Tensile Testing

Plane stress and Plane strain

Plane stress and Plane strain
Plane Stress : State of stress in which one or
two of the pairs of faces on an elemental
cube are free of any stresses. e.g Torsion of thin
wall tube. Expansion of a thin walled
spherical shell under internal pressure.
Plane strain: State of tress where one of the
pair of faces on an elemental undergoes
zero strain. e.g Torsion of thin walled tube. Piece
of material being compressed in a die .

Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of a material are obtained by
subjecting a specimen to prescribed loads and then
measuring the resulting deformation.
Usually, the test is carried out on a special machine that is
specifically designed for this purpose.
The measurements of the load and of the deformation are
carried out .

Tensile Test Machine (Instron)

Electronic Extensometer

Extensometer

Grip
Specimen
Grip

Tensile Testing
(stretching or pulling)

Determine the behavior of the engineering material under load

Tensile Test
-Tensile test determines the strength of the material when
subjected to a simple stretching operation.
-Standard dimension test samples are pulled slowly and at
uniform rate in a testing machin.
-The strain ( the elongation of the sample) is defined as:
Engineering Strain =
= (change in length)/(original length) = /L0
-The stress ( the applied force divided by the original crosssectional area) is defined as:
Engineering Stress =
= (applied force)/(original area) =P/A0

Stress-Strain Curve

.
Elastic Limit: Greatest stress a material is capable of
developing without a permanent set.
Note; elastic limit for metals do not differ widely from the
values of the proportionality.
Elastic limit may be taken as that stress at which there is
a permanent set of 0.2%.It is therefore higher than limit
of proportionality. (suggested by some authors)
Hooke s law: Stress is directly proportional to strain in
the elastic range.
Young s Modulus: It is ratio between stress and
reversible strain (stiffness)
It is in fact a measure of the inter atomic bonding forces.

Yield strength/ Proof stress: usually defined as the stress

which produces a measurable amount of permanent strain
i.e. 0.2% or 0.1%.

Tensile strength - the maximum stress applied to the specimen.

Failure stress - the stress applied to the specimen at failure

(usually less than the maximum tensile strength because
necking reduces the cross-sectional area)

Ductility
% Elongation:
% elongation is a measure of ductility, which is given by:
% elongation =100 * (Lo - Lf)/ Lo
where,
Lo = Initial length
Lf = Final Length

Ductility
% Reduction in Area:
% reduction in area is a measure of ductility, which is given
by:
% reduction in area =100 * (Ao - Af)/ Ao
where,
Ao = Initial area
Af = Final area

Poissons ratio
When pulled in tension (X), a sample gets
longer and thinner, i.e., a contraction in the
width (Y) and breadth (Z)
Poissons ratio: when strained in the (X)
direction how much strain occurs in the lateral
directions (Y & Z)
For most metals this value is 0.333

This is the Poisson effect. Poissons ratio, which is the

negative ratio of the contraction over the extension, is
also an elastic constant.
Poisson's Ratio, laterial strain
longitudinal strain

==

x unloaded
y
z
loaded
P
P
Metals: = 0.3 0.35
Ceramics: = 0.2 0.25
Polymers: = 0.25 0. 5

Modulus of elasticity - the initial slope of the curve, related

directly to the strength of the atomic bonds.

 Resilience: The ability of a material to

absorb energy with in elastic limit.
Measure by the modulus of resilience.
-Which is strain energy per unit volume.
-Stress the material from zero stress to the
yield stress.
Energy: Force multiplied by the distance
over which it acts.

Modulus of resilience - the area under the linear part of the

curve, measuring the stored elastic energy.

Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb energy in
the plastic range.

Toughness - The total area under the curve, which measures

the energy absorbed by the specimen in the process of
breaking.

Stress-Strain Curve

True Stress and True Strain

True stress,, is the load,P, divided by
the instantaneous area of the specimen,
Ai.
True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.
Up to strain where necking begins,
specimen deforms with a constant
volume in gauge section.
A
L

A
L
o
o
i
i
Constant Volume gives:

True Stress

P
Ao Lo
; Ai
Ai
Li
PLi

;
Ao Lo
P
S
;
Ao
Li Lo L;

Li Lo L

(1 e)
Lo
Lo

S (1 e)

Assumesconstantvolume.
Validforallstrainsupto
pointwherenecking
begins.
.

True Strain:
True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.
True strain, , is determined from the
rate of change in gauge length with
respect to the instantaneous gauge
length, Li.

