TSL 3113

Action Research 1
- Methodology
TOPIC 1:
An Introduction to Research Methods
in Education

Content:
Educational
Research
Characteristics of
Action Research
Approaches of
Research
Ethics in Research

Educational
Research

Educational Research
Educational research has been designed to investigate practices
in order to fundamentally improve the way we learn, know and
describe our world.
The overall aim of educational research is to provide teachers,
clinicians, managers and learners with systematically obtained
information that helps to improve the quality of the learning
process.

Educational Research
The difference between doing educational research and other
healthcare research is that often the immediate effects of the
intervention are seen and assessed on the educators or their
students, rather than on the processes and outcomes of patients.
Therefore, wherever possible, we should think about how to
measure the effects of an education intervention on the students.

Action Research
Action research is a form of investigation designed for use by
teachers to attempt to solve problems and improve professional
practices in their own classrooms. It involves systematic
observations and data collection which can be then used by the
practitioner-researcher in reflection, decision-making and the
development of more effective classroom strategies.
- Parsons and Brown (2002)

Action Research
Action research is a natural part of teaching. Teachers are
continually observing students, collecting data and changing
practices to improve student learning and the classroom and
school environment. Action research provides a framework that
guides the energies of teachers toward a better understanding of
why, when, and how students become better learners.
- Christine Miller (2007)

Action Research
Action Research is a fancy way of saying let's study what's
happening at our school and decide how to make it a better
place.
- Emily Calhoun (1994)

Action Research
Action research is the term which describes the integration of
action (implementing a plan) with research (developing an
understanding of the effectiveness of this implementation).
The original concept is sometimes attributed to Kurt Lewin
(18901947).

Action Research
Action (change) + Research
(investigation)

When something goes wrong with your lessons, what do

you do? If you think about what you are doing and make
a change, you are doing Action Research!!!

Aims & purposes

1. To contribute towards whole school improvement: to encourage and assist teachers
to conduct action research as a means of effecting positive social and educational
change in their immediate environments and spheres of influence.
2. To effect improvement in the personal/ professional practice of teachers: the
process of conducting action research has been shown to have positive consequences
for the professional and personal development of the participants, as they learn to
become more proactive and take responsibility for effecting change.
3. To provide opportunities for Faculty to become involved in research projects: the
expertise of various staff members can be solicited for specific projects identified by
teachers.

Characteristics
of
Action Research

Characteristics of AR:
1. Action researchers take action.
2. AR always involves two goals.
3. AR is interactive.
4. AR aims at developing holistic understanding.
5. AR is fundamentally about change.
6. AR requires an understanding of the ethical framework.
7. AR can include all types of data gathering.
8. AR requires a breadth of pre-understanding.
9. AR should be conducted in real time.
10.The AR paradigm requires its own quality criteria.
(Gummesson, 2000: 16)

1. Action researchers take action.

Action researchers are not merely observing something
happening; they are actively working at making it happen.

2. AR always involves two goals.

Goals: Solve the problem and contribute to science.
The action researchers engage in both making the action
happen and stand back from the action and reflect on it as it
happens in order to contribute theory to the body of knowledge.

3. AR is interactive.
It requires cooperation between the researchers and the client
personnel, and continuous adjustment to new information and
new event.
As it is a series of unfolding and unpredictable events, the
actors need to work together and be able to adapt to the
contingencies of the unfolding story.

4. AR aims at developing holistic understanding.

Action researchers need to have a broad view of how the
system works and be able to move between formal structural
and technical and informal people subsystems.
It requires an ability to work with dynamic complexity, which
describes how a system is complex because of multiple causes
and effects.

5. AR is fundamentally about change.

AR is applicable to the understanding, planning and
implementation of change in groups, organizations and
communities.
Hence, knowledge and skills in the dynamics of organizational
change are necessary.

6. AR requires an understanding of the ethical

framework.
In AR, ethics involves authentic relationships between the
action researcher and the members of the client system as to how
they understand the process and take significant actions.

7. AR can include all types of data gathering methods.

AR does not preclude the use of data gathering methods from
traditional research. Qualitative and quantitative tools, such as
interviews and surveys are commonly used.
What is important in AR is that the planning and use of these
tools be well thought out with the members of the organization
and clearly integrated into the AR process.

8. AR requires a breadth of pre-understanding.

It refers to the knowledge the action researcher brings to the
research project.

9. AR should be conducted in real time.

While AR is alive case study being written as it unfolds, it can
also take the form of a traditional case study written in retrospect,
when the written case is used as an intervention into the
organization in the present.
In such a situation the case performs the function of a
learning history and is used as a intervention to promote
reflection and learning in the organization.

10. The AR paradigm requires its own quality criteria.

AR should not be judged by the criteria of positive science,
but rather within the criteria of its own terms.

Approaches
in
Research

Qualitative approach:
The approach usually associated with the social constructivist
paradigm which emphasises the socially constructed nature of
reality.

It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the

deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and
experience, including contradictory beliefs,
behaviours and emotions.

Qualitative approach:
It can describe events, persons and so forth scientifically
without the use of numerical data.

