EAS 109

Thermo-Fluid
Mechanics
Lab Report

Experiment 2
Confirming the Bernoulli Equation
Result
Test 1: Maximum Flow
Maximum flow

H1

H2

H3

H4

H5

H6

Time for 5 liters

collected

Static head h(mm)

14
0

13
5

11
5

90

35

85

55 sec

Stagnation head
h(mm)

15
0

15
0

14
8

14
8

14
8

12
0

55 sec

Dynamic head
h(mm)

10

15

33

58

11
3

35

55 sec

Test 2: Flow with H1 H5 =50mm

Flow with
H1 H5 =50mm

H1

H2

H3

H4

H5

H6

Time for 5 liters

collected

Static head h(mm)

13
0

13
0

11
5

11
5

90

10
5

240 sec

Stagnation head
h(mm)

10
5

10
5

10
5

10
3

10
3

10
0

240 sec

Dynamic head
h(mm)

240 sec

Test 3: Mid values between test1 and test 3

Mid values flow

H1

H2

H3

H4

H5
2

H6

Time for 5 liters

collected
Static head h(mm)

13
5

12
8

10
0

85

65

95

106 sec

Stagnation head
h(mm)

14
0

14
0

14
0

14
0

13
8

11
5

106 sec

Dynamic head
h(mm)

12

40

55

73

20

106 sec

Report
Q1. The 3 conditions in fluid flow for Bernoullis equation are 1. Steady flow, 2.
Incompressible fluid, and 3. Net frictional forces are negligible.
Q2. The hydraulic bench is set horizontal with the aid of the water level gauge.
Q3. To bleed the air from the pressure tapping points and piezometer, the bleed
knot (on the right top corner) was turned on. The pressure will bleed through the
tube connected to the bleed knot.
Q4. The reading was taken with the stagnation pressure test probe. This probe was
initially place at point h 1.It take the stagnation pressure at point H1. Then this
probe was place at h2, the stagnation pressure was measured. This probe was pull
to h3 and the stagnation pressure was measured. This probe were then place at h 4,
h5 and h6 accordingly, hence the pressure at these points were measured. The
same procedure was done for flow with h1-h5 =50mm and h1-h5 =70mm.

Q5. The sum of static and dynamic pressure is stagnation pressure. It is constant
throughout the horizontal plain. Thus during a convergent flow, the dynamic
pressure will increase and the static pressure will drop. On the other hand, during a
divergent flow, the static will increase and the flow will slow down causing a
decrease in dynamic pressure. It can be seen from the result, when there is an
increase in dynamic pressure, the static pressure drops .However, I suggest that
our experience test 2 is unsuccessful because the is a negative dynamic pressure.
However even with wrong reading, the h5 result still show an increased dynamic
pressure (convergent flow). Thus we can conclude that the Bernoulli equation is
valid for flow with Steady flow, incompressible fluid, and net frictional forces are
negligible.
Q6. The stagnation pressure should be constant from section A through section F.
However we can find there is a drop in the stagnation pressure at h 6. This decrease
in pressure may due to the viscosity of the liquid. Frictional effects are negligible
for short flow section with large cross sections at low flow velocity. Frictional effect
will be significant in a narrow passage.

Q7.

For a volume of the fluid which moves from point 1 to point 2 Bernoullis law is
often
4

expressed as
p 1 /g + v

/2g + z1 = p2 /g + v

/2g + z2 = Constant (1)

where g is the acceleration due of gravity, Pn is the internal pressure of the fluid at the
point n in the system, is the density of the fluid, vn is the speed of the fluid at point n, and zn is
the height of the fluid at point n from a set origin.

Applying these conditions on Bernoulli equation gives

z1 = v 2 2/2g
By measuring the flow rate, we will be able to do the calculation of the velocity.

