Limits

Definitions
Limit at Infinity : We say lim f ( x ) = L if we
Precise Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L if
x a

for every e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that

whenever 0 < x - a < d then f ( x ) - L < e .

can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want by

taking x large enough and positive.

Working Definition : We say lim f ( x ) = L

There is a similar definition for lim f ( x ) = L

if we can make f ( x ) as close to L as we want

by taking x sufficiently close to a (on either side
of a) without letting x = a .

except we require x large and negative

x -

om

x a

Infinite Limit : We say lim f ( x ) = if we

x a

can make f ( x ) arbitrarily large (and positive)

by taking x sufficiently cl se to a (on either side
of a) without letting x = a .

Right hand limit : lim+ f ( x ) = L . This has

.c

x a

the same definition as the limit except it

requires x > a .

ce

There is a simila defin tion for lim f ( x ) = -

Left hand limit : lim- f ( x ) = L . This has the

x a

except we make f ( x ) arbitrarily large and

negative.

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

x a

lim f ( x ) lim- f ( x lim f ( x ) Does Not Exist

x a

ra

same definition as the limit except it requires

x<a.
Relationship between the limit and one-sided limits
lim f ( x ) = L lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L
lim f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L lim f ( x ) = L
x a +

x a

x a

x a

xa

Properties
Assume lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) both exist and c is any number then,

.e

1. lim cf ( x ) = c lim f ( x )
x a
x a

w
w

2. lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )

x a
xa
x a
3. lim f ( x ) g ( x ) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x a
x a
x a

f ( x)
f ( x ) lim
4. lim
= x a
provided lim g ( x ) 0

x a
x a g ( x )
g ( x)

lim
x a
n

n
5. lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )
x a
x a

6. lim n f ( x ) = n lim f ( x )

x a
xa

Basic Limit Evaluations at

Note sgn ( a ) = 1 if a > 0 and sgn ( a ) = -1 if a < 0 .

1. lim e x = &
x

2. lim ln ( x ) =
x

lim e x = 0

x-

&

lim ln ( x ) = -

x 0 -

b
=0
xr
4. If r > 0 and x r is real for negative x
b
then lim r = 0
x - x
3. If r > 0 then lim

5. n even : lim x n =
x

6. n odd : lim x n = & lim x n = -

x

x -

7. n even : lim a x + L + b x + c = sgn ( a )

n

8. n odd : lim a x n + L + b x + c = sgn ( a )

x

9. n odd : lim a x n + L + c x + d = - sgn ( a )

x -

Evaluation Techniques
Continuous Functions
LHospitals Rule
f ( x) 0
f ( x)
If f ( x ) is continuous at a then lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x a
If lim
= or lim
=
then,
x a g ( x )
x a g ( x )
0

Continuous Functions and Composition

f ( x)
f ( x)
lim
=
lim
a is a number, or -
f ( x ) is continuous at b and lim g ( x ) = b then
x a g ( x )
x a g ( x )
x a

x a

Polynomials at Infinity
p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials. To compute

Factor and Cancel

( x - 2 )( x + 6 )
x 2 + 4 x - 12
lim
= lim
2
x2
x2
x - 2x
x ( x - 2)

p ( x)
factor largest power of x out of both
x q ( x )
lim

-1
1
=(18)( 6 ) 108
Combine Rational Expressions
1 1
1
1 x - ( x + h)
lim
- = lim

h 0 h x + h
x h 0 h x ( x + h )

1 -h
= lim
=
lim

h 0 h x ( x + h )
h x ( x + h )

p ( x ) and q ( x ) and then compute limit.

.c
(

xa

Piecewise Function

1
x2

x 2 + 5 if x < -2
lim g ( x ) where g ( x ) =
x -2
1 - 3x if x -2
Compute two one sided limits,
lim g ( x ) = lim- x 2 + 5 = 9
-

x -2

x -2+

x -2

lim g ( x ) = lim+ 1 - 3 x = 7

One sided limits are different so lim g ( x )

x -2

doesnt exist. If the two one sided limits had

been equal then lim g ( x ) would have existed
x -2

and had the same value.

