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Operation and Application of Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Technology
Operation and Application of Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Technology
DRIVE
Carrier Corporation
Syracuse, New York
October 2005
TABLE OF CONTENTS
HARMONIC DISTORTION AND
INDUSTRY STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Harmonic Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
What Causes Harmonics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Rocks and Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Are Harmonics Harmful? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Understanding IEEE 519 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Introduction to Harmonic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Mitigating Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Common VFD Terms
VFD OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
BENEFITS OF VFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
VFD Capacity Control Saves Energy . . . . . . . . . .4
Low Inrush Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Easy Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
High Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Low Full Load KVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
INTRODUCTION
Variable frequency drive (VFD) usage has increased
dramatically in HVAC applications. The VFDs are
now commonly applied to air handlers, pumps,
chillers and tower fans. A better understanding of
VFDs will lead to improved application and selection of both equipment and HVAC systems. This
paper is intended to provide a basic understanding
of common VFD terms, VFD operation, and VFD
benefits. In addition this paper will discuss some
basic application guidelines regarding harmonic distortion with respect to industry standards.
Common VFD Terms
There are several terms used to describe devices that
control speed. While the acronyms are often used
interchangeably, the terms have different meanings.
VFD OPERATION
Understanding the basic principles behind VFD
operation requires understanding the three basic
sections of the VFD: the rectifier, dc bus, and
inverter.
The voltage on an alternating current (ac) power
supply rises and falls in the pattern of a sine wave
(see Figure 1). When the voltage is positive, current
flows in one direction; when the voltage is negative,
the current flows in the opposite direction. This type
of power system enables large amounts of energy to
be efficiently transmitted over great distances.
AC sine wave
90
180
270
360
-1
-2
BENEFITS OF VFD
240
220
30
40
200
60
70
75
Pump
Curve
180
50
160
78
80
Throttled
System Curve
1360 GPM
140
120
100
Unthrottled
System Curve
1700 GPM, 1750 RPM
80
60
40
20
0
200
15001600
1600 1700 1800
200 300
300 400 500 600 700
700 800
800 900 1000 11001200
11001200 1300 1400
1400 1500
Flow (GPM)
Efficiency
100%
Horsepower
Damper
Vanes
Drive
0%
0%
20%
Flow
Table A
Effects of Changes in Fan Speed
Flow changes linearly with speed
Head varies as the speed squared
Power varies as the speed cubed
1
100%
VFD
100%
Wye-Delta Starter
Solid State Soft Starter
200-275%
200%
Autotransformer Starter
400-500%
400-500%
600-800%
Soft Starters
Easy Installation
Wye-delta, part winding, autotransformer, and solidstate starters are often used to reduce inrush during
motor starting. All of these starters deliver power to
the motor at a constant frequency and therefore must
limit the current by controlling the voltage supplied
to the motor. Wye delta, part winding, and autotransformer starters use special electrical connections to reduce the voltage. Solid-state starters use
SCRs to reduce the voltage. The amount of voltage
reduction possible is limited because the motor
needs enough voltage to generate torque to accelerate. With maximum allowable voltage reduction, the
motor will still draw two to four times the full load
amps (FLA) during starting. Additionally, rapid
acceleration associated with wye-delta starters can
wear belts and other power transmission
components.
VFDs as Starters
A VFD is the ideal soft starter since it provides the
lowest inrush of any starter type as shown in
Table B. Unlike all other types of starters, the VFD
can use frequency to limit the power and current
delivered to the motor. The VFD will start the motor
by delivering power at a low frequency. At this low
frequency, the motor does not require a high level of
current. The VFD incrementally increases the
frequency and motor speed until the desired speed is
2
This is a significant consideration for "soft" systems
such as backup generators.
Total volts x
KVA
kVAR
KVA = kW + kVAR
2
Energy used
Energy
usedtoto
build // decay
build
decay
magnetic field
s
magnetic
fields
in motors,
in
motors,
transfor mers etc.etc.
transformers,
kW
Power
consu
med as
Power
consumed
heat,
work
as sound,
heat, sound,
etc.work, etc.
Typical AC motors may have a full load power factor ranging from 0.84 to 0.88. As the motor load is
reduced, the power factor becomes lower. Utilities
may require site power factor values ranging from
0.85 to 0.95 and impose penalties to enforce this
requirement. Power factor correction capacitors can
be added to reduce the reactive current measured
upstream of the capacitors and increase the measured power factor. To prevent damage to the motor,
power factor correction capacitors should not exceed
the motor manufacturers recommendations. In most
cases, this results in maximum corrected values of
0.90 to 0.95.
