Stablity, Control and Limitations

Welcome to
EAA Pilot Training School

STABILITY, CONTROL AND LIMITATION
PPT1.1 EAA/PPT/001:Powerpoint Guideline Rev No.01

Revision(PFT I)
• Atmosphere and its characterstics(P,T,ρ...)
• Static and Dynamic pressure,
• TAS,IAS,GS,CAS,EAS
• Aerodynamic forces(L,D,T,W) and shape of an airfoil (AOA,AOI,relative
wind,flight path..)
• Bernoulli’s Principle and newton’s laws
• how lift is generated,
• Induced drag,Ground effect
• CP,CG,AC,up wash,downwash
• lift and drag augmenting devices
• aircraft axis of rotation
1. STABILITY
1.1 Static and dynamic stability

Basics and definitions
• Identify factors between static and dynamic stability.
• Identify between positive, neutral and negative
stability.
• Compare and contrast stability and Explain
maneuverability.
• Explain equilibrium of forces and moments for
static stability.
• Identify the forces considered in the equilibrium of
forces.
• Identify the moments about all three axes considered
in the equilibrium of moments.
• Explain the effect of sum of moments not being zero.
Reference
• A. Jeppesen- Private Pilots Handbook

• B. Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators by H.H Hurt
Jr.
• C. Mechanics of Flight by AC Kermode
• D. AC-61-23C: Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge
Basics and definitions
• Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to
equilibrium without any help from the pilot, after
being disturbed by an external force.
• There are two broad categories of stability, static and
dynamic.
• Static indicates the initial tendency; and dynamic indicates
the history

1.1.1 Static Stability
• It is the initial tendency of the aircraft to return
to the equilibrium position following a disturbance.
There are three degrees

of stability
• Positive
• Neutral
• Negative
Objectives
Positive static stability
Neutral static stability
Negative static stability

Static Stability Cont’d
Positive stability: returns to its attitude without assistance, once
an external disturbing force ceases.
Neutral stability: remains in the attitude that it attains when an
external disturbing force ceases.
Negative stability: continues to diverge after an external
disturbing force ceases.
Stability vs Controllability
• Controllability: refers to the ability of the aircraft to
respond to control surface displacement and achieve
the desired condition of flight.
• A high degree of stability gives reduced
controllability, and vice-versa.
• Adequate controllability must be available to perform
take-off and landing and accomplish the various
maneuvers in flight.
• To “control” the ball in the displaced
position, a force must oppose the
inherent tendency to return to
equilibrium.
• A new point of equilibrium is obtained and no
force is required to maintain the displacement
• After a nose-up command for higher angle of

attack, the aircraft would need a push force to
prevent the aircraft from diverging in the nose-up
direction.
Factors that increase the static stability:
• Decreased altitude – due to change in density (for same IAS)
• Increased IAS (considering the same altitude)
• Increased air density (e.g. due to decreased Tº)
• Decreased mass increases the responsiveness of the airplane
to the correcting forces.
• Forward CG position- increasing the moment of the
correcting forces.
1.1.2 Dynamic Stability
• It is defined by the resulting motion with time.
• It can be of periodic (oscillatory) or aperiodic (non-
oscillatory) types.
• The time histories in A, B and C depict non-oscillatory.
Dynamic Stability
• The oscillatory modes shown in time history diagrams D, E and F
depict cyclic motion.
• Positive static stability may result in stable, neutral, or unstable
dynamic phase.
• but an airplane that is statically unstable can never attain dynamic stability.
Dynamic Stability
• The dynamic stability of an airplane is dependent on:
• the airplane design, speed, flying altitude.
• the static stability in all planes
• the aerodynamic damping(restoring moment) moments
due to roll, pitch and yaw.
• Any aircraft must demonstrate the required degrees of
static and dynamic stability.
Precondition for static stability
• Newton's First Law: states, “a body remains in rest/
uniform motion unless for external force.”
• Thus equilibrium can be a state of rest or uniform
motion, that is constant speed and direction.
• When all the forces acting on it are in balance i.e.,
the sum of the forces and moments is zero, the
aircraft is in a state of equilibrium.
Sum of forces
• When CG and the CP are not coincident, a force couple of
Lift and Weight will result in a pitching moment.
• Its magnitude will depend on:
• lift/weight forces, but also on the
• distance between CG and CP.
• The position of the CG will depend on:
• the aircraft loading,
• how fuel is transferred/consumed in flight.
• TheCP position: depends on AOA, with the CP moving slowly
forward as the angle increases till a stall.
Sum of forces cont’d
• The thrust/drag couple may compliment, or oppose
the lift/weight pitching moment.
• A change in any of the 4 forces will disturb
the trim of the aircraft, causing it to pitch
either nose up or nose down.
• Accordingly, the tail-plane needs to
produce negative/positive lift, in order to
maintain level flight.
Sum of moments
• Unbalanced forces cause the airplane to rotate about
the axis due to caused angular acceleration.
• When all the four forces acting on an aircraft are in
balance ie, the sum of the forces and moments is
zero, the aircraft is in a state of equilibrium.
Sum of moments cont’d
• For a rolling moment, L, about longitudinal axis, a roll to the right

is a positive rolling moment.
• For a yawing moment, N, yaw to
the right is a positive yawing
moment.
• For a pitching moment about the
Lateral axis, M, a positive
pitching moment is nose-up.
1.2 Static and dynamic longitudinal stability
Static and dynamic longitudinal stability
• Differentiate between the tail-plane and the canard for longitudinal
stability.
• Explain the influence of the location of the wing CP relative to the CG
on longitudinal stability.
• Explain the influence of the IAS on longitudinal stability.
• Explain the counter- influence of the stabilizer on the effect of the
wing/fuselage lift.
• Explain the use of the elevator deflection or stabilizer angle for the
generation of the balancing force.
• Explain the elevator deflection required to balance thrust changes.
• The longitudinal static stability: is its initial ability to return to its
original pitch attitude, after a disturbance movement has ceased.
• i.e. if it tends to return towards the trim AOA when displaced by a gust or
a control input.
• A neutrally stable aircraft remains at any displacement to which it
is disturbed
• An unstable one will continue to pitch in the disturbed direction
until resisted by opposing control forces and elevator deflections
(which is illogical).
• The longitudinal dynamic stability is the history for
pitch response in time.
• It is usually specified by the time to damp to half-
amplitude.
Methods for achieving balance
• When an aircraft suffers a disturbance about its lateral axis,
the necessary restoring moment is primarily provided by the
horizontal stabilizer. This capability depends on the “tail arm”.
• It is usually placed at the tail of
the aircraft (tail-plane), known
as conventional airplanes.
• However, it can be placed ahead
of the wings in what is referred to
as a canard configuration.
Tail-plane vs canard configuration
• Tail-plane balances the nose- • Canard balances the nose-
heaviness in level flight by a heaviness in level flight by an
downward force provided by the upward force provided by
elevator (tail stabilizer) located in a located near the nose of the
the empennage. aircraft.
*It produces negative lift. *It produces positive lift.
*Lift = Weight + stabilizer
*Lift = Weight - Canard
Canard
Advantages:
1. Because it produces positive lift (i.e. additional lift),
less lift is required from the wing.
2. Hence, it reduces the induced drag generated from
the wing
3. It stalls prior to the main wing (due to its higher
incidence), hence stall-proofing the wing.
Canard
Disadvantages:
1. It introduces interferes to the smooth aerodynamic flow
over the wing.
2. The main wing never stalls to achieve its CLmax.
• This increases takeoff/landing distances and speeds to
achieve the desired performance.
3. Difficult to apply flaps, since deploying flaps causes
a large nose-down pitching moment.
Static longitudinal stability
• Explain the changes in aerodynamic forces when
varying angle of attack for a static longitudinally stable
airplane.
• Explain the effect of CG location on pitch
maneuverability.
• Define neutral point.
• Explain why the location of the neutral point is only
dependent on the aerodynamic design of the airplane.
• Indicate the location of the neutral point relative to the locations of
the aerodynamic center of the wing and tail.
• Explain the influence of the downwash variations with angle of
attack variation on the location of the neutral point.
• Explain the contribution of engine nacelles.
• Explain the CG forward and aft limits with respect to:
 longitudinal control forces;
 elevator effectiveness;
 stability.
• Define static margin.
1.2.1 Static longitudinal stability
• It is the ability to return to its original pitch attitude
with no outside assistance.
• The main factors that affect the longitudinal static
stability are:
• the design of the tail-plane,
• the relative position of the CG to CP
• To sustain longitudinal stability, the CG should always
be ahead of the wing CP.
• The CP is located in the range between 30% and 40%
of the MAC, but CG depends on aircraft designs:
• For a conventional transport airplane, CG is in range of
10% and 30% of the MAC.
• For other types the CG range is normally 10% to 35%.
• Therefore, a conventional transport airplane always
has positive longitudinal static stability no matter
what the angle of attack.
• CG vs CP position determine the direction of the
additional wing-pitching moment (dLX).
• Wing CP ahead of CG is
wing-unstable (often on
high-AOA like T/O and
Landing)
• CP behind CG (low AOA

of most phases, especially
on cruise) is a wing-stable
aircraft.
• To establish an aircraft’s stability, it is the ratio of the
tail volume to the wing volume that defines.
• The tail volume is the product of the tail-plane area and the
tail-plane moment
• The wing volume is the product of the wing area and the
wing moment.
• The greater the excess volume of the tail over that of
the wing the greater is the longitudinal static stability.
• The net pitching moment = (tail-pitching moment –
wing-pitching moment).
• When the wings have unstable influence, the horizontal
stabilizer must rectify it with up-load.
• And if wing has stable-

influence, the tail should
generate a down-load.
The Centre of Pressure (CP)
• CP location is depends on the angle of attack.
• It moves forward with increasing angle of attack until the
stalling angle is attained, and vice-versa.
• The greater the distance the CP is aft of the CG the
larger is the nose-down pitching moment
• and the greater is the tail down-load required to counteract it.
• The downloading is least at high α and is greatest at
low α.
The Centre of Pressure (CP) cont’d
• Usually, the CP of a transport airplane is aft of the CG
and generates a nose-down pitching moment.
• To maintain level flight the tail-plane must counteract
by a nose-up pitching moment, i.e. tail downloaded.
• Thus, longitudinal static stability is ensured when the
CP is aft of the CG and the tail is downloaded.
The Aerodynamic Centre (AC)
• AC is the point along the chord-line of a wing at which all
changes of lift take place.
• It is located at 25% of MAC.
• Pitching moment (nose-down) about
AC does not change with changes in
AOA (α).
• For higher AOA (α), CP moves
forward, arm reduces and lift
increases. But the resultant Moment
(Mα L) about AC is constant.
no change in pitching moment with
changes in angles of attack.(△M=0)
- At zero lift there is a residual pitching moment
present.
- it remains constant aboutthe AC up to the stall (i.e.
C Lmax)
The Aerodynamic Centre (AC) cont’d
• For stability, it is considered the changes in lift (ΔL)
due to changes in AOA (Δα), acting through a
stationary point, AC.
• If AC is in front of CG (e.g. CG @ 30%), the
contribution of the wing considered alone is
statically unstable.
• A vertical gust increasing Δα and increase ΔL
acting at AC, which, when multiplied by arm ‘x’,
will generate a positive (nose-up) pitching moment
about the CG.
• This will tend to increase the Δα further, an unstable
pitching moment.
• The wing on its own would rotate nose-up
about the CG(destablizing), as in Figure above.
• The tail-plane is positioned to generate a stabilizing
pitching moment about the aircraft CG.
• By countering the
destabilizing wing
moment.
• The length of both arms is
dependent upon CG
position.
• The tail-plane helps to produce a state of static
longitudinal stability following a pitching
disturbance (nose-up/down).
• If the tail moment is greater than

wing moment, the aircraft will
have static longitudinal stability.
Longitudinal Dihedral
• This is the difference between tail-plane and wing
incidence.
• When the wing angle of incidence is greater than
that of the tail-plane the aircraft is said to have
positive longitudinal dihedral
• For longitudinal static stability the tail-plane
incidence is smaller.
Longitudinal Dihedral
• This will generate a greater percentage increase in
tail-plane lift than wing lift for a given vertical gust.
1.2.2 Neutral point
• It is the CG position when the sum of the changes in the tail
moment and wing moment caused by changes of AOA is
zero.
• It is sometimes referred to as the AC of the whole airplane.
• Because there is no net moment,

the aircraft will remain in its new
position of equilibrium;
• The aircraft will have neutral static
longitudinal stability.
Factors affecting neutral point
• The position of the neutral point is dependent on the tail-plane area and
the arm length.
• Usually, for transport airplanes the NP is located at 40% of MAC.
• For an airplane to always have positive longitudinal static stability the
CG must be ahead of the NP.
Neutral point cont’d
If the CG is located at the NP, then:

