Comprehensive View on Garment Dyeing and Finishing

D Saravanan, Member
T Ramachandran, Fellow
Processing of garments offers many advantages compared to conventional route adopted in dyeing and
finishing of fabrics. Many developments have taken place in the field of garment processing, especially in
dyeing and finishing and easy care finishing has become synonymous with finishing of garments. Nevertheless
stringent measures are required in the case of garment processing since any damage at this stage would
result in value added losses. This paper discusses certain aspects related to dyeing and finishing of garments,
in the selected area.
Keywords : Dyeing; Shrinkage; Stoneless wash; DP finish; Strength loss

INTRODUCTION
The benefits of garment processing revolve around quick
response, improved inventory control and it is an obvious
way to meet quick fashion changes also1. During 20th century,
most of the developmental works were aimed at enhancing
the comfort properties of the fabrics and garments along
with various functional finishes by improving use value,
enhancing esteem value and imparting gimmick values 2 - 4.
There have been considerable concerns over the discomfort
of wrinkle free garments due to hydrophobic nature of finish
imparted to the fabrics in conventional treatments and
reduced absorption properties. Washing of denim goods and
the associated problems have a longer history and extended
to other items such as chambrays and indigo dyed fabrics5 - 9.
GARMENT DYEING AND DYEING MACHINES
The dyeing of the garments demands more care than fabrics
due to the fact that the processing involves value added
goods. The entire garment dyeing activities may be broken
down into four categories, namely, fully fashioned garment
dyeing, cut and sewn garment, dyeing of 100% cotton goods
for boutique trades and processing of denims leading to stone
wash, snow wash, over dyeing, stoneless washing and
highlighting effects. A multi-colour splatter effect called
splatter dyeing has been made possible on denim garments
without the necessity of tieing or knotting, using reactive
dyes combining, exhaust dyeing, pad-batch and printing
technologies 9 . Since majority of the garments are
constructed from cotton fabrics, reactive and direct dyes
are the most popular classes though other classes are also
used to some extent10-17. Exhaust dyeing with pigments is
possible only with materials pretreated with a cationic agent
which imparts substantivity to overcome the non-substantitive
in nature of the pigments18.
D Saravanan is with the Department of Textile Technology,
Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam,
Erode 638 401, Tamil Nadu and T Ramachandran is with the
Department of Textile Technology, P S G College of Technology,
Coimbatore 641 004, Tamil Nadu .
This paper (modified) was received on February 28, 2008. Written
discussion on the paper will be entertained till April 30, 2009.

14

Unlike fabric dyeing machines where rollers and jets are

commonly employed in moving the fabrics through the
machine and liquor, garment dyeing machines require special
arrangements to move garments with reduced tumbling
actions. Salient features of drum type machines, extractors,
paddle type and jet circulators have been discussed in the
past by many authors13, 14, 19-21 as shown in Table 1. The
attributes of ideal garment dyeing machine would include
automatic controller for cycle repetition and optimization,
shade consistency, centrifugal extraction, heating facility to
make the cycle faster, cooling facility, lint filter to give cleaner
look to the garments, sampling device for better shade
management, addition tank, tilting mechanism for faster
unloading of the garments, variable speed for processing
different garments and volume level control for shade
reproducibility.
Paddles are widely accepted for sweaters, loosely knitted
goods due to their soft dyeing action, which avoids abrading
and pilling the garments as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
For gentleness, the dyeing is carried out with an m:l ratio of
30:1 to 40:1, the blades of the paddle are either curved or
rounded and the rotating speed of the paddle can be regulated
from 1.5 rpm to 40 rpm. Overhead paddle, lateral paddle and
high temperature paddle machines serve the needs of the
entire range of the garments.
Dye extractors with multi-pocket designs have compartments
to control garment movements, abrasion due to mechanical
Table 1 Garment dyeing machines and their principles
Type of
construction

