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Structural Design of Steel Bins and Silos
Structural Design of Steel Bins and Silos
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General
The storage of granular solids in bulk represents an important stage in the production of
many substances derived in raw material form and requiring subsequent processing for
final use. These include materials obtained by mining, such as metal ores and coal;
agricultural products, such as wheat, maize and other grains; and materials derived
from quarrying or excavation processes, for example sand and stone. All need to be
held in storage after their initial derivation, and most need further processing to yield
semi- or fully-processed products such as coke, cement, flour, concrete aggregates,
lime, phosphates and sugar. During this processing stage further periods of storage are
necessary.
In the Southern African region, with its vast raw material resources, the storage of bulk
solids plays an essential part in many industries, including coal and ore mining,
generation of electricity, manufacture of chemicals, agriculture, and food processing.
The means of storage of these materials is generally provided by large storage vessels
or bins, built in steel or reinforced concrete, located at or above ground level.
1.2
Design
The functional planning and structural design of such containers represent specialised
skills provided by the engineering profession. Unfortunately there is a lack of
comprehensive literature, covering all aspects of bin design, available to the practising
engineer. It is the purpose of this publication to present the necessary guidelines to
enable the design function to be carried out efficiently and safely, as related to the wide
range of typical small, medium and fairly large storage containers or bins built in steel.
In the past the design of bins was based on static pressures derived from simple
assumptions regarding the forces exerted by the stored material on the walls of the bin,
with no allowance for increased pressures imposed during filling or emptying. In the
present text, advantage has been taken of a large amount of research work that has
been carried out during recent decades in various countries, especially the United
States and Australia. It is hoped that the application of the better understanding of flow
loads and the analysis of their effects will lead to the design of safer bins and the
avoidance of serious and costly failures such as have occurred in the past.
1.3
Terminology
1.1
a)
A bin may be squat or tall, depending upon the height to width ratio, Hm D, where
Hm is the height of the stored material from the hopper transition level up to the
surcharged material at its level of intersection with the bin wall, with the bin full,
and where D is the plan width or diameter of a square or circular bin or the lesser
plan width of a rectangular bin. Where Hm D is equal to or less than 1,0 the bin is
defined as squat, and when greater as tall.
b)
c)
The hopper transition level of a bin is the level of the transition between the
vertical side and the sloping hopper bottom.
d)
e)
A hopper, where provided, is the lower part of a bin, designed to facilitate flow
during emptying. It may have an inverted cone or pyramid shape or a wedge
shape; the wedge hopper extends for the full length of the bin and may have a
continuous outlet or several discrete outlets.
f)
A multi-cell bin or bunker is one that is divided, in plan view, into two or more
separate cells or compartments, each able to store part of the material
independently of the others. The outlets may be individual pyramidal hoppers (ie
one per cell) or may be a continuous wedge hopper with a separate outlet for each
cell.
g)
h)
1.4
Design procedure
The full design procedure for a typical steel bin would comprise a series of activities as
described in the ensuing text, but which can be summarised as follows:
a)
1.2
b)
c)
d)
e)
Structural design
The structural design of the bin, including all of its components, can now be carried
out, for the various loads and load combinations applicable. Methods are given in
the text for the analysis of rectangular and circular bins, bunkers, hoppers and
silos, using conventional design practice or more recently developed methods.
1.5
Flow chart
A flow chart depicting the activities described above is given in Fig 1.1 for easy
reference. The four main phases, viz (a) assessment of material characteristics, (b)
functional design of bin, (c) determination of design loading, and (d) structural design,
are clearly identified. The first two activities, may be undertaken by the client or by a
1.3
specialist retained by him. The third and fourth activities would be the responsibility of
the structural design engineer.
(a) MATERIAL FLOW
TESTS
EXPANDED FLOW
FUNNEL FLOW
MASS FLOW
FILLING
CONDITIONS
EMPTYING
CONDITIONS
ECCENTRIC DISCHARGE
CONDITIONS
(d) STRUCTURAL
DESIGN OF BINS
RECTANGULAR BINS
Plating, stiffeners,
hoppers, support beams
and columns
1.4
1.6
Scope of text
The contents of this publication are intended to serve as guidelines for the design of the
various types of containment vessel built in steel for the storage of bulk solids, including
bins, bunkers, hoppers and silos. The subject matter presented covers the large
majority of such vessels of small, medium and fairly large size and of conventional
shape, containing materials with known or predictable properties and flow
characteristics. It will thus be of assistance in the typical engineering design office and
will enable the structural design of bins to be carried out efficiently and safely.