.e

x 2 3 42
3 - 42
3x 2 - 4
3
x
lim
= lim 2 5
= lim 5 x =
x - 5 x - 2 x 2
x
x
2
x x -2
x -2

ra

x+6 8
= lim
= =4
x2
x
2
Rationalize Numerator/Denominator
3- x
3- x 3+ x
lim 2
= lim 2
x 9 x - 81
x 9 x - 81 3 +
x
9- x
-1
= lim
= lim
2
x 9
( x - 81) 3 + x x9 ( x + 9 ) 3 + x

om

lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( b )

ce

x a

w
w

Some Continuous Functions

Partial list of continuous functions and the values of x for which they are continuous.
1. Polynomials for all x.
7. cos ( x ) and sin ( x ) for all x.
2. Rational function, xcept for xs that give
8. tan ( x ) and sec ( x ) provided
division by zero.
3p p p 3p
3. n x (n odd for all x.
x L , - , - , , ,L
2
2 2 2
4.
x (n even) for all x 0 .
9. cot ( x ) and csc ( x ) provided
5. e x for all x.
x L , -2p , -p , 0, p , 2p ,L
6. ln x for x > 0 .
Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose that f ( x ) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f ( a ) and f ( b ) .
Then there exists a number c such that a < c < b and f ( c ) = M .

Derivatives
Definition and Notation
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
.
If y = f ( x ) then the derivative is defined to be f ( x ) = lim
h 0
h
If y = f ( x ) then all of the following are
equivalent notations for the derivative.
df dy d
f ( x ) = y =
=
= ( f ( x ) ) = Df ( x )
dx dx dx

If y = f ( x ) all of the following are equivalent

om

notations for derivative evaluated at x = a .

df
dy
f ( a ) = y x =a =
=
= Df a )
dx x =a dx x =a

Interpretation of the Derivative

2. f ( a ) is the instantan ous rate of

If y = f ( x ) then,

change of f ( x ) at x = a .

.c

1. m = f ( a ) is the slope of the tangent

line to y = f ( x ) at x = a and the

3. If f ( x ) is the position of an object at

time x hen f ( a ) is the velocity of

ce

equation of the tangent line at x = a is

given by y = f ( a ) + f ( a )( x - a ) .

th object at x = a .

ra

Basic Properties and Form las

If f ( x ) and g ( x ) are differentiable functions (the de ivative exists), c and n are any real numbers,
1.

( c f ) = c f ( x )

2.

( f g ) = f ( x ) g ( x )

3.

( f g ) =

xa

f g + f g Product Rule

f g - f g
Quotient Rule
=
g2

.e

f
4.
g

w
w

d
( x) = 1
dx
d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
( cos x ) = in x
dx
d
( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx
d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx

d
(c) = 0
dx
d n
6.
x ) = n x n-1 Power Rule
(
dx
d
7.
f ( g ( x )) = f ( g ( x )) g ( x )
dx
This is the Chain Rule
5.

Common Derivatives
d
( csc x ) = - csc x cot x
dx
d
( cot x ) = - csc2 x
dx
d
1
sin -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 - x2
d
1
cos -1 x ) = (
dx
1 - x2
d
1
tan -1 x ) =
(
dx
1 + x2

d x
a ) = a x ln ( a )
(
dx
d x
e ) = ex
(
dx
d
1
ln ( x ) ) = , x > 0
(
dx
x
d
1
( ln x ) = x , x 0
dx
d
1
log a ( x ) ) =
, x>0
(
dx
x ln a

Chain Rule Variants

The chain rule applied to some specific functions.
n
n -1
d
d
1.
f ( x ) = n f ( x ) f ( x )
5.
cos f ( x ) = - f ( x ) sin f ( x )
dx
dx
d f ( x)
d
f x
e
tan f ( x ) = f ( x ) sec 2 f ( x )
2.
= f ( x)e ( )
6.
dx
dx
d

f ( x)
d
7.
( sec [ f ( x)]) = f ( x) sec [ f ( x)] tan [ f ( x)]
3.
ln f ( x ) =
dx
dx
f ( x)
f ( x)
d
d
tan -1 f ( x ) =
8.
4.
sin f ( x ) = f ( x ) cos f ( x )
dx
1 + f ( x )
dx

om

( )

ra

ce

.c

Higher Order Derivatives

The Second Derivative is denoted as
The nth Derivative is denoted as
d2 f
dn f
f ( x ) = f ( 2) ( x ) = 2 and is defined as
f ( n ) ( x ) = n and is defined as
dx
dx
f ( x ) = ( f ( x ) ) , i.e. the derivative of the
f ( n ) ( x ) = f ( n - ) ( x ) , i.e. the derivative of
first derivative, f ( x ) .
the (n-1)s derivative, f ( n-1) x .