Type of liquor and

garment movement

Paddling machine

Mechanical arrangements
like paddle, drum

Drum machine

Hydrodynamic movement
with adjustable jets

Washing-centrifuging
machines

Hydrodynamic circulating dyeing

machines with so called floating
liquor circulation principle

Jet dyeing centrifuging

machines

Jets and nozzles are used to

facilitate movement of the
garments

IE(I) JournalTX

Figure 1 Horizontal paddle dyeing machine

Figure 3 Drum type garment dyeing machine

dry weight with m:1 ratio of 1:25 to 1:40 and temperatures

as high as up to 130 C.
FINISHING OF GARMENTS

Figure 2 Front loading garment dyeing machine

action by carrying the garments through the dye liquor in

the compartments. By making more compartments the
tumbling effects and the entanglements in the garments are
reduced and also are the abrasions associated with it.
In drum type machines, a perforated drum is suspended
lengthwise in a horizontal position, submerged in the dye
liquor (Figure 3). The drums are divided into compartments
and are capable rotating in both the directions at 2 rpm to
20 rpm, when temperature varies up to 140 C. Drum dyeingcentrifuging machines are also called multipurpose drum
machines or multi-rapid dyeing-centrifuging machines, since
these machines can perform scouring, dyeing, centrifuging
and conditioning successively with automated controls.
In jet machines, the dye liquor and goods are kept in circular
motion by jet nozzles whose direction and force are
adjustable. Turbulence nozzles at the bottom ensure liquor
circulation, prevent goods from sinking and allow opening
them. The machine capacity varies from 25 kg - 125 kg of

Volume 89, August 2008

Mechanical finishing of garments refers to the finishes, which

are given to made-up textiles before they are ready for
delivery. In most of the cases, the process consists of a
steaming treatment, to remove creases or to relax the
garments. Driers are often constructed using tumblers, made
from perforated drum, equipped with heating unit, an air
suction unit, circulation unit and a lint sieve devices. The
steam is blown outwards through the garment at low tension.
Toppers are used for simultaneous steaming and stretching
of trousers while pressing machines are used for pull-overs,
jackets, sweat shirts, shirts etc, with dummies. Ironing is
carried out after toppers, pressing dummy operation, in areas
like collar, cuffs, pocket and button flaps, etc.
Earlier formaldehyde was originally used for improving the
wet strength of the regenerated cellulosic fibres under acidic
conditions22 and since then the applications have improved
in various areas. Though the processes like wrinkle free,
easy care, durable press finish employ similar chemicals,
Table 2 Comparison of pre-cure and post-cure processes
Parameters

