hence, it is in order.
Now, we need to check as per clause 8.1(3). As the
flange is having only compressive strain, the top fiber
of flange can not be subjected to strain of .0035. [cu2].
The strain at the extreme fiber will be limited to such a
value so that at 3/7 h the strain will be .002. The effect
of this limitation is explained as follows.
Fig. 11 Adjusted Stress Diagram
.00274 < .0035

The outer fiber strain
the bottom of flange will have strain = .002/239.3
x 116 = .001. The strain at the highly compressed
face will be .0035 0.75 times the strain in the least
compressive face. Checking this strain it will work
out .0035 0.75 x .001 = .00275, which agrees with
the above value.
Stress at Top = 20.097 N / mm2
Stress at bottom of flange 20.097-
Fig. 10 Limited Strain Diagram
It can be seen from the figure that when the strain in

limited, the NA axis has to go down to compensate the
loss of stress block area.
The position of NA axis can be got only by trial and
error.
Earlier in the parabolic stress block, the depth of neutral
axis has been worked out as 289 mm. Increase the depth
of neutral axis to 316 mm for 1st trial.
Average stress = 2/3 (20.097 15.15) + 15.15 = 18.45

N / mm2
Force due to rectangular block stress diagram in
flange.
= 20.097 x 1500 x 85.7 x 10-3=
42.85 mm from top.
Force in the flange due to parabolic stress diagram
Parabolic stress block gives = 7172 kNm

Hence, the designer should follow rectangular stress
block to avoid complications. In a half page the
calculation for a tee beam can be completed.
5
This can be taken as Matching.

Taking moment about top:
[2583 x 42.85 + 3163 x 128.5 + 683.6 x 266 - 6425 x
1224] 10-3
= -7165 kNm
Compares well with earlier parabolic rectangular stress
block results. Without strain reduction the moment
resistance capacity was -7172 kNm.
As the variation is very small this procedure can be
safely dropped and without strain reduction the analysis
can be carried out.
Alternate solution using rectangular stress block instead
of parabolic-rectangular stress block.
The NA axis arrived at step 5 is = 285 mm
The depth of stress blocks is 0.8 x 285 = 228 mm.
Steel is yielding
Force in steel = 6425 kN,
Compressive force in flange and web
Conclusion
The Engineers may find it difficult to work as per IRC:

112 initially. The above article will drive away the fear
and it can be seen the code is easily adoptable. The
above article gives the fundamentals, average stress
concept, design and checking of rectangular, beams,
use of upper branch of stress-strain diagram of steel,
doubly reinforced beams and T beams. Using the
equivalent average stress concept instead of parabolic
rectangular stress block makes the designers life easier.
It can be seen that the using the sloping branch of stress
strain diagram of steel does give only slight increase
in moment. Hence, this method need not be carried
out. Similarly, compressive strain restriction in Tee
beam need not be done and simple use of rectangular
stress block is adequate and recommended. One of the
methods of popularizing the code is presenting papers
by the committee members and organizing workshops
by organization such as IRC, IABSE and ICI etc. It is
expected that the Engineers will go through this article
and follow the principles and the worked out examples
in their design office.
6 References
1.
Code of practice for concrete bridge IRC

112-2011.
2.
Designers Guide to EN-1992-2 by C.R. Hendy

and D.A. Smith.
3.
Designers Guide to EN-1992-1-1 and

EN-1992-1-2 by R.S. Narayanan and A. Beeby.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail : tvish123@hotmail.com
Paper No. 610
DETAILING PROVISIONS OF IRC:112-2011 COMPARED WITH

PREVIOUS CODES (i.e. IRC:21 & IRC:18)
Part 2 : Detailing Requirements for Structural Members & Ductile Detailing for Seismic Resistance
(Section 16 & 17 of Irc: 112)
Alok Bhowmick*
Synopsis
This paper is a sequel to the first paper on comparison of general detailing practice for reinforcement and prestressing cables between past and the present
code of IRC (Covering Section 15 of IRC:112). This paper covers the comparison of detailing requirements for specific structural members (as covered in
Section 16 of IRC: 112) and provisions on ductile detailing for seismic resistance (as covered in Section 17 of IRC: 112).
The new unified concrete code (IRC:112) represents a significant difference from the previous Indian practice followed through IRC:21 & IRC:18. The
code is less prescriptive and offer greater choice of design and detailing methods with scientific reasoning. This new generation code, when used with
full understanding, will bring benefits to all sectors of our society as it will eventually lead to safer construction and make a tangible contribution towards
a sustainable society. The present situation in the industry is that most of the consulting offices are struggling to understand this code, which is not so
user-friendly. Since the designer is hard pressed for time, majority of the Consultants are unfortunately spending their valuable time only in fulfilling the
prescribed rules of the code, acting as a technical lawyer, with very little understanding of the subject.
One of the useful methods of understanding the new code in the short term is by comparing the provisions of this code with the previous practice that used
to be followed prior to publication of this code. This paper is written with this objective in mind.
INTRODUCTION
The unified concrete code (IRC:112) published by

the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in November 2011
combining the code for Reinforced Concrete and
Prestressed Concrete structures represents a new
generation code, which is significantly different as
compared to the previous codes (i,e IRC:21 for RCC
structures & IRC:18 for PSC structures), which stands
withdrawn, with the publication of IRC:112.
The new code covers detailing in much greater detail
than the previous codes. There are 3 sections dedicated
to detailing in the new code (i,e Section 15, 16 & 17).
General rules on detailing are covered in Section 15.
In addition, Section 16 covers specific detailing rules
for Beams, Columns, Walls, Brackets, Corbels and
Zones below bearingsetc. Section 17 covers ductile
detailing from seismic considerations.
This paper is a sequel to Part-1, published in this journal,

which covered Section 15 of the code. The objective of
this paper is to provide an explanation to various clauses
of Section 16 & Section 17 of IRC:112 and to provide a
comparative analysis with the previous codes. For the
benefit of readers, relevant clause numbers of IRC:112
is mentioned in bracket in all heads and sub-heads of
this paper. Notations used in this paper are same as in
IRC:112.
2 Specific Detailing requirements
(Section 16)
2.1
Columns of Solid Section (16.2)
Table 1 gives the detailed comparative provisions

between IRC:112 and IRC:21 for minimum diameter of
bar, minimum and maximum reinforcement percentage,
maximum spacing between bars for solid columns &
transverse reinforcement requirements.
* Managing Director, B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Noida-201301, E-mail: bsecmail@yahoo.com
Detailing Provisions of Irc:112-2011 Compared with Previous Codes (i.e. Irc:21 & Irc:18)
49
Table 1 Comparison of Detailing Provisions for Columns

S. No.
Item
IRC:21-2000
IRC:112-2011
12 mm
12 mm (except for pedestal)
1.
Min. Diameter of Long. Bar
2.
Minimum longitudinal
reinforcement
0.15% of gross sectional area for

Pedestals.
As,min is greater of 0.8% of the area of
cross section required to take direct
stress or 0.3% of gross sectional area.
0.15% of gross sectional area for Pedestals

As min is greater of 0.10NED/fyd or 0.2% of gross
sectional area.
3.
Maximum longitudinal
reinforcement
As,max is 8% of gross sectional area.
As max is 4% of gross sectional area. At lap section,

it shall not be greater than 8%.
4.
Minimum number of bars in

longitudinal direction
6 (Six) for circular columns
6 (Six) for circular columns

At least one bar at each junction of two surface
for columns of regular polygonal section
5.
Maximum spacing between

longitudinal bars
No limit specified.
300 mm from crack control
considerations (without crack width
check)
200 mm, measured at the periphery.
6.
Transverse Reinforcement
Minimum diameter shall be maximum

of [8 mm, long /4]. Diameter can
be reduced provided volume of
reinforcement calculated on the basis
of diameter and maximum pitch is not
reduced.
Spacing of reinforcement shall be
minimum of [12xlong, 300 mm, least
dimension of column].
Additional provision for helical
reinforcement given for increased load
capacity.
Minimum diameter shall be maximum of [8 mm,

long /4]
Spacing of reinforcement shall be minimum of
[12xlong, 200 mm, least dimension of column].
Where direction of the longitudinal bar changes
more than 1:12, the spacing of transverse
reinforcement shall be calculated, by taking
account of the lateral forces involved.
Every corner longitudinal bar shall be held in
two direction by transverse reinforcement. No
bar within compression zone shall be further than
150 mm from a restrained bar.
A maximum of 3 bars on one face and not more than
5 bars on two faces can be secured against buckling
by any one set of transverse reinforcement.
2.2 RC Walls & Wall Type Piers (16.3)

