Lecture 1

Complex Numbers
Denitions.
Let i2 = 1.

i = 1.
Complex numbers are often denoted by z.
Just as R is the set of real numbers, C is the set of complex numbers. If z is a complex
number, z is of the form
z = x + iy C, for some x, y R.
e.g. 3 + 4i is a complex number.
z = x + iy


real part
imaginary part.
If z = x + iy, x, y R,
the real part of z = (z) = Re(z) = x
the imaginary part of z = (z) = Im(z) = y.
eg. z = 3 + 4i
(z) = 3
(z) = 4.
If z = x + iy, then z (z bar) is given by
z = x iy
and is called the complex conjugate of z.
eg. If z = 3 + 4i, then z = 3 4i.
Example. Solve x2 2x + 3 = 0.

(2) (2)2 4(1)(3)

2 8
x=
=
=
2(1)
2

22 2
2

=1

2 i. 

Lecture 2
Complex Arithmetic.
Addition/Subraction.
Example 1. (2 + 3i) + (4 + i) = 6 + 4i.
Example 2. (8 3i) (2 + 4i) = 10 7i.
Multiplication/Division.
Example 1. (2 + 3i)(1 + 2i) = 2 + 4i + 3i 6 = 4 + 7i
Example 2. (3 2i)(3 + 2i) = 9 (2i)2 = 9 + 4 = 13
when we multiply two complex conjugates, we get a real number.
Example 3.

(2+3i)(14i)
14i
= 2+3i
1+4i 14i = (1+4i)(14i) =
(realising the denominator)
2+3i
1+4i

28i+3i12i2
1(4i)2

145i
17

Lecture 3
Theorem. If two complex numbers are equal then their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal, i.e., if a + ib = c + id where a, b, c, d R, then a = c and b = d.
Example 1. Find x, y if (3 + 4i)2 2(x iy) = x + iy.
Left hand side (LHS) = 9 16 + 24i 2x + i2y
= 7 2x + i(24 + 2y)
7 2x = x
3x = 7
x = 73
& 24 + 2y = y
y = 24

Example 2. Find x, y if

x
y
+
= 2 + 4i.
1+i 2i

y
x
+
1+i 2i
x
1i
y
2+i
=

1+i 1i 2i 2+i
x(1 i) y(2 + i)
+
=
1+1
4+1
x(1 i) y(2 + i)
+
=
2
5
x(1 i) y(2 + i)
+
= 2 + 4i.
Now
2
5
5x(1 i) + 2y(2 + i) = 20 + 40i
LHS =

5x i5x + 4y + i2y = 20 + 40i

5x + 4y + i(5x + 2y) = 20 + 40i
Equating real and imaginary part,
5x + 4y = 20
5x + 2y = 40
Solving simultaneously,
6y = 60
y = 10
& x = 4. 

Lecture 4
Square Roots of Complex Numbers.
Example 1. Find the square root of 35 12i.

Let 35 12i = a + ib : square both sides.

35 12i = (a + ib)2
= a2 b2 + i(2ab)
a2 b2 = 35
and 2ab = 12
ab = 6.
By inspection, solutions are a = 6& b = 1 or a = 6 or b = 1.
or
a2 b2 = 35
ab = 6
6
b= .
a

2
6
a2
= 35
a
36
a2 2 = 35.
a
a4 36 = 35a2
a4 35a2 36 = 0.
(a2 36)(a2 + 1) = 0
a2 = 36
&

& a2 + 1 = 0 a
/R

a = 6 & b = 1.

35 12i = 6 i.  (By convention, sign(( z)) = sign((z)))

2
Example 2. Find
 the roots of z (1 i)z + 7i 4 = 0 in the form a + ib.

(1 i) (1 i)2 4(1)(7i 4)
z=
16 30i = (a + ib)
2

16 30i = a2 b2 + i(2ab)
(1 i) 1 1 2i 28i + 16
=
2
a2 b2 = 16

(1 i) 16 30i
2ab = 30
=
2
ab = 15
From beside,
a = 5 & b = 3
(1 i) (5 3i)
=
or a = 5 & b = 3
2

1 i + 5 3i
1 i (5 3i)
& 16 30i = 5 3i
=
or
2
2
sign(16) = sign(5) = +
= 3 2i or 2 + i. 