Pre-cure

Post-cure

Curing

Flat state

Garment form

Better smoothness

Smoothness

Dimensional stability

Dimensional stability

Benefits

Crease retention
Minimum seam puckering
Drawbacks

No permanent crease
Seam puckering

High cost
Risk of premature setting

15

type of application and the forms of the fabrics vary, to decide

the required end uses6, 23 - 33. Novel washing techniques are
also used to achieve faded and emerized effects. Different
dyeing effects in the garments are obtained by treating one
side of fabrics with cross linking agents while leaving the
other side freely without modification, provides an approach
for a smooth-drying-dyeable fabrics27, 28. Differential dyeing
effects in the cotton fabrics are obtained by spraying the
cross linking formulation and dyeing the fabrics subsequently
with reactive dyes. Pre-cure, post-cure, garment dip processes,
wet and damp cure, reversible cross linking treatments are,
often, employed to achieve wider finish effects. The relative
merits and demerits of both pre-cure and post-cure
processes are shown in Table 2.
In the garment dip process, the garments are impregnated
with a finish similar to the finish used in the conventional
post-cure process, extracted, dried, pressed and cured.
Softer hand in the garments can be achieved in this process
compared to the conventional process26.
It has been found that reaction of formaldehyde with the
secondary hydroxyl groups and the cross links formed in
such reactions are not favourable ones, in terms of stability,
though they are kinetically preferred positions, in terms of
reactivity22. Proven relationship exists among various process
variables like pH, curing temperature and time for a given
fabric or garment33. Two reactions take place under acidic
conditions with cellulose include acid hydrolysis of cellulose
and formation of methylene ether bridges between the
molecules of formaldehyde, two hydroxyl groups of adjacent
cellulosic chains. The formalization process takes place in
a combination of fast reaction in the amorphous region and
a slow diffusion in the crystalline regions.
Glyoxal itself can be used as a cross-linker but possibly
breaks down during the curing operation and adversely affects
the fabric strength and color. Attempts have been made to
utilize various non-formaldehyde based chemicals including
butane tetracarboxylic acid (BTCA), citric acid, liquid
ammonia and various silicone based derivatives in finishing
of garments23, 34-37. Phosphoric acid and polyphosphonic
acids may also be used to impart wrinkle-resistant properties
when used in combination with cyanamide. Finish effects
from polycarboxylic acids are achieved through ester
linkages while ether linkages are formed in N-methylolamide
agents. BTCA treated cotton fabrics show similar properties
as that of DMDHEU treated fabrics. The wrinkle recovery
angle (WRA) of the BTCA treated fabrics are observed
between 287C-298C while the values have been found to
be 264C-295C for DMDHEU treated fabrics with the
formaldehyde release up to 330 ppm - 450 ppm. The
performance of citric acid treated fabrics is satisfactory in
terms of durability and home laundering as compared to
BTCA. In trifunctional citric acid hydroxyl groups hinder the
esterification of acid with cellulose. Polymers of maleic acid
esterify citric acid in-situ on cotton fabric under curing
conditions which transforms citric acid into a compound with

16

higher functionality and thus produce synergistic effect in

the reaction37. Incorporation of reactive polysiloxanes, with
non-nitrogeneous, non-formaldehyde cross linkers results
in superior lubricating action between fibres, yarns and
draping action, without loss of toughness and abrasion
resistance.
Liquid ammonia treatment applied on cotton improves the
wrinkle resistant performance, depending on the weight,
construction of the fabric, and also the mode of handling.
Grafting methods also have been attempted to graft glycidyl
methaacrylate on cotton using ultra violet radiation, where
the extent of cross linking increases with type of catalyst
used25, 38. Reaction of the methylol group with cellulose takes
place followed by the reaction of acrylol groups (Nmthyloloacrylamide) from an aqueous solution by a base
catalysed nucleophilic reaction or by a free radical initiated
reaction with cellulose25.
STONELESS WASHING OF DENIM GARMENTS
Though biopolishing of cotton fabrics employs cellulases,
indigo dyed cotton fibres demand binding of enzymes on
indigo dye molecules also in addition to the cellulose
molecules, for effective wash down effects38 - 46. It has been
shown earlier that cellulases capable of binding cellulose
molecules have a special domain called cellulose binding
domain (CBD), while certain hydrophobic sites and other
non-polar surfaces available in the cellulases bind the indigo
molecules and act as an emulsifier, helping the dyes to float
out of the cellulose fibers during hydrolysis. Besides CBDs,
aromatic residues of the amino acids like tyrosine, tryptophan
and phenylalanine also have been shown to play an active
role in the protein-cellulose interactions 41. Binding of
cellulase on highly ordered cotton fibres demand strict spatial
conservation in the cellulase molecules like, CBD, while such
conformational conservations are not required in the case of
indigo particles and can be accomplished in the hydrophobic
micro-environments.
Cellulases obtained from different sources exhibit varying
degrees of binding capabilities, mainly controlled by the
presence of certain hydrophobic residues and their locations
on the outer surface of the enzyme globules. Cellulases
produced by Trichoderma reesei, Chrysosporium
lucknowense and Penicillium verruculosum, engineered EG I,
EGII EGIII, EG V and CBH I, CBH II from Trichoderma reesei
preparation and core domains of CBH I have been
conventionally used to understand the mechanism of denim
washing 41. Immobilized amino acids are also used to
characterize the binding patterns of proteins on indigo38. It
shows that indigo molecules may indeed be bound to nonpolar side chains of amino acids, which are enhanced by
the presence of groups capable of forming hydrogen bonds.
Typically protein loading of 0.5 mg/g to 3 mg/g fabric provides
necessary abrasion effects on denim surface and final
abrasive effect induced by the enzyme action on the surface
of denim fabrics depends on the protein distribution between
the substrate and bulk solution.