There is no specific provision for RC walls & Wall
type piers in IRC:21. This part was covered in IRC:782000. IRC:112 covers the wall type piers also, but
provisions are different, which means there is a conflict
now between provisions of IRC112 and IRC:78 for RC
Walls and Wall type piers, which is highlighted here.
The new code (IRC:112) stipulates a minimum vertical
reinforcement of 0.24% of sectional area. At least 0.12%
of vertical reinforcement shall be provided in each face.
Distance between adjacent vertical bars is specified
as 200 mm. The maximum vertical reinforcement
is specified as 4% (outside laps). As per IRC:78, the
minimum vertical reinforcement is specified as 0.3%

of sectional area.
The minimum horizontal reinforcement in IRC:112
is stipulated as 25% of the area of total vertical
reinforcement or 0.1% of the sectional area, whichever
is greater. This is much different from the corresponding
provision in IRC:78, according to which, the minimum
horizontal reinforcement is stipulated as 0.25% of the
gross area.
In addition to horizontal reinforcement, which is to
be provided parallel to long face of the wall, there is a
need for transverse reinforcement also as per IRC:112,
which is to be provided along the width of the wall in
Bhowmick on
50
the form of links, provided the vertical reinforcement

% in wall exceeds 2%. There is no such provision in
IRC:78.
For wall type piers in seismic zones III, IV and V,
additional detailing measures to impart ductility are
included in Section 17 of IRC:112, which is dealt with
in subsequent sections of this paper.
2.3
Beams (16.5)
a)
Minimum area of Tension Reinforcement

(Longitudinal) :
IRC:112 sets a minimum area of tensile

reinforcement = 0.26 x (fctm/fyk) x bt.d, but not
less than 0.13% of bt.d. The requirement of
IRC:112 is derived from the consideration that
the reinforcement should not yield as soon as
cracking in the concrete occurs. IRC:21 on the
contrary specifies a minimum reinforcement
percentage of 0.2%, irrespective of the
concrete grade or reinforcement grade. From
the above formulas, it can be seen that the
minimum % reinforcement requirement is
less as per IRC:112 compared to IRC:21, for
concrete grade M45 and below. However for
higher concrete grade, IRC:112 gives higher
values.
b)
Maximum area of tension & Compression

Reinforcement (Longitudinal) :
Unlike the previous code (IRC:21), the present

code (IRC:112) sets a limit to the maximum
area of tension reinforcement to 0.025Ac . The
total tension plus compression reinforcement is
restricted in IRC:112 to 0.04Ac. No such limits
were there in IRC:21.
c)
Distribution of Longitudinal tensile Steel in

flanged section:
As per the provisions of IRC:112, the total

amount of tensile reinforcement in a flanged
section (i.e. over intermediate support of a
continuous beams), may be spread over the

effective width of flange (See Fig. 16.1 of the
code). Such provisions did not exist in the
previous code (IRC:21).
d)
Curtailment of Longitudinal Reinforcement:
The rules of curtailment as per present code is

quite different from that of previous code and
leads to economy. As per the new shift rule of
IRC:112, the tensile force envelop is shifted by a
horizontal distance al in unfavorable direction
for the purpose of curtailment. The diagram of
resisting tensile force envelop should lie outside
the envelop line of the acting tensile force,
displaced by the shift length al. The value of
al depends on whether the member is with
or without shear reinforcement. For members
without shear reinforcement, length of shift,
al = d in the unfavorable direction. For members
with shear reinforcement the shift al = z (cot
cot ) / 2 0, where is the strut angle and is
the angle of shear reinforcement. For members
with vertical shear reinforcement, al = 0.5 z cot .
Depending upon the value of considered for
shear design, al varies from 0.5z to 1.125z.
For reinforcement in the flange placed outside
the web, al should be further increased by the
distance of the bar from the web. The curtailed
reinforcement shall be effectively anchored
beyond the theoretical point where it is no
longer required. The anchorage length shall be
maximum of [d, lb,net]. The principle difference
of IRC:112 provisions on curtailment length
with provisions of IRC:21 are as under :
The length of horizontal shift of the tensile

force diagram as per IRC:21 is fixed at h
for beams and 1.5h for slabs, where h is
the overall depth of beam/slab. In case of
IRC:112, the shift length, al is rationalized
and it depends on several factors (i.e.
whether the member is with or without
shear reinforcement, effective depth, strut
angle chosen for shear design etc.). The
length varies between 0.5d to 1.125d, where
d is the effective depth of member.

Present code (IRC:112) permits the

designer to take benefit of the progressive
linear increase of tensile strength within
its anchorage length. As the tensile force
diagram varies smoothly and there is no
abrupt jump, the resistance also can vary
accordingly. As per the previous practice
of IRC:21, this was not permitted. The
reinforcement was considered effective
only at the end of its anchorage length.
e)
Anchorage of Span Reinforcement at end

support (16.5.1.4)
In simply supported spans, at least 25% of the

steel required to resist the maximum bending
moment shall be carried over the support as per
IRC:112. This percentage was 33% in IRC:21.
The anchorage length depends upon whether
the support is direct or indirect. For direct
support, the anchorage length can be reduced
to 2/3 to cater for the favorable effects of
transverse compression. The anchorage length
is to be measured from inner face of support.
IRC:112 also requires that the anchorage of

the reinforcement at support should be capable
of resisting a tensile force of Fs = VED x (al/d)
+ NED , where VED is the design shear force &
NED is the design axial tensile force. There is no
equivalent clause to this in IRC:21.
f)
Anchorage of Span Reinforcement

Intermediate support (16.5.1.5)
at
IRC:112 requires that at least 25% of the mid

span bottom reinforcement shall pass into the
support, by at least 10 in case of straight
bar and not less than the mandrel diameter in
case of bars with hooks or bends (Refer Fig.
16.4(a) of the code). It is also recommended
that in case any positive reinforcement arises
and intermediate supports due to differential
51
settlement, accidental loads etc., continuous

reinforcement shall be provided at the bottom,
which may be achieved by means of lapped
bars. The previous code (IRC:21) did not have
any such provision. However IRC:21 requires
that at least 25% of bottom reinforcement is to
be extended over the support.
g)
Shear Reinforcement (16.5.2)
Both the codes require that the shear

reinforcement be placed either in the form of
links (enclosing tensile reinforcement as well
as compression zone of concrete) or bent-up
bars, at an angle between 45o to 90o with the
mid plane of the structural element. Both the
codes require that at least 50% of the necessary
shear reinforcement be provide using links.
IRC:112 also permits use of shear assemblies
in the form of cages, ladders ..etc. which do not
enclose the longitudinal reinforcement, but are
properly anchored in compression and tension
zone. There is no equivalent to this clause in
IRC:21. Tension in stirrups is more or less
constant over the height of vertical leg of the
stirrup. Therefore all points on the vertical leg
must be fully developed. Lap joint in the vertical
leg is better to be avoided, but it is allowed only
in case of HYSD bars in IRC:112. Anchorage
of stirrup should be in the compression zone.
Minimum Shear Reinforcement:
Minimum value of shear reinforcement ratio

as per IRC:112 is given as w,min = 0.072fck/
fyk. IRC:21 required that minimum links should
be provided for design shear resistance of 0.4
Mpa (i,e. w,min = 0.4/(0.87fyk). Fig.1 shows
the comparative results between IRC:112 and
IRC:21 provisions for Fe415 reinforcement. It
can be seen from the graph that minimum shear
reinforcement ratio depends on concrete grade
as per the present code while it was a constant
as per IRC:21. For concrete grade M40 and
above, the minimum shear reinforcement as per
IRC:112 works out higher than corresponding
Bhowmick on
52
value as per IRC:21 in case Fe 415 rebar is

used. For other grades of reinforcement, trends
are similar.