xa

Implicit Differentiation
2 x -9 y
3 2

Find y if e
+ x y = sin ( y ) + 11x . Remember y = y ( x ) here, so products/quotients of x and y
will use the product/quotient rule and derivatives of y will use the chain rule. The trick is to
differentiate as normal and every time you differentiate a y you tack on a y (from the chain rule).
After differentiating solve for y .
e 2 x -9 y ( 2 - 9 y ) + 3 x 2 y 2 + 2 x3 y y = cos ( y ) y + 11
- 9 ye

( 2 x y - 9e x
3

2 x -9 y

2 -9 y

+ 3x y + 2 x y y = cos ( y ) y + 11
2

- cos ( y ) ) y = 11 - 2e2 x -9 y - 3x 2 y 2

11 - 2e 2 x -9 y - 3x 2 y 2
y = 3
2 x y - 9e2 x -9 y - cos ( y )

.e

2e

2 x -9 y

w
w

Increasing/Decreasing Concave Up/Concave Down

Critical Points
x = c is a critical poin of f ( x ) provided either
1. f ( c ) = 0 or 2 f ( c ) doesnt exist.

Increasing/Decreasing
1. If f ( x ) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is increasing on the interval I.

2. If f ( x ) < 0 for all x in an interval I then

f ( x ) is decreasing on the interval I.
3. If f ( x ) = 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is constant on the interval I.

Concave Up/Concave Down

1. If f ( x ) > 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is concave up on the interval I.
2. If f ( x ) < 0 for all x in an interval I then
f ( x ) is concave down on the interval I.
Inflection Points
x = c is a inflection point of f ( x ) if the
concavity changes at x = c .

Absolute Extrema
1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x in the domain.

Extrema
Relative (local) Extrema
1. x = c is a relative (or local) maximum of
f ( x ) if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x near c.
2. x = c is a relative (or local) minimum of
f ( x ) if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x near c.

2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f ( x )
if f ( c ) f ( x ) for all x in the domain.

1st Derivative Test

If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) th n x = c is

om

Fermats Theorem
If f ( x ) has a relative (or local) extrema at

1. a rel. max. of f ( x ) if f ( x ) > 0 to the left

x = c , then x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) .

of x = c and f ( x ) < 0 to t e righ of x = c .

2. a rel. min. of f ( x ) if f ( x ) < 0 to the left

Extreme Value Theorem

If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval

.c

of x = c and f ( x ) > 0 to the right of x = c .

[ a, b] then there exist numbers c and d so that,

1. a c, d b , 2. f ( c ) is the abs. max. in
[ a, b] , 3. f ( d ) is the abs. min. in [ a, b] .

ce

3. not a relative extr ma of f ( x ) if f ( x ) is

the same sign n both sides of x = c .

ra

2nd Derivative Test

If x = c is a critical point of f ( x ) such that
f ( c ) = 0 then x = c

Finding Absolute Extrema

To find the absolute extrema of the continuous
function f ( x ) on the interval [ a, b ] use the
following process.
1. Find all critical points of f ( x ) in [ a b]

xa

2. Evaluate f ( x ) at all points found in Step 1.

w
w

.e

3. Evaluate f ( a ) and f ( b ) .
4. Identify the abs. max. (la gest function
value) and the abs. min.(smallest function
value) from the evaluations in Steps 2 & 3.

is a relative maximum of f ( x ) if f ( c ) < 0 .

2. is a relative minimum of f ( x ) if f ( c ) > 0 .

3. may be a relative maximum, relative
minimum, or neither if f ( c ) = 0 .
Finding Relative Extrema and/or
Classify Critical Points
1. Find all critical points of f ( x ) .
2. Use the 1st derivative test or the 2nd
derivative test on each critical point.