Experiment 3
Impact Of A Jet
Result
Impact of jet Apparatus Flat Plate
Nozzle Diameter, d(m): 36.1mm
Volume
Time
Applied
Flow
Velocit
collected required
Mass
Rate
y
Vol.
t
m
Q=Vol./ V1=Q/
t
A
m3
sec
kg
m3/s
m/s
5

Velocit
y2
V12

Applied
Force
W

(m/s)2

0.015

60

0.1

2.5x10-

4.974

24.741

1.244

6.565

43.099

2.166

7.958

63.330

3.183

8.953

80.156

4.029

9.947

98.943

4.973

0.020

60

0.2

0.024

60

0.3

0.027

60

0.4

0.030

60

0.5

3.3
x10-4
4.0
x10-4
4.5
x10-4
5.0
x10-4

Impact of jet Apparatus Hemispherical Cup

Nozzle Diameter, d(m): 41.9mm
Volume
Time
Applied
Flow
Velocit Velocit
collected required
Mass
Rate
y
y2
Vol.
t
m
Q=Vol./ V1=Q/
V12
t
A
3
3
m
sec
kg
m /s
m/s
(m/s)2
1
0.010
60
0.1
1.6x10- 3.183 10.132

Applied
Force
W
N
1.019

0.014

60

0.2

0.017

60

0.3

0.020

60

0.4

0.022

60

0.5

2.3
x10-4
2.8
x10-4
3.3
x10-4
3.6
x10-4

4.576

20.940

2.105

5.570

31.025

3.119

6.632

43.983

4.422

7.295

53.217

5.350

Report
Q1. When magnitude of the velocity does not change, it is a constant velocity, this
is an inertial reference. Newtons second law stated that the sum of all external
force acting on a system is equal to the time rate of change of linear momentum of
the system. When the friction is negligible, V1 = V2 is reasonable.
Q2. In the y direction,
Fy = m (Vouty Viny)
Fy = m (-V2sin (-90) V1)
since sin (-90) = -sin (90-) = -cos
= m (V2cos V1)
Assuming no frictional loss at the plate or cup,
V2 = V1 = V
Fy = mV (cos - 1)
where m = AV
Therefore Fy = AV2 (cos - 1)
Q3. In the x direction,
Fx = m (Voutx Vinx)
Fx = m (-V2cos (-90) + V2cos (-90) 0)
Fx = 0
Fx is ignored because the overall force is 0.
Q4. Please refer to graph.
Q5. The equation s = A (cos-1) is the gradient of the graph.
For Splate, Tan = a/o = (60 - 40.5)/ (2.9-2) = 21.667
= 87.4o
For Scup, Tan = a/o = (44-30)/ (4.4-3) = 10
= 84.3o
Ideal case for Splate, should be 90o.
Ideal case for Scup, should be 180o.
One of the reason for the different is should be 180o, but practically such value
cannot be obtained. The second reason is due to the gravitational force acting on
the water. Lastly, the reason is due to the alignment of the water jet, the impact
point may not be 90o.
Q6. There are many sources of experimental errors, these errors are:
-The base of the water jet must be horizontal. This can be done with the
help of the water level gauge.
7

-V1 = V2 is only assumption, in actual situation there are gravity force acting
on the water.
-The cup is not perfectly 180o.The cup is a sphere which itself is an error.
-The water impact on the plate or cup may not be precisely in the center.
- The water pressure applied on the water jet may not be constant.
Q7. The proposal modification is not recommended because with the lever
arrangement, the calculation will be much more complicated.