The VFDs include capacitors in the DC Bus that perform the same function and maintain high power
factor on the line side of the VFD. This eliminates
the need to add power factor correction equipment to
the motor or use expensive capacitor banks. In addition, VFDs often result in higher line side power factor values than constant speed motors equipped with
correction capacitors.
Low Full Load KVA
Total Power (KVA) is often the limiting factor in the
amount of energy that can be transmitted through an
electrical device or system. If the KVA required by
equipment can be reduced during periods of peak
demand, it will help alleviate voltage sags, brown
outs, and power outages. The unit efficiency and
power factor are equally weighted when calculating
KVA. Therefore, equipment that may be equal or
worse in efficiency, but higher in power factor has
significantly lower KVA (Table C).
In this example, equipment with a higher power factor uses 15% less KVA while performing the same
Power
Factor
Amps
Volts
KVA
350.4
.84
502
Nominal 480
417
350.4
.99
426
Nominal 480
354
A harmonic is any current form at an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, for
60-hertz power supplies, harmonics would be at
120 hertz (2 x fundamental), 180 hertz, 240 hertz,
300 hertz, etc.
What Causes Harmonics?
VFDs draw current from the line only when the line
voltage is greater than the DC Bus voltage inside the
drive. This occurs only near the peaks of the sine
wave. As a result, all of the current is drawn in short
intervals (i.e., at higher frequencies). Variation in
VFD design affects the harmonics produced. For
example, VFDs equipped with DC link inductors
produce different levels of harmonics than similar
VFDs without DC link inductors. The VFDs with
active front ends utilizing transistors in the rectifier
section have much lower harmonic levels than
VFDs using diodes or silicon controlled rectifiers
(SCRs).
Electronic lighting ballasts, uninterruptible power
supplies, computers, office equipment, ozone generators, and other high intensity lighting are also
sources of harmonics.
Rocks and Ponds
Obviously, the magnitude of the contributing wave
forms has an effect on the shape of the resultant
wave form. If the fundamental wave form (60 Hz)
has a very large magnitude (5,000 amps) and the
harmonic wave forms are very low (10 amps), then
the resultant wave form will not be very distorted
and total harmonic distortion will be low. If the harmonic wave form current value is high relative to
the fundamental, the effect will be more dramatic.
In nature, we see this effect with waves in water. If
you continually throw baseball size rocks into the
ocean, you would not expect to change the shape of
the waves crashing onto the beach. However, if you
threw those same size rocks into a bathtub, you
would definitely observe the effects. It is similar
with electrical waves and harmonics.
The neutral wire sizing should account for 3rd order
harmonic current.
Fundamental
Current (rms)
Harmonic
Current (rms )
THD(I)
TDD
1000
50
5%
5%
800
43.8
5.4%
4.4%
600
36.3
6.1%
3.6%
400
29.7
7.4%
3.0%
200
20.0
10%
2%
100
13.4
13.4%
1.3%
Table E
Representation of IEEE Table 10.3
ISC/IL
<20
<11
11<7<17
17<h<23
23<h<35
35<h
TDD
4.0
2.0
1.5
0.6
0.3
5.0
20<50
7.0
3.5
2.5
1.0
0.5
8.0
50<100
10.0
4.5
4.0
1.5
0.7
12.0
100<1000
12.0
5.5
5.0
2.0
1.0
15.0
>1000
15.0
7.0
6.0
2.5
1.4
20.0
Passive Filters
Trap Filters are devices that include an electrical circuit consisting of inductors, reactors, and capacitors
designed to provide a low impedance path to ground
at the targeted frequency. Since current will travel
through the lowest impedance path, this prevents the
harmonic current at the targeted frequency from
propagating through the system. Filters can be
mounted inside the drive cabinet or as free standing
devices. Trap filters are typically quoted to meet a
THD(I) value that would result in compliance with
IEEE-519 requirements if the system were otherwise already in compliance.
Active Filters
Some devices measure harmonic currents and
quickly create opposite current harmonic wave
forms. The two wave forms then cancel out, preventing harmonic currents from being observed
upstream of the filter. These types of filters generally have excellent harmonic mitigation characteristics. Active filters may reduce generator size
requirements.
9
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
10
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