Mean Value Theorem

If f ( x ) is continuous on the closed interval [ a, b ] and differentiable on the open interval ( a, b )

then here is a number a < c < b such that f ( c ) =

f (b) - f ( a )
.
b-a

Newtons Method

If xn is the nth guess for the root/solution of f ( x ) = 0 then (n+1)st guess is xn +1 = xn provided f ( xn ) exists.

f ( xn )
f ( xn )

om

Related Rates
Sketch picture and identify known/unknown quantities. Write down equation relating quantities
and differentiate with respect to t using implicit differentiation (i.e. add on a derivative every time
you differentiate a function of t). Plug in known quantities and solve for the unknown quantity.
Ex. A 15 foot ladder is resting against a wall.
Ex. Two people are 50 ft apart when one
The bottom is initially 10 ft away and is being
starts walking north. The angle q changes at
0.01 rad/min. At what rate is the distance
pushed towards the wall at 14 ft/sec. How fast
between them changing when q = 0.5 rad?
is the top moving after 12 sec?

ra

ce

After 12 sec we have x = 10 - 12 ( 14 ) = 7 and

so y = 152 - 7 2 = 176 . Plug in and solve

for y .
7
7 ( - 14 ) + 176 y = 0 y =
ft/sec
4 176

We have q = 0.01 rad/min and want to find

x . We can use various trig fcns but easiest is,
x
x
sec q =
sec q tan q q =
50
50
We know q = 0 05 so plug in q and solve.
x
sec ( 0 5 ) tan ( 0.5 )( 0.01) =
50
x = 0.3112 ft/sec
Remember to have calculator in radians!

.c

x is negative because x is decreasing. Using

Pythagorean Theorem and differentiating,
x 2 + y 2 = 152 2 x x + 2 y y = 0

w
w

.e

xa

Optimization
Sketch picture if needed, write down equation to be ptimized and constraint. Solve constraint for
one of the two variables and plug into fi st equation. Find critical points of equation in range of
variables and verify that they are min/max as n eded.
Ex. Were enclosing a rectangular fi ld with
Ex. Determine point(s) on y = x 2 + 1 that are
500 ft of fence material and one side of the
closest to (0,2).
field is a building. Determine dimens ons that
will maximize the enclosed area.

Maximize A = xy subject to constraint of

x + 2 y = 500 So ve constraint for x and plug
into are
A = y ( 500 - 2 y )
x = 500 - 2 y
= 500 y - 2 y 2
Differentiate and find critical point(s).
A = 500 - 4 y y = 125
nd
By 2 deriv. test this is a rel. max. and so is
the answer were after. Finally, find x.
x = 500 - 2 (125 ) = 250
The dimensions are then 250 x 125.

Minimize f = d 2 = ( x - 0 ) + ( y - 2 ) and the

2

constraint is y = x 2 + 1 . Solve constraint for

x 2 and plug into the function.
2
x2 = y - 1 f = x2 + ( y - 2)
= y -1 + ( y - 2) = y 2 - 3 y + 3
Differentiate and find critical point(s).
f = 2y -3
y = 32
By the 2nd derivative test this is a rel. min. and
so all we need to do is find x value(s).
x 2 = 32 - 1 = 12 x = 12
2

The 2 points are then

1
2

, 32 and -

1
2

, 32 .

Integrals
Definitions
Anti-Derivative : An anti-derivative of f ( x )
Definite Integral: Suppose f ( x ) is continuous
on [ a, b] . Divide [ a, b ] into n subintervals of

is a function, F ( x ) , such that F ( x ) = f ( x ) .

width D x and choose x from each interval.