IE(I) JournalTX

Laccases, a sub-class of oxidoreductases, are multi-copper

oxidases that catalyse the oxidation of a wide range of
phenols and other substrates with concomitant reduction of
oxygen to water. Laccases, with certain low molecular
weight organic mediators, can result in rapid decolourization
and are also used in washing the denim garments though
they are not effective by themselves in the process. In the
presence of an aqueous medium, the laccases get oxidized
and convert the mediator into free radicals which
subsequently convert the indigo into isatin, isatic acid and
anthranilic acid. The conjugated double bond between the two
carbonyl groups in indigo is cleaved and the dye chromophore
is destroyed proportionately to the dosage of the enzyme,
which is considered to be the major advantage of laccases
compared to conventional acid wash process 47-50.
PRECAUTIONS IN GARMENTS PROCESSING
Processing of garments has come through a long way to
reach the present prominent status. Though garment dyeing
appears to be attractive, it calls for many stringent
requirements related to panels, seams, elasticated areas,
waist band, cuffs and problems often occur due to shrinkage
behaviour, chafe marks/creases, accessories, sewing
threads, interlining and care labels1, 12, 13, 14, 17, 51-62. Poor fabric
preparation and the garments manufactured using the panels
that are taken from different lots of the fabrics result in
problems that are difficult to rectify at later stages.
Some of the surface effects of the fabrics visually influence
the depth and hue of the dyed garments55. Size, cross- section
and crimp of the filaments also affect the depth of the shade,
due to change in absorption and scattering power of light.
The apparent colour of yarns made from filaments tends to
vary with the angle of viewing, whereas such sensitivity is
not obvious in the case of staple fibre yarns. Fabrics
containing raised surfaces exhibit variation in shade in the
side and end arise mainly due to difference in the optical
origin, which is traceable to the path length traversed by the
light in the longitudinal and transverse directions in fibres.
Chafe marks/creases are, mostly, related to drum dyeing
machines and in many occasions, garments are turned inside
out and dyed with non-foaming lubricants. Tendency to
entangle can be reduced by tacking and bagging the articles
which in turn reduces the abrasion, wear and tear of interior
metallic surface. Fibre type (natural / thermoplastic) fabric
construction (tightly woven crease prone), loading (higher
loading-higher creases), addition of lubricant (special
lubricants reduces friction) are some of the parameters that
influence chafe marks. Swollen cellulosic fibres are especially
sensitive to mechanical friction, while thermoplastic synthetic
fibres tend to form permanent creases58.
For the garments prepared from the grey fabric, oxidative
desize-scour-chemick-peroxide bleach sequence is used
prior to processing. Residual hydrogen peroxide in the
bleached materials can interfere with dyes and spoil the
colour values. Uneven finish applications, curing conditions