Experiment 4
Pipe Friction investigations
Result
Pipe 1
Volume
V

Time
t

Flow Rate
Q

Pipe
Diameter d

Velocity
u

Head loss
H

Litres

secs

m3/s

Log
h

Log
u

m/s

mHg

-3

4695

364

2.56

3.67

10

168

0.059

4x10

10

162

0.062

4x10-3

4933

345

2.54

3.69

-3

4616

313

2.49

3.66

10

173

0.058

4x10

10

180

0.055

4x10-3

4377

281

2.45

3.64

10

185

0.054

4x10-3

4297

256

2.41

3.63

205

0.048

4x10

-3

3820

222

2.35

3.58

Volume
V

Time
t

Flow Rate
Q

Pipe
Diameter d

Velocity
u

Head loss
H

Log
h

Log
u

Litres

secs

m3/s

m/s

mHg

10

41

0.244

7.5x10-3

5523

404

2.61

3.74

-3

5138

323

2.51

3.71

10

Pipe 2

10

44

0.227

7.5x10

10

52

0.192

7.5x10-3

4346

241

2.38

3.64

10

72

0.138

7.5x10-3

3124

120

2.08

3.49

-3

2603

80

1.90

3.42

1879

40

1.60

3.27

10

87

0.115

7.5x10

10

120

0.083

7.5x10-3

Report
Q1. The mercury manometer was used. This is because mercury manometer is
good for high pressure. The water manometer is good for sensitive, however in the
experiment the pressure is too high to use the water manometer.
Q2. We used the vernier caliper to measure the internal diameter. The vernier is a
precise tool and it has a function to measure internal diameter.
Q3. From the graph, the laminar flow zone is more liner, the gradient is not steep.
Q4.The laminar flow zone has a low velocity and the graph is more linear.

10

Experiment 5
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Result and Report
(a)
Revolution counter
reading

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Water Temperature
(oC)

17.4 18.0 18.8 19.8 20.5 21.2 22.0 22.6 23.2

Spring Balance (kgf)

0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.05

4
9
4
0
4
8
2
8
0

Ambient Temperature 22.6

(oC)

800

900

23.0

Large weights and

carrier (kfg)

21.5
2

Mass of water
(gm)

300

Mass of calorimeter
(gm)

707

Small weights and

carrier (gm)

120

Specific heat of
water (J/g oC)

4.18
55

Specific heat of
calorimeter (J/g oC)

0.36
8

(b) Work done = (WL ws + s) DN

= (21.523 -1.177 + 0.671) xx0.15x400
= 3961.611 J
(c)Heat generated = (mwaterCwater + mcalCcal )T
= ((300)(4.1855) + (707)(0.368))2.7
= 4092.73 J
(d) Mechanical Equivalent of Heat = J = Work Done/Heat Generated
11

= 3961.611/4092.73
= 0.96796 J
(e) In theory, Q = W assuming no heat loss, thus its mechanical equivalent is 1.
The percentage error of J is (1 - 0.96796) x 100% = 3.2%
(f) The first law of Thermodynamics states that heat and work must be conserved.
(g) This law is being applied to mechanical equivalent of heat when it show that
Q = W + U. When the heat is converted by mechanical work, W = U.

Experiment 7
Hydrostatics- The Hydrostatics Test
Bench
Result
Volume of density of water:
Mass of empty density bottle:
Mass of density bottle of water:

51.665ml
30.2gm
81.5gm

MASS OF WATER

DENSITY OF WATER = VOLUME OF WATER

Mass of water

= Mass of density bottle of water mass of empty

= 81.5 gm 30.2 gm
= 51.3 gm
= 0.0513 kg

0.0513

Therefore, Density of water0.051665

=
x 10

= 992.93kg/m
12

Volume of empty density bottle:

Mass of empty density bottle:
Mass of density bottle with diesel fuel:

51.484ml
31gm
74.5gm

MASS OF DIESEL FUEL

Density of diesel fuel =

VOLUME OF DIESEL FUEL

Mass of diesel fuel = Mass of density bottle with diesel fuel mass of empty
density bottle
= 74.5gm 31gm
= 43.5gm
= 0.0435kg
0.0435kg

Therefore, Density of diesel = 0.051484 x 10

= 844.923kg/m
Specific gravity (relative density) of diesel fuel = Density of diesel fuel / density of
water
= 844.923 / 992.23
= 0.8509
Height of water column:
Height of diesel column:

30.2 cm
34.8 cm

P = gh
water x g x hwater = diesel x g x hdiesel
S.G (Diesel) = diesel x g x hdiesel
= hwater x hdiesel
= 0.302m / 0.348m
= 0.868

Using the density bottle and Triple Beam Balance, find the specific gravity (relative
density) of sand (metal fillings). Tabulate the readings and show the calculation
clearly.
S.G (metal fillings) = Mass of metal fillings / mass of equal volume of water
13

