Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Compilation of Biology Essays Updated
Compilation of Biology Essays Updated
ikmal hafizah
A+
1
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Phagocytosis
The pseupodia are also used for
feeding.
Amoeba sp. engulfs food by
phagocytosis.
Amoeba sp. is a holozoic
organisms which feed on
microscopic organisms such as
bacteria.
The presence of food causes
Amoeba sp.to advance by
extending its pseupodia.
The pseupodia encloses the food
which is then packaged in food
vacoule.
The food vacoule fuses with
lysosome and the food is digested
by hydrolitic enzyme called
lysozyme.
The resulting nutrients are
absorbed into the cytoplasm.
Facilitated Diffusion
Simple Diffusion
Net movement of molecules or
ions from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Going down concentration
gradient until an equilibrium is
achieved.
The particles are distibuted
equally throughout the system.
The concentration gradient
provides energy to move the
molecules into and out of the
cells.
ikmal hafizah
Active Transport
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
For
water
soluble
molecules//molecules which are
not soluble in lipids (ions, nucleic
acid, amino acids and glucose)
Carrier Protein
The carrier protein function by
binding to the molecules to
pass through the plasma
membrane.
The molecules move to the
carrier protein which is specific
for the molecules.
Molecules bind with the carrier
protein at the active site.
Carrier protein changes its
shape and pass the molecules
through
the
plasma
membrane.
Hypotonic solution
Concentration of solute outside a cell is
lower than concentration of solute inside
cell.
Animal cells
Is said to be hypotonic solution.
Cell placed in hypotonic solution.
Net movement of water into the
cells via osmosis.
Cell swells up.
When extremely hypotonic, cells
will eventually burst
Cannot withstand the osmotic
pressure because of thin plasma
membrane.
Hypertonic solution
The concentration of solute in the
solution is higher than the concentration
of solutes within the cell.
Animal cells
Net movement of water from
inside to the outside of the cell.
Cells shrink//shrivel, internal
pressure decrease.
Red blood cells immersed in
hypertonic solution , the cell
shrink and the plasma membrane
crinkles up.
Cell undergone crenation.
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Plant
cells
Do not burst
Rigid cell wall.
Water diffuse into vacoule of cell
via osmosis.
Cell swells up and becomes turgid
Tugor pressure in plant.
Supporting the plant.
Plant cells
Water diffuse out via osmosis.
Vacoule and cytoplasm shrink and
plasma membrane pulls away
from the cell wall.
This process called plasmolysis.
Cell becomes flaccid.
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
D5
Facilitated diffusion
Down the concentration gradient
Molecules moves from higher concentration to
lower concentration
Molecules move in both direction across the
plasma membrane
Molecules can move through pore protein
or/and carrier protein
No ATP/energy used
Molecule can move through pore protein
without binding
Molecules need carrier protein and pore
protein to help the movement
Could achieve equilibrium
D6
D1
E1
D2
E2
D3
E3
D4
Active transport
Against the concentration gradient
Molecules moves from lower
concentration to higher concentration
Molecules move in one direction across
the plasma membrane
Molecules move through carrier protein
But
ATP/energy is used
Energy needed for binding/bind with
active site
Need carrier protein only to help
movement
Will not achieve equilibrium/result in
accumulation
Depend on cellular respiration/energy
General characteristics of enzymes
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Extracellular enzyme
cohesion.
Providing miosture (respiratory
surfaces such as alveoli).
Maintaining osmotic balance and
turgidity.
Lock and key hypothesis
ikmal hafizah
mercury
Require helper molecules, called
cofactors.
Inorganic cofactor : ferum, copper
Organic cofactor: water soluble
vitamins, B vitamins .
Effects of temperature on enzyme
activity
At low temperature, reaction
takes place slowly.
As temperature increases,
movement of substrate increase.
Increase their chances of colliding
with each other and with the
active site of the enzymes.
At optimum temperature, the
reaction is at maximum rate.
Beyond the optimum
temperature, rate of reaction will
not increase.
Bonds that hold enzyme
molecules begin to break.
Actives sites destroyed.
Enzyme denatured.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Telophase
Chromosomes reach the opposite
poles of the cell.
Chromosomes uncoil and revert
to their extended
state(chromatin).