Indefinite Integral : f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c

*
i

where F ( x ) is an anti-derivative of f ( x ) .

f (x )D x .
a f ( x ) dx = nlim
i
b

*
i

=1

om

Then

ce

.c

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Variants of Part I :
Part I : If f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] then
d u( x)
x
f ( t ) dt = u ( x ) f u ( x )
g ( x ) = f ( t ) dt is also continuous on [ a, b ]
dx a
a
d b
d x
f ( t ) dt = -v ( x ) f v ( x )
and g ( x ) =
f
t
dt
=
f
x
.
()
( )

v( x )

dx
a
dx
d u( x)
Part II : f ( x ) is continuous on [ a, b ] , F ( x ) is
f ( t ) d = u ( ) f [ u ( x ) ] - v ( x ) f [ v ( x ) ]
dx v( x )
an anti-derivative of f ( x ) (i.e. F ( x ) = f ( x ) dx )
then f ( x ) dx = F ( b ) - F ( a ) .
a

a f ( x ) dx = -b f ( x ) dx
a

.e

xa

f ( x ) dx = 0

Properties

f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx
b
b
b
f
x

g
x
dx
=
f
x
dx

(
)
(
)
(
)
a
a
a g ( x ) dx

ra

If f ( x ) g ( x ) on a x b then

w
w

If f ( x ) 0 on a b then

cf ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b
b
cf
x
dx
=
c
(
)
a
a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant
b

f ( x ) dx = f ( t ) dt
b

f ( x ) dx
b

f ( x ) dx

f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx
b

f ( x ) dx 0
b

If m f ( x ) M on a x b then m ( b - a ) f ( x ) dx M ( b - a )

k dx = k x + c
n
n
1
x dx = n+1 x + c, n -1
x dx = x dx = ln x + c
a x + b dx = a ln ax + b + c
ln u du = u ln ( u ) - u + c
e du = e + c
+1

-1

Common Integrals
cos u du = sin u + c

sin u du = - cos u + c
sec u du = tan u + c
sec u tan u du = sec u + c
csc u cot udu = - csc u + c
csc u du = - cot u + c
2

tan u du = ln sec u + c
sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c
u
a + u du = a tan ( a ) + c
u
1
a - u du = sin ( a ) + c
1

-1

-1

Standard Integration Techniques

Note that at many schools all but the Substitution Rule tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.
( )
a f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) dx = g (a ) f ( u ) du

u Substitution : The substitution u = g ( x ) will convert

g b

using

du = g ( x ) dx . For indefinite integrals drop the limits of integration.

2

1 5x

cos ( x3 ) dx

1 5x

cos ( x3 ) dx =

u = x 3 du = 3x 2 dx x 2 dx = 13 du

5
cos
1 3

= 53 sin ( u ) 1 =
8

x = 1 u = 1 = 1 :: x = 2 u = 2 = 8
3

Integration by Parts : u dv = uv - v du and

a u dv = uv

b
a

u=x

xe

-x

dx

Ex.

dv = e- x

du = dx v = -e - x

dx = - xe + e dx = - xe - e
-x

-x

-x

-x

.c

-x

3 ln x dx

ce

xe

u = ln x

+c

( sin (8) - sin (1) )

- v du . Choos u and dv from

integral and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v = dv .

Ex.

5
3

( u ) du

om

Ex.

dv = dx du = 1x dx v = x

ln x dx = x ln x 3 - dx = ( x ln ( x ) - x )
5

ra

= 5ln ( 5) - 3ln ( 3) - 2

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

For sin n x cos m x dx we have the following
For tan n x sec m x dx we have the following :

w
w

.e

xa

1. n odd. Strip 1 sine out and convert rest to

1.
2
2
cosines using sin x = 1 - cos x , then use
the substitution u = cos x .
2. m odd. Strip 1 cosine out and co vert rest
2.
to sines using cos 2 x = 1 - sin 2 x , then use
the substitution u = sin x .
3. n and m both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. n and m both e n. Use double angle
3.
and/or half angle formulas to reduce the
4.
integral into a form that can be integrated.
Trig Formulas : sin ( 2 x ) = 2sin ( x ) cos ( x ) , cos 2 ( x ) =

tan

Ex.

tan

x sec5 x dx

= ( sec2 x - 1) sec 4 x tan x sec xdx

= 17 sec7 x - 15 sec5 x + c

cos x dx
(sin x ) sin x
sin x
sin x sin x
cos x dx = cos x dx = cos x dx
(1- cos x ) sin x
=
dx
( u = cos x )
cos x
= - (1-u ) du = - 1-2u +u du
u
u
sin5 x

Ex.