It is harder, more stressful and more time-consuming than

other types.

Qualitative approach:
Concerned with collecting and analysing information in as
many forms.

Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are

not in the form of numbers. (Punch, 1998: 4)

Qualitative approach:
Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is
`lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...
Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding
experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or
live it.
Ely et al (Sherman and Webb ,1988)

Quantitative approach:
Involves collecting and converting data into numerical form
so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions
drawn.

Quantitative approaches have been seen as more scientific and

`objective'.

Quantitative approach:
Quantitative research consists of those studies in which the data
concerned can be analysed in terms of numbers.

Quantitative research is based more directly on its original plans

and its results are more readily analysed and interpreted.

Quantitative approach:
Concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric
form. It tends to emphasize relatively large-scale and representative
sets of data, and is often, falsely in our view, presented or perceived
as being about the gathering of `facts'.

Quantitative research is empirical research where

the data are in the form of numbers.

Qualitative

Quantitative

Approach

Approach

-Inductive or bottom up

-Deductive or top down

Scientific

-Generate new hypotheses

-Test hypothesis and theory with

method

and theory from data

data.

collected.
Most common
research
objectives

Focus

-Description

-Description

-Exploration

-Explanation

-Discovery

-Prediction

-Wide and deep angle lenses

-Narrow-angle lens

-Examine the breath and depth -Testing specific hypotheses

of phenomenon to learn more
about them.

Nature of study

- Study behaviour in its natural

- Study behaviour under artificial,

environment or context.

controlled conditions.

Qualitative

Quantitative

Approach

Approach

-Collect narrative data using

-Collect numeric data using

semi or unstructured

structured and validated

Form of data

instruments (open-ended

instruments (close-ended survey

collected

surveys, interviews,

items, rating scales, measurable

observation, focus groups,

behaviours)

documents)
-Words, images, themes, and
Nature of data

categories
-Holistically identify patterns,

Data analysis

Results

-Numeric variables

-Identify statistical relationships

categories and themes

- Particularistic findings.

-Generalizable findings.

-In-depth understanding of

-General understanding of

respondents viewpoint.

respondents viewpoint.

-Respondent framed results

-Researcher framed results

Qualitative

Quantitative

Approach

Approach

-Narrative report including

-Statistical report including

contextual description,

correlations, comparisons of means,

Form of final

categories, themes, and

and statistically significant findings.

report

supporting respondent quotes.

Adapted from:
Johnson & Christensen. (2004). Educational Research: Quantitative, qualitative
and mixes approaches, 2nd ed. Boston: Ally: Bacon.

Research
Ethics

Definition of research
ethics:
Research ethics provide guidelines for
the responsible conducts in research. In
addition, research ethics educates and
monitor the researchers conducting
research to ensure high ethical standards.

Authorship

Plagiarism

Peer review

Research with
human subjects

RESEARCH
ETHICS
ISSUES

Conflicts of
interest

Research with
animals

Research
misconduct

Data
management

Authorship
Authorship is the process of deciding whose names belong
on a research paper.
In many cases, research evolves from collaboration and
assistance between experts and colleagues. Some of this
assistance will require acknowledgement and some will
require joint authorship.
Each person listed as an author on an article should have
significantly contributed to both the research and writing.

Authorship
Can I be a co-author?

Sure! But only if you

1. Contributed substantially to the research, AND
2. Wrote or revised all or parts of the manuscript,
AND
3. Approved the final version of the entire article.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of passing off somebody elses ideas,
thoughts, pictures, theories, words or stories as your own.

If a researcher plagiarizes the work of others, they are

bringing into question the integrity, ethics and
trustworthiness of the sum total of his or her research.

Plagiarism
Types of plagiarism:
i. Intentionally take a passage word-for-word, put it in their own
work, and do not properly credit the original author.
ii. Unintentionally paraphrased and fragmented texts the

author

has pieced together from several works without properly citing

the original sources.

Plagiarism
The Indiana University provides the following advice to avoid plagiarism. A researcher
preparing a written manuscript should cite the original source if he or she:

i. Quotes another persons actual words, either oral or written.

ii. Paraphrases another persons words, either oral or written.
iii. Uses another persons idea, opinion or theory.
iv. Borrows facts, statistics, or other illustrative material, unless the information is
common knowledge.

Plagiarism
To avoid unintentional or accidental plagiarizing of another persons work, use
the following tips from the Northwestern University website:

i. Cite all ideas and information that is not your own and/ or is not common
knowledge.
ii. Always use quotation marks if you are using someone elses words.
iii. At the beginning of a paraphrased section, show that what comes next is someone
elses original idea (example: these bullet points start out by saying the information
originated with Northwestern University).
iv. At the end of the paraphrased section, place the proper citation.

Peer review
Peer review is the process in which the author submits a written
manuscript or article to a journal for publication and the journal
editors distributes the article to experts working in the same, or
similar, scientific discipline.
The process involves the following:

1. Reviewers and editors read and evaluate the article.

2. Reviewers submit their reviews back to the journal editor.
3. The journal editor takes all comments, including their own, and communicates
this feedback to the original author.