• The airplane has neutral longitudinal static stability.
• The airplane will remain in the new attitude.
• The pitching moment, Cm, remains constant for all
AOA.
• The magnitude of the lift is still dependent on the
AOA.
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1.2.3 Location of Centre of Gravity
• For CG a little forward of the neutral point, tail moment will
be slightly greater than the wing moment (arm ‘y’ increased,
arm ‘x’ decreased).
• A small net moment gently return the aircraft towards its
equilibrium during disturbance.
• The further forward the CG, the greater the net moment,
hence the greater stability.
• But, this decreases the maneuverability.
• Thus, the elevators have less nose-up/down authority.
The CG Envelope and Static Margin
• The static margin (SM), is the distance measured from the
CG to the NP.
• The stability is directly proportional to the length of the static
margin.
• The longer the static margin,
the greater is the longitudinal
static stability.
• If SM is zero, the airplane is
neutrally stable.
• The CG envelope is the range within which the CG
must always be located for safe operations.
• For Conventional transport

airplanes, the safe forward
limit approximately 10%
MAC, and the safe aft limit
approximately 30% MAC.
• The forward limit of the envelope is determined by the amount
of pitch control available from the elevators;
• the airplane will have the greatest acceptable stability.
• For T/O and Landing, full elevator deflection is needed.
• The aft limit is confined by: insufficient stick-force stability
and/or excessive in-flight maneuverability.
• It is determined by the minimum stick force per ‘g’ for the maximum
permitted load factor, (which is 2.5g for large transport airplanes.
• A CG position aft of this point would make the airplane difficult to fly.
If the CG at forward limit it has the following effects:
• greatest longitudinal static stability;
• decreased maneuverability to the minimum acceptable;
• increased stick force required during take-off;
• increased stalling speed;
• increased fuel flow;
• decreased maximum range for a given fuel load;
If the CG is at aft limit of the CG envelope :
• decreased longitudinal static stability;
• increased maneuverability to the maximum controllable;
• decreased stalling speed;
• decreased thrust required;
• decreased fuel flow;
• increased maximum range for a given fuel load;
Cm–α graph
• Define the aerodynamic pitching moment coefficient (Cm).
• Describe the Cm–α graph with respect to relationship between
the slope of the graph and static stability.
• Explain the effect on the Cm–α graph of a shift of CG in the
forward and aft direction.
• Explain the effect on the Cm–α graph when the elevator is
moved up or down.
• Explain the effect on the Cm–α graph when the trim is moved.
1.2.4 The Cm–α graph
• The static stability of the airplane is depicted by the slope of the
curve of CM versus CL.
• As a convention, nose-up direction is positive and nose-down
negative.
• For static stability, if the initial change in CL is nose-up
(positive) the resultant pitching moment CM must be nose-down
(negative), and vice versa.
• The slope of the graph must always be negative
•
• The trim point occurs at AOA of zero overall
moment about the CG.
• i.e. wing moment equals tail moment, and the aircraft is said to
be in trim.
• The trim angle is dependent

upon the amount of longitudinal
dihedral of the aircraft.
• Positive static stability is indicated by the red curve
with negative slope.
• Neutral static stability would be the result if the curve
had zero slope.
• The blue line defines an
unstable airplane which
demonstrates a positive
slope of the CM versus CL
curve.
Factors affecting the Cm–α graph
Effect of CG position
• As the CG is gradually moved aft, the airplane static stability
decreases, then becomes neutral then unstable.
• The CG position which produces zero

slope and neutral static stability is
referred to as the “neutral point”.
• The CG may be restored by placing
ballast weights in a balancing location, or
fuel transfer.
Effect of Elevator Deflection
• When the AOA is increased by the Pilot, a stable aircraft
produces nose-down pitching moment.
• Moving the elevator or stabilizer does not affect the
contribution of the tail-plane to stability:
• but its pitching moment, and hence CL at which equilibrium
(trim) will occur.
• The stability is unaffected by this change, only a new trim
point is attained .
• the stable negative slope of the CM – CL curves
remains constant, only the position of the trim point
varies.
• If CG moves forward,
Elevator deflection results
a small aircraft response,
and if CG moves aft a large
response deflection.
Effect of Trim
• An upward deflection of the elevators generates a nose-
down hinge moment; and the trim tab has to be
deflected upward to balance this effect.
• Therefore, a positive CL change requires a Negative trim
tab angular deflection.
• To trim for a speed increase, the
elevator is deflected downward,
and the trim deflected upward.
Effect of Wing
After a change in CL, the CM created
will be a direct function of the
relative location of CG.
• If AC is forward of CG, wing contributes
an unstable CM.
• If CG is ahead of AC, the wing will
generate nose-down CM, adding to the
tail CM, aircraft become more stable.
Effect of Fuselage and Nacelles
• Both generally have de-stabilizing effect.
• An increase in angle of attack causes an increase in the
unstable pitching moment but a negligible increase in lift.
• Fuselage AC is ahead the wing;

hence, wing-fuselage
combination AC will be further
forward, hence de-stabilizing.
Effect of Horizontal Tail
• When AOA increases, tail lift increases at the AC of
the tail, and produces a nose-down (stabilizing)
moment about the aircraft CG.
• The effectiveness of the tail-plane depends upon:
• CG position
• Downwash
• Dynamic pressure
• Longitudinal dihedral.
Effect of Downwash
• Downwash decreases static longitudinal stability.
• The dynamic pressure at the horizontal tail is greatly affected
due to the wing wake, fuselage boundary layer and power
effects, reducing its Lift.
• downwash decreases the effective angle of attack of the Tail.
• e.g.10° wing AOA causing a 4° increase in downwash at the tail, gives
tail only 6°.
Effect of Downwash cont’d
• Factors for downwash on tail (e.g. TE flaps,
increasing wing camber or propeller slipstream) affect
the tail.
Configuration Changes
• If the thrust line is high relative to the CG, it is
stabilizing, and if low, de-stabilizing.
• Lowering the Landing gear lowers the level of the dragline,
hence stabilizing.
• Extending trailing-edge flaps:
• increases wing camber, increasing downwash, which reduces stability.
• However, CP moves aft and a nose-down (stabilizing) pitching
moment results;
• But, the overall effect is to de-stabilizing.
Cont’d
• Contribution of components (e.g. CG @ 30%)
The elevator position versus speed graph (IAS)
• Describe the elevator position-speed graph.
• Explain the gradient of the elevator position speed graph.
• Explain the influence of the airspeed on the stick position
stability.
• Explain the contribution on the elevator position–speed
graph of:
 the location of CG;
 the trim (trim tab and stabilizer trim);
 high-lift devices.
1.2.5 The elevator position versus speed graph (IAS)
• Elevator deflection required, and trim, depends on the IAS
(dynamic pressure).
• At low IAS, aft movement of the control column is required to
increase the trim AOA.
• E.g. during landing, with a forward CG, maximum up elevator deflection is
selected.
• At high IAS, forward movement of the control column is necessary
to decrease the AOA and trim.
• E.g. when CG is back to the aft margin.
• This is called Stick-Position Stability.
Cont’d
• For CG ahead of the neutral point, there is stick
position stability.
•Stick to be moved aft to increase the AOA and trim at a
lower IAS, and vice-versa.
• If for instability, the airplane
would need aft-stick for
increased airspeed, and
forward at lower speed.
Stick-Fixed Longitudinal Static Stability
• It is when the elevators always have a certain fixed
position, hence giving the aircraft a defined trim angle.
• This is a design for an airplane having a powered irreversible
control system.
• It proportionally relates rate of elevator deflection needed
for a given/needed airspeed, CL or angle of attack.
• Stick-fixed stability determines the amount of elevator
deflection required for a change of airspeed, CL or angle
of attack.
Factors affecting the elevator position speed graph
Effect of trim
• The elevator adjusts tail surface CL and CM.
• But the trim tab adjusts the elevator hinge moment
to substitute the stick force.
• Accordingly, trim varies with elevator deflection as
the elevator is held in various positions, for new C L.
The airplane static stability remains unchanged
throughout the trim for new CL.
Effect of CG
• As CG moves fwd, the slope increases, indicating an
increase of stability.
• This means controllability decreases.
• So, a given elevator displacement causing a little change in
trim CL.
• If the CG is moved aft, stability
keeps decreasing until the line
has zero slope, i.e. neutral static
stability.
The stick force versus speed graph (IAS)
• Define the stick force speed graph.
• Describe the minimum gradient for stick force versus speed
that is required for certification according to CS-23 and CS-25.
• Explain the importance of the stick force gradient for good
flying qualities of an airplane.
• Identify the trim speed in the stick force speed graph.
• Explain how a pilot perceives stable static longitudinal stick
force stability.
• Explain the contribution on stick force of:
 the location of the centre of gravity;
 the trim (trim tab and stabilizer trim);
 down spring;
 bob weight;
 friction.
• Explain the contribution of Mach number on stick
force stability.
1.2.6 The stick force versus speed graph (IAS)
• Stick-Force Stability: is the stick force required, i.e.
the amount of effort necessary to overcome the
longitudinal static stability of the airplane.
• pull force is required to maintain a speed less than the
trimmed speed and a push force for increased speed.
• Location of the CG affects it.
• It increases with forward CG shift.
• It decreases as the CG moves aft.
Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability
• Here, elevators float freely in, and align with, the
airstream, known as Stick-free stability.
• A design on light aircrafts (not powered control)
• Stick-free stability determines the stick force
required for a change of airspeed, CL or angle of
attack.
Cont’d
• Because the diminished tail force:
• The stick-free neutral point moves forward
• The stick-free CG margin, and consequently the
longitudinal static stability of the airplane, reduces.
• The stick-free NP is always ahead of the stick-fixed
NP.
• Thus, the stick-free stability is less than the stick-
fixed.
Cont’d
• Stick force stability will be largest at low IAS, and
smallest at high IAS.
• Due to the amount of control deflections required, and
therefore the opposite trim-tab setting required to
maintain zero stick force.
• Example: 10 kt acceleration from trim speed needs
more stick force at low speed than it does at high
speed.
Cont’d
• At high speeds, the down trim-tab setting required to
maintain zero stick force is less than at lower speeds because
the elevator-up deflection is less.
Factors affecting the stick force versus speed graph
Effect of CG position
• Maintaining the trim-speed in level flight:
• A forward movement of the CG increases the longitudinal
static stability and the stick-force stability
• This can occur when fuel is used as the flight progresses.
• An aft movement of the CG decreases the longitudinal
static stability and the stick-force stability.
Cont’d
• If the CG moves further aft, stick-position instability
will exist.
• i.e. stick pushed at lower speeds and pulled at higher
speeds to maintain level flight.
Effect of trim
• When properly trimmed, a push force is required to
increase airspeed and a pull force is required to
decrease airspeed.
• In order to trim the airplane at
point (1) to (2) and (3), the
required up elevator, and the
trim tab for zero stick force,
becomes less and less.
The maneuvering stability/stick force per G
• Define the stick force per G.
• Explain why the stick force per G has a prescribed minimum and maximum value.
• Explain why the stick force per G decreases with pressure altitude at the same
indicated airspeed.
• Explain the influence on stick force per G of:
 CG location;
 trim setting;
 a down spring in the control system;
 a bob weight in the control system.
• Explain why the prescribed minimum and maximum values of the stick force per G
are dependent on the limit-load factor.
1.2.7 The maneuvering stability/stick force per G
• When the pilot pitches the aircraft, it rotates about the CG.
• The tail plane is subject to a downward pitching velocity and the
nose is rotating up.
• The tail plane change of effective angle of attack, therefore its
Lift, is greater during maneuvering than in steady level flight.
• Maneuver stability: The pitching moment from
aerodynamic damping(restoring moment) will give greater
stability in maneuvers than is apparent in steady flight..
Cont’d
• The tail plane down-travel has
upward component of airflow.
• The vector addition increases
the effective AOA of the tail,
and tail lift, opposing the
nose-up pitch displacement.
• Increase in TAS, for a given
pitching velocity, decreases
the effective AOA.
Cont’d
• The neutral point for the maneuver is known as the
maneuver point.
• It will be further aft than for 1g flight.
• The maneuver margin is the distance between the CG
and the maneuver point.
• The aft limit of the CG envelope is always ahead of
this point.
• Maneuver envelope is wider than CG envelope
Cont’d
• For any position of the CG, the maneuver margin is
always greater than the CG margin (static margin).
• Static stability in 1g will

