Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Luis A. Prieto-Portar PhD, PE
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Florida International University
ii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iii
Chapter 1 Soil Exploration.................................................................................................. 1
Symbols for Soil Exploration .......................................................................................... 1
*Exploration01. Find the required number of borings and their depth. ....................... 2
*Exploration02. Propose the number of samples from boring data. ............................. 3
* Exploration-03. What is a pressure cell? ...................................................................... 4
* Exploration-04. In-situ instrumentation used in the field. ............................................ 5
*Exploration05. Which sampling method disturbs the soil the least? ........................... 6
*Exploration06. Correcting the SPT for sampling and depth. ...................................... 7
*Exploration07. Three methods used for SPT depth corrections. ................................. 8
*Exploration08. Applying SPT corrections to a mat foundation. ................................. 9
*Exploration09: The RQD versus fractured percentage of a rock sample. ................. 11
*Exploration10. The Shear Vane Test determines the in-situ cohesion. ..................... 12
*Exploration11. Using the SPT to estimate engineering parameters. ......................... 13
*Exploration12. Reading a soil boring log. ................................................................ 14
*Exploration 13. Read a soil boring. ........................................................................... 15
*Exploration14: Using a boring log to estimate soil engineering parameters. ............ 16
*Exploration15. Find the shear strength of a soil from the CPT. ............................... 18
Chapter 2 Phase Relations of Soil..................................................................................... 21
Symbols for Phase Relations of soils ............................................................................ 21
Basic Concepts and Formulas for the Phases of Soils. .................................................. 22
*Phases of soils-01: Convert from metric units to SI and US units. ............................. 26
*Phases of soils02: Compaction checked via the voids ratio e. ................................ 27
*Phases of soils03: Finding the moisture of a soil. ..................................................... 28
*Phases of soils04: Finding the wrong data. ............................................................... 29
*Phases of soils05: Dry unit weight and degree of saturation. .................................... 30
*Phases of soils06: Increasing the saturation of a soil. ............................................... 31
**Phases of soils 07: Comparing two samples from a boring log.............................. 32
*Phases of soils08: How much water is added to a truck to offset losses? ................ 34
*Phases of soils09: Find d, n, S and Ww. .................................................................. 35
*Phases of soils10: Continued previous Phases-09 problem, adding water. ............. 36
iii
*Phases of soils11: Use the block diagram to find the degree of saturation. .............. 37
*Phases of soils12: Same as Phases-11 but setting the total volume V=1 m3. ............ 38
*Phases of soils13: Same as Phases-06 but using a block diagram............................. 39
*Phases of soils14: Block diagram for a saturated soil. .............................................. 40
*Phases of soils15: Find the weight of water needed for saturation. .......................... 41
*Phases of soils16: Identify the wrong piece of data. ................................................. 42
*Phases of soils17: The apparent cheapest soil is not! ................................................ 43
*Phases of soils18: Number of truck loads for Phases-17........................................... 44
*Phases of soils19: How many truck loads are needed for a project? ......................... 45
*Phases of soils20: Choose the cheapest fill supplier. ................................................ 46
*Phases of soils21: Use a matrix to the find the missing data. .................................... 48
**Phases of soils22: Find the voids ratio of muck (a highly organic soil). ............. 49
Chapter 3 Classification of Soils and Rocks ..................................................................... 50