Maximum longitudinal & transverse

spacing of shear stirrups/vertical links/bent
up bars:
Maximum longitudinal spacing of vertical

stirrups/links and shear assemblies as per
IRC:112 is given as, Sl,max = 0.75d. The
provision ensures that shear failure plane
cannot be formed between two adjacent sets
of shear reinforcement. IRC:21 restricts the
maximum spacing of stirrups to 0.5d only
subject to a maximum of 300 mm. Maximum
longitudinal spacing of bent up bars is given as,
Sb,max = 0.6d (1+ cot ) in IRC:112. For '' = 45o,
Sb,max = 1.2d. Maximum spacing as per IRC:21
is 0.75d. Transverse spacing of shear stirrups is
given as, St,max = 0.75d 600 mm in IRC:112.
IRC:21 do not have any equivalent provision.
Treatment of torsion in IRC:21 is significantly

different from the current code. The torsional
reinforcement is not calculated separately for
torsion alone. Instead the total longitudinal
reinforcement is determined for a fictitious
bending moment, which is a function of actual
bending moment and torsion. Similarly web
reinforcement is determined for a fictitious
shear, which is a function of actual shear and
torsion. IRC:21 provides the following rules
for detailing of torsion reinforcement :
The transverse reinforcement should be

closed stirrup placed perpendicular to
member axis and spaced not more than
smaller of [300 mm, (X1+Y1)/4], where X1
& Y1 are respectively the short and long
dimension of the member.
There shall be at least one longitudinal bar

in each corner of the stirrups. The diameter
of these longitudinal bars shall not be less
than the diameter of the stirrups or 12 mm,
whichever is greater.
h)
Torsional Reinforcement (16.5.3):
IRC:112 provides the following rules :
i)
Surface Reinforcement (16.5.4):
The torsion links should be closed and be

anchored by means of laps or according
to Fig. 15.3 (a) of IRC:112 and form an
angle of 90o with the axis of the structural
element.
The provision of clause 16.5.2 (5) and

(7) are generally sufficient to provide the
minimum torsion links required.
IRC:112 provides specific rules for the use of

surface reinforcement for which there is no
equivalent in IRC:21. According to IRC:112,
it is necessary to use surface reinforcement in
cases where clear cover to main reinforcement
is greater than 50 mm. This new provision,
given exclusively for beams, is taken from the
new model code 2010.
The longitudinal bars are so arranged that

there is at least one bar at each corner,
others being distributed uniformly around
the inner periphery spaced at no more than
350 mm centres.
This clause of IRC:112 is influenced by

provisions of Model Code 2010 and Eurocode
2, according to Annex J (Informative Annexure)
of which, it is recommended to use this type of
reinforcement under following circumstances
due to reasons stated herein :
The longitudinal spacing of the torsion links

should not exceed 1/8th the outer perimeter
of the member.
To avoid spalling of concrete when main

tensile reinforcement is made up of bars
with diameter greater than 32 mm or
bundled bars with equivalent diameter
greater than 32 mm is used.

53
the two codes for slabs is given in Table 2.
For enhanced durability & better

performance against fire, in situations where
nominal cover (Cnom) to reinforcement is
greater than 70 mm.
2.4 Solid Slabs (16.6)

IRC:112 defines solid slabs as elements where

the breadth and effective lengths are not less
than 5 times the overall depth. Similar clause did
not exist in IRC:21. The comparison between
Fig. 1 Comparison of Minimum Shear Reinforcement Ratio

(As/b.s) for Beams (For Fe 415)
Table 2 Comparison of Detailing Provisions for Slabs

S. No.
Item
IRC:21-2000
IRC:112-2011
200 mm
200 mm in case shear reinforcement is

provided.
1.
Minimum Slab Thickness
2.
Minimum % Reinft in Primary

Direction
0.12% for Fe 415 / Fe 500

0.15% for Fe 240
Same as for Beams

(Refer 2.3 (a) above)
3.
Maximum % Reinft in Primary

Direction
Not Specified
Same as for Beams

(Refer 2.3 (a) above)
4.
Max. % Reinft in Secondary

Direction
Distribution reinft. for resisting moment

equal to 0.3 x moment due to concentrated
live loads plus 0.2 x moments due to other
loads.
20% of the primary reinforcement
5.
Shift Rule for Curtailment
Shift = al = 1.5 x h, where h is the

overall depth
Shift = al = d, where d is the effective depth
6.
Max. Spacing of Main Reinft.
7.
Max. Spacing of Secondary

Reinft.
Min. of [2d, 300 mm], where d is the

effective depth of slab.
300 mm
2.5
Corbels (16.7)
The previous code, IRC:21 had no provision

for Corbels. This is introduced in IRC:112.
Two cases are covered for design of corbel. The
design is recommended to be based on strut
& tie modeling method, with the inclination
of strut with respect to axial direction of the
member to be between 22o & 45o, as shown in
Fig. 2.
Min. of [2h, 250 mm], where h is the

overall depth of slab.
Min. of [3h, 400 mm], where h is the
overall depth of slab.
In this case, in addition to the main reinforcement

provided at the top of corbel (with total area
of As,main), closed horizontal or inclined links
(secondary tie bars) to be provided distributed
within the depth of the corbel, where : As,link >
0.25 As,main (Refer Fig. 16.7(a) and Fig. 16.7(c)
of the Code).
Case 2 : ac > 0.5xhc
Case 1 : ac 0.5xhc
Bhowmick on
54

Fig. 3.
In this case, in addition to the main tension

reinforcement, vertical links/stirrups are
required where the shear force exceeds the
concrete shear.
Fig. 3 Alternative Strut & Tie Model for Reinforcement

in Articulation
Though the code permits use of articulation

(half-joint) in bridge structures, its application
should be restricted in bridges. Disadvantage
inherent in this type of construction are
problems associated with leakage through the
joint, limited access to the bearing seat joint
which leads to both inspection and maintenance
issues. A further complication is the sensitivity
of the structure type to proper reinforcement
detailing.
2.7 Deep Beams (16.9)

Fig. 2 Strut & Tie Model for Corbel
2.6 Articulations (16.8)

Articulation (or half Joint) is usually provided in

Bridges at a connection where the construction
depth is limited or in case of suspended span
resting on tip of a cantilever. The treatment of
articulation shall be similar to a corbel or a nib.
The provisions in the new code (IRC:112) are
same as in the previous code (IRC:21). Half
joints may be designed using strut & tie models
or by any other alternative elastic/plastic
methods. Two alternative strut & tie model
which can be used for design are shown in
IRC:21 does not cover the design of deep

beams. IRC:112 has provision for deep beams.
A deep beam is a member whose span is less
than 3 times the overall section depth. In bridge
design, this will most frequently apply to
diaphragms in box girder, cross girders between
bridge beams..etc. Strut & Tie modeling or any
other modeling using elastic/plastic methods
can be adopted for design. Other than the main
reinforcement, as determined from analysis,
the deep beam shall also be provided with
surface reinforcement on both sides, with a
reinforcement ratio of at least 0.15% in both
direction (but not less than 150 mm2/m), which
is intended to control cracking from effects
not directly modeled in the analysis, such as
transverse tension from bulging of compression
strut, early thermal cracking etc. The spacing
of surface reinforcement is restricted to
200 mm.
2.8 Members with unbonded Tendons (16.10)