Metaphase
Chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate//equatorial
plate//middle of the cell.
Mitotic spindle are fully formed.
Two sister chromatids are still
attached to one another at the
centromere.
Ends when the centromere
divides.
Cytokinesis
Process of cytoplasmic division.
Begins before nuclear division is
completed.
Actin filament formed contractile
ring.
Contracts and constrict pull aring
of plasma membrane inwards.
Groove of cleavage furrow
pinches at the equator between
two nuclei.
Vesicles join to form a cell plate.
Cell plate grows until it edges
fuse with the plasma membrane
of the cell. Cell divides.
Cellulose are produced by the cell
to strengthen the new cell walls.
ikmal hafizah
Anaphase
Two sister chromatids separate at
the centromere.
Sister chromatids pulled apart at
opposite poles.
Chromatids are referred to as
daughter chromosomes.
Uncontrolled mitosis
Cell divides through mitosis
repeatedly without control.
Produce cancerous cells.
Cancer is a genetic disease
caused by uncontrolled mitosis.
Disruption of cell cycle.
Cancerous cells divides freely and
uncontrollably not according to
the cell cycle.
These cells compete with
surrounding normal cells for
energy and nutrients.
Cancer cells formed tumour.
Tumour invade and destroy
neighbouring cells.
7
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Animal cloning
Somatic cells (from the mammary
gland cells) are removed and
grown in a culture.
Cells stop dividing and enter a
non-diving phase.
Unfertilised egg is obtained. The
nucleus is sucked out, leaving the
cytoplasm and organelles without
any chromosomes.
Electric pulse stimulates the
fusion between the somatic cells
and egg cell without nucleus.
Cells divide repeatedly forming an
embryo.
The embryo is then implanted in a
surrogate mother.
The cloned sheep of the somatic
cell donor is born.
Disadvantages of cloning
Long-term side effects are not yet
known.
May undergo natural mutations.
Disrupt the natural equilibrium of
an ecosystem.
Clones do not show any genetic
variations.
Has the same level of resistance
Tissue culture
Small part of plant is cut. E.g :
shoots, bud.
The part is called explant.
Enzymes are used to digest the
cell walls of tissue.
Cells are naked (protoplast).
Explant/protoplast are steriled
then placed in a glass container
which contains a nutrient
solution.
Culture medium (glucose, amino
acids).
Apparatus must be steriled to
make sure free from
microorganisms (bacteria).
pH and temperature must be at
optimum level.
Explant divides by mitosis.
Develops into callus.
Callus develops into somatic
embryo (planlet).
Then transferred to soil for
growth.
Meiosis I
1. During prophase I, homologous
chromosomes pair up (synapsis)
and crossing over between non
sister chromatids occurs.
2. During Metaphase I, homologous
chromosomes align at the
metaphase plate (equator,
middle) of the cell.
3. During Anaphase I, homologous
ikmal hafizah
Advantages of cloning
Biotechnologists to multiply
copies of useful genes or clones.
Clones can be produced in a
shorter time and in large
numbers.
Cloned plants, however, can
produced flowers and fruits within
a shorter period.
Clones are better quality.
Delayed ripening.
Does not need polinating agents.
Propagation can take place at any
time.
Meiosis II
1. During Prophase II, synapsis of
homologous chromosomes and
crossing over between non-sister
chromatids do not take place.
2. During Metaphase II,
chromosomes consisting of two
sister chromatids align at the
metaphase plate (equator/middle)
8
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
of cell.
3. During Anaphase II, sister
chromatids separate, becoming
daughter chromosomes that
move to opposite poles.
4. At the end of Telophase II, four
haploid daughter cells are formed.
Each daughter cell has the same
number of chromosomes as the
haploid cell produced in Meiosis I,
but each has only one of the
sister chromatids.
Synthesis of enzymes
1. The information for the synthesis of enzymes is carriied by the DNA
- The sequences of bases on the DNA are codes to make proteins
2. In the nucleus, the DNA double helix unwinds and exposes its two strands for the synthesis of a messenger RNA
(mRNA) strand
- The messenger RNA is synthesised according to the instruction on the DNA
3. The messenger RNA then leaves teh nucleus and moves to a ribosome
4. The messenger RNA attaches itself to the ribosome
- The ribosome acts as a workbench for the messenger RNA
- The messenger RNA contains information which codes for the sequence of amino acids
5. This genetic information is translated into the primary structure of specific protein
6. Each amino acid is bonded to the next and as a result, a chain of amino acids (polypeptide) is formed and is ready for
release into the cytoplasm.