Lecture 5
The Argand Diagram.

(Note: Ordered pairs:- eg. 2 + i = (2, 1)

for 2 + i = x + iy on (x, y)-plane)

Two methods: i. P (x, y) the point P on the (x, y)-plane

ii. Vector OP
x-axis is called the real axis.
y-axis is called the imaginary axis.
Eg. Plot the following on the Argand diagram:
P = 2 + 3i; B = 3 i; A = 2 i; M = 4; E = 2i

z = x + iy
= r cos + ir sin
= r(cos + i sin )

Modulus (Distance OP )
denoted by r, mod z, |z|, |x + iy|
by Pythagoras, r2 = x2 + y 2

r = x2 + y 2

r = |z| = |x + iy| = x2 + y 2 .
Argument (angle )
denoted by , arg z, arg(x + iy) [or amp z, amp (x + iy) {amplitude}]
by denition, 180 < 180
For x = 0, tan = xy .
The mod-arg form of a complex number
z = x + iy
= r(cos + i sin )
( = r cis ).
Complex Conjugate
If z = x + iy, then the complex conjugate is z = x iy

Radian measure (or circular measure)

eg. 360 = 2 radians = 2 rad = 2 c = 2
180 =
90 =
60 =
45 =
30 =

More on mod-arg forms.

Examples. Express the following
in mod-arg form:(a) 2 + 2i;(b) 2 + 5i;(c) 1 + 3i;(d) 3i;(e) 1 3i
(a) 2 + 2i

r = 22 + 22 = 8 = 2 2
& tan = 22 = 1 & = 4


& 2 + 2i = 2 2 cos 4 + i sin 4 . 
(b) 2 + 5i

r = 22 + 52 = 29
& tan = 52 & = tan1 25 68 12





& 2 + 5i = 29 cos tan1 25 + i sin tan1 25



29 cos 68 12 + i sin 68 12

(c) 1 +

3i

r = 12
+3= 4=2
tan = 13 & = 3 & = 3 =



2
& 1 + 3i = 2 cos 2
3 + i sin 3 . 

2
3

(d) 3i


By inspection, 3i = 3 cos 2 + i sin 2 . 

(e) 1 3i

r = 12 + 32 = 10
1
1
71 34 .
tan() = 3 &

 = tan 31&
 = tan 31 
& 1 3i = 10 cos tan 3 + i sin tan 3





= 10 cos tan1 3 i sin tan1 3


10 cos 71 34 i sin 71 34
.

Lecture 6
Axioms
An integral domain is a set of elements with two binary operations dened for them, which
obey the laws obeyed by the integers.
A set S is an integral domain if its elements a, b, c, . . . obey the following laws.
Closure Law for Addition, i.e., a + b S
Closure Law for Multiplication, i.e., a b S
Commutative Law for Addition, i.e., a + b = b + a
Commutative Law for Multiplication, i.e., a b = b a
Associative Law for Addition, i.e., a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Associative Law for Multiplication, i.e., a (b c) = (a b) c
Distributive Law of Multiplication over Addition, i.e., a (b + c) = a b + a c
There exists an additive identity (or zero element) 0, such that for every a,
a + 0 = 0 + a = a (Note 0 S)
9. There exists a multiplicative identity (or unity element) 1, such that for every a,
a 1 = 1 a = a (Note 1 S)
10. There exists an additive inverse (or opposite), a, for each member a of the set such
that a + (a) = (a) + a = 0.
11. Cancellation Law. If ab = ac and a = 0, then b = c.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Example 1. Z, the set of the integers, is an integral domain.

The elements of a eld F obey the above axioms 1-10 for integral domains, (where a, b, c
are elements of F) and instead of the cancellation law, there is a law about the existence
of a multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal):
11
. If a1 and 1 are elements of F, and a a1 = a1 a = 1, where a = 0, then a1 is
the multiplicative inverse of a.
Example 2. C, the set of complex numbers is a eld.
Example 3. The additive inverse of z = 2 + 3i is z = 2 3i
Example 4. The multiplicative inverse of z = 2 + 3i is z 1 =

1
2+3i

1
23i
2+3i 23i

23i
13 .