x sec5 xdx = tan 2 x sec 4 x tan x sec xdx

= ( u 2 - 1) u 4 du

n odd. Strip 1 tangent and 1 secant out and

convert the rest to secants using
tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 , then use the substitution
u = sec x .
m even. Strip 2 secants out and convert rest
to tangents using sec2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then
use the substitution u = tan x .
n odd and m even. Use either 1. or 2.
n even and m odd. Each integral will be
dealt with differently.
2
1
1
2 (1 + cos ( 2 x ) ) , sin ( x ) = 2 (1 - cos ( 2 x ) )

( u = sec x )

2 2

= 12 sec2 x + 2 ln cos x - 12 cos 2 x + c

Trig Substitutions : If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and
formula to convert into an integral involving trig functions.
a 2 - b 2 x 2 x = ab sin q

b 2 x 2 - a 2 x = ba sec q

cos 2 q = 1 - sin 2 q
Ex.

16
2

4 -9 x 2

tan 2 q = sec 2 q - 1

dx

x = 23 sin q dx = 23 cos q dq

( 23 cos q ) dq = sin122 q dq

16
4 sin 2 q ( 2cosq )
9

om

.c

Use Right Triangle Trig to go back to xs. From

substitution we have sin q = 32x so,

From this we see hat cot q =

ce

Recall x 2 = x . Because we have an indefinite

integral well assume positive and drop absolute
value bars. If we had a definite integral wed
need to compute q s and remove absolute value
bars based on that and,
x if x 0
x =
- x if x < 0

4 - 9x = 2 cos q .

16

4 -9 x 2

dx = - 4

4 -9 x 2
3x

4 -9 x 2
x

. So,

+c

ra

Partial Fractions : If integrating

sec2 q = 1 + tan 2 q

= 12 csc 2 dq = -12 cot q + c

2
2
4 - 9x 2 = 4 - 4sin q = 4 cos q = 2 cos q

In this case we have

a 2 + b 2 x 2 x = ab tan q

P( x )

Q( x) dx where the degree of P ( x ) is smaller than the degree of

Factor in Q ( x )

xa

Q ( x ) . Factor denominator as completely as possible nd find the partial fraction decomposition of

the rational expression. Integrate the partial f action decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the
denominator we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.
Term in P.F D Factor in Q ( x )
A
ax + b

.e

ax + b

Ax + B
ax + bx + c

w
w

ax 2 + bx + c

Ex.

( ax

7 x2 +13 x

( x -1)( x

7 x2 +13 x

( x -1)( x2 4 )

( ax + b )

Ak
A1
A2
+
+L +
2
k
ax + b ( ax + b )
( ax + b )

+ bx + c )

Ak x + Bk
A1 x + B1
+L +
k
2
ax + bx + c
( ax 2 + bx + c )

7 x2 +13 x

dx
+4)

( x -1)( x + 4 )
2

dx = x4-1 + 3xx2++164 dx

x4-1 + x3+x 4 + x16+4 dx

2

Term in P.F.D

= 4 ln x - 1 + 32 ln ( x 2 + 4 ) + 8 tan -1 ( x2 )

Here is partial fraction form and recombined.

x -1

+C
+ Bx
=
x2 + 4

A( x2 + 4) + ( Bx + C ) ( x -1)
( x -1)( x 2 + 4 )

Set numerators equal and collect like terms.

7 x 2 + 13x = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( C - B ) x + 4 A - C
Set coefficients equal to get a system and solve
to get constants.
A+ B = 7
C - B = 13
4A - C = 0
A=4
B=3
C = 16

An alternate method that sometimes works to find constants. Start with setting numerators equal in
previous example : 7 x 2 + 13x = A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C ) ( x - 1) . Chose nice values of x and plug in.
For example if x = 1 we get 20 = 5A which gives A = 4 . This wont always work easily.

Applications of Integrals
Net Area :

a f ( x ) dx represents the net area between f ( x ) and the

b

x-axis with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.

Area Between Curves : The general formulas for the two main cases for each are,
b
a

upper function

- lower

function dx

& x = f ( y) A =

d
c

right function

- left

functio dy

om

y = f ( x) A =

A = f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx
b

a f ( x ) - g ( x ) dx + c g ( x ) - f ( x ) dx
c

ra

A = f ( y ) - g ( y ) dy

ce

.c

If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually. Here are som
sketches of a couple possible situations and formulas for a couple of possible cases.

