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It should be noted that one of the main disadvantages of Standings

methodology is that it requires reliable permeability information; in addition, it also requires material balance calculations to predict oil saturations at future average reservoir pressures.
Fetkovichs Method

Muskat and Evinger (1942) attempted to account for the observed nonlinear flow behavior (i.e., IPR) of wells by calculating a theoretical productivity index from the pseudosteady-state flow equation. They
expressed Darcys equation as:
0.00708 kh
Qo =
re

ln - 0.75 +s
rw

pr

f(p) dp

(7 - 25)

p wf

where the pressure function f(p) is defined by:

f ( p) =

k ro
m o bo

(7 - 26)

where kro = oil relative permeability

k = absolute permeability, md
Bo = oil formation volume factor
mo = oil viscosity, cp
Fetkovich (1973) suggests that the pressure function f(p) can basically
fall into one of the following two regions:

Region 1: Undersaturated Region

The pressure function f(p) falls into this region if p > pb. Since oil relative permeability in this region equals unity (i.e., kro = 1), then:
1
f ( p) =

m o Bo p

(7 - 27)

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499

Fetkovich observed that the variation in f(p) is only slight and the
pressure function is considered constant as shown in Figure 7-10.

Region 2: Saturated Region

In the saturated region where p < pb, Fetkovich shows that the (kro/
moBo) changes linearly with pressure and that the straight line passes
through the origin. This linear is shown schematically in Figure 7-10 can
be expressed mathematically as:
1 p
f ( p) =

m o Bo p p b

(7 - 28)

Where mo and Bo are evaluated at the bubble-point pressure. In the

application of the straight-line pressure function, there are three cases
that must be considered:

Figure 7-10. Pressure function concept.

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pr and pwf > pb

pr and pwf < pb
pr > pb and pwf < pb
All three cases are presented below.
Case 1: pr and pwf > pb

This is the case of a well producing from an undersaturated oil reservoir where both pwf and pr are greater than the bubble-point pressure. The
pressure function f(p) in this case is described by Equation 7-27. Substituting Equation 7-27 into Equation 7-25 gives:
0.00708 kh
Qo =
re
ln - 0.75 + s
rw

pr

p wf

dp
m o Bo

1
Since
is constant, then:
m o Bo

Qo =

0.00708 kh
( p r - p wf )
re

m o Bo ln - 0.75 + s
rw

(7 - 29)

or
Qo = J (pr - pwf)

(7 -30 )

The productivity index is defined in terms of the reservoir parameters as:

J=

0.00708 kh
re

m o Bo ln - 0.75 + s
rw

+ p )/2.
where Bo and mo are evaluated at (p
r
wf

(7 - 31)

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501

Example 7-8
A well is producing from an undersaturated-oil reservoir that exists at
an average reservoir pressure of 3000 psi. The bubble-point pressure is
recorded as 1500 psi at 150F. The following additional data are available:
stabilized flow rate = 280 STB/day
stabilized wellbore pressure = 2200 psi
h = 20 rw = 0.3 re = 660 s = -0.5
k = 65 md
mo at 2600 psi = 2.4 cp
Bo at 2600 psi = 1.4 bbl/STB
Calculate the productivity index by using both the reservoir properties
(i.e., Equation 7-31) and flow test data (i.e., Equation 7-30).

Solution
From Equation 7-31
J=

0.00708 (65) (20)

= 0.42 STB/ day / psi
660

(2.4) (1.4) ln
- 0.75 - 0.5
0.3

From production data:

J=

280
= 0.35 STB/ day / psi
3000 - 2200

Results show a reasonable match between the two approaches. It

should be noted, however, that there are several uncertainties in the values of the parameters used in Equation 7-31 to determine the productivity index. For example, changes in the skin factor k or drainage area
would change the calculated value of J.
Case 2: pr and pwf < pb

When the reservoir pressure pr and bottom-hole flowing pressure pwf

are both below the bubble-point pressure pb, the pressure function f(p) is

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represented by the straight line relationship as expressed by Equation