Lecture 7


cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
()
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
Mod-arg theorems

i. If z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )

then if z1 = z2 then r1 = r2 & 1 = 2 .
ii. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 2.
i.e., for example:

arg(z1 z2 ) = 100 + 140 360

= 120

arg

 z1 
z2

= arg z1 arg z2 2.

Proof . If z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 )

and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )
then z1 z2 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )
= r1 r2 (cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 + i sin 2 cos 1 + i sin 1 cos 2 )
= r1 r2 (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )) (see () above)
& |z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
Extended:
arg(z1 z2 zn ) = arg z1 + arg z2 + + arg zn 2n.
|z n | = |z|n (eg., |z 3 | = |zzz| = |z||z||z| = |z|3 ).
and arg(z n ) = n arg z 2k.



1 
zn

1
|z|n

and arg

1
zn

= arg 1 arg(z n ) = 0 n arg z 2k = n arg z 2k.

Example 1. Find the modulus and argument of z = (2 i)(1 3i).

|z| = |2 i||1 3i|


= 22 + 12 12 + 32

= 5 10

= 50

= 5 2.
arg(z) = arg(2 i) + arg(1 3i) = tan1

1
2

tan1 3 98 8 .

(1 + 2i)(1 + i)
2 3i
| 1 + 2i||1 + i|
|z| =
| 2 3i|

5 2
=
13

10
=
13

10
.
=
13
arg(z) = arg(1 + 2i) + arg(1 + i) arg(2 3i)

Example 2. z =

285 15 360

= 74 45

Lecture 8
Triangle Inequalities.

Example 1. If z1 = 2 + i and z2 = 1 + 2i, z1 + z2 = 1 + 3i. 

Polygon Rule.

Subtraction of Complex Numbers.

z2 z1 = z2 + (z1 ):

Triangle Inequalities.
|z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |:

|z1 z2 | |z1 | |z2 |:

Example 2. Verify the triangle inequalities if

z1 = 2 3i,
z2 = 1 + 4i,
z1 + z2 = 1 + i,
z1 z2 = 3 7i.

|z1 | = 13

|z2 | = 17

|z1 + z2 | = 2

|z1 z2 | = 58.
|z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |

2 13 + 17 
|z1 z2 | |z1 | |z2 |

58 13 17 .
triangle inequalities hold. 

Product of Complex Numbers.

The triangle OQR is constructed similar to AOP . A is the point (1, 0).
Multiplication by i, 1, i.
Multiplication by i, rotation 90 (anticlockwise).

Multiplication by 1, rotation 180 anticlockwise.

Multiplication by i, rotation 270 anticlockwise

Lecture 9
Geometric Representation of Locus Problems.
General forms:- |z z1 | = a represents a circle, centre at z1 radius a units.
Example 1. |z| = 1.

Example 2. |z 3| = 2.

Example 3. |z i| = 1.

Example 4. |z 1 2i| = 2
|z (1 + 2i)| = 2 centre (1, 2), radius 2 units.

Example 5. |z| 3 (note:- if less than, it is inside, if it is greater than, it is outside.)

Example 6. 2 < |z| 3.

Example 7. |z| 4 and 0 arg z

3.

Example 8. 1 (z) 2 if z = x + iy,

then (z) = y (& 1 y 2)

Example 9. 6 < arg z

3.

Example 10. 1 (z) 2 and (z) 1

Example 11. 1 (z) 2 or (z) 1

Example 12. |z| 4 or 0 arg z

Lecture 10
Using Algebra to Represent Locus Problems
Example 1. Show algebraically that |z 2 i| = 4 represents a circle with radius 4 units
and centre (2, 1).
|z 2 i| = 4.
|x + iy 2 i| = 4.
|(x 2) + i(y 1)| = 4.

(x 2)2 + (y 1)2 = 4.
(x 2)2 + (y 1)2 = 16.
which is a circle centre (2, 1), radius 4 units. 
Example 2. Sketch the curve: (i) (z 2 ) = 3

(i)

(z 2 ) = 3
((x + iy)2 ) = 3

(x2 y 2 + 2ixy) = 3
x2 y 2 = 3.

