Configuration Aerodynamics - 1

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,

2010

Configuration Variables
Lift

Description of
Aircraft Configuration

Effects of shape, angle, and

Mach number
Stall

Parasitic Drag
Skin friction
Base drag

Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

A Few Definitions

Wing Planform Variables

Aspect Ratio

Taper Ratio

b
AR =
rectangular wing
c
b ! b b2
=
any wing
=
c!b S

Republic F-84F

Rectangular Wing

Delta Wing

!=

ctip
croot

Swept Trapezoidal Wing

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

and Wing Center of Pressure

Medium to High Aspect Ratio Configurations

Cessna 337

DeLaurier Ornithopter

Schweizer 2-32

Mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c.) ~ mean geometric chord

b2

c=

1
c 2 ( y ) dy
S !b" 2
# 2& 1+ ) + )
=% (
croot
$ 3' 1 + )
2

[for trapezoidal wing]

Trapezoidal Wing

Axial location of the wing!s subsonic

aerodynamic center (a.c.)
Determine spanwise location of m.a.c.
Assume that aerodynamic center is at
25% m.a.c.

Midchord
line

Typical for subsonic aircraft

Elliptical Wing
from Raymer

Boeing 777-300

from Sunderland

Low Aspect Ratio Configurations

Variable Aspect Ratio Configurations

North American B-1

North American A-5A Vigilante

Typical for supersonic aircraft

General Dynamics F-111

Lockheed F-104 Starfighter

Aerodynamic efficiency at sub- and supersonic speeds

Reconnaissance Aircraft
Lockheed U-2 (ER-2)

Subsonic, high-altitude flight

Uninhabited Air Vehicles

Northrop-Grumman/Ryan Global Hawk

Supersonic, high-altitude flight

Stealth and Small UAVs

Northrop-Grumman X-47B

General Atomics Predator

Lockheed SR-71 Trainer

Re-entry Vehicles

General Atomics Predator-C (Avenger)

Northrop HL-10
Martin Marietta X-24A

Northrop M2-F2

InSitu/Boeing ScanEagle

JAXA ALFLEX

NASA X-38

Martin Marietta X-24B

Biplane

Compared to monoplane
Structurally stiff (guy wires)
Twice the wing area for the same
span
Lower aspect ratio than a single
wing with same area and chord
Mutual interference
Lower maximum lift
Higher drag (interference, wires)

Aerodynamic
Lift and Drag

Interference effects of two wings

Gap
Aspect ratio
Relative areas and spans
Stagger

Longitudinal Aerodynamic Forces

and Moment of the Airplane

Non-dimensional force
coefficients are dimensionalized
by

dynamic pressure, q
reference area, S

Circulation of Incompressible Air Flow

About a 2-D Airfoil

Bernoulli!s equation (inviscid, incompressible flow)

pstatic +

Typical subsonic lift, drag, and pitching

moment variations with angle of attack

Vorticity

! 2 " D (x) =

reference length, c

Lift = C L q S
Drag = C D q S
Pitching Moment = Cm q Sc

Vupper (x) = V! + "V (x) 2

Vlower (x) = V! # "V (x) 2

Non-dimensional moment
coefficients also
dimensionalized by

1 2
!V = constant along streamline = pstagnation
2

Circulation

#V (x)
#z(x)

! 2 " D = $ # 2 " D (x)dx

0

Lower pressure on upper surface

What Do We Mean by
2-Dimensional Aerodynamics?

What Do We Mean by 2Dimensional Aerodynamics?

Finite-span wing > finite aspect ratio

b
rectangular wing
c
b ! b b2
=
any wing
=
c!b S

AR =

1 2
1
"V S = C L3! D "V 2 ( bc ) [Rectangular wing]
2
2
1 2
# ( Lift 3! D ) = C L3! D "V c#y
2
1
1
%
(
lim # ( Lift 3! D ) = lim ' C L3! D "V 2 c#y* + "2-D Lift" = C L2! D "V 2 c
#y$0
#y$0 &
)
2
2

Infinite-span wing > infinite aspect ratio

For Small Angles, Lift is

Proportional to Angle of Attack

Unswept wing, 2-D lift slope coefficient

Inviscid, incompressible flow
Referenced to chord length, c, rather than wing area

( )

C L2! D = C L"

2! D

Lift 3! D = C L3! D

Classic Airfoil
Profiles

" = ( 2# )" [Lifting-line Theory]

Inviscid, incompressible flow

( )

2! D

" = ( 2# cos $ )"

NACA 4-digit Profiles (e.g., NACA 2412)

NACA Airfoils

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NACA_airfoil
Maximum camber as percentage of chord (2)
Distance of maximum camber from leading
edge, 10s of percent (4)
Maximum thickness as percentage of chord (12)
See NACA Report No. 460, 1935, for lift and drag
characteristics of 78 airfoils
Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage
Airfoils used on various aircraft: The
http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads/aircraft.html

Swept wing, 2-D lift slope coefficient

C L2! D = C L"

Assuming constant chord section, the 2-D Lift is

the same at any y station of the infinite-span wing

Clark Y (1922): Flat lower surface, 11.7% thickness

GA, WWII aircraft
Clark Y Airfoil
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Y
Reasonable L/D
Benign computed stall characteristics, but
experimental result is more abrupt
Fluent, Inc, 2007

Relationship Between
Circulation and Lift

Aerodynamic Strip Theory

2-D Lift (inviscid, incompressible flow)

Airfoil section may vary from tip-to-tip

( Lift )2 ! D = "#V# ( $ )2 ! D
1
"#V#2 c ( 2%& ) [ thin, symmetric airfoil ] + "#V# ( $ camber )2 ! D
2
1
! "#V#2 c C L&
& + "#V# ( $ camber )2 ! D
2! D
2
!