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Digestion in mouth
Secretion of saliva by three pairs
of salivary glands
Saliva contains the enzyme
salivary amylase
Begins the hydrolysis of starch to
maltose.
Salivary
Starch + water
amylase
maltose
Digestion in stomach
Epithelial lining of the stomach
contains gastric glands.
These glands secrete gastric
juice. Consists of mucus, HCL and
enzyme pepsin and renin.
HCL make the pH around 2.0.
High acidity destroy bacteria.
Acidity stop the activity of
salivary amylase enzyme.
pepsin
Protein + water
polypeptides
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
Digestion
11
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
Protein
- In stomach, pepsin breakdown
protein into polypeptides.
- HCL being secreted to provide
acidic medium for the
digestion to occur.
- In duodenum, trypsin
breakdown polypeptides into
peptides.
- In small intestine, arepsin
break dwon peptides into
amino acids.
Fats
- Bile salts breaking up fats into
small fat droplets in the
duodenum.
- In duodenum/small intestine,
lipase breaks lipids into fatty
acids and glycerol.
Carbohydrates
- In mouth, salivary amylase
hydrolyse starch into maltose.
- In duodenum, pancreatic
amylase hydrolyse starch into
maltose.
- In small intestine, maltase
hydrolyse maltose into
glucose.
12
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
13
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
Formation faeces
Faeces which contain dead cells
that are shed from intestinal
linings, toxic substances and bile
pigments enter the colon by
action of peristalsis.
In colon, more water is absorbed.
The undigested food residues
harden to become faeces.
Faeces contain undigestible
residues that remain after the
process of digestion and
absorption of nutrients that take
place in the small intestine.
14
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Photosynthesis mechanism
The formation of starch in plants
is by the process
ofphotosynthesis which occurs in
chloroplasts.
The two stages in photosynthesis
are the light and dark reactions.
Light reaction:
P3:Takes place in grana.
P4: Chlorophyll captures light
energy which excites the
electrons of chlorophyll molecules
to higher energy levels.
P5: In the excited state, the
electrons can leave the
chlorophyll molecules.
P6: Light energy is also used to
split water molecules into
hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl
ions (OH-) (Photolysis of water).
P7: The hydrogen ions then
combine with the electrons
released by chlorophyll to form
hydrogen atoms.
Photosynthesis mechanism
P8: The energy from the excited
electrons is used to form energyrich molecules of adenosine
triphosphate /ATP.
P9: Hydroxyl ion loses an electron
to form a hydroxyl group. This
electron is then received by
chlorophyll.
P10: The hydroxyl groups then
combine to form water and
gaseous oxygen.
Dark Reaction:
P11: Take place in stroma.
P12: Do not require light energy.
P13: The hydrogen atoms are
used to fix carbon dioxide in a
series of reactions catalysed by
photosynthetic enzymes
P14: and caused the reduction of
carbon dioxide into glucose.
P15: The glucose monomers then
undergo condensation to form
starch which is temporarily stored
as starch grains in the
chloroplasts.
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
16
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Aerobic respiration
ATP
energy
ikmal hafizah
Similarities between the sturucture of digestive and digestion process of ruminants and rodents
S1
P1
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
P2
S2
P1
ikmal hafizah
18
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
Differences between the sturucture of digestive and digestion process of ruminants and rodents
Aspects
Number of stomach chamber
Size of caecum
Bacteria
Number of times yhe food
passes through the stomach
chamber
Regurgitated
D1
E1
D2
E2
D3
E3
D4
E4
Ruminant (has)
4 stomach chamber
Have to digest cellulose
Small//short caecum
Do not digest cellulose
In reticulum
For secrete cellulase enzyme
Twice
To complete the digestion//
D5
But
Rodent (has)
1 stomach chamber
Do not have to digest cellulose
Big//long size caecum
A place to digest cellulose
In caecum
For secrete cellulase enzyme
Once
To absorb digested food
Once in mouth cavity
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
muscles.