(ii) (z 2 ) = 4.

(ii) (z 2 ) = 4.
2xy = 4.
xy = 2.

Example 3. Describe in geometric terms, the curve described by 2|z| = z + z + 4.

2|z| = z + z + 4.
2|x + iy| = x + iy + x iy + 4.

2 x2 + y 2 = 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2).

x2 + y 2 = x + 2.
x2 + y 2 = (x + 2)2 .
x2 + y 2 = x2 + 4x + 4.
y 2 = 4x + 4.
sideways parabola at vertex (1, 0).

Example 4. Sketch the locus of (z + iz) < 2.

(x + iy + i(x + iy)) < 2.

(x + iy + ix y) < 2.
x y < 2.

Example 5. If z1 = 1 + i & z2 = 2 + 3i nd the locus of z if |z z1 | = |z z2 |.

|x + iy (1 + i)| = |x + iy (2 + 3i)|.
|(x 1) + i(y 1)| = |(x 2) + i(y 3)|.


(x 1)2 + (y 1)2 = (x 2)2 + (y 3)2 .
(x 1)2 + (y 1)2 = (x 2)2 + (y 3)2 .
x2 2x + 1 + y 2 2y + 1 = x2 4x + 4 + y 2 6y + 9.
2x + 4y = 11.

N.B. |z z1 | = |z z2 | will always be a straight line. It will always be the perpendicular

bisector of the interval joining z1 to z2 .

Lecture 11
() Note. sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A & cos(A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B.
De Moivres Theorem. (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n.
Proof. (By mathematical induction for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .)
Step 1. Test n = 0.
L.H.S. = (cos + i sin )0
=1
R.H.S. = cos 0 + i sin 0
=1
= L.H.S.
it is true for n = 0.
Step 2. Assume true for n = k i.e., (cos + i sin )k = cos k + i sin k.
Test for n = k + 1.
i.e., L.H.S. = (cos + i sin )k+1 & R.H.S. = cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)
= (cos + i sin )k (cos + i sin )1
= (cos k + i sin k)(cos + i sin )(since we have assumed it true for n = k)
= cos k cos + i sin cos k + i sin k cos sin k sin
= cos k cos sin k sin + i(sin cos k + sin k cos )
= cos(k + ) + i sin(k + )

(see () above)

= cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)
= R.H.S.
Step 3. If the result is true for n = 0, then true for n = 0 + 1, i.e., n = 1. If the result is
true for n = 1, then true for n = 1 + 1, i.e., n = 2 ans so on for all nonnegative integers
n 

Example 1. Simplify:
(a) (cos i sin )4

(b) (sin i cos )7

(a) (cos i sin )4 = cos(4) i sin(4)

= cos 4 + i sin 4 
(b) (sin i cos ) = (i cos + sin )7
7

= i7 (cos i sin )7
= i(cos 7 i sin 7)
= sin 7 + i cos 7
(c)

(cos 2+i sin 2)3

(cos i sin )4

(cos +i sin )6
(cos i sin )4

(cos +i sin )6
(cos()+i sin())4

(cos +i sin )6
(cos +i sin )4

= (cos + i sin )10

= cos 10 + i sin 10

Example 2. Express in the form x + iy:

10

(b) 1 + 3
.

6

(a) cos 2 + i sin 2

6
(a) (cos 2 + i sin 2 )6 = cos 6
2 + i sin 2

= cos 3 + i sin 3
= 1 + 0i
(b) (1 +

= 1
10

3)

=
=
=

(2(cos 3 + i sin 3 )10

10
210 (cos 10
3 + i sin 3 )


210 12 i 23

= 512 512i 3

(c)

(cos 2+i sin 2)3

(cos i sin )4 .

Lecture 12
De Moivres Theorem and the Argand Diagram
Example. If z =

3 + i represent the following on the Argand Diagram:

z, iz, z1 , z, 2z, z, z 2 + z, z 3 z

z = 2(cos 6 + i sin 6 )
z 1 = (2(cos 6 + i sin 6 ))1
= 12 (cos 6 + i sin 6 )
= 12 (cos 6 i sin 6 )
2z = 4(cos 6 + i sin 6 )
z 2 = (2(cos 6 + i sin 6 ))2
= 4(cos 3 + i sin 3 )
z 3 = (2(cos 6 + i sin 6 ))3
= 8(cos 2 + i sin 2 )
Solution on next page.