give stability in
maneuvering flight.
• In such case, Maneuver
Point will not be a critical
item;
Cont’d
• For a large transport aircraft the stick force per g is
high so to prevent inadvertent overstressing of the
aircraft through excessive control inputs.
• Such aircraft are certified

for a lower limit load
factor
Cont’d
• At high altitudes, The pitch damping of the airplane
reduces with density.
• The increased TAS reduces the change in tail AOA for a given
pitching velocity.
• Thus, maneuvering stick force stability
decreases can be expected with increased
altitude.
Factors affecting the maneuvering stability/stick force per G
Effect of CG
• CG shift changes Tail aerodynamic damping, thereby
changing the Maneuvering stability.
• For a trimmed flight at a constant airspeed.
• A forward movement of the CG position increases the
maneuver stability.
• An aft movement of the CG position decreases the
maneuver stability.
The effect of trim setting
• A high stick force per ‘g’, if required, can be reduced by
the use of the elevator trim tab setting, though it’s not
desirable.
• Excess trimming of stick forces may reduce the effectiveness of
the stick.
• A forward CG position requires a larger deflection of the
elevators.
• Adequate elevator control should remain for maneuver, landing
or take-off.
1.2.8 Stick Force Per ‘g’ and the limit-load factor
• Airplane should demonstrate a steady increase in stick force
with increase in load factor or “g”.
• The stick force per ‘g’ has both an upper and a lower limit for
acceptable control characteristics:
• For high maneuvering stability, a high stick force gradient is needed.
The forward CG limit prevents an excessively high maneuvering
stick force gradient.
• As the CG moves aft, the stick force gradient decreases with
decreasing maneuvering stability and the lower limit of stick force
gradient may be reached.
Cont’d
• If the stick force gradient is too high, the airplane will be
difficult and tiring to maneuver.
• Also, If the stick force gradient is too low, the airplane will be
overstressed inadvertently when light control forces exist.
Longitudinal Control
• The lower limits of controllability will set the upper
limits of static stability.
• Three principal phases of flight critically require
longitudinal control power:
• Maneuvering, Take-off and Landing.
• Any one of these conditions can set a limit to the
forward CG position.
I. maneuvering Control Requirement
• The airplane needs sufficient longitudinal control
power to maneuver.
• Picture: for CG ahead

of 18% MAC, the
maximum elevator
deflection Can’t trim
the airplane at CLMAX.
II. Take-off Control Requirement
• At take-off, the airplane must have sufficient elevator
control power to assume the take-off attitude prior to
reaching take-off speed.
• Forces during take-off roll

demand more tail down-
load.
Cont’d
• Wing-lift is less than Weight.
• On rotation to the take-off attitude, zero load on the
nose wheel, the main gear supporting weight.
• Rolling friction on the main gear creates a nose-down
moment.
• CG ahead of the main gear-Lift contributes a nose-down
moment.
III. Landing Control Requirement
• On landing, the most critical requirement exist when:
• CG is in the most forward position,
• flaps are fully extended, and
• power is set at idle.
• This boosts stability, which demands highest controllability.
• Ground effect changes the three-dimensional flow.
• The decreased downwash at the tail produces a nose-down
moment.
Dynamic longitudinal stability
• Describe the phugoid and short-period motion in terms of
period, damping, variations (if applicable) in speed, altitude
and angle of attack.
• Explain why short-period motion is more important for flying
qualities than the phugoid.
• Define and describe pilot-induced oscillations‘.
• Explain the effect of high altitude on dynamic stability.
• Describe the influence of the CG location on the dynamic
longitudinal stability of the airplane.
1.2.9 Dynamic longitudinal stability
• Aircraft disturbed in pitch usually oscillates in terms
of height, speed and load factor.
• Thus, the principal variables are:
• The pitch attitude (from the horizon)
• The angle of attack (from the flight path).
• True airspeed
Cont’d
• The longitudinal dynamic stability generally consists
of two basic modes of oscillation:-
• long period oscillation (phugoid)
• short period motion
Long Period Oscillation (Phugoid)
• The phugoid is a gradual interchange of potential and
kinetic energy about some equilibrium airspeed and
altitude.
• It involves noticeable
variations in:
• pitch attitude,
• altitude, and
• airspeed,
• But nearly constant angle of
attack (load factor).
Cont’d
• Phugoid cycle begins with a disturbance causing an
increase in forward speed:
• Lift increases, which increases height
• Then Drag increases, resulting in speed reduction until it is
below the value.
• Now the aircraft descends once more, and an oscillatory
motion is observed where height gain and speed loss are
followed by height loss and speed gain.
Cont’d
• The damping extent to the phugoid oscillation
depends on drag characteristics.
• The period of oscillation in the phugoid is between 1
and 2 minutes, due to weak damping.
• Modern low drag jet transporters are susceptible
to phugoid, but it is easily corrected by the pilot.
Short Period Oscillation
• It may result from a vertical gust rising the AOA and lift,
giving a pitching moment.
• Short period oscillation involves:
• significant changes in angle of attack (load factor),
• with approximately constant speed, height and pitch attitude;
• It consists of rapid pitch oscillations, the amplitude decreasing
by its pitch damping of the static stability.
• Time taken to damp half-the-amplitude of the oscillation
defines its character.
Cont’d
• The pilot response might lag/over-control, aggravating the
oscillation, known as Pilot Induced Oscillations (PIO).
• Correct action: If short period oscillation occurs, release the
controls to allow inherent dynamic stability of the aircraft
to damp out the oscillations.
• Even holding the controls
stationary may induce the
oscillation and flight loads.
Cont’d
• The pitch damping effect of the tail-plane:
• Gives rapid oscillation and pitch damping:
• in high dynamic pressure:
• at high speed/weight,
• low altitude
• High altitude, and consequently low density (high
TAS), reduces aerodynamic damping,
Cont’d
• Of the two modes of dynamic longitudinal stability,
the short period oscillation is of greatest importance
due to:
• the rapid changes in ‘g’ loading
• adverse effect of pilot response lag (PIO).
• Modern jet transport aircraft have Pitch Dampers,
which automatically damps short period oscillation.
1.3 Static directional stability
Static directional stability
• Define static directional stability.
• Explain the effects of static directional stability being too weak or too
strong.
• Define sideslip angle.
• Define the yawing-moment coefficient Cn.
• Define the relationship between Cn and β for an airplane with static
directional stability.
• Explain why:
 Cn depends on the angle of sideslip;
 Cn equals zero for that angle of sideslip that provides static equilibrium about the
airplane’s normal axis.
Cont’d
• Identify how the slope of the Cn–β graph is a measure for
static directional stability.
• Describe how the following airplane components contribute
to static directional stability:
 wing; fin; dorsal fin; ventral fin; angle of sweep of the wing;
angle of sweep of the fin; fuselage at high angles of attack; strakes
(ventral fin).
• Explain why both the fuselage and the fin contribution
reduce static directional stability when the CG moves aft.
Cont’d
• Static directional stability is the ability of the aircraft to
return to its original heading when some disturbance
causes an aircraft to yaw.
• It is often known as the ‘weather-cocking’ stability.
• The vertical stabilizer gains angle

of attack to the relative airflow
and gets sideways lift, hence
produces a restoring effect.
Cont’d
• The fin is a symmetrical airfoil.
• Relating to CG, An acceptable
directional stability may be
achieved with:
• a large fin and a short tail arm
• a small fin and a long tail arm.
1.3.1 Sideslip angle β
• The sideslip angle (β) is the displacement of the
airplane center line from the relative airflow.
• β is +ve when the relative wind is

displaced to the right of the
airplane center line.
• Static directional stability of the
airplane is appreciated by
response to sideslip.
1.3.2 Yaw-moment coefficient Cn
• The yawing moment, that tends to rotate the aircraft
yawing plane is:
• +ve when yaw is to the right and -ve when it is to the left.
Cont’d
• An airplane has directional static stability if:
• For a right sideslip (+β), the