7-28. Combining Equation 7-28 with Equation 7-25 gives:

0.00708 kh
Qo =

r
ln e - 0.75 + s

rw

pr

p wf

p
1
dp
(m o Bo ) p b p b

1 1
Since the term
is constant, then:
m o Bo p p b
b

1
0.00708 kh
1
Qo =
(m o Bo ) p p b
r
b
ln e - 0.75 + s

rw

pr

p dp
p wf

Integrating gives:

Qo =

1 -2
0.00708 kh
2

( p r - p wf )
re
2 pb
(m o Bo ) p b ln - 0.75 + s
rw

(7 - 32)

Introducing the productivity index into the above equation gives:

1 -2
2
Qo = J
( p r - p wf )
2 pb

(7 - 33)

J
The term
is commonly referred to as the performance coeffi 2 pb
cient C, or:
Q o = C ( p r2 - p 2wf )

(7 - 34)

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503

To account for the possibility of non-Darcy flow (turbulent flow) in oil

wells, Fetkovich introduced the exponent n in Equation 7-35 to yield:
Q o = C ( p r2 - p 2wf ) n

(7 - 35)

The value of n ranges from 1.000 for a complete laminar flow to 0.5
for highly turbulent flow.
There are two unknowns in Equation 7-35, the performance coefficient
C and the exponent n. At least two tests are required to evaluate these
two parameters, assuming pr is known:
By taking the log of both sides of Equation 7-35 and solving for log
(p2r - p2wf), the expression can be written as:
log ( p r2 - p 2wf ) =

1
1
log Q o - log C
n
n

A plot of p2r - p2wf versus Qo on log-log scales will result in a straight

line having a slope of 1/n and an intercept of C at p2r - p2wf = 1. The value
of C can also be calculated using any point on the linear plot once n has
been determined to give:
C=

( p r2

Qo
- p 2wf ) n

Once the values of C and n are determined from test data, Equation
7-35 can be used to generate a complete IPR.
To construct the future IPR when the average reservoir pressure
) , Fetkovich assumes that the performance coefficient C is
declines to (p
r f
a linear function of the average reservoir pressure and, therefore, the
value of C can be adjusted as:
) /(p
) ]
(C)f = (C)p [(p
r f
r p

(7-36)

where the subscripts f and p represent the future and present conditions.
Fetkovich assumes that the value of the exponent n would not change
as the reservoir pressure declines. Beggs (1991) presented an excellent
and comprehensive discussion of the different methodologies used in
constructing the IPR curves for oil and gas wells.
The following example was used by Beggs (1991) to illustrate
Fetkovichs method for generating the current and future IPR.

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Example 7-9
A four-point stabilized flow test was conducted on a well producing
from a saturated reservoir that exists at an average pressure of 3600 psi.
Qo, STB/day

pwf, psi

263
383
497
640

3170
2890
2440
2150

a. Construct a complete IPR by using Fetkovichs method.

b. Construct the IPR when the reservoir pressure declines to 2000 psi.

Solution
Part A.

Step 1. Construct the following table:

Qo, STB/day

Pwf, psi

2 - p2 ) 10-6, psi2
(p
r
wf

263
383
497
640

3170
2890
2440
2150

2.911
4.567
7.006
8.338

Step 2. Plot (p2r - p2wf) verses Qo on log-log paper as shown in Figure

7-11 and determine the exponent n, or:
n=

log(750) - log(105)
= 0.854
log (10 7 ) - log (10 6 )

Step 3. Solve for the performance coefficient C:

C = 0.00079

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505

Figure 7-11. Flow-after-flow data for example 7-9 (After Beggs, D., Production
Optimization Using Nodal Analysis, permission to publish by the OGCI, copyright
OGCI, 1991.)

Step 4. Generate the IPR by assuming various values for pwf and calculating the corresponding flow rate from Equation 7-25:
Qo = 0.00079 (36002 - p2wf)0.854

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Pwf

Qo, STB/day

3600
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

0
340
503
684
796
875
922
937

The IPR curve is shown in Figure 7-12. Notice that the AOF, i.e.,
(Qo)max, is 937 STB/day.
Part B.