Volume 89, August 2008

in the fabric state, prior to garmenting, results in panel to

panel shade variation in the garment dyeing process30.
In the case of reactive dyes, consistent shade replication
depends on material to liquor ratio, alkali and salt
concentration, heating rate, fixation time and temperature.
The initial temperature of the textile substrate and process
bath can influence the efficiency of the wetting process.
Establishing the dyeing procedures for each garments style,
dye system and set-controls can help to address the
variations in load, water volume, temperature and cycle time.
Garment to garment shade differences can be minimized
with machine loads containing garments made from the same
lot of fabric. Significant darkening of the fabrics occurs after
subjecting it to calendaring because of the increased optical
contact and reduced light scattering power. Variations in
shade among the garment panels, between garments can
also occur due to treatments with optical brightening agents,
mixing of panels from fabrics.
Processing problems related to the garment size control
and appearance normally result from variations in yarn
size /twist, ends/inch, picks/inch or courses/inch in the
knitted fabrics. Tight seams in the garments become further
tighter, due to the shrinkage in a high temperature dyeing
process, and prevent dye penetration on seams and
underneath the stitches. Dimensionally stable thread with
low elongation will help to minimize seam puckering after
dyeing. In the case of knitted fabrics, pre-relaxation is
employed to avoid the problems of seam pucker and garment
distortion and such fabrics can also be used along with woven
fabrics as fabric cut and sewn garment designs. Too much
bulky or tight stitch must be avoided in elasticated areas,
waist bands and cuffs. The various patterns present in the
garments must be adjusted to compensate for shrinkage
during dyeing process14.
The physical condition of garments, process variables and
their effects on garment finishing has been discussed in the
past 30, 34, 64,. Problems related to electrolysis of ionic
processing solutions resulting from galvanic action of
bimetallic garment accessories need special care. Anionic
inhibitors are used to protect metal accessories, such as,
button, zippers made of non-ferrous, white metals from
oxidation and tarnishing.
The cross linking treatment of cotton fabrics and garments
results many changes in physical properties of the fibres,
yarn and fabrics depend on the extent of reactions.
Excessive cross linking results in loss of the strength and
abrasion resistance and while in adequate cross linking leads
to poor shrinkage control, surface appearance, smoothness
and crease retention. It has been shown that relatively low
concentration of formaldehyde (2% OWF) produces more
improvements in the crease recovery on cotton than rayon65.
Water spotting of the fabric, prior to curing, causes irreparable
dye-resist spots on the garments. At higher temperature,
increase in catalyst concentration decreases tear strength
than at low temperature (165C, 143C) without any
17

improvement in WRA. Fabrics and garments cured at low

temperature shows lower tensile and tear strength loss than
at high temperatures. Optimizations of wrinkle resistant
treatments have been explored using suitable softeners
treatments to increase abrasion resistance and tear strength;
the softeners also act as sewing lubricant, protects threads
from breaking and fusing, as the needle passes through.
Without lubricant, an embrittled, resinated fabric would rapidly
wear into holes at the elbows66-68.

Processing. Textile Chemists and Colorists, vol 31, no 8, 1999, p 49.

The release of formaldehyde in DMDHEU treated fabrics

decreases with the addition of scavengers, substantially and
not altered by the presence of various dyes35. The cross
linked fabrics show poor water absorption rates due to cross
linking, application of hydrophobic softeners and tend to give
warmer contact feeling69. The surface friction increases in
untreated fabrics after washing compared to the treated fabric,
perhaps due to increased hairiness. Higher degree of cross
linking in the amorphous regions is necessary for an increase
in wrinkle recovery. The cross linking prevents irreversible
slippage of adjacent cellulose chains during fibre extension
thereby reducing permanent set and increasing elastic
recovery. Good correlation exists between elastic recovery
of single fibres and the crease recovery characteristics of
fabrics made from them at moderate extension levels.
Vapour phase formaldehyde in presence of sulphur dioxide
catalyst produces a high level of cross liking and produces
fabric extremely resistant to wrinkling with crease recovery
values of 300 C (W+F) for cotton and gives improvements
in seams, collars, cuffs29, 30. Loss in tensile strength occurs
as high as ~60% is observed in the cotton and fortisan fabric
mostly as the result of the unavoidable acid hydrolytic
degradation that accompanies the formaldehyde treatment.

10. J N Etters and M D Hurwitz. Determining Indigo and Sulphur Dye

Contribution to Denim Shade Depths. American Dyestuff Reporter,
vol 74, no 10, 1985, p 20.

CONCLUSION

19. S Y Kamat and E W Menezes. Garment Dyeing - Part II. Colourage,

vol 41, no 1, 1994, p 29.

Dyeing and finishing of garments, on outside, appear to be

highly attractive but both the processes demand great deal
of care in preparation and also during the processes, besides
various accessories attached to them. Value added rejections
arising out of these processes slow down the commercial
acceptance of both the processes but the developments that
take place in other branches of engineering could be used
to control the process effectively and also to accommodate
the necessary changes on account of the accessories
involved in the garments.

20. S Y Kamat and E W Menezes. Garment Dyeing - Pretreatment.

Colourage, vol 41, no 3, 1994, p 47.

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