As implied in the title of the publication, and as stated above, the text concentrates on
the structural aspects of bin design, on the assumption that the functional or operating
aspects have been dealt with by a specialist materials flow technologist.
It must be emphasized that the text does not cover all aspects of bin design, because of
the wide range of variables that may apply in the case of non-standard material types,
bin geometries, etc. Such variables would include eccentric filling and emptying points,
asymmetric bin geometry, stored materials having unusual properties, etc.
Where any of these unusual circumstances are present, reference should be made to
the publications or papers dealing with the particular topic, as quoted in the text.
Alternatively advice may be obtained from specialist sources locally, as mentioned in
Chapter 8.
Finally, it must be stated that the structural design of the bin must be undertaken by
persons suitably experienced in this class of work, and especially in the interpretation of
the theories and methods employed. The overall responsibility for the structural design
must be taken by a registered Professional Engineer.
1.5
2.1
Introduction
Materials stored in bins have their own material flow characteristics which have to
be taken into account in the design of the bins and silos. These flow
characteristics govern the flow pattern during discharge and the loads on the
vertical and hopper walls are governed by the flow pattern.
Not taking account of the flow characteristics can lead to improper
functioning of the bin, and assumptions of loading conditions which are not
concurrent with the flow pattern occurring in the bin during discharge can
lead to serious problems.
The recommended procedure is to test the material for its flow characteristics,
perform the functional or geometrical design, ie establish the desired flow pattern
in the bin during discharge conditions, and only then establish all design loads for
the structural design.
Chapter 4 gives all of the equations necessary to determine the forces on the
vertical walls and hopper walls for mass flow and funnel flow conditions, as well as
filling (or initial) and emptying (or flow) conditions.
2.2
2.1
Bulk density, ;
Angle of friction between the solid and the wall or liner material, w.
All of the above values are obtained by test under varying pressures.
Additional results may be derived from the tests, but these are not relevant to this
guideline because they are mainly used for the functional or geometrical design of
a bin or silo. (some guidance is given in chapter 3)
A report, reflecting all minimum requirements for continuous gravity flow conditions
derived from the test results, can be obtained from bulk solids flow consultants.
This report is used for the final geometrical or functional design of the bin, and the
chosen geometrical design governs flow patterns and subsequent loading
conditions.
2.3
2.2
2.4
Flow patterns
Bins may be classified into three different types, each type having its relevant
vertical and hopper wall loads.
2.3
2.4
3.
3.1
Introduction
The design of the bin from a functional or operating point of view, based on the material
characteristics described in chapter 2, is usually undertaken by material flow
technologists. This involves the selection of the required depth, width and height to
accommodate the specified volume of material, the slope of the hopper bottom, location
of the hopper hip, size and location of the outlets.
The engineer should never take responsibility for the functional design of the bin unless
he/she is qualified to do so. It is better to pass this responsibility back to the client who
will employ a material flow technologist, or employ a material flow technologist himself
after discussion with the client.
3.2
There are a number of flow problems of which the designer should be aware. These are
summarised as follows:
No Flow condition
A stable arch forms over the discharge opening or a pipe (rathole) forms within the bulk
solid above the hopper. This is caused by either the cohesive strength of the material or
by the mechanical interlocking of the larger particles.
Erratic flow
Momentary arch formation/collapse within the bulk solid or partial/total collapse of a
rathole.
Flushing
Mainly a problem with powders which in funnel flow conditions aerate, fluidise and flush
resulting in spillage, no control at the feeder and quality problems down the line due to
irregular feed.
Inadequate capacity
Due to rathole formation or hangups in poorly designed hoppers a large proportion of
the material remains dead in the silo, reducing the live capacity to a fraction of the total
volume and requiring severe hammering, prodding or mechanical vibration to restore
flow of the material in the dead regions.
3.1
Segregation
The different particle sizes within the bulk solid tend to sift through eachother causing
accumulation of fine particles in the centre of the storage facility and coarse particles
around it. This problem causes serious effects on product quality and plant operation
for certain process applications
Degradation
Spoilage, caking, or oxidation may occur within bulk solids during handling and when
kept in a silo for too long a period. In first-in-last-out flow conditions through a silo
(Funnel flow), some material may be trapped within the silo for extended periods and
will only come out when the silo is completely emptied.
Spontaneous combustion
Certain combustible bulk solids (coal, grains, sponge iron etc) subject to first-in-last-out
flow conditions, where pockets of material are trapped for extended periods, may be
subject to spontaneous combustion with disastrous consequences.