( )

Chord length
Airfoil thickness
Airfoil profile
Airfoil twist

Lift of a 3-D wing is found by integrating 2-D lift

coefficients of airfoil sections across the finite span

Incremental lift

Aero L-39 Albatros

dL = C L2! D ( y ) c ( y ) qdy

3-D wing lift

b /2

L3! D =

"

!b /2

Effect of Aspect Ratio on Wing

Lift Slope Coefficient
(Incompressible Flow)

Bombardier
Dash 8

C L2! D ( y ) c ( y ) q dy

Effect of Aspect Ratio on

3-Dimensional Wing Lift
Slope Coefficient

Handley Page HP.115

(Incompressible Flow)
High Aspect Ratio (> 5) Wing

Airfoil section lift

coefficients and
lift slopes near
wingtips are
lower than their
estimated 2-D
values

C L! =

2" AR
# AR &
= 2" %
$ AR + 2 ('
AR + 2

Low Aspect Ratio (< 2) Wing

C L! =

" AR
# AR &
= 2" %
$ 4 ('
2
All wings at M = 1

For Small Angles, Lift is

Proportional to Angle of Attack
1 2
#C ( 1
1
%
!V S " 'C L0 + L $ * !V 2 S + %&C L0 + C L$ $ () !V 2 S
2
2
#$
2
&
)
where C L$ = lift slope coefficient

Lift = C L

Maximum Lift of
Rectangular Wings
Maximum
Lift
Coefficient

Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979

At higher angles,
flow separates
wing loses lift

Angle of
Attack

Flow separation
produces stall

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgUtFm93Jfo

Maximum Lift of Delta Wings with

Straight Trailing Edges
Maximum Lift
Coefficient

Angle of
Attack

Large Angle Variations in Subsonic

Lift Coefficient (0 < ! < 90)

Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979

Lift = C L

Aspect Ratio

Aspect Ratio

! : Sweep angle
" : Thickness ratio

Aspect Ratio

! : Taper ratio

All lift coefficients

have at least one
maximum (stall
condition)
All lift coefficients
are essentially
Newtonian at high !
Newtonian flow:
TBD

1 2
!V S
2

Flap Effects on
Aerodynamic Lift

Effect of Aspect Ratio on 3-D

Wing Lift Slope Coefficient
(Incompressible Flow)
All Aspect Ratios (Helmbold equation)

C L! =

Camber modification
Trailing-edge flap deflection
shifts CL up and down
Leading-edge flap (slat)
deflection increases stall !
Same effect applies for
other control surfaces

" AR
2
)
# AR & ,
.
+1 + 1 + %
$ 2 (' .
+*
-

Elevator (horizontal tail)

Ailerons (wing)
Rudder (vertical tail)

Air Compressibility and Sweep Effects

on 3-D Wing Lift Slope Coefficient
Subsonic 3-D wing, with sweep effect
C L! =

Supersonic delta (triangular) wing

" AR
2
+
$ AR '
2
-1 + 1 +
& 2 cos # ) 1 * M cos #1 4
%
14(
-,

Air Compressibility Effects on

3-D Wing Lift Slope Coefficient

.
0
0
0/

Supersonic leading edge

C L! =

4
M2 "1

Subsonic leading edge

C L! =

2" 2 cot #
(" + $ )

where $ = m 0.38 + 2.26m % 0.86m 2

m = cot # LE cot &

! LE = sweep angle of leading edge

!1 4 = sweep angle of quarter chord

Wing-Fuselage Interference Effects

Wing lift induces

Upwash in front of the wing
Downwash behind the wing, having major effect on the tail
Local angles of attack over canard and tail surface are modified,
affecting net lift and pitching moment

Flow around fuselage induces upwash on the wing, canard,

and tail

Aerodynamic Drag

" %'C D0
&

1 2
1
!V S " C D0 + # C L2 !V 2 S
2
2
2 1
+ # C Lo + C L$ $ (* !V 2 S
)2

Drag = C D

from Etkin

Parasitic
Drag

Reynolds Number and

Boundary Layer
Reynolds Number = Re =

Pressure differential,
viscous shear stress,
and separation
Parasitic Drag = C D0

1 2
!V S
2

!Vl Vl
=

"

where
! = air density
V = true airspeed
l = characteristic length
= absolute (dynamic) viscosity
" = kinematic viscosity

Typical Effect of Reynolds

Number on Parasitic Drag

Reynolds Number,
Skin Friction, and
Boundary Layer

Flow may stay attached

farther at high Re,
reducing the drag

Skin friction coefficient for a flat plate

Friction Drag
qSwet
where Swet = wetted area

Cf =

C f ! 1.33Re "1/2
! 0.46 ( log10

[laminar flow ]
Re )
[turbulent
"2.58

from Werle*

flow ]
* See Van Dyke, M., An Album of Fluid Motion,
Parabolic Press, Stanford, 1982

Effect of Streamlining on Parasitic Drag

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Configuration
Aerodynamics - 2