1) Fill up the density bottle with water and metal fillings and weight it.
Mass of density bottle with water
and metal fillings:
84gm
2) Remove the metal fillings from the bottle and weight the water that is left inside
the bottle
Mass of density bottle with water
only:
80.7gm

3) Therefore, calculate the mass fillings

Mass of metal fillings:
84gm 80.7gm = 3.3gm
4) Calculate the mass of equal volume of water
Mass of equal volume of water: 81.5gm 80.7gm = 0.8gm
5) Therefore, S.G (metal fillings) = Mass of metal fillings / mass of equal volume of
water
= 3.3 / 0.8
= 4.125

14

Experiment 8
Gas Turbine Simulation
Result
Turbojet Engine Simulation 1
Airspeed = 0 km/h
Altitude= 0 m
Throttle= 100%
Thrust= 21,158 N
Fuel Flow= 1,816 kg/hr
Turbojet Engine Simulation 2
Airspeed = 200 km/h
Altitude= 3000 m
Throttle= 100%
Thrust= 14,932 N
Fuel Flow= 1,383 kg/hr
Turbojet Engine Simulation 1 and 2 result discussion
15

Thrust and Fuel Flow decreases when altitude and airspeed increase.
Turbojet Engine with afterburner simulation 1
Airspeed = 0 km/h
Altitude= 0 m
Throttle= 100%
Thrust= 114,763 N
Fuel Flow= 12,101 kg/hr

Turbojet Engine with afterburner simulation 2

Airspeed = 200 km/h
Altitude= 3000 m
Throttle= 100%
Thrust= 81,549 N
Fuel Flow= 8,931 kg/hr

Turbofan Engine simulation 1

Airspeed = 0 km/h
Altitude= 0 m
Throttle= 100%
Thrust= 200,310 N
Fuel Flow= 6,269 kg/hr
Turbofan Engine simulation 2
Airspeed = 200 km/h
Altitude= 3000 m
Throttle= 100%
Thrust= 130,011 N
Fuel Flow= 4,922 kg/hr
Discussion
An increase in altitude and airspeed will decrease both thrust and fuel flow of all
turbine engine with or without afterburner. The most fuel efficient engine in this
16

simulation is the Turbofan engine as it got the highest specific fuel consumption
ratings.

Experiment 9
Cyclepad
Result
When Cycle is Isentropic
Thermal Efficiency = 32.7%
Work Ratio = 54.18%

17

Where compression and expansion isentropic efficiencies are 0.8 and 0.85
respectively
Thermal Efficiency= 17.98%
Work Ratio= 32.62%

18

19

Experiment 10
Gas Laws The Adiabatic process
Result
1. For the adiabatic process, the adiabatic index gamma () = 1.3.
P1V1 =P2V2
P2/P1 = V1 / V2 = (V1/V2)
Log (P2/P1) = Log(V1/V2)
= [Log (P2/P1) / Log(V1/V2)]
= [ Log (235.8/117.7) / Log (172.631/101.528)]
2. Compared to the theoretical value of =1.4, the percentage error is 7%.
3. For minimum work process, the value of polytropic index n= 1.112.
P1V1 n=P2V2 n
P2/P1 = V1 n / V2 n = (V1/V2) n
Log (P2/P1) = n Log(V1/V2)
n = [Log (P2/P1) / Log(V1/V2)]
= [ Log (212.3/117.7) / Log (172.631/101.567)]
4. According to Boyles Law, for Isothermal process P1V1 = P2V2 where the value of
n=1. The value of n for the minimum work process is close to 1 and thus it is an
approximation of an Isothermal process. In addition, during the minimum work
process, the compression happen at a slower speed, giving ample time for heat
transfer to environment to achieve equilibrium. This help to keep temperature
increase to a minimal between the beginning and ending of the compression
stroke.
5. Work done for adiabatic process Work (A) = -0.01883J
Work done for minimum work done process Work (M) = -0.0137J
6. Work (A) > Work (M) thus adiabatic compression work > Isothermal work.

20