Vibrations
Vibrations caused by solids flow can lead to serious structural problems.
Structural failure
Drag forces on silo walls can exceed the buckling strength of the silo walls. This is
covered in more detail in chapter 5.
3.3
Relative humidity
Hygroscopic materials are particularly sensitive to conditions of high relative
humidity with significant effect on flowability of the material, e.g. burnt lime,
fertiliser, sugar etc.
Time under consolidation
Materials subject to consolidation pressure for extended periods of time may
compact with a resulting decrease in flowability.
Strain rate
Bulk solids with a viscous component need to be testes at various strain rates to
determine the effect on flow properties. ( Carnallite harvested from dead sea
brines). The majority of bulk solids are however not strain rate sensitive.
Gradation
Particle size distribution and in particular fines content in many bulk solids can
have a significant effect on flowability of the material particularly if moisture is
present
Effect of liner materials
Friction angles of the material against the liner change from one type of liner to
another.
3.4
Flow Testing
In addition to the testing of basic material properties such as bulk density, angle of wall
friction etc , specific tests can be done to determine the flowability of a material. These
tests are beyond the scope of this guideline.
Facilities for flowability testing of bulk solids and the expertise for analysis and
interpretation of the results are available at Bulk Solids Flow S.A .
3.3
3.5
The following curves have been taken from the Institution of Engineers Australia
Guidelines for the Assessment of Loads on Bulk Solids Containers
Please note that they are to be used as a guide and do not provide absolute values.
Figure 3.1
3.4
LOADING
4.1
Introduction
This chapter deals with the various live loads to which a typical bin structure is
subject. These may be summarised as follows:
Wind loads.
Settlement of supports
4.2
Regarding the loads imposed by the stored material, bins may be classified as
squat or tall, depending on their ratio of height to diameter or width. In the material
loading equations given later a distinction is made between the load intensities
applicable to squat bins and tall bins respectively. A squat bin is defined as one in
which the height from the hopper transition to the level of intersection of the stored
material with the wall of the bin is less than or equal to the diameter of a circular
bin, or the width of a square bin, or the lesser plan dimension of a rectangular bin.
A tall bin is one in which this height is greater than the above limit. This is
illustrated in Figure 4.1.
4.3
The loadings applied by the stored material to the inner surfaces of a bin are
based on various theories, applicable to the initial and flow conditions and relating
to the walls of squat and tall bins and the hoppers, respectively. This is indicated
in the following sections.
4.1
Hm
Hm
(b)Tall bin Hm D
The method used for determining the loads during the filling or initial condition is based
on the Rankine theory. The maximum K and values derived from the lower limits for
and . are used. The minimum K and values are used to obtain maximum loads on
the hopper walls and in cases where internal columns are used, to obtain extreme
maximum and minimum loads on these structural members.
For the emptying or flow condition the maximum K and values derived from the
upper limits for and . are used.
4.2
4.3.2
For the filling or initial condition, the Janssen theory is used for load assessment.
The maximum K and values, derived from the lower limits for and ., apply.
For the emptying or flow condition, the Jenike method, based on strain energy, is
used. The wall loads depend on the flow pattern, viz mass or funnel flow (see
section 2.4). For this condition the maximum K and values, derived from the
upper limits for and ., apply.
4.3.3
Walker's theory is used in determining loads during the filling or initial stage.
Maximum K and values, derived from the lower limits for and ., apply.
For the emptying or flow condition, the Jenike method is used, with maximum values
of K and . derived from the upper limits for and ., apply. During flow an overpressure occurs on the hopper wall just below the transition, which has a peak value
at the transition level and extends downwards in a diminishing triangular pattern for a
distance of about 0,3 times the top width of the hopper (see section 3.6.2). This
localised pressure intensity is also referred to as 'switch pressure'.
4.3.4
The methods used here, including the K and values, are the same as for mass
flow hoppers, except that no over-pressure occurs.
4.3.5
Examples of various combinations of bin shape and type of flow are illustrated in
Figure 3.2. The bins are shown as either squat or tall, and the hopper wall slopes
are either steep (for mass flow of the contents during emptying) or not so steep
(for funnel flow). Also shown are bins having flat bottoms with hoppers having plan
shapes occupying less than the plan area of the bin (examples 4, 5 and 6); these
shapes apply mainly to concrete bins with slab bottoms, with either steel or
concrete hoppers.