IRC:18 do not cover this aspect. As per this

clause of IRC:112, detailing rules for reinforced
concrete is also applicable to prestressed
members having only unbonded tendons.
Detailing rules for prestressed concrete is also
applicable to members with combination of
bonded & unbonded tendons.
2.9
Concentrated Forces (16.11)
The rules of this section apply to bearing zones

on both superstructures and substructures,
where the axial stress simply spreads out from
a small area to a larger area. IRC:21 covered
this aspect to a limited extent and formulas
are given for permissible bearing stress below
the loaded area. IRC:112 however covers
the issue in much greater detail and includes
reinforcement provisions for zones below
bearings also. Eq. 16.13 of IRC:112 gives the
permissible bearing load, which is similar to
clause 307.1 of IRC:21. Comparison of the two
formulas indicate that the permissible load as
per IRC:112 is significantly higher. This will
lead to reduced bearing sizes.
For pedestals below bearings, the minimum

offset beyond the edges of bearing as per IRC:21
is given as 150 mm. New code (IRC:112)
relates the clear offset beyond the bearing edge
as maximum of 50 mm & 1/6th corresponding
dimension of the loaded area. With this
modification, there is a conflict between the
provision of IRC:78 (Clause 710.10.1) and
IRC:112 & it is hoped that IRC:78 will modify
the clause as per IRC:112.
Variable depth Superstructure with curved /

haunched soffit
Bridge deck with plan curvature
2.11
Indirect Supports (16.13)
Where beams and cross beams frame into each

other and bearings are not placed directly under
the main beams, the reaction between the two
elements needs to be carried by reinforcement or
prestressing steel. This is a new addition in the
code and IRC:21 do not have a corresponding
clause. IRC:112 gives guidance on the area
at the web-diaphragm intersection where this
reinforcement should be provided.
2.12 Anchorage zone for post tensioning forces

(16.14)

Anchorage zone is the area where the

concentrated prestressed force spreads out over
the full member cross section. The design of
Anchorage Zone in post tensioned members
is an important area of load transfer which is
rarely well treated in the codes of practices.
IRC:112 is no exception. It covers only basic
principles of design. Actual design procedure
and formulas are not given and the designer
shall have to refer to specialist literature or
manufacturers guidelines for design/details.
The previous code on post tensioned concrete,

IRC:18 on the other hand has clear provisions
for checking of stress behind anchorage
(Clause 7.3) and for calculating the bursting
forces which occur in the prism behind the
anchorage (Clause 17). Guidance is also given
in IRC:18 regarding the spalling tensile stresses
that occur in end blocks.
The design of anchorage zones in post tensioned

members should include the considerations of
the following:
The highly stressed compression concrete in

the immediate vicinity of the anchorages;
2.10 Forces Associated with Change in Direction

(16.12)

This is a new addition in the code and IRC:21

do not have a corresponding clause. Local
out of plane forces will occur whenever there
is a change in direction of the internal forces
in concrete. Examples of such occurrences in
bridges are :
Change in thickness of steining in Well
Foundation
55
Bhowmick on
56

Spalling at the loaded face;
Bursting stresses generated in the localized

area of the anchorage;
Transverse tensile force arising from any

further spread of load outside this localized
area.
beyond the point of curtailment. Though the

code does not define a tall pier, pier height
more than 30 m may be considered as tall
piers for the purpose of this clause.
3.2
Confinement Reinforcement in Concrete

Piers/Columns (17.2.1)
a)
Objective of confinement is to increase the

local ductility of reinforced concrete section by
increasing the ultimate concrete strain cu and
avoid brittle failure. Transverse reinforcement
in columns/piles has three main functions:
Confine the concrete core to provide

sufficient deformability & ductility.
Prevent buckling of longitudinal bars; and
Avoid shear failure.
Formulas given in clause 17.2.1 cater to the

requirements of confinement of the concrete
core. Detailing requirements spelt out in clause
17.2.2 caters for the need from buckling of
longitudinal bars. Shear requirements are dealt
with in Chapter 10 of the code.
b)
The confinement reinforcement requirement

is based on the concept that the compressive
strength of the confined core of a column after
spalling should be equal to the strength of the
gross section of the column before spalling.
The resulting confinement reinforcement
requirements are only functions of the
longitudinal reinforcement ratio (For L >
0.01), compressive strength of concrete, ratio of
gross area of column section to area of concrete
core and the ratio of the specified compressive
strength of concrete and the specified yield
strength of the transverse reinforcement.
Confinement is necessary only in case the
normalized axial force exceeds the limit: k =
NED/(Ac.fck) > 0.08.
c)
The formulas given for confinement

reinforcement is much different from the
3 DUCTILE Detailing FOR SEISMIC

RESISTANCE (Section 17)
3.1 General (17.1)

IRC:112 provides a special section addressing

the issue of ductile detailing for seismic
resistance. Such provisions did not exist in
IRC:21. Section 17 is applicable for bridges,
located in seismic zone III, IV and V, which are
to be designed for ductile behavior, for which
the design forces are calculated taking R
factor with ductile detailing as per Table 8 of
IRC:6-2010.
Detailing rules specified in this section applies
mostly to substructure, where formation
of plastic hinge at predetermined location
is desirable. Plastic hinge formation is not
allowed in Superstructure, hence this section is
not applicable for Superstructure.
Foundations in general & open / well foundations

in particular do not require any ductile detailing
since stresses in foundation are not expected to
enter into plastic state under design seismic
action. However in situations where it is not
possible to form plastic hinge at the pier base
(Such as Plate Type Piers supported on pile
foundation), ductility detailing shall be done
for pile foundation also as per clause 17.3.2 of
the code.
As per the provisions of IRC:112, curtailment

of longitudinal reinforcement is not permitted in
short/medium height piers. Where longitudinal
reinforcement is curtailed (e,g. in tall piers)
potential of formation of hinge shall be avoided
provisions of IS:13920. The provision of this
code used to be followed in the past and which
was referred to in Clause 219.9 (ii) of IRC:62010. IRC:112 provisions are in line with the
provisions of Euro Code EC8. Comparisons
drawn between IRC:112 & IS:13920 provisions
are as follows :

The volumetric reinforcement ratio, W, as

per IRC:112 is much higher than the value
worked out by IS:13920. The difference
is more prominent for circular sections
as compared to rectangular sections.
Fig. 4 gives the typical variation of W with
concrete grade, for various longitudinal
reinforcement ratio. It may be noted that :
Confinement reinforcement is independent

of longitudinal reinforcement ratio in case
of IS:13920, whereas it is dependent on the
longitudinal reinforcement ratio in case of
IRC:112, particularly for grade of concrete
lower than M 50.
Increase on concrete grade increases

the requirement for confinement. The %
increase between IRC:112 and IS:13920 is
constant for any grade.
The volumetric reinforcement ratio, W,

do not change with the size of the member
as per IRC:112-2011 whereas the volume
of confinement reinforcement reduces
significantly with the increase in its
dimension as per IS:13920. Fig.5 shows
the degree of variation for a typical circular
pier in M 35 concrete of various diameters.
d)
Length of plastic hinge zone in piers, where

confinement reinforcement is to be provided
depends upon the normalized axial force, k
(which is a non-dimensional ratio of axial load
to the capacity of concrete section without
reinforcement), dimension of the member & the
nature of bending moment diagram. The length
of plastic hinge zone shall be taken 50% extra
57
for sections where normalized axial force, k >

0.3. The confinement reinforcement should not
be ended abruptly beyond the plastic hinge zone.
At least 50% of the confinement reinforcement
shall be provided over an additional length of
Lh.
3.3
Buckling of Longitudinal
Reinforcement (17.2.2)
Compression
Once the cover concrete in the plastic hinge

zone spalls due to several hysterics of the
seismic action, the longitudinal bars are prone
to buckling. The transverse reinforcement
shall be adequate to prevent this buckling
by providing transverse reinforcement at
spacing not exceeding 5 times the minimum
diameter of the smallest longitudinal bars. No
splicing by lapping or welding of longitudinal
reinforcement is allowed within the plastic
hinge region.
Fig. 4 Comparison of Pw for different % of Long. Reinft
Fig. 5 Variation of Pw with Diameter of Pier (For M 35)
Bhowmick on
58
3.4
Pile Foundation (17.3.2)
In situations where it is not possible to ensure

hinge formation at the pier base in any direction,
it may not be possible to avoid localized hinge
formation in the pile foundation due to seismic
loads. In such cases, ductile behavior of the
piles shall be ensured by following measures :
times the pile diameter on either side of the

point of maximum moment in pile (other than
at pile head).
d)
In case more accurate analysis using soilstructure interaction is adopted for pile
foundation design (e.g. Using soil springs),
confinement reinforcement needs to be provided
only at the location where bending moment
is maximum (which is likely to be at the pile
heads).
conclusions
a)
Treat the following locations in pile for potential

plastic hinge :
Top of pile, where it is connected with the

pile cap.
Location of maximum bending moment

at intermediate point, other than the pile
head.
Significant change in detailing practices of various