Step 1. Calculate future C by applying Equation 7-36

2000
(C)f = 0.00079
= 0.000439
3600

4000

3500

Pressure (psi)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Flow Rate (STB/Day)

Figure 7-12. IPR using Fetkovich method.

800

900

1000

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Step 2. Construct the new IPR curve at 2000 psi by using the new calculated C and applying the inflow equation.
Qo = 0.000439 (20002 - p2wf)0.854
pwf

Qo

2000
1500
1000
500
0

0
94
150
181
191

Both the present time and future IPRs are plotted in Figure 7-13.
Klins and Clark (1993) developed empirical correlations that correlate
the changes in Fetkovichs performance coefficient C and the flow exponent n with the decline in the reservoir pressure. The authors observed
the exponent n changes considerably with reservoir pressure. Klins and
) are
Clark concluded the future values of (n)f and (C) at pressure (p
r f
related to the values of n and C at the bubble-point pressure. Denoting Cb

4000

3500

Pressure (psi)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Flow Rate (STB/Day)

Figure 7-13. Future IPR at 2000 psi.

800

900

1000

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and nb as the values of the performance coefficient and the flow exponent
at the bubble-point pressure pb, Klins and Clark introduced the following
dimensionless parameters:
Dimensionless performance coefficient = C/Cb
Dimensionless flow exponent
= n/nb
Dimensionless average reservoir pressure = pr /pb
The authors correlated (C/Cb) and (n/nb) to the dimensionless pressure
by the following two expressions:
n
pr
pr
= 1 + 0.0577 1 - - 0.2459 1 -
nb
pb
pb

pr 3

+ 0.503 1 -
pb

(7 - 37)

and
C

pr
pr
= 1 - 3.5718 1 + 4.7981 1
pb
pb
Cb

p
- 2.3066 1 - r
pb

(7 - 38)

where Cb = performance coefficient at the bubble-point pressure

nb = flow exponent at the bubble-point pressure
The procedure of applying the above relationships in adjusting the coefficients C and n with changing average reservoir pressure is detailed below:
Step 1. Using the available flow-test data in conjunction with Fetkovichs
equation, i.e., Equation 7-34, calculate the present (current) values of n and C at the present average pressure pr.
Step 2. Using the current values of pr, calculate the dimensionless values
of (n/n b ) and (C/C b ) by applying Equations 7-37 and 7-38,
respectively.

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Oil Well Performance

Step 3. Solve for the constants nb and Cb from:

nb =

n
n / nb

(7 - 39)

C
(C / C b )

(7 - 40)

and
Cb =

It should be pointed out that if the present reservoir pressure

equals the bubble-point pressure, the values of n and C as calculated in Step 1 are essentially nb and Cb.
Step 4. Assume future average reservoir pressure pr and solve for the corresponding future dimensionless parameters (nf /nb) and (Cf/Cb)
by applying Equations 7-37 and 7-38, respectively.
Step 5. Solve for future values of nf and Cf from
nf = nb (n/nb)
Cf = Cb (Cf /Cb)
Step 6. Use nf and Cf in Fetkovichs equation to generate the wells future
) . It should be
IPR at the desired average reservoir pressure (p
r f
) is given by:
noted that the maximum oil flow rate (Qo)max at (p
r f
)2]nf
(Qo)max = Cf[(p
r

(7-41)

Example 7-10
Using the data given in Example 7-9, generate the future IPR data
when the reservoir pressure drops to 3200 psi.

Solution
Step 1. Since the reservoir exists at its bubble-point pressure, then:
nb = 0.854

and Cb = 0.00079

at pb = 3600 psi

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Step 2. Calculate the future dimensionless parameters at 3200 psi by

applying Equations 7-37 and 7-38:
2
n
1 - 3200 - 0.2459 1 - 3200
=
1
+
0
0577
.