In all cases the design of the bin and hopper walls would require consideration of
the initial or filling condition and the flow or emptying condition, the latter being
either the mass flow or the funnel flow condition.
4.3
Remarks
Shape
_
_
H D >1
The hopper is steep enough to allow
material to flow along its face
_
_
H D <1
The hopper is not steep enough to allow
material to flow along its face
H D >1
Hopper top diameter smaller than the silo
diameter
H D >1
The hopper valley angles are steep
enough to allow materil to flow along its
face.
Both hoppers are operational at the same
time
4.4
Shape
Remarks
H D >1
Hopper one is not steep enough to allow
material to flow along its face
4.5
4.4
Equations for the determination of the forces acting on the inner surfaces of
the vertical walls and hopper walls of bins are given in parts 3.5 and 3.6 of this
chapter. The sequence of the clauses and sub-clauses is summarised in the
following table, for easy reference.
4.5 Loads on vertical walls
4.6
4.5.1
Initial loading
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
Flow loading
Mass flow loading
Funnel flow loading
Squat bins
Tall bins
Squat bins
Tall bins
Tall bins
Initial loading
Tall bins
Mass flow loading
Tall bins
Funnel flow loading
Tall bins
Squat bins
Squat bins
Squat bins
The symbols used in the equations are defined in the list given at the beginning of
the book.
The dimensional symbols are illustrated in the figure following the list.
Values of the hydraulic radius R for hoppers of different shapes and types are
given in Table 4.1.
4.6
Hopper
Silo
Silo
Silo
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Di 4
Di 4
Da 4
L x Ba
2(L +Ba )
Mass flow
Di 4 = Dc 4
Dc 4
Dc 4
Dc 4
Funnel flow
Di 4 = Dc 4
Dc 4
Dc 4
Dc 4
Da 4
Da 4
Di 4
L x Ba
2(L +Ba )
Mass flow
Da 4 = Db 4
Db 2
4
Db 2
4
Db 2
4
Funnel flow
Da 4 = Db 4
Db 2
4
Db 2
4
Db 2
4
L x Ba
2(L +Ba )
Da 4
Di 4
L x Ba
2(L +Ba )
Condition
Initial
Conical
Initial
Square
Initial
Rectangular
Mass flow
L x Ba
=
2(L +Ba )
La x Bb
2(L a +Bb )
Funnel flow
L x Ba
=
2(L +Ba )
La x Bb
2(L a +Bb )
Silo
4.7
4.5.1
Initial loading
Squat bins
Ph = 1 h K2
(4.5.1)
a) 0,400
b)
c)
1 sin 2
1 + sin 2
1 sin2 2
1 + sin2 2
Sv = 2 Ph
(4.5.2)
4.8
Ha
Ha
hi
hi
hi
hi
Ha
H
Ha
TYPE B
TYPE C
TYPE D
Dc
Dc
Dc
Dc
Db
Db
Db
Db
Bb
Bb
Bb
Bb
La
La
La
La
TYPE A
Fig 4.3: Characteristic hopper dimensions for different bin shapes and
hopper types
4.9
Tall bins
Ph =
1R
1 e 2K 2 h R
2
(4.5.3)
Di
for circular bins
4
D
= a for square bins
4
L Ba
for rectangular bins
=
2(L + Ba )
where R =
Sv = 2 Ph
(4.5.4)
(4.5.5)
1 sin 1
1 + sin 1
1 sin2 1
1 + sin2 1
Sv = 1 Ph
(4.5.6)
2(1 )
(4.5.7)
(4.5.8)
1
1
Mm R
(4.5.9)
( H h)
(4.5.10)
4.10
So =
1
1 e 1K1 h R
1 K1
K h Mm 1 (So N) e x + Mm 11 K h N
K h Mm + 1 e x K h Mm 1 e x
= So N A
Ph =
(4.5.11)
(
)
(4.5.12)
(4.5.13)
1R
1 ( A B ) 1m
1
M
(4.5.14)
In calculating the horizontal pressure Ph from the top of the vertical wall down
wards, a maximum value will be reached somewhat below mid point of the vertica
wall. This value shall be used for the remaining part of the vertical wall.