structural components as per the new code, as covered
in Section 16 and Section 17 of the code compared to
the previous codes. Principal changes are as follows :
Interface of soil layers with marked

difference in shear deformability.
a)
It is to be understood that for a pile which

is fixed at top with pile cap, there are two
locations where plastic hinge must form at
the time of collapse, and these two location
requires confining reinforcement to ensure
plastic hinge formation with large deformation
and without failure. In majority of the cases,
these locations are generally the top of pile
and location of maximum bending moment.
However, in situations where the sub-strata is
such that there is an interface of soil layers with
marked difference in shear deformability, the
location of maximum bending moment may
shift, in which case the plastic hinge is likely to
form at this interface.
Detailing requirements for columns, wall

type piers, beams and slabs have undergone
significant change in the new IRC:112.
Minimum and maximum % of reinforcement,
maximum spacing between bars etc. have
changes and Designers are advised to become
familiar with the new provisions for effective
application of the clause.
b)
Shift rule for curtailment as per the new code is

significantly different from the previous code
and leads to tangible economy.
c)
Design of corbel, treatment of indirect supports,

forces associated with change in direction
are new additions in the code, which was not
covered in previous code.
A complete section is dedicated to seismic
detailing of structure (section 17), which did
not exist in the previous codes.
b)
Provide confinement reinforcement at pile top,

along the vertical reinforcement equal to 3
times the pile diameter.
d)
c)
In case the pile is analysed by approximate

method (e,g. equivalent cantilever method as
per IS:2911), confinement reinforcement is
also required to be provided for a length of two
REFERENCES
1.
Designers Guide to En 1992-1-1 & En 19921-2 : Eurocode 2 : Design of Concrete Structures

by A.W. Beeby & R.S. Narayan.
2.
Designers Guide to En 1992-2 : Eurocode 2 :

Design of Concrete Structures, Part 2 : Concrete
Bridges by C.R. Hendy & D.A. Smith.
3.
Irc:18-2000 : Design Criteria for Prestressed

Concrete Road Bridges (Post Tensioned
Concrete) (Third Revision).
59
4.
Irc:21-2000 : Standard Specifications & Code

of Practice for Road Bridges Section: Iii
Cement Concrete (Plain & Reinforced) (Third
Revision).
5.
Irc:112-2011 : Code of Practice for Concrete

Road Bridges.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail :bsecmail@yahoo.com
Paper No. 611
DEVELOPMENT OF LEVEL OF SERVICE CRITERIA FOR

PEDESTRIANS
Rajat Rastogi* Satish Chandra** and Mithun Mohan***
Abstract
Pedestrian facilities are provided to facilitate and encourage for short distance travel. The Level of Service (LOS) criteria available in the literature for
pedestrian facilities are more adaptable to the pedestrian scenarios in the US than in a developing country like India. This paper presents the LOS criteria
under two conditions, one for pedestrian movements along the carriageway on or at its side and other for the movement on a pedestrian facility. Data were
collected in two different years (2007 and 2009) for the above mentioned two conditions. The LOS criteria were developed using two different approaches
and the two data sets. One approach is based on the rate of change of curvature of the pedestrian flow-area module curve and another is based on speed
ratio-density plot. It is observed that the pedestrian space criterion is more uniform and stable than the pedestrian flow criterion in defining the LOS of a
facility. The suggested criterion for sidewalks and wide sidewalks will be very useful in revising the IRC codes on pedestrian facilities.
Introduction
Every person happens to be a pedestrian at some

point of the journey since each trip begins or ends as
a walking trip. A pedestrian is a person who travels on
foot. It includes any person who is walking, standing,
sitting on a road or a person in a toy vehicle, pram or in
any mobility device which is incapable of exceeding a
speed of 10 kmph or a dismounted cyclist (Main Roads,
2009). The above definition speaks of movement of
a pedestrian on a road only, but it is also applicable
to movement of pedestrians on a walking facility.
Provision of the walking facility helps in satisfying the
psychological, physiological and social needs of the
pedestrians. The Level of Service (LOS) provided by
a facility to its users is used as a measure of quality.
This concept is used in HCM (2000) as a qualitative
measure to describe operational conditions of vehicular
and pedestrian traffic. The service measures considered
are speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic
interruptions, comfort and convenience. The LOS for
pedestrians is defined by Gallin (2001) as an overall
measure of walking condition on a route, path or a
facility. This is directly linked to factors that affect
*
**
***

pedestrian mobility, comfort and safety. It reflects the

pedestrians perceptions of the degree to which the
facility is pedestrian friendly.
Various researchers have considered different
parameters to define LOS for pedestrian facilities. Fruin
(1971) developed LOS criteria based on dimensional
design of pedestrian spaces giving due consideration to
human convenience and the design of the environment.
Mori and Tsukaguchi (1987) considered pedestrian
behaviour and awareness to develop LOS. Pedestrian
behavior was studied based on flow, speed and density
relationship, and their overtaking maneuvers. Pedestrian
awareness was examined using data like total width of
road, total and effective sidewalk width, obstacle ratio,
pedestrian flow and the number of parked vehicles on the
street. Sarkar (1993) defined LOS based on qualitative
measures like safety, security, comfort and convenience,
continuity, system coherence and attractiveness. Khisty
(1994) described a method to qualitatively assess the
contribution of environmental factors towards service
levels of pedestrians facilities by adopting suitable
performance measures. The perception of a pedestrian
was also taken into consideration. Landis et al. (2001)
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee - 247667, E-mail: rajatfce@iitr.ernet.in
Professor
Engineer, Feed Back Infra, Hyderabad
61
Development of Level of Service Criteria for Pedestrians

developed a method based on pedestrian perceptions
of the quality of service which was measured on a
6-point scale. Muraleetharan et al. (2004) used conjoint
analysis to estimate total utility value of a facility
based on sidewalk width and separation, obstructions,
flow rate and bicycle events. Hummer et al. (2005)
studied pedestrian path operations and found that the
path width, the number of meeting and passing events
and the presence of a centre line are the key variables
in determining the pedestrians perceptions of the
quality of service. Petritsch et al. (2006) found that
traffic volume, sidewalks adjacent roadway width
and the density of conflict points along it are the most
important factors determining pedestrian LOS along
urban arterials with sidewalks. Bian et al. (2007)
conducted a sidewalk intercept survey to measure
pedestrian perceptions of sidewalk LOS. The lateral
separation from traffic, motor vehicle volume and
speed, bicycle volume and speed, pedestrian volume,
obstructions and driveway frequency were identified as
the influencing factors for pedestrian LOS. Dandan et al.
(2007) analyzed the relationship between pedestrians
subjective perceptions, the quality of physical facilities
and the traffic flow operation. The driveway access
frequency, obstruction density, distance between
sidewalk and vehicle lane, traffic flow and volume
of traffic, bicycle and pedestrians were identified as
influencing factors for LOS. Parida and Parida (2008)
proposed a methodology for modeling qualitative LOS
of sidewalks based on physical parameters like sidewalk
width, sidewalk surface, obstruction, encroachment,
potential of vehicular conflict and continuity. Kotkar
(2009) developed LOS criteria based on pedestrian
flow- area module relationship for both pedestrian
movements along the carriageway (on or at side) and
on a pedestrian facility.
Many researchers have highlighted the difference
between the pedestrian scenarios prevailing in
developing countries and western countries. A study
by Tanaboriboon and Guyano (1989) in Thailand
inferred that the pedestrians in Asia are more tolerant
to the invasion of their personal space and hence
require lesser personal space. It was concluded that the
pedestrian area occupancies are lower in Asia than that
in United States, as the flow that can be accommodated

at each service level is higher. Therefore, LOS criteria
for pedestrian facilities in developing countries need
to be refined. Jayaprakash and Gunasekharan (2008)
analyzed the feasibility of criteria given in HCM
(2000) and the model proposed by Lendis et al. (2001)
in Indian conditions. They found that the Lendis model
overestimates the pedestrian LOS as compared to the
HCM model.
In the light of the above discussion and looking at the
range of attributes that are considered in developing
LOS for pedestrians, it was decided to develop the LOS
based on two different approaches for two different
types of pedestrian movements. First approach defines
the LOS limit based on the rate of change of curvature
of the relationship curve between pedestrian flow and
area module. Second approach develops the LOS
criteria based on speed ratio density relationship.
Models of LOS correlating with physical environment
have also been developed.
2 Methodology
Collection
and
Data
Pedestrian data are required to estimate the pedestrian