During inhalation the external
intercostals muscle contracts
and raise the lower ribs.
alveoli.
Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to
release oxygen.
Carbon dioxide released by
repairing cells can be
transported by dissolve carbon
dioxide in the blood plasma.
Bind to the haemoglobin.
As carbaminohaemoglobin.
In form of bicarbonate ions.
Carbon dioxide is expelled with
water vapour from the lung.
ikmal hafizah
cells.
To form oxyhaemoglobin.
When the blood passed the
tissue with low partial pressure
of oxygen,
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
surface of earth.
Earth temperature increases.
ikmal hafizah
22
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Type of immunity
-
ikmal hafizah
Blood clotting
Phagocytosis
-
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Respiratory gases
Transportation in respiratory gas.
- oxygen enters alveoli during
inhalation
- gaseous exchange occurred at
alveoli (oxygen diffused into
blood capillaries while carbon
dioxide diffused out)
- the diffusion of these gases
caused by different of partial
pressure of both gaseous
- partial pressure of oxygen in
alveoli is higher than partial
pressure of oxygen in blood
capillaries
- oxygen diffused in cytoplasm of
red blood cell
- oxygen combines with
haemoglobin forming
oxyhaemoglobin
- oxyhaemoglobin then sent to all
parts of body
- heart pumped the oxygenated
blood to all body cells
- oxygen diffused from blood
ikmal hafizah
lysosome
lysosome releases lysozyme into
phagosome
bacterium inside the phagosome
will be destroyed by lysozyme
phagocyte releases the digested
products from cell
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
25
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
26
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
27
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
29
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
30
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
31
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Submerged plants
- posses air sacs within the leaves
and the stem to help the plant to
stay upright in water
- water buoyancy provides support
- have very few woody
tissue/vascular tissue
- thin/narrow/flexible leaves
provide little resistance to water
flow
Floating plants
- stem have plenty of air sacs
- aerenchyma tissues helps to stay
afloat in water
- do not have woody tissues
- natural water buoyancy to help
them float
- have broad leaves that are firm
but flexible to resist being torned
by wave action
Osteoporosis
- a disease in which bone mass is
reduced and the boned become
porous and lighter
- occurse most often in old people,
partially women who have gone
menopause
- bodies of postmenopausal women
do not produce sex hormone,
oestrogen
- causes more bone minerals to be
lost than deposited
- as a results, bones become soft
and brittle
- can be prevented by
o doing weight-bearing
exercise, strengthen the
muscles and bones
o taking diet rich in calcium,
phosphorus and vitamin D
o takin in vitamin C, increase
bone mass
o refraining from smoking
Osteoarthritis
- Osteoarthritis is part of ageing
process due to wear and tear of
cartilage between bones at
certain joints
- Patient has painful, swollen stiff
knees which restrict daily
ikmal hafizah
32
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
33
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
34
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
35
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
Knee jerk
36
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
37
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
At synapse
- when an impulse reach a
presynaptic membrane, it triggers
the synaptic vesicles to release
neutrotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft
- the neurotransmitter diffuse
across the synaptic cleft
- and bind to receptors which are
attached to the postsynaptic
membrane
- the binding of the
neurotransmitter to the receptors
leads to the generation of a new
impulse
- impulses leave the spinal cord
along the motor/efferent neurone
to the effector
ikmal hafizah
38
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
39
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
Formation of urine
-
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
convoluted tubule
- urea/toxins/ammonia/ect being
secreted by passive diffusion and
active transport from blood
capillary into distal convoluted
tubule
- filtrate reaches the collecting duct
(now called urine). flows down the
ureter, the bladder and urethra
and is finally excreted
Geotropism is brought about in a
plant root and shoot - advantages
Shoot
- the auxin that is produced at the
tip of shoot
- auxin moves
downwards/accumulate on the
underside of the shoot tip due to
the pull of gravity
- the high concentration of auxin
accelerates the growth
- stimulating greater cell
elongation on the underside
relative to the cells on the upper
side
- this differential elongation causes
the shoot to bend away from
gravity/grow upwards
Root
- the auxin that is produced at the
tip of root
- auxin moves
downwards/accumulates on the
underside of the root tip due to
ikmal hafizah
BIOLOGY FORM4&5
ikmal hafizah
42