Lecture 13
Trigonometric Identities and DeMoivres Theorem

where
Example. Obtain cos 6 in terms of cos . Hence show that x = cos(2k + 1) 12
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 is a solution to the equation 32x6 48x4 + 18x2 1 = 0 and hence deduce

1
. cos 5
that cos 12
12 = 4 .

cos 6 + i sin 6 = (cos + i sin )6 .

Consider using Pascals Triangle:
1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
..................
For example,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
(a + b)6 = a6 + 6a5 b + 15a4 b2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6
cos 6 + i sin = (cos + i sin )6
= cos6 + 6 cos5 i sin + 15 cos4 (i sin )2 + 20 cos3 (i sin )3 + 15 cos2 (i sin )4
+6 cos (i sin )5 + (i sin )6 - from Pascals Triangle
= cos6 + 6i cos5 sin 15 cos4 sin2 20i cos3 sin3 + 15 cos2 sin4 + 6i cos sin5
sin6
cos 6 = cos6 15 cos4 sin2 + 15 cos2 sin4 sin6 equating parts
= cos6 15 cos4 (1 cos2 ) + 15 cos2 (1 cos2 )2 (1 cos2 )3
= cos6 15 cos4 + 15 cos6 + 15 cos2 (1 2 cos2 + cos4 )
(1 3 cos2 + 3 cos4 cos6 )
= cos6 15 cos4 + 15 cos6 + 15 cos2 30 cos4 + 15 cos6 1 + 3 cos2
3 cos4 + cos6
= 32 cos6 48 cos4 + 18 cos2 1
5
7
9
If cos 6 = 0, then 6 = 2 , 3
2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , etc.

5
7
9
, 3
= 12
12 , 12 , 12 , 12 , etc.

2k+1
12

for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .

these are the roots of 32 cos6 48 cos4 + 18 cos2 1 = 0.

Now if x = cos , then 32x6 48x4 + 18x2 1 = 0 has roots

5
7
9
11
, cos 3
x = cos 12
12 , cos 12 , cos 12 , cos 12 , cos 12

= cos 2k+1
12 for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (six roots because we have degree six).
1
.
Product of roots of 32x6 48x4 + 18x2 1 = 0 is 32

5
7
9
11
1
cos 3
cos 12
12 cos 12 cos 12 cos 12 cos 12 = 32

cos 12

1
2

7
11
1
1
cos 5
12 cos 12 ( 2 ) cos 12 = 32

7
11
cos 12
cos 5
12 cos 12 cos 12 =

1
16

7
5
But cos 11
12 = cos 12 and cos 12 = cos 12 .

cos2

12

cos2

5
12

cos 12
cos 5
12 =

=
1
4

1
16

Lecture 14
Example. If z = cos + i sin , show that z n + z1n = 2 cos n. Hence or otherwise obtain

an expression for cos5 in terms of cos n and then evaluate 02 cos5 d.
z = cos + i sin
z n = (cos + i sin )n
= cos n + i sin n
1
= z n = (cos + i sin )n
n
z
= cos n + i sin n
= cos n i sin n.
1
= (cos n + i sin n) + (cos n i sin n)
zn
= 2 cos n.
Pascals :
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
14 6 41
1 5 10 10 5 1
zn +

 4  5
 
 2
 3
1
1
1
3 1
2 1
= z + 5z
+ 10z
+ 5z
+
+ 10z
z
z
z
z
z
10
1
5
= z 5 + 5z 3 + 10z +
+ 3+ 5
z z


z
1
1
1
5
3
= z + 5 + 5 z + 3 + 10 z +
z
z
z
1
Now : z n + n = 2 cos n.
z
1
z + = 2 cos ,
z
1
z 3 + 3 = 2 cos 3,
z
1
5
& z + 5 = 2 cos 5.
z
5
(2 cos ) = 2 cos 5 + 5 2 cos 3 + 10 2 cos
1
z+
z