flow and speed and to compute the characteristics
like pedestrian density and area module. Most
suitable method to collect such information is to
make videographs of pedestrian movements at a
selected location. It allows the extraction of required
information at a desired time interval later. The flow can
be estimated at one minute or even lesser time interval.
Similarly, using digital clock of the display system the
time taken by a pedestrian to cover a designated length
of a stretch can be recorded up to a 100th fraction of
a second. This will provide fairly accurate estimates
of pedestrian speeds. While selecting a location the
following points were given due consideration:
a)
The stretch is straight as far as possible.
b) The stretch has ample pedestrian flow with

distinguishable variations.
c) There is vantage point available to place the
camera so as to have sufficient view of the
stretch.
62
Rastogi, Chandra & Mohan on
d) The effect of gradient, side friction and

obstructions is negligible.
For the present study the data were collected in two
sets, one in 2007 and another in 2009. First data set was
collected in Roorkee to estimate the pedestrian flow
characteristics and develop LOS criteria for pedestrian
movements along the carriageway where no sidewalks
provisions were in place. The analysis was carried out
based on curvature of the flow-area module curve.
The second data set was collected in four cities for
understanding the behavior of pedestrians on sidewalks
of varying widths, the flow characteristics and thus
develop LOS criteria based on a speed ratio density
relationship. The details of the locations selected for
two studies are given in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
The dimensions listed in Table 1 are with reference to
Fig. 1.
Table 1 Details of the Study Locations

Considered in the First Data Set
Section Width of
carriageway
(m)
I
8.0
II
6.2
III
6.8
IV
7.0
Width of
shoulders
(m)
Open area
on sides
(m)
Land use on
sides
a = 1.0 and
b = 2.4
a = 2.2 and
b = 2.2
a = 1.0 and
b = 3.0
a = 0.0 and
b = 0.0
c = 2.0 and
d = 3.6
c = 0.8 and
d = 0.8
c = 3.8 and
d = 3.2
c = 0.0 and
d = 0.0
Shops on both
sides
Shops on both
sides
Shops on side of
larger open area
2.0 m wide sidewalk on both
sides
Fig. 1 Layout of carriageway and pedestrian spaces

available on sides
Table 2 Details of Study Locations Considered

in the Second Data Set
VehiAverage PresPede- ence of cular
strian buffer Flow in
Adjacent
Speed
lane
(m/min)
(PCU/
hr)
S.
No.
Site
Sidewalk
width
(m)
Obstruction
(m)
Average
Pedestrian
Flow
(ped/m/
min)
ISBT, New
Delhi
2.1
23
86.52
No
1155
PWD
Complex,
New Delhi
7.1
1.1
18
88.68
No
1468
Connaught
Place, New
Delhi
7.8
0.8
31
78.34
No
1675
Indraprastha
Park, New
Delhi
0.5
38
78.55
Yes
2131
5 Koyambedu,
Chennai
2.4
24
81.75
No
1631
Marina,
Chennai
4.5
47
72.51
Yes
1556
Bus Stand,
Coimbatore
6.1
2.0
45
61.40
No
1751
Railway
Station,
Coimbatore
2.4
52
77.57
No
1483
Govt
Hospital,
Coimbatore
1.9
28
72.73
No
986
10
Rock
Garden,
Chandigarh
11
26
77.08
No
11
Sector 17
Shopping
Area,
Chandigarh
8.5
18
61.74
No
12 Connecting
Pathway,
Chandigarh
2.1
17
85.13
No
Study Locations studied in the above mentioned data set

could be categorized into three major land use groups
namely recreation, shopping and leading to railway
station or bus stand. These land use groups itself define
the purpose of walking in such areas. It was observed
that the pedestrians speeds were quite high when
walking to bus stand or railway stations (77.57 to 88.68
m/min), which is understandable also. It was followed
by pedestrians speeds in shopping areas of big city
like Delhi. However, it reduced drastically when

pedestrians got involved in window shopping as was
observed in Chandigarh. Speeds in recreational areas
were lower as observed near Marina beach in Chennai,
but those of health conscious walkers were higher than
those near Marina beach. These cases were observed in
Rock Garden in Chandigarh and Indraprastha Park in
New Delhi. This indicated that the purpose of walking
or the land use affected the walking speeds of the
pedestrians.
Curvature d2q/dM2 = 2a/M3 6b/M4
(a) Pedestrian movement on or at side of carriageway
The pedestrian area module was then estimated using

equation 1:
Area Module M = v / q (m2/ped)
...1
Where, v = pedestrian speed (m/min)

q = pedestrian flow (ped/min/m width)
The pedestrian flow area module relationship curves

were developed for the pedestrian movements on the
carriageway or at the side of it or on a sidewalk. These
are shown in Fig. 2. Corresponding pedestrian speed
flow curves are shown in Fig. 3. The flow area module
relationship is of the form given in equation 2.
q = a/M b/M2
(b) Pedestrian movement on a sidewalk

Fig. 2 Pedestrian Flow Area Module relationship
(Kotkar, 2008)
...2
Where, a and b are the parameters that were

computed based on the data set.
This relationship is differentiated to compute the slope
and curvature at any point on the curve as given by
equation 3 and 4.
Slope dq/dM = -a/M2 + 2b/M3
...3
...4
A programme was developed to determine the rate

of change of curvature for an increase of M = 0.01
and positions were the change is either abrupt or high
were identified. These are used to classify the LOS.
Such positions are shown in Fig. 2 and 3 and the
respective flow characteristics are given in Table 3 and
4 respectively.
3 Development of LOS Criteria

The analysis of two data sets was carried out separately.
As mentioned earlier, the first data set was used to
develop LOS for pedestrian movements along a
carriageway, either on a shoulder or open area or part
of the carriageway. Condition at location IV allowed
the development of LOS criteria for sidewalk also.
The traffic on the adjoining lane was of mixed type.
The pedestrian speeds and flow were estimated for one
minute interval.
63
(a) On or at side of the carriageway
64
(b) Sidewalk
Fig. 3: Pedestrian Flow Speed relationship (Kotkar, 2008)
Table 3 LOS Criteria for Pedestrian Flow on

or at Side of a Carriageway (Mixed Traffic)
LOS
Area Mod- Flow (Ped/m/ Speed (m/

min)
min)
ule (m2/ped)
Density
(ped/m2)
>3.33
<23
>77
<0.3
1.92-3.33
23-37
77-71
0.3-0.52
1.42-1.92
37-48
71-68
0.52-0.70
1.04-1.42
48-61
68-64
0.7-0.96
0.68-1.04
61-79
64-54
0.96-1.48
0.34-0.68
>79
54-27
1.48-2.94
Super
Dense
<0.34
Unknown
<27
>2.94
Table 4 LOS Criteria for Pedestrian Flow on a