True Strain
dLi
d
Li
Li
ln
Lo

Li Lo L;

ln(1 e)

Assumes constant volume.

Valid for all strains up to
point where necking begins.

Engineering Vs. True Stress-Strain

Curves
Stress

TrueStressStrain
Curve

Fracture

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Fracture

Engineering
StressStrain
Curve

Strain

Holloman Petch Relation ship

An empirical relationship was proposed by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the
stress-strain curve.

= Kn
true stress, is true strain, K is strength
coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening
exponent.
Thus, one can obtain n from a log-log plot of
versus . K is the true stress at = 1.0.

 n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids

n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
n = 0.1 0.5 for most metals

 IN Stress-Strain Curves
Plastic deformation is uniform and
permanent between the elastic limit and
the UTS.
Plastic deformation becomes nonuniform once the UTS is exceeded.
In tension this non-uniform deformation
manifests itself
as necking

Criterion for necking

Increase in true stress (due to reduction in
cross-sectional area) as the specimen
elongates is more than to load carrying
capacity due to strain hardening.

Criteria for Instability

Rate of Geometrical Softening and

Rate of Work Hardening

Holloman Petch Relation ship

An empirical relationship was proposed by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the
stress-strain curve.

= Kn
true stress, is true strain, K is strength
coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening
exponent.
Thus, one can obtain n from a log-log plot of
versus . K is the true stress at = 1.0.

 n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids

n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
n = 0.1 0.5 for most metals

Uniform Plastic Flow

The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in
the region of uniform plastic deformation
does not increase proportionally with
strain. The material is said to work
harden (or strain harden).
An empirical mathematical relationship
was advanced by Holloman in 1945 to
describe the shape of the engineering
stress-strain curve.
= Kn,
where is the true stress, is true strain,
K is strength coefficient, and n is the
strain-hardening exponent. Thus, one
can obtain n from a log-log plot of
versus . K is the true stress at = 1.0.

Criteria for Necking

0.2 % Offset Yield StrengthOffset Yield Strength

Defining the yield stress as the point separating elastic
from plastic deformation is easier than determining that
point. The elastic portion of the curve is not perfectly
linear, and microscopic amounts of deformation can occur.
As a matter of practical convenience, the yield strength is
determined by constructing a line parallel to the initial
portion of the stress-strain curve but offset by 0.2% from
the origin. The intersection of this line and the measured
stress-strain line is used as an approximation of the
material's yield strength, called the 0.2% offset yield.

Stress-Strain Curves
Plastic deformation is uniform and
permanent between the elastic limit and
the UTS.
Plastic deformation becomes non-uniform
once the UTS is exceeded. In tension this
non-uniform deformation manifests itself
as necking
Uniform plastic strain Non-uniform plastic strain
L3
2
Page 47
Uniform Plastic Flow
The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in
the region of uniform plastic deformation
does not increase proportionally with
strain. The material is said to work
harden (or strain harden).
An empirical mathematical relationship
was advanced by Holloman in 1945 to
describe the shape of the engineering
stress-strain curve.
= Kn,
where is the true stress, is true strain,
K is strength coefficient, and n is the
strain-hardening exponent. Thus, one
can obtain n from a log-log plot of
versus . K is the true stress at = 1.0.
Page 48

 True strain, , is determined from the rate

of change in gauge length with respect to
the instantaneous gauge length, L i.
Up to strain where necking begins,
specimen deforms with a constant volume
in gauge section.
Constant Volume gives:

True Stress

P
Ao Lo
; Ai
Ai
Li
PLi

;
Ao Lo
P
S
;
Ao
Li Lo L;

Li Lo L

(1 e)
Lo
Lo

S (1 e)

Assumesconstantvolume.
Validforallstrainsupto
pointwherenecking
begins;
Hence,validforS<Su.
SpecialCase,
TrueFractureStress:

Pf

Af

Stress: The true stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the

True stress: can be related to the engineering stress if we assume that there is no

instantaneous cross-sectional area;

volume change in the specimen. Under this assumption,

which leads to

True Strain
dLi
d
Li

Assumes constant volume.

Valid for all strains up to
point where necking begins;
Hence, valid for S < Su.

Li
ln
Lo
Li Lo L;

ln(1 e)

SpecialCase,
TrueFractureStrain:

Ao
f ln
A
f

True Strain:
True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.

 true = ln(1 + e).

true = (1 + e)(e),

0.2 % Offset Yield Strength