Peer review
The peer review process seldom proceeds in a straight line.

The entire process may involve several rounds of

communication between the editor, the reviewers, and the
original author before an article is fully ready for publication.

Conflicts of interest

Conflict of interest arise when a persons (or an organizations)

obligations to a particular research project conflict with their
personal interests or obligations.
A researcher should attempt to identify potential conflicts in order
to confront those issues before they have a chance to

do harm

or damage. If exist, then the objectivity of the researcher and the

integrity of the research results can be questioned by any person
throughout the research review process.

Data management

Data management references three issues:

i.

The ethical and truthful collection of reliable data.

ii.

The ownership and responsibility of collected data.

iii. Retaining data and sharing access to collected data with colleagues and
the public.

A clear, responsible, ethical sound, and carefully outlined

for

data management is required at the beginning of the research to

prevent all manners of conflicts and
methods.

inappropriate research

Research misconduct

Research misconduct is the process of identifying and reporting

unethical or unsound research.
Its components are as follow:
Fabrication is making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment or process,
or changing or omitting data or results.
Plagiarism is the appropriation of another persons idea, processes,
results, or words without giving appropriate credit.

Research misconduct
Any person who knows that research is being conducted
unethically should raise his or her concerns to the
appropriate authorities, whether that person is involved in
that research or not.

Research with human subject

The issues concerning research with human subjects involves
topics ranging from voluntary participation in research to
fair selection and justice.
This variety makes the topics surrounding research ethics with
human subjects a challenging but important charge.

Respect for persons Informed consent

Respect for persons Privacy and confidentiality

Respect for persons Informed Consent

Exist to ensure that all research involving human subjects
allows for voluntary participation by subjects who understand
what participation entails.
Informed consent means that people approached and asked to
participate in a research study must:
i.

Know what they are getting involved with before they commit.

ii.

Not be coerced or manipulated in any way to participate.

iii. Must consent to participate in the project as a subject.

Respect for persons Informed Consent

The Belmont Report of 1979 outlines the three requirements
for informed consent:
1. The information disclosed to research participants must include, research procedure,
their purposes, risks and anticipated benefits, alternative procedures, and a statement
offering the opportunity to ask questions and to withdraw at any time from the research.
2. Comprehension researcher must adapt information to be understandable to every
participants.
3. Voluntariness inform consent can be neither coerced nor improperly pressured from
any participant.

Informed consent mechanism

Dear Participant (parent, principal, guardian),
We are undertaking an action research project to study my own practice as a lecturer(s) in
the TESL degree course at IPGKBL Kuching Sarawak Malaysia 2012. This ethics
statement is to assure you that we will observe good ethical practice throughout the
research.
This means that:
Written ethical permission will be secured before the research commences;
Confidentiality will be observed at all times, and no names or identifying personal features
will be revealed during the study;
Participants will be kept informed at all times and will have access to the research report
before it is published;
We will report only that which is in the public domain and in accord with Malaysian Law;
All participants have the right to withdraw from the research at anytime and all data
relating to them will be destroyed.
Your signature_________________
Contact information:
IPGKBL Campus Kuching
English Department, Jabatan Bahasa
Dr. Jeff Hawkins: Jeffhawk776@gmail.com

Respect for persons

Privacy and Confidentiality
People have a right to protect themselves, and information
gathered during research participation could harm a person by
violating their right to keep information about themselves
private.

Research with animals

Animals play a significant role in research. (esp. in medical
and pharmaceutical research)

To ensure that research with animals is conducted ethically

and responsibly, the government has created regulations
involving the use and care of animals involved in teaching,
testing and research.

Research with animals

In order to prevent the mistreatment of animals, The Animal
Welfare Act exists in order:
(1) To ensure that animals intended for use in research facilities or for
exhibition purposes or for use as pets are provided human care and
treatment; (2) to assure the human treatment of animals during
transportation in commerce; and (3) to protect the owners of
animals from the theft of their animals by preventing the sale
use of animals which have been stolen.

or

QUESTION
AND ANSWER
SESSION

Questions:
1. Why is it important for teachers to do
educational research?
2. What must we do to avoid plagiarism in
writing a research article?
3. What is research ethics and why is it
important?
4. What are the importance of informed
consent?
5. Why action research is regarded as an
interactive process?

references

David Coghlan & Teresa Brannick. (2005: 11-13). Doing Action Research In
Your Own Words. London: SAGE Publications.
Glenda Nugent, et al. (2012: 4). A Practical Guide to Action Research for
Literacy Educators. Washington: Global Operations Unit.
University of Minnesota. (2003: 8-35). A Guide to Research Ethics.
University of Minnesota: Center for Bioethics.
Alzheimer Europe. (n.d). The Four Main Approaches. Assessed on 2013,
23rd December, at http://www.alzheimer
europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-of
research/The-four-main-approaches
Christina Hughes. (n.d). Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Social
Research. Assessed on 2013, 23rd December, at
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/academicstaff/chu
ghes/hughesc_index/teachingresearchprocess/quantitativequalitativ
e/quantitativequalitative/

THANK
YOU