Sidewalk (Kotkar, 2008)
LOS
Area Mod- Flow (Ped/m/ Speed (m/

min)
min)
ule (m2/ped)
Density
(ped/m2)
>4.80
<16
>77
<0.20
3.54-4.80
16-21
74-77
0.2-0.28
1.74-3.54
21-37
64-74
0.28-0.58
1.14-1.74
37-45
51-64
0.58-0.88
0.59-1.14
45-65
38-51
0.88-1.70
<0.59
Var.
<38
>1.70
Second data set was used to develop LOS criteria

for pedestrian walking facilities of varying widths.
A different approach of analysis was used here. The
free flow speeds were estimated for facilities of

varying widths. The term free speed corresponds to the
maximum speed that can be achieved by the pedestrian
when all the influencing factors are favourable. Free
speed can be either measured in the field when density
is extremely low or obtained from the speed density
curve corresponding to zero density. The maxima/
minima in case of pedestrians would also depend on the
purpose of walking also and hence it is better to ignore
the extreme values. This is all the more true at transport
terminals or markets, etc. Fig. 4 shows the variation
of free flow speed of the pedestrian with the increase
in the sidewalk width. As may be seen, the free speed
varies in a narrow range for sidewalks having width
less than 3.0 m, whereas, with the increase in the width
of the sidewalk the variation becomes wider It can be
inferred that the sidewalk width affects the pedestrian
speed significantly. Pedestrians walk faster at smaller
widths, probably to come out of frictions as early as
possible, whereas when the width becomes adequate
the sped probably is governed by the purpose of walk.
In order to have a common datum for comparison,
the ratio of pedestrian speed to the free flow speed
offered by the pedestrian facility was estimated.
This speed ratio is plotted with density as shown in
Fig. 5. The demarcating points were identified from the
above figure which indicated a change in the quality
of service offered by the facility for a change in the
density of the pedestrian movement. These points were
established using standard F-test. The flow parameters
corresponding to these points are given in Table 5.
Fig. 4 Free speed of pedestrians on sidewalks of varying widths
65
to negotiate through the restricted width. The

space can also be encroached by roadside
vendors and shops adjacent to the sidewalks.
Fig. 5 Plot of speed ratio and pedestrian density (Mohan, 2010)
Table 5 LOS Criteria for Sidewalks based on

Speed Ratio (Mohan, 2010)
LOS
A
B
C
D
E
F
Density
(ped/m2)
0.2
0.2-0.45
0.45-0.70
0.70-1.00
1.00-1.45
> 1.45
Speed
(m/min)
> 88
77-88
73-77
66-73
50-66
50
Flow
(ped/m/min)
18
1835
3551
5166
6673
> 73
4 Model Development
The LOS model is now developed using different
independent variables as mentioned below.
a. Pedestrian Flow (q) - An increase in the
pedestrian flow on a facility of given width
would create congestion and Level of Service
will become poorer.
b. Width of sidewalk (w) - The increase in
the width of the facility increases the space
available per pedestrian (area module) and thus
improves the comfort level.
c. Obstruction/ Encroachment (o) - The
obstructions present on the sidewalk tend to
reduce the effective width (w wo) available
to the pedestrians. The obstructions can be in
the form of a tree, electric pole, hoarding or
any physical object that forces the pedestrians
d. Presence of buffer (buf) - The presence of

a barrier or a green belt between pedestrian
and vehicular flow has a positive impact on
pedestrians perception of comfort and safety.
The on-street parking can also be treated as a type
of buffer that offers protection to pedestrians
from the fast moving traffic in the adjacent
lane. Since the sites under consideration were
free from on-street parking, its effect on the
pedestrian LOS was not included in this study.
e. Vehicular flow in the adjacent lane (veh) - This
factor represents the frequency of the motor
vehicle passing a pedestrian. As this number
increases, there might be a reduction in the
pedestrians perception of safety.
The influence of the above independent variables on
the dependent variable (LOS) and the inter-dependence
amongst the independent variables was examined by
performing a correlation analysis. For the analysis, the
value of the dependent variable (LOS) is assigned on a
1 to 6 scale as LOS A=6, B=5, C=4, D=3, E=2 and F=1.
It is a relative description where higher value assigned
to LOS demonstrates better level of service.
5 Sidewalk
The Pearson correlation coefficient was generated by
using SPSS for a sample size of 517 and is presented
in Table 6. It can be observed that correlation between
LOS and the independent variables was significant.
High correlation is observed between sidewalk width
and obstruction, and between vehicular volume in the
adjacent lane and buffer. These variables were included
in the model in a relative form. Out of different
relationships between LOS and independent variables,
the one found statistically fit at 95% confidence level is
given by equation 5.
LOS = 6.065 0.054 q + 0.11 (w- wo)
[R2 = 0.899, SE = 0.291]
...5
66
The above relationship indicated that with the increase

in pedestrian flow on a facility the LOS of that facility
would go down, whereas, with an increase in the effective
width of the facility available to the pedestrians the LOS
of a facility would improve. This also indicated that
the presence of a buffer that separates the pedestrians
from the traffic on a carriageway and traffic volume that
operates on a carriageway did not affect the LOS directly.
These might have indirect effect which could not be
ascertained in this study. Other statistical parameters of
the above relationship are given in Table 7.
Table 6 Correlation Matrix between LOS and

Influencing Factors for Sidewalks
error in the computed coefficients was quite low. The

t-statistics were more than 1.96 indicating significance
of coefficients at 95% confidence level. P-values were
found to be lower than 0.05 again indicating a good
fit of the model as well as significant influence of the
influencing variables.
The model is valid up to an encroachment value
equal to the 30% of sidewalk width. The minimum
effective width of the sidewalk among the data
series was 1.9 m. When the maximum encroachment
occurs in the case of such sidewalks, the difference
between the flow predicted by the model and that
obtained from the developed LOS criteria is given in
Table 8. The flow in the model corresponds to a
value that separates two different service levels. The
maximum difference between the model predicted flow
and that from the developed LOS criteria is 5.55%.
Hence, this model slightly underestimates the LOS for
maximum obstruction case.
LOS
q
w
wo
veh
Pearson
1
-0.947 -0.165 -0.161 -0.348
Correlation
LOS
Sig.
0
0
0
0
(2-tailed)
Pearson
-0.947
1
0.218 0.199 0.339
Correlation
q
Sig.
0
0
0
0
(2-tailed)
Pearson
-0.165 0.218
1
0.889 0.423
Correlation
w
Sig.
0
0
0
0
(2-tailed)
buffer
-0.307
Pearson
-0.161
Correlation
wo
Sig.
0
(2-tailed)
Pearson
-0.348
Correlation
veh
Sig.
0
(2-tailed)
Pearson
-0.307
Correlation
buffer
Sig.
0
(2-tailed)
0.509
0.801
LOS
0.816
A
B
C
D
E
0.199
0.889
0.339
0.423
0.509
0.306
0.533
0.801
0.816
0
0.306
0
0.533
0
0
1
Flow from LOS

Model
criteria developed Predicted flow
18
17
35
34
51
50
66
65
73
71
Difference
(%)
5.55
2.86
1.96
1.54
2.74
Note: Flow is in ped/m/min
6 Wide Sidewalk and Precincts
Table 7 Statistical Parameters for the LOS

Model for Sidewalks
Intercept
6.065
Standard
Error
0.116
-0.054
0.001
-65.617
0.0000
w wo
0.110
0.050
2.202
0.028
Coefficients
Table 8 Comparison of Model Predicted Flow

with the Developed LOS Criteria
for Sidewalks
t Stat
P-value
52.078
0.0000
Apart from the coefficients of the influencing variables

(independent), it could be noted that the standard
Wide sidewalks are defined as the sidewalks having

width more than 4.5 m and up to 9 m. Above 9 m
the facility is termed as a precinct. Precinct is free
of vehicular interaction. A correlation matrix was
generated for the data of wide sidewalks and precincts
as mentioned earlier and is given in Table 9. High
correlation was observed between LOS and the
influencing variables. Different combinations of the
influencing variables resulted in a model that was
statistically fit at 95% confidence level and the same is
presented in equation 6.
67

LOS = 6.183 - 0.056 q + 0.044 (w- wo) [R2 = 0.885, SE
= 0.297]
...6
Similar explanation as given for equation 5 stands valid
for the above relationship also. The other statistical
parameters of the equations are given in Table 10.
Table 9 Correlation Matrix for Wide Sidewalks

and Precincts
LOS
q
w
wo
veh
buf
1 -0.939 0.584 0.016 0.553 -0.598
Pearson
Correlation
LOS
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson -0.939
-0.585 -0.024 -0.608 0.713
Correlation
Sig.
0
(2-tailed)
Pearson 0.584 -0.585
Correlation
Sig.
0
0
(2-tailed)
0.650
0.308 0.312 -0.289

0
Pearson 0.016 -0.024 0.308

1 -0.663 -0.103
Correlation
wo
0
0.650
0
0
0
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Pearson 0.553 -0.608 0.312 -0.663 1
-0.572
Correlation
veh
Sig.
0
0
0
0
0
(2-tailed)
Pearson -0.598 0.713 -0.289 -0.103 -0.572
1
Correlation
buffer
Sig.
0
0
0
0
0
(2-tailed)
Table 10 Statistical Parameters for the LOS