3600
3600
nb
3

3200
+ 0.5030 1 = 1.0041
3600
2
C
1 - 3200 + 4.7981 1 - 3200
=
1
3
5718
.

3600
3600
Cb

3200 3
- 2.3066 1 = 0.6592
3600
Step 3. Solve for nf and Cf:
nf = (0.854) (1.0041) = 0.8575
Cf = (0.00079) (0.6592) = 0.00052
Therefore, the flow rate is expressed as:
Qo = 0.00052 (32002 - p2wf )0.8575
When the maximum oil flow rate, i.e., AOF, occurs at pwf = 0, then:
(Qo)max = 0.00052 (32002 - 02)0.8575 = 534 STB/day
Step 4. Construct the following table:
pwf

Qo

3200
2000
1500
500
0

0
349
431
523
534

Figure 7-14 compares current and future IPRs as calculated in Examples 7-9 and 7-10.

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Oil Well Performance

Case 3: pr > pb and pwf < pb

Figure 7-15 shows a schematic illustration of Case 3 in which it is

assumed that pwf < pb and pr > pb. The integral in Equation 7-25 can be
expanded and written as:
pr
pb

0.00708 kh

f ( p) dp + f ( p) dp
Qo =

re
pb
ln - 0.75 + s p wf

rw

Substituting Equations 7-27 and 7-18 into the above expression gives:
pb
1 p
0.00708 kh

Qo =

dp +

re
m o Bo p b
p
ln - 0.75 + s wf
rw

dp
m o Bo
pb

pr

4000

3500

Pressure (psi)

3000
Current IPR
Future IPR

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Flow Rate (STB/Day)

Figure 7-14. IPR.

700

800

900

1000

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Figure 7-15. (kro/moBo) vs. pressure for Case #3.

where mo and Bo are evaluated at the bubble-point pressure pb.

Arranging the above expression gives:

0.00708 kh
1
Qo =
r
pb
m o Bo ln e - 0.75 + s
rw

pb

p wf

p dp + dp

pb
pr

Integrating and introducing the productivity index J into the above

relationship gives:
1

Qo = J
( p 2b - p 2wf ) + ( p r - p b )
2 pb

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or
Qo = J ( pr - p b ) +

J
( p 2b - p 2wf )
2 pb

(7 - 42)

Example 7-11
The following reservoir and flow-test data are available on an oil well:
p = 4000 psi
r
pwf = 3600 psi

Pressure data:
Flow test data:

pb = 3200 psi
Qo = 280 STB/day

Generate the IPR data of the well.

Solution
Step 1. Calculate the productivity index from the flow-test data.
J=

280
= 0.7 STB / day / psi
4000 - 3600

Step 2. Generate the IPR data by applying Equation 7-30 when the
assumed pwf > pb and using Equation 7-42 when pwf < pb.
pwf

Equation

Qo

4000
3800
3600
3200
3000
2600
2200
2000
1000
500
0

(7-30)
(7-30)
(7-30)
(7-30)
(7-42)
(7-42)
(7-42)
(7-42)
(7-42)
(7-42)
(7-42)

0
140
280
560
696
941
1151
1243
1571
1653
1680

Results of the calculations are shown graphically in Figure 7-16.

It should be pointed out Fetkovichs method has the advantage over
Standings methodology in that it does not require the tedious material

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4500
4000
3500

Pressure (psi)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Qo, STB/day

Figure 7-16. IPR using the Fetkovich method.

balance calculations to predict oil saturations at future average reservoir

pressures.
The Klins-Clark Method

Klins and Clark (1993) proposed an inflow expression similar in form

to that of Vogels and can be used to estimate future IPR data. To
improve the predictive capability of Vogels equation, the authors introduced a new exponent d to Vogels expression. The authors proposed the
following relationships:
p
p
Qo
= 1 - 0.295 wf - 0.705 wf
(Q o )max
pr
pr

(7 - 43)

where

p
d = 0.28 + 0.72 r (1.24 + 0.001 p b )
p b

(7 - 44)