Symbols for Classification of soils ................................................................................ 50
*Classify01: Percentage of each of the four grain sizes (G, S, M & C). ..................... 51
*Classify02: Coefficients of uniformity and curvature of granular soils. ................... 52
*Classify-03: Classify two soils using the USCS.......................................................... 53
*Classify-04: Manufacturing a new soil. ................................................................... 54
Classify 05 .................................................................................................................. 56
Classify 06 .................................................................................................................. 57
Classify 07 .................................................................................................................. 58
Classify 08 .................................................................................................................. 59
Classify 09 .................................................................................................................. 60
Classify 10 .................................................................................................................. 61
Classify 11 .................................................................................................................. 62
Chapter 4 Compaction and Soil Improvement.................................................................. 63
Symbols for Compaction ............................................................................................... 63
*Compaction01: Find the optimum moisture content (OMC). ................................... 64
*Compaction02: Find maximum dry unit weight in SI units. ..................................... 65
*Compaction-03: What is the saturation S at the OMC? .............................................. 66
*Compaction-04: Number of truck loads required. ....................................................... 67
*Compaction-05: What is the saturation S at the OMC? .............................................. 68
*Compaction-06: Definition of the relative compaction (RC). ..................................... 69
iv
Anchor............................................................................................................................. 113
Limestone ........................................................................................................................ 113
*Flow-nets-09: Dewatering a construction site. .......................................................... 115
*Flow-net-10: Dewatering in layered strata. ............................................................... 116
**Flownets-11: Flow through the clay core of an earth dam. ..................................... 118
Chapter 7 Effective Stresses and Pore Water Pressure ................................................... 122
Symbols for Effective Stresses and Pore Water Pressure............................................ 122
*Effective Stress01: The concept of buoyancy. ........................................................ 123
*Effective Stress02: The concept of effective stress. ................................................ 124
*Effective Stress03: The concept of effective stress with multiple strata. ................ 125
Effective Stress-03B .................................................................................................... 126
Chapter 8 Dams and Levees ........................................................................................... 127
Symbols for Dams and Levees .................................................................................... 127
*Dams-01: Find the uplift pressure under a small concrete levee. ............................. 128
*Dams-02: Determine the uplift forces acting upon a concrete dam. ......................... 129
Chapter 9 Stresses in Soil Masses ................................................................................... 132
Symbols for Stresses in Soil Masses ........................................................................... 132
*Stress-01: Reading the Boussinesq charts. ................................................................ 141
*Stress-02: 2:1 Method to find the Stress below a Rectangular Footing. ................... 142
*Stress-03: Summation of vertical and line loads using Boussinesq. ........................ 143
*Stress-04: The influence of point loads on a culvert. ................................................ 144
*Stress05: Stress increase at a point from several surface point loads. ..................... 146