Model for Wide Sidewalks and Precincts
Coefficients
Standard
Error
0.129
t Stat
P-value
48.010
0.0000
Intercept
6.183
-0.056
0.001
-41.211
0.0000
w wo
0.044
0.017
2.642
0.0086
Similar conditions were observed related to statistical

parameters as mentioned in Table 10. The t-statistics
values were acceptable at 95% confidence level and
p-values were lower than 0.05. Both of these indicated
towards the good fit of the model as well as towards
significant influence of the influencing variables.
The model holds good for obstruction value less than

35 % of the width of sidewalk. The minimum width
within the data set is 4.5 m. For such sidewalk, if
35 % of the width is occupied by obstructions, then
the difference in flow as predicted by the model and
that taken from the developed LOS criteria is given in
Table 11. The maximum error of prediction is 12.5 %.
Table 11 Comparison of Model Predicted Flow

with the Developed LOS Criteria for Wide
Sidewalk (4.5 m wide)
LOS
Flow from
Model
LOS criteria Predicted flow
developed
A
18
15
B
35
33
C
51
49
D
66
63
E
73
70
Note: Flow is in ped/m/min
Difference
(%)
16.66
5.71
3.92
4.54
4.11
Conclusion
The LOS criteria developed based on the two data sets

were compared with the one given by Fruin (1971)
and HCM (2000). These are shown in Table 12. It is
observed that the pedestrian space values obtained
in the present study are in between the two already
established criteria. The space values given by Fruin
are quite low and those given by HCM are higher than
those obtained in the present study. This also indicates
that the pedestrian behaviour has changed over the
years (1971 2000). The pedestrians in the US need
more space to be in LOS zone A as compared to those
in India. One reason for such behavior is the tolerance
nature of the pedestrians and they can accommodate
more pedestrians in the same space. The LOS criteria
developed for movement of pedestrians on or at the
side of the carriageway as computed by Kotkar (2008)
were found to be nearer to the one proposed by Fruin
(1971) for sidewalks. Only under the most constrained
conditions like LOS E and F, Fruin found higher
squeezing of pedestrians within the limited space of
the sidewalk. In the present study, even in the presence
of highly risky interaction of the pedestrians with the
traffic flow, the pedestrian space was found to be higher
68
in the above mentioned LOS categories. This might be

due to relative freedom of space on the carriageway
as compared to the limited and defined space on a
sidewalk. The LOS criteria are depicted in Fig. 6 for
the sidewalks based on 2009 study.
(c) LOS C
Table 12 Comparison of LOS Criteria for Sidewalks

Fruin (1971)
HCM (2000)
Data 2007
(d) LOS D
Data 2009
Space Flow Space

Flow Space Flow Space Flow
LOS (m2/p) rate (p/ (m2/p) rate (p/ (m2/p) rate (p/ (m2/p) rate (p/
min/m)
min/m)
min/m)
min/m)
A > 3.20
<23
> 5.6
16
> 4.80
<16
> 5.00
(e) LOS E
18
B 2.33.2 23-33 > 3.75.6 > 1623 3.544.80 1621 2.225.00 1835
C 1.42.3 33-49 > 2.23.7 > 2333 1.743.54 2137 1.432.22 3551
Note: LOS is depicted using marked area of 5m 3m and pedestrian

body ellipse of 0.6 m 0.45 m as defined by Fruin (1971) for
different LOS categories
Fig. 6 Depiction of LOS for Sidewalks as per 2009 study
D 0.91.4 49-66 > 1.42.2 > 3349 1.141.74 3745 11.43 5166
E 0.50.9 66-82 >0.751.4 > 4975 0.591.14 4565 0.691 6673
F
< 0.5 Variable 0.75 Variable < 0.59 Variable < 0.69
> 73
LOS models and criteria are developed by different

researchers. Variables related to pedestrian flow,
vehicular flow and physical environment are considered
in the development of the LOS models. The present
study shows that for sidewalks the effect of effective
width of the facility available (after obstruction) is
almost two times more than that of the pedestrian
flow. In the case of wide sidewalks and precincts,
both the factors are found to be contributing in similar
magnitude. This might be due to availability of more
space per pedestrian on wide sidewalks and precincts
even in the presence of an obstruction. The vehicular
flow in the adjacent lane and the presence of a buffer are
not found statistically influencing the LOS of a facility.
This is different from what is reported in the literature.
These may influence the LOS if the vehicular flow is
quite high and the buffers are not present. However,
this condition was not evaluated in the present study.
(a) LOS A
(b) LOS B
(f) LOS F
The LOS criteria are developed by two different techniques

and using two different data sets. It is observed that the
area module criteria developed based on 2007 data and
2009 data for the sidewalks are more or less similar in
nature and magnitude. However, the LOS based on
pedestrian flow show larger variation especially in lower
LOS limits. It is therefore suggested that pedestrian space
should be preferred to classify the LOS levels than the
pedestrian flow. It is more intuitive in nature also as this
provides a direct linkage with the pedestrian comfort.
The two criteria developed are for both with and without
pedestrian facility and can be included in IRC:103 (1988)
which provides information on pedestrian facilities.
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The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail :rajatfce@iitr.ernet.in
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Volume 75-1
JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Volume 75-1
JOURNAL
OF THE
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
ISSN 0258-0500
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Regd. No. 17549/57 with the Registrar of Newspapers

January - March 2014

JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

January - March 2014

Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74 Annual Session

The Indian Roads Congress

Founded: December 1934

Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram,

Published by the Indian Roads Congress

The Rights of Publication and Translation are reserved.

The Indian Roads Congress as a body does not hold

Glimpses of Valedictory Session of 74th Annual Session of IRC

A view of Dais during Valedictory Session of 74th Annual Session

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2014

Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74th Annual Session

Glimpses of Various Technical Sessions

Chairman Shri A.V. Sinha and

Shri Rolf Jenny,

Shri Jon Day,

Shri Andreas Korytowski,

Shri Sowmen Pradhan

Shri Vikas Goel,

The Technical Presentation session was chaired by Shri A.V.

& Shri K.B. Lawand, M/s. B.G. Shirke Construction

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2014

Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74th Annual Session

field uses of TMT Rebar & comparative advantages

Parallel Session on Presentations by National/International Organizations/Exhibitors of New Technology/Materials

Chairman Dr. G.L. Sivakumar Babu and Co-Chairman

Mrs. Minimol Korulla, M/s. Maccaferri

Shri Vivek Ranjan,

Shri Girish Arekar, M/s. Active Software

The Technical Presentation Session was chaired by Shri G.L.

Shri Rajeeva R. Upadhyay,

hh  Drainage Solutions Using Geocomposite drain and

II) Technical Session on Presentations by Research Organizations and Consultants

Chairman Shri C. Kandasamy and

Shri S. Satheesh, Dy. Chief Engineer,

Prof. Ravinder Bir Singh SDD Global,

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2014

Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74th Annual Session

The Technical Session was Chaired by Shri C. Kandasamy,

of study & results, etc. For more details please contact

Parallel Session on Presentations by Research Organizations and Consultants

Chairman Dr. V.K. Raina and Co-Chairman

The Technical Session was chaired by Dr. V.K. Raina,

Shri R.K Jaigopal, Managing Director, Sruct Geothech

features of Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC)

III) Presentations by the officer of State/Central Govt. Department(s)

Chairman Shri D.B. Deshpande

Shri K.S. Krishna Reddy

The technical session was Chaired by Shri D.B. Deshpande,

Dr. I.K. Pateriya, Director,

Shri Shantanoo Bhattacharya,

crossing in the State and also covered the innovative

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2014

Glimpses of Technical Sessions held during the 74th Annual Session

in last one year. For more details please contact Presenter on

Parallel Session on Presentations by the officer of State/Central Govt. Department(s)

Chairman Shri D.P. Gupta and

Shri G. Karbak, Asst.

The technical Session was Chaired by Shri D.P. Gupta,

hh Drainage Solutions Using Geocomposite drain and

IV) Technical Session on Presentations by Research Scholars/Students

hh Study of Alkali Aggregate Reactivity Using Thin Section

iv) All numbers, quantities and amounts in the paper should