nose tends to yaw right (+Cn).
• For sideslip on the left (-β), the
nose yaws to the left (-Cn).
The Cl–β graph
• Describe Cl–β graph.
• Identify the slope of the Cl–β graph as a measure for static lateral
stability.
• Explain the contribution to the static lateral stability of:
 dihedral, anhedral;
 high wing, low wing;
 sweep angle of the wing;
 ventral fin;
 vertical tail.
 Define dihedral effect‘.
1.3.3 Cn–β graph
• A directional stability avails if, after a disturbed
sideslip angle, weather-cocking toward the direction
of sideslip results.
• Represented by a positive slope graph.
• Directional instability should
not occur at sideslip angles of
ordinary flight conditions,
within the normal maneuver
limits of the aircraft.
Cont’d
• The Figure illustrates:
• At small angles of sideslip, a strong positive slope depicts strong
• Large angles of sideslip produce zero slope and neutral stability.
• no tendency to return to the original heading.
• At very high sideslip, the negative slope of the curve indicates
directional instability, due to fin-stall.
• continue to diverge from the original heading
1.3.4 Factors affecting static directional stability
Effect of CG
• The further forward the CG:
• the longer the moment arm of the fin, and the greater the
restoring moment.
• The further aft the CG, the less the directional
stability.
• CG should be retained in its permissible limits.
Wing Effect
• Dihedral: The inclination towards the wings tips tilts
the lift, a destabilizing effect to the yawing movement.
• is relatively insignificant effect.
• Sweepback: The drag of the leading (starboard) wing
increases(due to its reduced effective sweep angle),
but for the trailing wing, it decreases.
• Speed difference towards the side-slip is obtained.
• It is thus a stabilizing influence.
Wing effect cont’d
• Sweep difference gives aspect ratio
difference, hence drag diffc.
Fuselage Effect
• Since its AC is ahead of aircraft CG, the effect is
destabilizing.
• Its effect is particularly noticeable at high angles of
attack, when the downwash causes the fin to stall.
Effect of the Fin
• The fin is the major source of directional stability for
the airplane.
• Its contribution depends on its ability to produce
changes in sideways lift for a given change in sideslip
angle.
• For this, the stall sideslip angle of the surface must be
sufficiently great.
Cont’d
• A high aspect ratio fin is not desirable due to:
• bending, lower stalling angle....etc.
• Moment arm is therefore the
major factor for stabilization.
Dorsal Fin
• A dorsal fin is inserted on the forward top of the
fuselage. They:
• Increase the effective surface area of the fin, more lift.
• Decrease the aspect ratio of the fin, therefore enlarging the sideways
stalling angle of attack.
Ventral Fin (Strake)
• It is a keel (side) surface
positioned under the fuselage, aft
of the CG.
• It increases the directional stability
• Gives lift during fin stall at high
pitch angle.
• It is used on short-bodied aircraft.
Fin Sweep
• Sweep the fin backwards:
• reduces the aspect ratio, which increases its stalling angle.
• moves its CP slightly rearwards, increasing the yawing
moment of the tail.
Swept Fin→
Cont’d
• Figure below illustrates in graphical form the
effects of the major parts of the aircraft on
Propeller Slipstream
• The swirling slipstream and strikes the vertical tail
from one side, and destabilizes.
• Caused by Propeller of a single-engine aircraft
• This is balanced by rudder, to prevent sideslip.
• It is significant at high power and low dynamic pressure.
1.4 Static Lateral Stability
Static lateral stability
• Define static lateral stability.
• Explain the effects of static lateral stability being too
weak or too strong.
• Define ‗bank angle Ø‘.
• Define the roll-moment coefficient Cl.
• Explain how without coordination the bank angle
creates sideslip angle.
Lateral static stability
• The lateral static stability is a tendency to return to the
wings-level after a disturbance.
• For a positive lateral static stability, a rolling moment
opposes the initial disturbance, a ‘Roll-Damping’
effect.
1.4.1 Bank angle Ø
• After a roll disturbance, the down-
going wing has a greater AOA than the
up-going wing, so it creates greater
lift.
• The differential lift thus produced
will tend to resist the rolling
movement, known as roll-
damping.
1.4.2 The roll-moment coefficient (CL)
• A rolling moment, L, to the right is +ve, and -ve to
the left.
• It is calculated by using the formula:
• L=Cl½ρV2Sb
Cl=the rolling moment coefficient;
ρ =the air density;
V=the airspeed;
S=the wing area and
b=the wingspan.
1.4.3 Contribution of sideslip angle (β)
• A rolling disturbance also introduces a side-slipping motion
in the direction of roll, due to the inclination of the lift vector.
• Therefore, lateral stability depends

upon the effects of sideslip upon
the airplane.
• i.e. relationship between sideslip
and rolling moments.
1.4.4 The Cl–β graph
• When the relative airflow comes from the right (+β),
if the airplane tends to roll to the left (-C l), there is
lateral stability due to side-slip.
Cont’d
• A stable Cl-β graph has a
negative slope, its steepness
indicating the degree of
stability .
• If the slope is zero, neutral lateral
stability exists;
• if the slope is positive, lateral
instability is present
1.4.5 Factors affecting static lateral stability
A. Wing Contribution
• The wing is principal surface for lateral stability.
I. Dihedral
• Because of the wing dihedral and the sideslip:
• The wing into the wind increases AOA
and develops an increase in lift.
• The wing away from the wind
decreases AOA and decreases in lift.
• The changes in lift gives a stabilizing
rolling moment towards the wings
level position.
• Since geometric dihedral is so powerful in producing
lateral stability, it is used to measure all other
components.
• Generally, the contribution of wing position, flaps, power,
etc., is expressed as “DIHEDRAL EFFECT”.
II. Anhedral
• This design feature produces the opposite effect
dihedral, and is destabilizing.
• It is used for laterally over-stable designs, that are
difficult to turn:
• Example: either of large fin, high-wing and sweepback
combination.
III. Swept Wings
• A swept wing aircraft is
stabilizing because:
• Down-going wing has an
increasing span, i.e. increasing
its aspect ratio (Lift gain)
• The reverse happens to the up-
going wing, and Lift loss.
B. Wing/Fuselage Interference
• Shielding Effect: In a sideslip the fuselage causes the
trailing (up-going) wing to be shielded from the
airflow
• less dynamic pressure, hence reduced Lift result.
• The contribution of the fuselage alone is usually quite
small.
C. Wing Location
High-winged aircraft: are laterally stabilizing.
• Because, the fuselage splits the direction of relative airflow, it:
• increases the AOA of the wing

into wind (more lift for the
down-going wing).
• decreases the AOA and Lift for the up-going wing (the wing out
of wind).
• It is for adequate engine ground clearance (e.g. propeller
blades).
Cont’d
A Mid-wing position: will generally exhibit a “dihedral
effect”
A low wing position: gives an unstable contribution.
• The direction of relative airflow decreases the effective angle of
attack of the wing into wind and increases the effective angle of
attack of the wing out of wind - tending to increase the rolling
moment.
• A high wing is the equivalent of 1◦ to 3◦ of dihedral, and a low
wing is equivalent to 1◦ to 3◦ of anhedral.
Cont’d
Cont’d
Conclusion:
• The “dihedral effect” should be positive but light.
• E.g. high-wing, combined with
sweeping needs anhedral to
reduce the lateral static stability
to acceptable value.
• Low-wing aircraft combine wing Dihedral and sweeping to

get same result.
D. Fin Size
• The fin can provide a small “dihedral effect”, because the
sideslip airflow provides a righting moment.
• Unless the fin is large, the effect is insignificant.
• The higher the CP of the fin is above the CG, the greater
the rolling moment.
E. Ventral Fin
• As a keel surfaces below the CG, it is de-stabilizing,
though insignificant.
• Example: to clear a T-tail-plane form turbulent
downwash by the wing, a large fin is used.
• To reduce lateral stability due to the fin, a keel surface (or
ventral fin) is introduced.
F. Flaps and Lateral Stability
• When flaps are lowered, they move the CP inwards
towards the wing roots.
• This reduces the arms, making it laterally destabilizing.
G. Asymmetric Propeller Slipstream
• The asymmetric slipstream (caused by single
propeller engine) is laterally destabilizing.
• In normal flight, the slipstream is laterally symmetric.
• But, sideslip by roll disturbance considered, the increased
dynamic pressure of the slipstream affects the up-going
(trailing) wing.
• This increases the rolling moment and causes lateral static
instability.
Cont’d
• The reduction in “dihedral effect”
is most critical when the flap and
power effects are combined, e.g.
in a power-on approach since their
effects are destabilizing.
H. Cross-Wind Landings
• On a cross-wind approach to land, less
lateral statically stable is easy to handle.
• Because, With high lateral stability, the
aircraft will roll away from the sideslip,
i.e. sideslip right, roll left.
• For this, the pilot has to use a lot more
aileron into wind to make a stabilized
approach.
• There are two basic
crosswind approach and
landing methods:
• the crab technique
• the sideslip method.
The crab technique:
• When an aircraft is pointed in one direction but moving in another
direction, it is said to “crab”.
• For a crab, the rudder and ailerons are used to:
• angle the aircraft’s nose into the wind direction while keeping the wings level.
• This way, the airplane’s ground track remains aligned with the centerline of
the runway.
• The pilot should maintain the crab angle until just prior to touchdown.
• Then the pilot must add sufficient rudder and aileron to align the airplane with
the centerline
CROSS-WIND LANDINGS
The sideslip method
• The sideslip method is the most common method taught to student pilots.
• Unlike the crab technique this method:
• tries to keep the airplane’s heading aligned with the centerline of the runway.
• The pilot uses the ailerons to counteract the downward drift caused by the
crosswind,
• And opposite rudder pressure to keep the aircraft’s nose aligned with the
runway.
• Pilots often combine them:
• starting with the crab technique on final approach and then transitioning to the
sideslip method..
1.5 Dynamic Lateral/Directional Stability
Dynamic lateral/directional stability
Tendency to spiral dive
• Explain how lateral and directional stability are coupled.
• Explain how high-static directional stability and a low-
static lateral stability may cause spiral divergence
(unstable spiral dive).
• Describe an unstable spiral dive mode with respect to
deviations in speed, bank angle, nose low-pitch attitude
and decreasing altitude.
Dutch roll
• Describe Dutch roll.
• Explain:
 why Dutch roll occurs when the static lateral stability is large compared with static
directional stability;
 the condition for a stable, neutral or unstable Dutch roll motion;
 the function of the yaw damper;
 the actions to be taken in case of non-availability of the yaw damper.
 State the effect of Mach number on Dutch roll.
• Explain that increased pressure altitude reduces dynamic
lateral/directional stability.
• Lateral motion of an aircraft is made up of three
simultaneous components: sideslip, yaw and roll.
• Their individual strength defines type of dynamic stability.
• Sideslip: Effects due to sideslip can cause:
• Yawing moment– weathercock effect. May cause spiral
instability.
• Rolling moment– dihedral effect. May cause Dutch roll.
• Rolling: bank angle is quickly damped by the
differential lift b/n the down-going (gain lift) and the
up-going wing (lose Lift).
• Spiral: A gradually tightening spiral motion.
• Caused by greater directional stabilization.
• Dutch Roll: An oscillatory motion having a short
periodic time that involves roll, yaw and sideslip.
• Caused by greater lateral stabilization.
1.5.1 Effects of Asymmetric Thrust
• In the event of an engine failure:
• thrust available decreases, and
• the total drag on the failed engine increases.
• This may cause one wing tip to stall until it enters a
steep spiral descent or a spin.
• It yaws towards the failed engine results.
• It will sideslip away from the failed engine;
• Both effects will roll it towards the failed engine.
• Stop the yaw. Effect to stop
the yaw becomes difficult on
Take-off and Landing speeds
1.5.2 Tendency to spiral dive
• Spiral instability occurs when the directional stability
of an airplane is strong and the lateral stability is
weak.
• A wing drop introduces a small sideslip into the drop:
• the weak “dihedral effect” lags in restoring the airplane
laterally.
• the strong directional stability wethercocks the nose into
the sideslip
• the wing on the outside of the turn is travelling faster
gaining Lift.
• This increases the roll, and the bank angle.
• If this spiral instability left uncorrected, the airplane
will enter a steadily steepening spiral dive.
• speed increases,
• roll increases,
• pitch decreases
• It results in a descent,
and altitude is lost.
• Spiral instability can be diminished at the design stage
by:
• decreasing the fin area
• Encouraging dihedral effects
1.5.3 Dutch Roll
• Dutch roll occurs with a weak directional stability vs
strong lateral stability.
• Hence, “dihedral effect”
corrects to wings level
• But the weathercock effect fails
to turn into the sideslip (and
may even turn away).
• Thus the aircraft wallows (roll