*Stress-06: Find the stress under a rectangular footing. .............................................. 147
*Stress-07: The effect of the WT on the stress below a rectangular footing. .............. 148
*Stress08: Finding the stress outside the footing area. .............................................. 149
*Stress-09: Stress below a footing at different points. ............................................... 150
*Stress-10: Stress increase from a surcharge load of limited width. ........................... 151
*Stress-11: Finding a stress increase from a surface load of limited width. ............... 152
**Stress-12: Stress increase as a function of depth. .................................................... 153
*Newmark01: Stress beneath a tank at different depths............................................ 154
*Newmark-02: The stress below the center of the edge of a footing. ......................... 155
*Newmark-03: Stress at a point distant from the loaded footing. ............................... 156
*Newmark-04: Stresses coming from complex shaped foundations........................... 157
vi
*Plastic Settlement -04: Surface loads with different units. ........................................ 198
*Plastic Settlement-05: Pre-consolidation pressure pc and index Cc. .......................... 199
*Plastic Settlement-06: Final voids ratio after consolidation. ..................................... 201
*Plastic Settlement-07: Settlement due to a lowered WT. .......................................... 202
*Plastic Settlement-08: The over-consolidation ratio (OCR)...................................... 203
**Plastic Settlement-09: Coefficient of consolidation Cv. .......................................... 204
*Plastic Settlement -10: Secondary rate of consolidation. .......................................... 206
*Plastic Settlement-11: Using the Time factor Tv. ...................................................... 207
*Plastic Settlement-12: The time rate of consolidation. .............................................. 208
*Plastic Settlement-13: Time of consolidation t.......................................................... 209
*Plastic Settlement-14: Laboratory versus field time rates of settlement. .................. 210
*Plastic Settlement-15: Different degrees of consolidation. ....................................... 211
**Plastic Settlement-16: Excavate to reduce the settlement. ...................................... 212
**Plastic Settlement-17: Lead time required for consolidation of surcharge. ............ 214
**Plastic Settlement-18: Settlement of a canal levee. ................................................. 216
**Plastic Settlement-19: Differential settlements under a levee. ................................ 218
***Plastic Settlement-20: Estimate of the coefficient of consolidation cv. ................. 219
**Plastic Settlement-21: The apparent optimum moisture content. ............................ 221
**Plastic Settlement-22: The differential settlement between two buildings. ............ 222
**Plastic Settlement-23: Settlement of a bridge pier. ................................................. 227
Chapter 12 Shear Strength of Soils ................................................................................. 229
Symbols for Shear Strength of Soils............................................................................ 229
*Shear strength01: Maximum shear on the failure plane. ......................................... 230
*Shear strength02: Why is the maximum shear not the failure shear? ..................... 231
*Shear strength03: Find the maximum principal stress 1. ....................................... 232
*Shear strength04: Find the effective principal stress. .............................................. 233
*Shear strength05: Using the p-q diagram. ............................................................... 234
**Shear strength06: Consolidated-drained triaxial test. ............................................ 235
**Shear strength07: Triaxial un-drained tests. .......................................................... 237
**Shear strength-08: Consolidated and drained triaxial test. ...................................... 239
***Shear strength-09: Plots of the progressive failure in a shear-box. ....................... 241
**Shear strength-10: Shear strength along a potential failure plane. .......................... 244
***Shear strength-11: Use of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope. .......................... 245
viii