Volumes of Revolution : The two main formulas are V = A ( x ) dx and V = A ( y ) dy . Here is

some general information about each method of omputing and some examples.
Rings
Cylinders
2
2
A = 2p ( radius ) ( width / height )
A = p ( outer radius ) - ( inner radius)

xa

Limits: x/y of right/bot ring to x/y of left/top ring

Limits : x/y of inner cyl. to x/y of outer cyl.
Horz. Axis use f ( x ) ,
Vert. Axis use f ( y ) ,
Horz. Axis use f ( y ) ,
Vert. Axis use f ( x ) ,
g ( y ) , A ( y and dy.

g ( y ) , A ( y ) and dy.

g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.

Ex. Axis : y = a 0

Ex. Axis : y = a > 0

Ex. Axis : y = a 0

outer radius : a - f ( x )

outer radius: a + g ( x )

radius : a - y

radius : a + y

inner radius : a - g ( x )

inner radius: a + f ( x )

.e

g ( x ) , A ( x ) and dx.

w
w

Ex. Axis : y = a > 0

width : f ( y ) - g ( y )

width : f ( y ) - g ( y )

These are only a few cases for horizontal axis of rotation. If axis of rotation is the x-axis use the
y = a 0 case with a = 0 . For vertical axis of rotation ( x = a > 0 and x = a 0 ) interchange x and
y to get appropriate formulas.

Work : If a force of F ( x ) moves an object

Average Function Value : The average value

of f ( x ) on a x b is f avg =

in a x b , the work done is W = F ( x ) dx

b

f ( x ) dx

b
1
b-a a

Arc Length Surface Area : Note that this is often a Calc II topic. The three basic formulas are,
b

L = ds

SA = 2p y ds (rotate about x-axis)

SA = 2p x ds (rotate about y-axis)

where ds is dependent upon the form of the function being worked with as follows.
dy
dx

ds =

dx
dy

( dxdt )

( )

dx if y = f ( x ) , a x b

ds =

dy if x = f ( y ) , a y b

ds = r 2 + ( ddrq ) dq if r = f (q ) , a q b

dy
dt

dt if x = f ( t ) , y = g ( t ) , a t b

om

( )
1+ ( )

ds = 1 +

.c

With surface area you may have to substitute in for the x or y depending on your choice of ds to
match the differential in the ds. With parametric and polar you will always need to substitute.

ce

Improper Integral
An improper integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or d scontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value and divergent if the limit
doesnt exist or has infinite value. This is typically a Calc II topic.

3.

f ( x ) dx = lim f ( x ) dx
t

f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx +

Discontinuous Integrand

1. Discont. at a: f ( x ) dx = lim+ f ( x ) dx
b

xa

t a

t -

f ( x ) dx
b

2. Discont. at b : f ( x ) dx = lim- f ( x ) dx
b

t b

f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx + f ( x ) dx provided both are convergent.

c

.e

3. Discontinuity at a < c < b :

f ( x ) dx = lim

f ( x ) dx provided BOTH integrals are convergent.

1.

ra

Infinite Limit

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals : If f ( x ) g ( x ) 0 on [ a, ) then,

w
w

1. If f ( x ) dx conv then g ( x ) dx conv.

a

Useful fact : If a > 0 then

F r given integral

xp

2. If g ( x ) dx divg. then f ( x ) dx divg.

dx converges if p > 1 and diverges for p 1 .

Approximating Definite Integrals

a f ( x ) dx and a n (must be even for Simpsons Rule) define Dx = b-na

b

and

divide [ a, b] into n subintervals [ x0 , x1 ] , [ x1 , x2 ] , , [ xn -1 , xn ] with x0 = a and xn = b then,

Midpoint Rule :

Trapezoid Rule :
Simpsons Rule :

f ( x ) dx Dx f ( x ) + f ( x ) + L + f ( x ) , xi
b

*
1

*
2

*
n

is midpoint [ xi -1 , xi ]

Dx
f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + +2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b

n -1

Dx
f ( x ) dx 3 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + 2 f ( x ) + L + 2 f ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) + f ( x )
b

n-2

n -1