from side to side).
The sequence of events:
• The secondary effect of yaw is roll.
• This occurs because, (for example) with a yaw to the left, the
left wing effectively slows down (less lift), whilst the right
wing speeds up (more lift), causing a roll to the left.
• But for a swept wing, more secondary effect obtained due to
a change in effective aspect ratio (and Lift).
• This reduces the tendency of the wings to dampen the
rolling motion, which then leads to sideslip and a greater
bank angle results.
With the greater lift, the rising
wing also increases drag (Di).
• This will yaw the aircraft in the
opposite direction, reversing the
coupled oscillations,
• This produces a yaw to right,
now the left wing developing
more lift and reversing the
direction of the roll.
• The airplane therefore wallows.
• Causes for dutch-roll: • This can be reduced by:
• anhedral wing design.
• high wing loading
• Fwd CG position
• swept-back wings
• Aft CG position
• The dutch-roll with time, if constant magnitude, it is
neutral; If decreasing, it is stable; if increasing it is
unstable.
Yaw Dampers
• Because it is difficult to manually counteract Dutch
roll, modern jet transport airplanes have an automatic
system, Yaw Dampers.
• This electrohydraulic system has sensor, computer
and servo to control the rudder.
• The unintentional yaw is corrected before the motion
becomes oscillatory.
• If the Yaw Damper fails in flight, the pilot:
• Should use the ailerons to damp-out Dutch roll.
• Because of the response lag, if the pilot uses the rudder, pilot
induced oscillation (PIO) will result and the Dutch roll may very
quickly become divergent, leading to loss of control.
• Should decrease the altitude and speed and this will have
the desired effect.
Roll Dampers
• Roll-damper system senses an unintentional rolling
motion.
• It corrects by operating the ailerons or an asymmetric
spoiler to perform the correction.
• They are installed if design sensitivity of Spiral dive
exists.
• They can also assist to mitigate dutch-roll cycle.
• The contribution of sweepback to the lateral dynamics is
significant.
• Its “dihedral effect” is a function of lift coefficient, hence
flight speed ranges vary its contribution:
• When the swept wing airplane is at low CL (i.e. high speed) the
“dihedral effect” is small and the Spiral tendency dominates.
• When at high CL the “dihedral effect” is increased and the
Dutch roll oscillatory tendency is increased..
1.5.4 Effects of Altitude on dynamic stability
• With increasing altitude, aerodynamic damping
decreases due to the reduction in the density of the air.
• The damping moment is proportional to dynamic
pressure and inversely proportional to TAS.
• in pitch, provided by the tail-plane
• in yaw, provided by the fin for directional stability
• in roll, by the differential lift caused by the upgoing and
downgoing wings.
2. CONTROL
CONTROL
• Define:  lateral axis;  longitudinal axis;  normal
axis.  pitch angle;  bank angle;  yaw angle.
• Describe the motion about the three axes. Name and
describe the devices that control these motions.
• Explain how camber is changed by movement of a
control surface.
• Explain the influence of local angle-of- attack
change by movement of a control surface.
• To rotate the aircraft about the axes, usually three sets of
‘flap’ type control surfaces supply the aerodynamic
moment needed:
• Rudder for control in yaw about the normal axis (directional
control).
• Elevator for control in pitch about the lateral axis (longitudinal
control).
• Ailerons for control in roll about the longitudinal axis (lateral
control).
2.1 General
• maneuverability is the quality to be easily
maneuverd as it withstands the stresses.
• Controllability is the capability of an aircraft to
respond to the pilot’s flight path and attitude control.
• Increasing stability about any axis:
• decreases maneuverability and controllability, and
• increases stick (or pedal) forces.
Basics, the three planes and three axes
• The three axes of an
airplane intersect at the
CG.
• If the forces about any axis
are not balanced, the
airplane will rotate about
that axis due to an angular
acceleration.
The lateral or Pitch Axis: is a line passing through the
CG side to side.
• It is pitch axis, because the nose moves up or down.
The longitudinal axis: is the line passing fuselage from
nose to tail through the CG.
• It is roll axis, because the airplane rolls about it.
The normal axis: is the vertical line passing through
the CG, perpendicular to both axes.
• It the axis about which the aircraft yaws horizontally.
• Angles attained over these three axes are defined as:
• Pitch Angle: The angle between the aircraft longitudinal
axis and the horizon.
• Roll Angle: The angle between the aircraft lateral axis and
the horizon.
• Yaw Angle: The angle between the aircraft longitudinal
axis and the relative airflow.
The Flight Controls
• The control surfaces
produce aerodynamic
forces for rotation.
• Each aerofoil section is
hinged on the trailing edge
of the main aerofoil to
maximize the moment
arm.
• The tail-plane counterbalance the nose-down pitching
moment of the wings for equilibrium.
• This enables the airplane to fly at a combination of
different speeds and CG positions.
• The tail-plane may be fixed or all-moving.
• The flight control produces an aerodynamic force by
changing the camber of the lifting surface to which it is
attached, and/or by changing its angle of attack.
Camber change
• Usually used are flap type
aerofoil sections hinged on
the trailing edges of the wing,
the tail-plane and the fin.
• They alter the effective
camber of the main section to
alter the amount of lift being
generated.
Angle-of-attack change
• Changing the incidence of an aerofoil will change the
effective angle of attack, hence its lift.
• Usually applied for pitch control - the all moving
(slab) tail-plane.
• when the pilot makes a pitch input, the

incidence of the whole tail-plane
changes.
2.2 Pitch (longitudinal) control
Pitch (longitudinal) control
• Explain the working principle of the elevator/all-flying tail and
describe its function.
• Describe the loads on the tail-plane over the whole speed range.
• Explain the effect of downwash on the tail-plane angle of attack.
• Explain in this context the use of a T-tail or stabilizer trim.
• Explain how ice can change the aerodynamic characteristics of
the tail-plane.
• Explain how this can affect the tail‘s proper function.
• Explain the relationship between elevator deflection
and CG location to produce a given airplane response.
• Explain the effect of forward CG limit on pitch
control.
• Describe the effect of engine thrust on pitching
moments for different engine locations.
• Control in pitch is usually obtained by elevators, or by
an all moving (slab) tail-plane.
• The controls must adequately balance for all speed
ranges, CG positions, configurations and give an
adequate rate of pitch for maneuvers.
• All factors should effect in this favor.
2.2.1 Effect of Elevator/all-flying tails
Effect of Elevator Deflection: If the elevator is deflected
upwards:
• The tail will develop a down load which will begin to pitch the aircraft
nose upwards.
• As the angle of attack increases, the tail-plane down load decreases
and the aircraft will reach an equilibrium pitch position.
• It will then remain in that pitch position with the elevator kept at the
selected angle.
Elevator released, tail develops an upload and pitch the airplane down
again.
Effect of The Stabilator: derived from the words stabilizer
and elevator, because it combines the functions of both.
• It is used in some light airplanes, but basically in
transonic and supersonic airplanes.
• In transonic flight shockwaves generated by the tail-plane
render the elevator unusable.
• But stabilator makes flying at speed greater than Mcrit , and to
counteract ‘Mach tuck’ possible.
2.2.2 tail-plane Loads with speed ranges
• The angular deflection of the control surfaces is
inversely proportional to the square of the equivalent
airspeed.
• The greater the speed, the smaller is the angular deflection
needed to get the same attitude change (i.e. tail-plane
Lift ), and vice-versa.
2.2.3 Elevator Angle with ‘g’
• maneuver increases tail aerodynamic damping.
• Hence a larger elevator angle, proportional to the ‘g’
being experienced, is needed.
• The elevator movement available should be sufficient
to allow the design limit ‘g’ to be reached.
• Mostly demanded on flare for landing, in ground
effect with most forward CG.
2.2.4 Effects of Downwash
• The downwash affects the elevators of a fuselage-mounted
tail-plane.
• Downwash alters the effective AOA, and lift of the tail-plane.
• The affected pitching moment of the tail-plane need correction
using elevators deflection.
• During takeoff and landing, a downwash is increased as a
result of lowering flaps.
• On “T”-tail airplanes, tail is not affected by downwash at
higher angles, hence the elevator is effective.
2.2.5 Effect of Ice on the tail-plane
• The tail-plane, usually symmetrical, is set at an angle less
than that of the wing.
• This ensures that it will not stall before the wing, and so
control can be maintained up to the stall.
• An ice formed on the tail-plane leading edge reduces its
stalling angle, particularly if the downwash is increased as a
result of lowering flaps.
• With the down-load reduced, the aircraft would pitch down,
and could not be recovered.
2.2.6 Location of Centre of Gravity
• CG location affects the elevator authority, its moment.
• A forward CG position increases the moment arm.
• Thus, greater control surface deflection needed.
• For CG is too far forward, at the low airspeeds
experienced during take-off and landing, the pilot will
run out of elevator deflection.
• Therefore, CG must remain within its envelope at all
times in flight.
2.2.7 Moments due to engine thrust
• For a jet airplane with engines mounted below the
wing, if the thrust is suddenly increased there will be
a nose-up pitching moment about the CG.
• Requires down elevator deflection to counter the
moment.
• Engines on the rear fuselage have advantages, as
sudden change of thrust less effect on the longitudinal
control.
2.3 Yaw (directional) control
Yaw (directional) control
• Explain the working principle of the rudder and
describe its function.
• State the relationship between rudder deflection and the
moment about the normal axis;
• Describe the effect of sideslip on the moment about the
normal axis.
• Explain why and how rudder deflection is limited
on transport airplanes.
• Control in yaw is obtained by the rudder. The rudder
is required to:
• Correct asymmetric power.
• Correct for crosswinds on take-off and landing.
• Correct for adverse yaw.
• Recover from a spin.
• Correct for changes in propeller torque on single-engine
aircraft.
2.3.1 Effect of Rudder Deflection
• Pushing on the right pedal deflects the rudder to the
right, and vice-versa.
• This alters the camber and effective angle of attack of the
fin so to produce an aerodynamic force to the left.
• This yaws the nose to the right.
2.3.2 Fin Stall
• If the rudder is deflected in the direction to correct
the sideslip, the stalling angle will be reduced.
• The stalling sideslip angle of the fin can be delayed
(increased) by the aspect-ratio reducing techniques:
• Dorsal fin
• Fin-sweep Swept Fin→
2.3.3 Rudder limiting (Rudder Ratio Changer)
• A pedal/rudder ratio changer prevents excessive
structure loads due to full rudder deflection at high
speeds.
• The maximum obtainable rudder
deflection angle is
automatically decreased with rise
of IAS.
2.3.4 Asymmetric Thrust
• If engine fails on a twin-engine aircraft, the resulting
asymmetric thrust must be counteracted by the rudder.
• The rudder force will vary with