**Lateral loads on piles-02: Find the lateral load capacity of a steel pile. (US Units) 441
**Lateral loads on piles-03: The Broms method for pile lateral loads. ...................... 445
***Lateral loads on piles-03: Lateral load capacity of a mooring bollard. ................. 449
Chapter 24 Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls and Bridge Abutments..................... 453
Symbols for Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls .................................................... 453
**RC Retaining Walls01: Design a RC wall for a sloped backfill. .......................... 454
**RC Retaining Walls02: Design a RC bridge abutment wall. ............................... 462
**RC Retaining Walls02: Design a RC bridge abutment wall. ................................ 464
Chapter 25 Steel Sheet Pile Retaining Walls .................................................................. 468
Symbols for Steel Sheet Pile Retaining Walls............................................................. 468
**Sheet-pile Wall-01: Free-Earth for cantilevered walls in granular soils. ................ 469
**Sheet-pile Wall-02: Free-Earth for cantilevered walls in cohesive soils................. 474
** Sheet-pile Wall03: Free-Earth Method f/anchored walls in granular soils. ......... 477
** Sheet-pile Wall04: Free-Earth Method anchored walls in cohesive soils. ........... 483
Chapter 26 MSE (Mechanically Stabilized Earth) Walls ............................................... 485
Symbols for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls ...................................................... 485
**MSE Walls-01: Design the length L of geotextiles for a 16 ft wall. ....................... 486
xii
Conversion of Units
Prefix
SI Symbol
giga
1 000 000
mega
1 000
kilo
0.001
milli
0.000 001
micro
Nano
Multiplication Factor
Base SI Units
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
length
meter
mass
kilograms (mass)
kgm
force
Newton
time
second
Derived SI Units
Quantity
Derived SI Unit
area
square meter
volume
cubic meter
density
kgm/m
force
Name
Symbol
moment of force
Newton-meter
pressure
Pascal
Pa
stress
Pascal
Pa or N/m
work, energy
Newton-meter
joule
power
watt
xiii
N-m
To
From
inches
feet
yards
miles
mm
3.94 x 10-2
3.28 x 10-3
1.09 x 10-3
6.22 x 10-7
cm
3.94 x 10-1
3.28 x 10-2
1.09 x 10-2
6.22 x 10-6
3.94 x 101
3.28
1.09
6.22 x 10-4
km
3.94 x 104
3.28 x 103
1.09 x 103
6.22 x 10-1
1 m = 1 x 10-6 m
1 = 1 x 10-10 m = 3.28 x 10-10 feet
Area
Multiply by
To
From
square inches
square feet
square yards
square miles
mm
1.55 x 10-3
1.08 x 10-5
1.20 x 10-6
3.86 x 10-13
cm
1.55 x 10-1
1.08 x 10-3
1.20 x 10-4
3.86 x 10-11
1.55 x 103
1.08 x 101
1.20
3.86 x 10-7
km
1.55 x 109
1.08 x 107
1.20 x 106
3.86 x 10-1
Volume
Multiply by
To
From
cubic inches
cubic feet
cubic yards
quarts
gallons
cm3
6.10 x 10-2
3.53 x 10-5
1.31 x 10-6
1.06 x 10-3
2.64 x 10-4
liter
6.10 x 101
3.53 x 10-2
1.31 x 10-3
1.06
2.64 x 10-1
6.10 x 104
3.53 x 101
1.31
1.06 x 103
2.64 x 102
xiv
To
From
ounces
pounds
kips
tons (short)
dynes
1.405 x 10-7
2.248 x 10-6
2.248 x 10-9
1.124 x 10-9
grams
3.527 x 10-2
2.205 x 10-3
2.205 x 10-6
1.102 x 10-6
kilograms
3.527 x 101
2.205
2.205 x 10-3
1.102 x 10-3
Newtons
3.597
2.248 x 10-1
2.248 x 10-4
1.124 x 10-4
kilo-Newtons
3.597 x 103
2.248 x 102
2.248 x 10-1
1.124 x 10-1
tons (metric)
3.527 x 104
2.205 x 103
2.205
1.102
To
From
lb/in
lb/ft
kips/ft
tons (short)/ft
feet of water
atmosphere
gm/cm
1.422 x 10-2
2.048
2.048 x 10-3
1.024 x 10-3
3.281 x 10-2
9.678 x 10-4
kg/cm
1.422 x 101
2.048 x 103
2.048
1.024
3.281 x 101
9.678 x 10-1
kN / m
1.450 x 10-1
2.090 x 101
2.088 x 10-2
1.044 x 10-2
3.346 x 10-1
9.869 x 10-3
ton (metric)/m
1.422
2.048 x 102
2.048 x 10-1
1.024 x 10-1
3.281
9.678 x 10-2
xv
To
From
lb-in
lb-ft
kips-ft
gm-cm
8.677 x 10-4
7.233 x 10-5
7.233 x 10-8
kg-m
8.677
7.233
7.233 x 10-3
kN-m
9.195 x 103
7.663 x 102
7.663 x 10-1
Velocity v
Multiply by
To
From
ft / s
ft / min
mi / h
cm / s
3.281 x 10-2
1.9685
2.236 x 10-2
km / min
5.467 x 101
3.281 x 103
3.728 x 101
km / h
9.116 x 10-1
5.467 x 101
6.214 x 10-1
To
From
lb / in
lb / ft
gm / cm
3.613 x 10-2
6.248 x 101
kg / m
3.613 x 10-5
6.248 x 10-2
kN / m
3.685 x 10-3
6.368 x 100
tons (metric ) / m
3.613 x 10-2
6.428 x 101
Power P
1 W = 1 J/sec = 1.1622 cal/hr = 3.41 Btu/hr = 0.0013 hp
1 hp = 745.7 W = 0.7457 kW
1 kW = 1.34 hp
xvi
Chapter 1
Soil Exploration
Symbols for Soil Exploration
CB STP correction factor for the boreholes diameter.
CR STP correction factor for the rod length.
CS STP correction factor for the sampler type used.
cu Soils un-drained cohesion.
Df Depth of the foundations invert.
Em The efficiency of the STP hammer.
N The raw value of the STP (as obtained in the field).
po The original vertical stress at a point of interest in the soil mass.