5

32 cos5 = 2 cos 5 + 10 cos 3 + 20 cos



1
cos5 = 32
2 cos 5 + 10 cos 3 + 20 cos
=

1
16 (cos 5

+ 5 cos 3 + 10 cos )


&

cos d =
0

=
=
=
=

1
16

(cos 5 + 5 cos 3 + 10 cos ) d



1 sin 5
+ 53 sin 3 + 10 sin 02
16
5


1
1
5
5
3

sin
+
sin
+
10
sin
16
2
2
 5 5 2 2
1 1
16 5 3 + 10
8

15
5

 
0

N.B. Similar expressions can be found for sin :

1
= (cos n + i sin n) (cos n i sin n)
zn
= 2i sin n.

 4  5
5
 2
 3
1
1
1
5
4 1
3 1
2 1
z
= z 5 z + 10z
10z
+ 5z

z
z
z
z
z
z






1
1
1
= z 5 5 5 z 3 3 + 10 z
z
z
z
5
(2i sin ) = 2i sin 5 5 2i sin 3 + 10 2i sin

zn

32i5 sin5 = 2i sin 5 10i sin 3 + 20i sin

1
(dividing by 32i)
32 (2 sin 5 10 sin 3 + 20 sin )
1
(sin 5 5 sin 3 + 10 sin )
= 16
 1

1
1
d = 16
5 cos 5+ 53 cos 310 cos )+C)
(sin 55 sin 3+10 sin ) d = 16

sin5 =


&

sin5

(Note : i5 = i)

Lecture 15
Complex Roots of Unity.
If z n = 1 has n roots, all lying on the unit circle in the argand diagram evenly spaced,
for example:

For z n = 1:
n is odd, 1 real root and n 1 non-real complex roots.
n even, 2 real roots, n 2 non-real complex roots.
z n = 1 has n complex roots.
Example. Solve z 7 = 1 and show the roots on the argand diagram. Hence show that
4
6
1
cos 2
7 + cos 7 + cos 7 = 2 .
If z = cos + i sin (modulus 1 because |z 7 | = |z|7 = 1 & |z| = 1),
z 7 = (cos + i sin )7 = 1
= cos 7 + i sin 7 = 1.
Equating real parts,
cos 7 = 1
7 = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . .
4 6 8 10 12
= 0, 2
7 , 7 , 7 , 7 , 7 , 7 ,...
roots are z1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1
2
z2 = cos 2
7 + i sin 7 =
4
2
z3 = cos 4
7 + i sin 7 =
6
3
z4 = cos 6
7 + i sin 7 =
8
4
z5 = cos 8
7 + i sin 7 =
10
5
z6 = cos 10
7 + i sin 7 =
12
6
z7 = cos 12
7 + i sin 7 =
(7 solutions because degree of polynomial equation z 7 = 1 is 7.)

6
cos 8
7 = cos 7

6
sin 8
7 = sin 7

4
cos 10
7 = cos 7

4
sin 10
7 = sin 7 .

2
cos 12
7 = cos 7
& the roots for < arg z , are :
z1 = 1

2
sin 12
7 = sin 7

2
z2 = cos 2
7 + i sin 7 = z7 =
4
2
z3 = cos 4
7 + i sin 7 = z6 =
6
3
z4 = cos 6
7 + i sin 7 = z5 =
6
3
z5 = cos 6
7 i sin 7 = z4 =
4
2
z6 = cos 4
7 i sin 7 = z3 =
2
1
z7 = cos 2
7 i sin 7 = z2 =
i.e., the complex roots of unity always occur as pairs

(Note: an xn + an1 xn1 + an2 xn2 + + a0 = 0, then sum of roots = ab .)

z7 = 1
z7 1 = 0
& sum of roots = 0 (since coecients of z 6 is 0.)
z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + z5 + z6 + z7 = 0
4
6
& 1 + 2 cos 2
7 + 2 cos 7 + 2 cos 7 = 0
4
6
2 cos 2
7 + 2 cos 7 + 2 cos 7 = 1
4
6
1
cos 2
7 + cos 7 + cos 7 = 2