V2.
• Minimum directional control
speed (VMC) gives the minimum
speed at which the rudder
sufficiently controls the engine
yawing moment
• VMCA is the minimum control speed in the air,
• VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground,
at which it is possible to suffer a critical engine failure
on take-off.
2.4 Roll (lateral) control
Roll (lateral) control
• Explain the functioning of ailerons.
• Describe the adverse effects of ailerons.
• Explain in this context the use of inboard and outboard ailerons.
• Explain outboard-aileron lockout and conditions under which this feature
is used.
• Describe the use of aileron deflection in normal flight, flight with
• sideslip, crosswind landings, horizontal turns, flight with one engine out.
• Define roll rate.
• List the factors that affect roll rate. Flaperons, aileron droop.
• Explain how spoilers can be used to control the rolling movement
in combination with or instead of the ailerons.
• Explain how the use of ailerons induces adverse yaw.
• Explain how the following reduce adverse yaw:
 Frise ailerons;
 differential aileron deflection;
 rudder aileron cross-coupling;
 roll spoilers.
• Explain the secondary effect of roll.
• Explain the secondary effect of yaw.
• An adequate rate of roll Control is usually obtained
by ailerons or by spoilers, or by a combination of the
two.
2.4.1 Ailerons
• Rotating the control wheel is to the right:
• The aileron on the right wing moves up to create a
downward force, whilst the aileron on the left wing moves
down to create an upward force.
• The result is a moment rolling the aircraft to the right.
• Rotating the control wheel to the left would produce
the opposite effect.
Roll rate
• The rate of roll is the time taken to accelerate
through a given angle of roll.
• The rolling motion by Aileron deflection is opposed
by aerodynamic damping in roll (Roll-damping).
• Once the roll-damping by the lateral-stabilizing wing
equals the moment obtained from aileron deflection, a
steady rate of roll is quickly established.
The rate of roll achieved for a given aileron deflection depends on:
• The surface area of the ailerons
• The airspeed of the airplane
• The higher the IAS the greater is the rate of roll attained for a given
aileron angular deflection.
• At high airspeeds the force can be large enough to twist the wing , known
as ‘flutter.’
• The distance of the ailerons from the longitudinal axis.
• For low IAS when taking off or landing, ailerons are mounted with long
arms to get the required rate of roll.
Effect of Aileron Deflection (Aerodynamic Damping)
• As aileron-deflection causes roll, the increased AOA of the
down-going wing increases its lift, which opposes the roll. This
is aerodynamic damping.
• The greater the rate of roll, the greater the damping.
• For a given roll rate, the

greater the TAS, the smaller
the increase in effective angle
of attack.
• Aileron size is limited by a number of factors:
• At low airspeeds, maximum rolling moment is desirable,
ailerons with longer arm.
• However, they generate the maximum twisting loads on
the wing at high speeds, “aileron reversal”.
Inboard Ailerons
• Two sets of ailerons fitted, outboard set for use only at low
speeds, and inboard set of smaller ailerons for high-speed
flight.
• At high speeds the outboard ailerons
are locked into the neutral
position and the inboard ailerons
are employed, as the flaps retract.
• At low speed both sets of ailerons
work.
Flaperons
• A control surface that combines the functions of the
flaps and the ailerons is the flaperon.
• For good take-off and landing performance, the flaps need
to be as large as possible, by drooping the ailerons
symmetrically
• for a good rate of roll, the ailerons need to be as large as
possible. Now they move differentially from the drooped
position to give lateral control.
2.4.2 Spoilers
• Unlike ailerons, spoilers cannot give an increase of
lift, so a roll maneuver controlled by spoilers will
always give a net loss of lift.
Advantages of spoiler compared to the aileron:
• There is no adverse yaw: The raised spoiler increases
drag on that wing, so the yaw is in the same direction
as the roll.
• Wing twisting is reduced:
• It cannot develop flutter.
2.4.3 Adverse yaw
• The induced drag created by the down-deflected aileron is
greater than that of the up-deflected aileron, and produces a
yawing moment in the opposite direction to the roll.
• This yawing moment is opposite to the rolling

moment, known as adverse aileron yaw.
• It is significant at low airspeeds because of the
large aileron deflection needed.
Means to avoid adverse yaw
1. Differential ailerons: Example, up-aileron goes 5◦
and down-aileron 2◦.
• This increases the drag on the up aileron and reduces it on
the down aileron, and so reduces the difference in drag
between the two wings.
2. Frise ailerons: The leading edge of the up-going
aileron protrudes below the lower surface of the wing,
causing additional parasite drag.
Frise part
3. Aileron-rudder coupling: automatically gives
proportional rudder input when the ailerons are
deflected, to counter the adverse yaw.
4. Roll control spoilers: reduce the adverse yaw, as the
down-going wing will have an increase in drag due to
the raised spoiler.
2.4.4 Roll/yaw interaction
Control Secondary Effects:
• Yaw caused by rudder makes the outside wing travels
slightly faster than the inner wing, developing more lift.
• Roll results by their differential lift.
• Aileron banking the wing causes a sideslip into the turn.
• The keel surface acting behind the CG wether-cocks the
airplane towards the lower wing.
Means to reduce control forces
• Describe the purpose of aerodynamic balance.
• Describe the working principle of the nose and horn balance.
• Describe the working principle of internal balance.
• Describe the working principle and the application of:
 balance tab;
 anti-balance tab;
 spring tab;
 servo tab.
• Describe fully powered controls.
• Describe power-assisted controls.
• Explain why artificial feel is required.
• Explain the inputs to an artificial feel system.
2.4.5 Means to reduce control forces
• When a control surface is deflected, the aerodynamic
load will try to return it.
• This force is the product of the Lift force on the control surface and
the perpendicular distance of its CP to the hinge line.
• This is called the hinge

moment equivalent to a stick
force, or a stick feel.
• The aerodynamic force on the controls will depend
on:
• the area of the control surface,
• its angular displacement, and
• square of the IAS.
• In a manual control system, the pilot has to provide
this force.
Hinge moment gives stick force (feel)
• For large and fast aircraft the resulting hinge
moments/stick force is too high.
• The pilot will require assistance to move the controls
in these conditions, and this can be done:
I. by using (hydraulic) powered flying controls
II. by using some form of aerodynamic balance.
I. Aerodynamic balance
• Aerodynamic balance involves using the aerodynamic
forces on the control surface to reduce hinge moment/
stick force.
• Control balancing methods
1. Inset hinge
2. Horn balance
3. Internal Balance
1. Inset hinge
• The hinge is set back towards the CP of the control
surface
• It reduces the force needed to move the control
• This does not reduce the

effectiveness of the control, only
the hinge moment.
• With this type of balance, sufficient margin
between CP and hinge must be design:
• because too small margin gives a possibility that the CP
will move forward of the inset hinge.
• This reverses the direction of the hinge moment.
• The surface moves opposite to the command, known as
overbalance.
2. Horn Balance
• a portion of the control surface acts ahead of the
hinge line, produces a moment in opposition to the
hinge moment.
• The overall moment is
therefore reduced, but the
control effectiveness is not.
3. Internal balance
o Control surface movement produces a pressure differential
between upper and lower surfaces
o These are fed to the chamber to provide a balancing
moment.
• this has no increase in exterior
drag. Because, the area is inside
the wing.
4. Balance Tab
•• .As the primary control surface moves one way, so
the balance tab moves the other.
• The pilot moves the surface, the surface moves the tab
• The balance tab gives a small drag

penalty, and slightly reduces the
effectiveness of the primary control
surface.
5. Anti-balance Tab
• It operates in the same direction as the control surface.
• It will increase the hinge moment giving heavier stick
forces and control effectiveness.
• The pilot moves the surface, the surface moves the tab.
• This uses when hinge moment is too

small, example, because hinge being
too close to the CP of the control
surface.
6. Servo tab
• When for very large control surfaces, manual
controls may be insufficient, even with balance tab
assistance,
• Servo tabs were used to solve this problem.
• No direct connection between the control column
and the main control surfaces, the pilot moves the
tab only through a pivot connection.
7. Spring tab
• Aerodynamic balancing is not
much needed at low airspeeds,but
is progressively required as
airspeed increases.
• The spring tab, a modification of
the servo tab, gives this.
• Pilot input moves to the tab
through springs, pivoted on the
main control surface.
II. Artificial means
• The control force needed for a large aircraft cannot be
provided by the preceding types of aerodynamic balance.
• Therefore, the primary control surfaces are power
operated.
• Powered controls may be divided into two
categories:
• power-assisted controls, and
• fully power operated controls.
Power Assisted Controls
• only a certain proportion of the force required to
oppose the hinge moment is provided by the pilot; the
hydraulic system provides most of the force.
• Here then the pilot will have ‘feel’ which is provided
by the control surface loads.
• Should a power failure occur, control will continue
by manual means alone, although excess stick feel
results.
Fully Powered Controls
• For bigger aircraft, hinge moments are so large that
fully powered controls must be used.
• All power to move the control

surface is supplied by the
aircraft’s hydraulic system. The
pilot force shifts the servo
valve positions.
• A fail-safe system is included, if the power fails, the
control reverts to manual control.
• This manual reversion uses a servo-tab is commonly used
to have easier control..
Artificial Feel (‘Q’ Feel)
• Limitation of a fully powered flying control is the
absence of Pilot’s feel, his/her control might over-
stress the aircraft.
• Solution is to incorporate “artificial” feel system.
• A device sensitive to dynamic pressure (½ ρV 2) or ‘Q’
provides loading which varies in direct
relationship to IAS.
• Pitot and static pressure is sensed and applied to
the pilot’s controls.
• A piston-force (proportional to
this IAS) is connected to the
pilot’s controls resisting
movement, representing the force
the pilot would feel with manual
controls.
Fly-By-Wire
• Fly-by-wire is a method of controlling the primary control
surfaces by actuators, based on electrical signals.
• The sensory data refer to movement of the pilot’s control column.
• Fly-by-wire facilitates complex electronic processing to
modify pilot’s input to:
• prevents stalling, unstable flight regimes, over-rapid or excessive
primary control surface movement.
• coordinate intricate movements of the control surfaces
• improve the performance, efficiency and safety of the airplane.
2.4.6 Mass balance
• Mass balance is a weight attached to the control
surface forward of the hinge to prevent control
surface flutter.
• Flutter is an oscillation of the control surface which
can occur due to the bending and twisting of the
structure under load.
• Adding weight in front of the hinge line brings the
CG of the control forward.
• If the control surface CG is behind the hinge line, inertia
will cause the surface to oscillate about its hinge line,
developing flutter.
Trimming
• State the reasons for trimming devices.
• Explain the difference between a trim tab and the various balance tabs.
• Describe the working principle of a trim tab including cockpit indications.
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a stabilizer trim compared
with a trim tab.
• Explain elevator deflection when the airplane is trimmed in the case of
fully powered and power-assisted pitch controls.
• Explain the factors influencing stabilizer setting.
• Explain the influence of take-off stabilizer trim setting on rotation
characteristics and stick force during take-off rotation at extremes of CG
position.
2.4.7 Trimming
• Unlike balance tabs, which reduce the force required to
move a surface, trim tabs serve to eliminate the force
required.
• The effect of any trim is proportional to the square of
the airspeed (½ρV2).
• Whilst small trim will suffice at high speed, significantly
larger trim movements are required at lower airspeeds,
• More trim needed on configuration: lowering of flaps and
undercarriage.
• The aircraft may need to be trimmed in pitch as a
result of:
• changes of speed.
• changes of power.
• varying CG positions.
• changes of configuration.
• Various methods of trimming are in use. The main
ones are:
• the trimming tab.
• variable incidence (trimming) tail-plane.
I. Trim tabs
• There are two disadvantages to the use of trim tabs:
• The primary surface is continuously deflected, and the trim
tab slightly decreases its overall effectiveness.
• The trim tab causing ‘trim drag’ increased thrust requirement.
• The variable-incidence tail-plane for high-speed flights
has eliminated these problems.
• There are two types of trim tabs: the variable and the
fixed.
A. Variable Trim Tabs
• The trim tab holds the elevator out of the neutral with
no force from the pilot’s controls.
• The elevator force is FP, and