For frictional force U kN per linear m circumference:
M =
N
2(1 )
(4.5.7)
2
1 M 2(1 m )
(4.5.8)
1
1 H
= m
M R
Kh =
x
(4.5.15)
K h M m 1 ( N )e x + M m 1 K h N
K h M m + 1 e x K h M m 1 e x
= AN
(4.5.9)
1D2 H
4 D
1 LBa
(4.5.16)
(4.5.17)
Ae x + Be x + N
for circular and square bins
4
LBa
H
Ae x + Be x + N
2(L + Ba )
2(L + Ba )
where D
4.11
(4.5.17a)
(3.5.17b)
D
for circular and square bins
= tan1
2(H1 h)
(4.5.19a)
Ba
for rectangular bins
= tan1
2(H1 h)
(4.5.19b)
(4.5.20)
2 m sin 1 sin (2 + )
+ 1
=
1 sin 1
sin
(4.5.21)
(2 {1 cos( + )})m
where ( + )
1 m
Ka =
(4.5.22)
is in radians
2 y(tan +sin 1 )
1
24sin ( x 1)sin
(4.5.23)
(4.5.24)
Ph = K a
1 R
1 e1 K1h R
1 K1
(4.5.25)
( x R )
The minimum pressure at the outlet, Ph = 1
i e1K1H R
) .
2(1 )
(4.5.7)
4.12
(4.5.8)
1M2(1m )
1
1 H
= m
M R
Kh =
x
(4.5.9)
(4.5.15)
= AN
K h Mm 1 ( N)e x + Mm 11 K h N
K h Mm + 1 e x K h Mm 1 e x
(4.5.16)
(4.5.17)
1 D2 H
4 D
1LBa
2(L + Ba )
) (
Ae x + Be x + N
4
(4.5.18a)
LBa
H
Ae x +Be x + N for rectangular bins (4.5.18b)
2(L + Ba )
4.6
Note: In sections 3.6.1, 3.6.2 and 3.6.3 below, is the half hopper angle, ie the
inclination of the hopper wall to the vertical (for rectangular hoppers, =
inclination of wall under consideration, ie either side wall or end wall of hopper).
tan
tan h2 + tan
(m + 1) K min 1 + tan h 2 1
tan
or 0,400
(4.6.1)
(4.6.2)
4.13
n
h z
ho ho z
Pn = 1K min
+ hc
n 1 ho
n 1
1 Qc
where hc =
1 Ac
(4.6.3)
(4.6.4)
ho = based on section
Qc
= 1 Ha for squat bins
Ac
1R
=
1 e 2 K 2 H R for tall bins
2 K 2
(4.6.5a)
(4.6.5b)
(4.6.6)
sin h1
= 0,5 h1 + sin 1
sin 1
2 m sin 1 sin(2 + )
+ 1
1 sin 1 sin
(4.6.8)
where ( + )
1 m
n tr =
(4.6.7)
(4.6.9)
is in radians
y 1 + sin 1 cos2
x 1
2sin
1 D
(4.6.10)
1 2n tr
(tan + tanh1) 1
= 0,25
1+ m
3 tan 1D
4.14
(4.6.11)
m
Q
4
3,3 c q1D
Ac
n t = n tr +
(sin +cos tanh1) (2 0,4sin )m
where
Qc
Ac
(4.6.12)
(4.6.13a)
1R
(1 e K H R ) for tall bins Type A
1 K 1
(4.6.13b)
(4.6.13c)
For values of R see Table 3.1
For distribution of pressures see figure at right.
Note: For bins of Types B, C and D the material flows through a channel with
diameter Dc. For square and rectangular bins it flows through a channel with a
diameter equal to the diagonal of the top shape of the hopper.
For shear forces Sh:
Sh = h1 n tr
(4.6.14)
Sh = h1 n t
(4.6.15)
1R
(
1 e K ( H
1
1R
(
1 e tan K ( H
tan1
a + h1
a + h1
sin 2
4r
Pn = Ph
+cos 2 + h1sin cos
D
K1
(4.6.16a)
(4.6.16b)
(4.6.16c)
(4.6.17)
For rectangular hoppers, Bb is used when considering the long sides of the
hopper and La when considering the ends.
4.15
2r
Sh = Ph
1sin cos + h1 (cos 2 sin 2 ) (4.6.18)
D
K1
Switch Pressures
Switch pressures are only occurring where mass flow hopper meets with the
vertical wall of an overall man flow silo, so where a mass flow hopper is a part of
an expanded flow design, there are no switch pressures occurring.
Some judgement in the calculation and use of switch pressure should also be
taken in account as with very steep hoppers, the switch pressures tend to be very
high.
The judgement should be based on a vertical wall design approach, taking
account of the hopper loads with a modified switch pressure.