the work involved is FP x
distance DP.
• The trim tab counters FP by a
much smaller force FT, much
larger arm DT.
• The variable trim tabs may be manually or electrically
controlled.
•manually controlled by trim wheels.
• Electrically, by electric motors operated by a switch on the pilot’s
control column.
• For nose-up, The trimmer control is
moved down, that causes the trim tab to
move down, which makes the elevator
move up.
• the cockpit indication is nose-down
B. Fixed Tabs
• They are adjusted on the ground, to correct a
permanent out of trim condition.
• In flight, when no pilot's controls force, the position
of the tab determines the position of the primary
control surface.
• Fixed tabs are usually found on ailerons
and rudder.
• small rectangle of aluminium, or strips of
cord
II. stabilizer trim
• Stabilizer trim uses same technique: trim wheel or
trim motor.
• The stabilizer trim has preset value for take-off and
initial climb based on CG position.
• Usually, a graph in the airplane performance manual
gives take-off setting for total mass and CG position.
• Takeoff settings should be correctly set before take-
off, because:
• excessive rate of pitch with CG aft when the aircraft is
rotated, leading to possible tail strikes,
• very heavy stick forces on rotation with CG forward,
increasing take-off distances.
• The main advantages of a stabilizer trim:
• Less drag, since elevator returns to neutral during the trim.
• trimming does not reduce the effective range of pitch
control.
• it powerfully trims for larger
CG and speed range.
• The disadvantage:
• it is more complex and is heavier than a conventional trim tab
system.
• Stabilizer runaway (stabilizer moving over the jack-screw travel
beyond the commanded value.)
• Response time delay
3. LIMITATIONS
• Aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft produce
distortion of the structure, and this distortion produces
corresponding elastic forces in the structure.
• Structural distortion produces additional aerodynamic
loading and this process is continued until either an
equilibrium condition is reached or structural failure
occurs.
• This interaction between the aerodynamic loads and
the elastic deformation of the airframe is known as
aero-elasticity, or aero-elastic coupling.
• At low airspeeds, the aerodynamic forces are
relatively small, and the resultant distortion of the
structure produces only negligible effects.
• At higher speeds, aerodynamic loads and the
consequent distortion are correspondingly greater.
• Aerodynamic force is proportional to V2, but structural
torsional stiffness remains constant.
• This relationship implies that at some high speed, the
aerodynamic force build-up may overpower the resisting
torsional stiffness and ‘divergence’ will occur.
• The aircraft must be designed so the speed at which
divergence occurs is higher than the design speeds VD/
MD.
Definitions:
• Elasticity: The structure of an aircraft is designed to
be as light as possible. This results in the aircraft
being a fairly flexible structure.
• Backlash: The possibility of movement of the control
surface without any movement of the pilot’s controls
(not on Powered controls).
• Mass distribution: The position of the CG of a surface in
relation to its torsional axis.
• Mass balance: A mass located to change the position of the
CG of a surface in relation to its torsional axis.
• Flutter: The rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of a surface
resulting from imbalance. Flutter normally leads to a
catastrophic failure of the structure.
• Divergence: The structure will continue to distort until it
breaks (non-oscillatory).
3.1 Operating limitations
• The torsional axis is an axis about which the wing will twist or
flex.
• Any force applied along the torsional axis of the wing will not
cause the wing to twist.
• However, the wing may bend or flex (move at right angles to the
chord line) under this force.
• Thus the torsional axis is an important feature of the wing
structure.
• It is the axis about which the wing may twist in torsion or bend in
flexure.
• Torsional or flexural vibrations
are usually damped by the
structural rigidity of the
airframe.
• They are by themselves fairly
harmless.
• However, if an external force
acts together with the vibration
the reaction may be such that it
causes structural failure.
3.1.1 Flutter
• With aerodynamic excitations (gusts, control inputs,
etc.), the wing can interact with the aerofoil mass and
the aerodynamic load imposed on the aerofoil.
• Such bending and torsion, called ‘flutter’, can cause
vibration, and if excessive, can cause structural failure.
• If the aircraft is not properly maintained, flutter could
occur at flight speeds well below the operational limit
speed (VMO/ MMO).
• Flutter involves:
• aerodynamic forces.
• inertia forces.
• the elastic properties of a surface.
• The risk of experiencing flutter increases with IAS.
• Flutter may be one of the following three types, one
wing flutter and the two being control surface
flutters:
• torsional flexural flutter;
• torsional aileron flutter;
• flexural aileron flutter.
I. Torsional Flexural Flutter
• Torsional Flexural Flutter
occurs as a result of the
wing flexing and bending
when aerodynamic loads are
applied.
• A full cycle of one flutter
appears as a sine wave due to
the movement of the airplane.
• Torsional flexural flutter can be prevented in the
design:
• either by making the critical flutter speed far in excess of
the maximum operational speed limit,
• or by ensuring that the CG of the wing is on, or ahead of,
the torsional axis.
• Resistance to flutter increases with increasing wing
stiffness.
• CG can be moved forward by mounting engines
ahead of the wing, which act as mass balances
• This reduces the bending stress counter-balancing
lift by moving the flexural axis forward, closer to the
AC.
• The next two types of flutters develop as a result of an
oscillation of the control surface coupled with an oscillation
in bending or twisting of the wing, tail-plane or fin.
• A control surface oscillation can result from backlash (free
play) in the control system or from a disturbance (gust).
• Flutter can develop if the CG of the control surface is
behind the hinge line, so that the inertia of the control
surface causes a moment around the hinge.
II. Torsional Aileron Flutter
• This type of flutter can be prevented:
• by mass-balancing the ailerons, or
• by making the controls irreversible.
III. Flexural Aileron Flutter
Divergence
• Lack of torsional rigidity in a wing can, in extreme
cases, cause divergence.
• When a vertical gust increases the angle of attack of the
wing, the added lift force will bend the wing tip upwards
from position 1 to 2
• the increase in lift acting through the AC, which is forward of
the flexural axis, will twist the wing tip nose-up; this increases
the angle of attack further.
• The wing tip will rapidly progress to position 3 and 4. The
wing is being wound up like a spring and can break if
distorted too much.
• How far the structure is distorted depends on:
• the flexibility of the structure.
• the distance between the AC and the flexural axis.
• the dynamic pressure (IAS).
• Lift increases with V2, and torsional
rigidity remains the same for all speed.
• Therefore, there is a critical speed (the
divergence speed), beyond which the
aerodynamic moment will overcome the
resistance of the wings torsional rigidity.
• In such a situation the wing will twist
until structural failure occurs.
• Two methods to prevent structural failure due to the
twisting of the wing are to:
• Make the wing stiffer so that the divergence speed is well
in excess of the maximum operating speed;
• but this will increase weight.
3.1.2 Aileron reversal
Low Speed
• lowering an aileron when flying at high angles of attack
could stall that wing.
• The wing will drop instead of rising as intended, known as low
speed aileron reversal.
High Speed
• Aileron reversal occurs at high speed when the wing twists as a
result of the loads caused by operating the ailerons.
• The aileron deflected downwards, since its Aerodynamic forces
acting upwards on the aileron is behind the flexural axis of the wing,
it will cause a nose-down twisting moment on the wing structure.
• This will reduce the angle of attack of the wing which will
reduce its lift.
• If the twisting is sufficient, the loss of lift due to decreased
angle of attack will exceed the gain of lift due to increased
camber, and the wing will drop instead of lifting.
• High speed aileron reversal can be delayed to a speed
higher than VD/MD by having inboard and outboard
ailerons and/or roll control spoilers.
• The inboard ailerons are mounted where the wing
structure is naturally stiffer and work at all speeds.
• The outboard ailerons work only at low speed, being
deactivated when the flaps are retracted.
• On most high speed jet transport aircraft roll control spoilers assist
the ailerons.
• They are mounted further forward and on a stiffer part of the wing.
3.1.3 Landing gear/flap operating
• Limiting speeds are
imposed on an airplane
to ensure its structural
and control safety.
• Some of those speeds
are color-coded on the
ASI for indication.
Landing Gear Speed Limitations
•The landing gear will normally be retracted after take-
off to increase the climb gradient.
VLE: the landing gear extended speed.
• VLE is the speed at which it is safe to fly the aircraft with
the landing gear secured in the fully extended position.
• Because the undercarriage doors are closed, VLE is normally
higher than VLO.
VLO: the landing gear operating speed.
• It is the speed at which it is safe both to extend and to retract the
landing gear.
• When the gear is retracted or extended the doors must open
first.
• The doors merely streamline the undercarriage bay and are not
designed to take the aerodynamic loads which would be placed
on them at high IAS.
• Consequently VLO is usually lower than VLE.
Flap Speed Limit
• The flaps, operating
mechanism and
attachment points to the
structure are not
designed to withstand
the loads which would
be applied at high
airspeeds.
• Flaps increase CLMAX and decrease stall speed (VS1), so when
flaps are deployed it is necessary to provide additional
protection to avoid exceeding the structural limit load.
• The V-n diagram shows that it is possible for a greater load to
be applied to the structure at quite moderate airspeeds with
flaps down.
• The limit load factor with flaps deployed is reduced from 2.5
to 2 to give additional protection to the flaps and also the
wing structure.
VFO: the Wing Flaps Operational Speed.
• It is the maximum speed at which the flaps may be operated
either extended or retracted, less than VFE.
VFE: the Wing Flaps Extended Speed:
• It is the maximum airspeed at which the aircraft should be flown
with the flaps in a prescribed extended position. (Top of the
white arc on the ASI).
• Flaps must only be used as laid down in the aircraft Flight Manual
(AFM).
3.1.4 VMO/MMO, VNO, VNE
• Speed limitations may be maximum speeds or minimum
speeds, set to give safe operation.
• set considering:
• strength of the aircraft structure.
• stiffness of the aircraft structure.
• adequate control of the aircraft.
• N.B.: Strength is the ability of the structure to withstand a
load, and stiffness is the ability to withstand deformation.
Operational Speed Limits
• The maximum airspeed at which an aircraft is
permitted to fly is VMO for ‘large aircraft’ (CS-25) or
VNE for other aircraft (CS-23) other than turbine-
engined aircraft.
Maximum Operating Speed (Large Aircraft) VMO/ MMO
• It is the maximum operating IAS/Mach which must
not be deliberately exceeded in any flight condition
(climb, cruise or descent), is referred to as VMO/MMO.
• VMO is the maximum operating IAS and MMO is the
maximum operating Mach number.
• VMO must not be greater than VC and must be
sufficiently below VD.
• Because VMO is an IAS, when climbing at VMO, the TAS
and the Mach number are increasing due to
compressibility effects;
• For example in a climb VMO will be replaced by MMO at about
24,000 to 29,000 ft, depending on atmospheric conditions.
• So care must be taken to ensure that MMO is not exceeded.
• Conversely, when descending at MMO, the TAS and IAS
increase, and care must be taken not to exceed VMO.
Mach/Airspeed Warning System (Large Aircraft)
• Two independent Mach/Airspeed warning systems
provide a distinct aural warning (clacker) any time
the maximum speed of VMO/MMO is exceeded.
• The warning clackers can be silenced only by
reducing airspeed below VMO/MMO.
Never Exceed Speed (Small Aircraft) VNE:
• VNE is set below VD to allow for speed upsets to be
recovered. (VNE= 0.9VD).
•VNE will be shown by a radial red line on the airspeed
indicator at the high speed end of the yellow arc.
Maximum Structural Cruise Speed (Small Aircraft) V NO:
• VNO is the normal operating cruise speed limit
• On the airspeed indicator VNO is the upper limit of the
green arc.
• From VNO to VNE there will be a yellow arc, which is
the caution range.
• You may fly at speed within the yellow arc only in smooth
air, and then only with caution.
3.2 maneuvering envelope
• The flight load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift to the
airplane mass in the same units of measurement.
• It is a non-dimensional number and is considered to be positive in an
upward direction.
Definitions:
• Limit load: The maximum load to be expected in service.
• Ultimate load: The failing load of the structure.
• Factor of safety: The ratio of ultimate load to limit load.
For aircraft structures the factor of safety is 1.5.
• To keep aircraft weight as low as possible, the safety
factor must be kept to a minimum.
• Exceedance of the limitations causes structural
damage.
Loads on the Structure
• The airframe structure must be strong enough to take
the loads acting under maneuver and turbulence
which are specified and considered.
• The structure should also be stiff to prevent aileron
reversal, flutter and divergence within the permitted
speed range.
3.2.1 maneuvering-load diagram
• The graphically specified operating limitations of an
airplane of speed and load factor consider new
airplanes.
• maneuver envelope graph is
plotted with the load factor of
vertical axis and the speed
(EAS) of horizontal axis.
Load Factor
• Aircraft design loads are given by load factor (n),
measured by ‘g’.
• Load Factor (n) =
• In level flight (lift equals weight) n is 1.0 (1g). For a
maneuver,, n is greater than 1g.
• The limit load is given in terms of n to all aircraft.
• However, failure of the structure will occur at some particular
applied load. i.e. it takes less ‘g’ to overstress a heavy aircraft
than a light one.
• Example: if the structure fails at 10,000 lb load,
• an aircraft weighing 4,000 lb will reach this load at a load factor of 2.5.
• if the aircraft weighs 5000 lb, the failing load is reached at a load factor
of 2.0,
• For this reason, Limit load factors are based on the maximum
weight of the aircraft.
• The EASA regulations state positive limit load factor :
• For normal category aircraft, 2.5g to 3.8g.
• For modern high speed jet transport aircraft, 2.5g.
• For utility category aircraft, 4.4g.
• For aerobatic category aircraft, 6.0g
• The negative limit load factor may not be less than:
• -1.0 for normal category aircraft
• -1.76 for utility category aircraft
• -3.0 for aerobatic category aircraft
The CLMAX Boundary
• The line OA is determined by the CLMAX of the aircraft.
• The lift, and hence the load factor, depends on the angle of attack of the
wing and the airspeed.
• The maximum possible lift will occur at C LMAX.
• At this angle of attack the lift will increase with speed as shown
by the line OA.
• For level (1g) flight the speed at CLMAX will be the stalling speed
(VS), represented by point S.
• At Point A, the load factor reaches its positive limit.
• At speeds below point A the wing cannot produce a lift force equal to
the limit load factor, whereas at speeds above point A the limit load
factor can be exceeded.
• maneuvers at speeds above point A therefore have the potential to
cause permanent deformation to the structure or structural failure if the
ultimate load is exceeded.
• This does not mean that any maneuver at a speed greater than point A
will always cause structural damage;
• maneuvers may be performed safely provided that the
limit load factor is not exceeded.
• A safety factor is 1.5, so complete failure of the structure will
not occur at the load factor of 2.5 but at 2.5 × 1.5 = 3.75.
• But, permanent deformation occurs

between 2.5 and 3.75.
• Therefore, safety factor must not be
mis-understood as an allowance
to increase the load factor above
the limiting value.
Design maneuvering Speed, VA
• It is the highest speed for sudden, full elevator deflection without
exceeding the design limit load factor.
• When establishing VA the airplane is assumed to be flying in steady
level flight, at point A1.
• VA is slower than the intersection speed of

the CLMAX line and limit line (point A) to
safeguard the tail structure of higher load
during maneuver.
• Va is the speed at which the airplane will stall before exceeding
its design limit-load factor in turbulent conditions or when the
flight controls are suddenly and fully deflected in flight.
• Stalling speed increases with the square root of the load factor,
therefore;
• VA= VS1g√ n
• Example: an aircraft with a 1g stalling speed of 60 kt and limit load factor of
2.5 would have a VA of:
• 60 √ 2.5 = 95 kt
Design Cruising Speed VC
• Point ‘C’ is the design cruise speed V C,
assesses the strength requirements in
the cruise.
• VC should not be greater than 0.8 VD.
Design Dive Speed VD
• Point ‘D’ is the design dive speed VD.
• If the aircraft results in a shallow dive
when flying at VC, the speed should
only increase until VD.
Negative Load Factors
• In normal flying and maneuvers it is not likely that
very large negative ‘g’ forces will be produced;
• however, some negative ‘g’ forces may occur during
maneuvers and the aircraft must be made strong
enough to withstand them.
The Negative Stall
• If the angle of attack of the wing is ‘increased’ in the
negative direction, it will eventually reach an angle at
which it will stall.
• If wing were symmetrical, this angle would be the same as
the positive stall angle; but as a cambered wing, the
negative CLMAX will usually be lower.
• For large aircraft a limit load factor of -1 must be
considered up to C.
Maneuver Boundaries
• Taking into account the
limiting values of positive
and negative load factor,
and the maximum speed to
be considered, the aircraft
is safe to operate within
the boundaries.
• At the high speed end, when g = 1, there is a limiting speed
which must not be exceeded because of shock induced buffet.
• As the load factor increases, so does the

CL, and the limiting Mach number falls,
slowly at first and then more rapidly.
• This defines a buffet boundary,
constitutes an overall speed and load
factor envelope.
Effect of the Gust on Stalling
Effect of Aircraft Weight on VA
• The line OA is drawn for the maximum design weight, so for
lower weights the stalling speed will be less.
• For the same limit load factor VA will therefore decrease.
• For the example considered above, if VA is 95 kt at 2500 lb weight,
then at 2000 lb weight it will be:
• 95 = 85 kt
• Note: 20% decrease in weight has given approximately 10% decrease
in VA.
3.3 Gust Envelope
• A gust is a (horizontal or vertical) sudden and rapid change to the
speed of the air in the atmosphere.
• The horizontal gust is of little importance because it causes a
change to an airplane’s dynamic pressure that results in an
insignificant change to the load factor.
• The vertical gusts are far more important because they change the:
• effective angle of attack,
• total lift, and
• the load factor.
• The gust load is, therefore, the extra load by vertical
gusts or turbulence.
• Its magnitude is unaffected by increased altitude but
is increased with increased aspect ratio and/or
decreased mass.
Gust Loads
• The structural weight of an aircraft must be kept to a
minimum while maintaining the required strength.
3.3.1 Gust-load diagram
• Aircraft are designed to be strong enough to withstand a 66 ft/sec
vertical gust at VB.
• VB is the design speed for maximum gust intensity).
• For a 66 ft/sec vertical gust while

flying at VB, it would stall before
the limit load factor.
• For maximum protection in
turbulence, it must fly at VB.
• VB is quite a low airspeed and it would take some
time for an aircraft to slow from VC to VB if it flew
into turbulence.
• Therefore, the aircraft must be strong enough to withstand
a vertical gust of 50 ft/sec (EAS) at VC.
• For a possibility of a vertical gust at VD, the aircraft
must withstand a vertical gust of 25 ft/sec.
• In practice, a slightly higher speed than VB is used for
turbulence penetration.
• This speed is VRA/MRA (The maximum speed for flight in
turbulence or the rough-air speed).
• VRA/ MRA will give adequate protection from over-
stressing the aircraft plus give maximum protection from
an inadvertent stall.
Any Questions?
Thank You!

LIMITATIONS: Flutter
• Describe the phenomenon of flutter and list the factors:
 elasticity;  backlash;  aeroelastic coupling;  mass
distribution;  structural properties;  IAS.
• List the flutter modes of an airplane:
 wing,
 tail-plane,
 fin,
 control surfaces including tabs.
• Describe the use of mass balance to alleviate the
flutter problem by adjusting the mass distribution:
 wing-mounted pylons;
 control surface mass balance.
• List the possible actions in the case of flutter in flight.
Aileron reversal
• Describe the phenomenon of aileron reversal:
 at low speeds;
 at high speeds.
 Describe the aileron reversal speed in relationship to VNE
and VNO.
Landing gear/flap operating
• Describe the reason for flap/landing gear limitations.
 define VLO;
 define VLE.
• Explain why there is a difference between VLO and VLE in the case of
some airplane types.
• Define VFE.
• Describe flap design features to prevent overload.
• Define VMO/MMO‘, VNO‘, VNE‘.
• Describe the differences between VMO/MMO, VNO and VNE.
• Explain the dangers of flying at speeds close to VNE.
maneuvering envelope
• Describe the maneuvering-load diagram. Define limit and
ultimate load factor and explain what can happen if these
values are exceeded.
•  Define VA‘, VC‘, VD‘.
• Identify the varying features on the diagram:
 load factor “n”;
 speed scale, equivalent airspeed, EAS;
 CLMAX boundary;
 accelerated stall speed
• Describe the relationship between V MO and VC.
• State all the maneuvering limit load factors applicable
to CS-23and CS-25 airplanes.
• Explain the relationship between VA and VS in a
formula.
• Explain the adverse consequences of exceeding V A.
Factors affecting the maneuvering-load diagram
• State the relationship of mass to:
 load factor limits;
 accelerated stall speed limit;
 VA and VC.
• Explain the relationship between V A, airplane mass and altitude.
• Calculate the change of V A with changing mass.
• Describe the effect of altitude on Mach number, with respect to
limitations.
• Explain why VA loses significance at higher altitude where
compressibility effects occur.
Gust envelope
• Recognise a typical gust-load diagram.
• Identify the various features shown on the diagram:
•  gust-load factor “n”;  speed scale, equivalent
airspeed and EAS;  CLMAX boundary;  vertical
gust velocities;  relationship of VB to VC and VD; 
gust limit load factor.
• Define VRA, VB‘.
• Discuss considerations for the selection of this speed.
• Explain the adverse effects on the airplane when
flying in turbulence.
• Explain the relationship between the gust- load
factor, lift-curve slope, density ratio, wing loading,
EAS and equivalent vertical sharp edged gust
velocity and perform relevant calculations.
Any Questions?
Thank You!

Stablity, Control and Limitations

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Stablity, Control and Limitations

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Welcome to

EAA Pilot Training School

PPT1.1 EAA/PPT/001:Powerpoint Guideline Rev No.01

1.1 Static and dynamic stability

• A. Jeppesen- Private Pilots Handbook

PPT1.8 EAA/PPT/001:Powerpoint Guideline Rev No.01

There are three degrees

Positive static stability

Neutral static stability

Negative static stability

• After a nose-up command for higher angle of

• For a rolling moment, L, about longitudinal axis, a roll to the right

• CP behind CG (low AOA

• And if wing has stable-

• If the tail moment is greater than

• Because there is no net moment,

If the CG is located at the NP, then:

Your expertise and Experience

Your current job title

A little something about you that would

• For Conventional transport

• The trim angle is dependent

• The CG position which produces zero

• Fuselage AC is ahead the wing;

• Static stability in 1g will

• Such aircraft are certified

• Picture: for CG ahead

• Forces during take-off roll

• The vertical stabilizer gains angle

• β is +ve when the relative wind is

• For a right sideslip (+β), the

• Therefore, lateral stability depends

• increases the AOA of the wing

• Low-wing aircraft combine wing Dihedral and sweeping to

• Thus the aircraft wallows (roll

• when the pilot makes a pitch input, the

• The rudder force will vary with

• For a given roll rate, the

• This yawing moment is opposite to the rolling

• This is called the hinge

• This does not reduce the

• The balance tab gives a small drag

• This uses when hinge moment is too

• All power to move the control

• The elevator force is FP, and

• But, permanent deformation occurs

• VA is slower than the intersection speed of

• As the load factor increases, so does the

• For a 66 ft/sec vertical gust while

PPT1.18 EAA/PPT/001:Powerpoint Guideline Rev No.01

PPT1.18 EAA/PPT/001:Powerpoint Guideline Rev No.01

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