4.16
4.7
Eccentric discharge
When the discharge opening at the bottom of a circular bin is displaced laterally in
plan from the vertical centroidal axis of the bin, eccentric discharge conditions are
introduced. The material flows through an eccentric channel as shown in
Figure 4.4. The ratio of the horizontal pressure in the flow channel to the
horizontal pressure in the rest of the bin is in direct proportion to that of the radii of
the flow channel and the bin respectively, ie Po Ph = r R (Ref ...A W Jenike).
Using Jenike's moment equations, the moment per unit length due to eccentric
discharge is
M = K R2 P
where K =
(4.7.1)
sin 2 tan
sin
cos( w 1 )
(4.7.2)
= radius of bin
= eccentricity angle
w1 = maximum angle of friction between material and wall
P
= normal pressure
The value of recommended for use in the above equation is 21, although larger
values may occur.
Because of the large difference between the pressures Po and P, deformation of
the cylindrical shell in plan tends to occur, and strengthening of the shell becomes
necessary. For this reason, eccentric discharge outlets should be avoided if at all
possible in circular bins.
4.17
Circular bins or silos made from corrugated steel sheets (with the crests and
valleys of the corrugations running circumferentially) are usually mounted on flat
concrete bases, and so are subject to funnel flow during emptying.
The vertical friction forces at the walls are not generated by the sliding of the
contents against the walls, but by the sliding of the contents against the static
material trapped in the corrugations. The coefficient of friction is therefore not
but tan , where is the effective angle of internal friction of the material.
Thus in calculating lateral pressures Ph and frictional forces Sv and U for the vertical
walls under initial and emptying conditions, equations (4.5.2), (4.5.3), (4.5.4), (4.5.6),
(4.5.18) and (4.5.25) may be used, but with the effective angle of internal friction
substituted for w , and the tangent of this angle substituted for .
4.18
4.9
Wind loading
The wind loading on bin structures can be assessed by reference to SABS 0160
(Ref ...), where force and pressure coefficients are given for structures of square,
rectangular and circular shape in plan, for various height to width ratios.
Since wind loading is usually only significant in tall bins, and as such bins are often
located in unprotected sites, it is recommended that the terrain be assumed as
category 2.
Wind loading on square or rectangular bins is usually not critical (but must of course
be allowed for), because the bin shape is inherently stable and stiff, and has properly
stiffened plate elements.
Circular bins, on the other hand, are very sensitive to wind loading because of the
varying pressure/suction distribution of the wind loading around the circumference,
and the lack of stiffness of the shell in resisting this loading. The required thickness of
plate in the upper strakes of a circular bin is often determined by the wind loading.
Wind buckling is characterised by the formation of one or more buckles on the
windward face of the shell. Wind also produces an overturning moment on a tall bin,
which induces a vertical compressive stress in the leeward face; this reached a
maximum at the base of the bin, where the shell needs to be checked against
buckling.
The distribution of pressure around a cylindrical structure is given in Table 14 of
SABS 0160, in terms of external pressure coefficients Cpe. Force coefficients, for
calculating the total wind force on the bin, are given in Table 1 of the code for circular
structures and in Figure 6 for square and rectangular structures.
The great majority of circular bins exposed to the weather are furnished with covers or
roofs, which serve the dual purpose of protecting the interior of the bin and of
maintaining the circular shape of the top of the shell. In the case of a bin exposed to
wind loading and having an open top, however, internal suction forces are generated
that aggravate the non-uniform loading pattern referred to above. Such bins are much
more subject deformation, and require special consideration to cater for this severe
form of loading.
What has been stated above applies to single or isolated bins. Where a row or
group of closely-spaced circular bins is located across the wind direction the wind
resistance per bin is much higher than if the bins were widely spaced because the
free flow of air around each bin is inhibited. Where a single row of bins is located
4.19
parallel to the wind direction the windward bin would probably be subject to wind
loadings as determined above, but the down-wind bin or bins would be largely
shielded by the windward one. It is not possible to suggest actual load factors for
these conditions because of the number of variables involved and advice should
be sough from wind loading specialists if wind loading is thought to be critical.
4.20
4.21
4.22
Table 4.2: Partial load and load combination factors, ultimate limit state.
Partial
load
factor i
Load
combination
factor i
1,5
1,2
1,0
Minimum
0,9
1,0
1,3
1,0
1,6
1,0
1,6
1,0
1,5
1,0
Dead load
1,5
1,0
Live load
1,6
1,
1,6
1,0
Wind load
1,3
1,3
1,3
Type of load
4.23