S The number of stories of a building.
SPT Stands for Standard Penetration Test.
N60 Corrected STP assuming 60% efficiency in the field.
N70 Corrected STP assuming 70% efficiency in the field.
m Correction factor for the shear vane test using the clays Plasticity Index PI.
A four-story reinforced concrete frame office building will be built on a site where the soils are
expected to be of average quality and uniformity. The building will have a 100 ft x 120 ft footprint
and is expected to be supported on spread footing foundations located about 3 ft below the ground
surface. The site appears to be in its natural condition, with no evidence of previous grading.
Bedrock is 100-ft below the ground surface. Determine the required number and depth of the
borings.
Solution:
A reinforced concrete building is heavier than a steel framed building of the same size. Hence, the
design engineer will want soil conditions that are at least average or better. Table-1 below suggests one
boring for every 3,000 ft2 of building footprint area. Since the total footprint area is 100 ft x 120 ft
=12,000 ft2, use four borings.
From Table-2 the minimum depth required for the borings, 15S0.7 + D = 15(4)0.7 + 3 = 43 ft.
Most engineers want one of the borings to go to a slightly greater depth to check the next lower
stratums strength.
(ft2)
200
2,000
Average
300
3,000
700
7,000
(ft)
6S0.7 + D
20S0.7 + D
Average
5S0.7 + D
15S0.7 + D
3S0.7 + D
10S0.7 + D
Use the three borings shown below taken at parking lot to suggest the minimum number of
samples required to design the foundations of a light two-story office building. Suggest the
approximate depth of these samples.
Solution:
The legend identifies four distinct layers. Also notice that the water table (WT) is around
elevations -7.0 to -7.5, assuming that the ground elevation is at +0.0 feet. Casting spread footings
will be cheaper above the WT. Notice that the top Layer #4 (limestone) seems to have adequate
bearing capacities for lightly loaded spread footings since its SPTs range from 15 to 43. If three
borings are taken, then three (3) samples are the minimum required, at about elevation 4 feet,
because it will permit casting spread footings 3-feet thick without constructing them below the
WT.
Prudence suggests taking samples of Layers #2 and #3 too, below the limestone but these extra
samples are above the minimum required.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
What device is used to measure the total pressure within a soil mass?
(a) Diaphragm and hydraulic earth pressure cells.
(b) Flat plate dilatometers.
(c) The Iowa borehole shear test.
(d) Pressuremeter.
Solution:
The correct answer is (a).
a) Earth pressure cells are devices that are permanently embedded in the soil mass to attempt to
measure the total stress at that point. A pressure cell may be installed in a fill or an embankment
dam to determine (1) the distribution, (2) the magnitude, and (3) the direction of the stress. Other
structures that commonly use pressure cells are retaining walls, culverts, piles, slurry walls and
beneath shallow foundations. There are two types: (1) the diaphragm cells are a stiff circular
membrane that deflects with an external soil pressure. Inside the cell is a vibrating wire transducer
that detects the deformation via a change in the vibration rate of the steel string. (2) The hydraulic
cell is filled with a fluid under high pressure that detects a minor change in the outside pressure.
b) flat plate dilatometer is a device inserted into the ground by a truck mounted rig, to measure the
soils modulus of elasticity and lateral stress at the point of testing. It is then pushed down another
6 to 8 for another measurement. The device expands its cell through a gas pumped from the
surface, and is also known as the Marchetti dilatometer.
c) The Iowa borehole shear test is a device inserted into a 3-diameter borehole to a depth slightly
below the point of interest. Then its serrated cylinder halves are expanded in the hole with gas
from the surface. The serrated cylinder is pulled and its load-displacements are measured. These
results yield the in-situ shear strength, and indirectly and c.
d) A pressuremeter (PMT) is a device similar to the Iowa borehole shear test, and it too measures the
undrained in-situ shear strength su of a soil and its static shear modulus G at a specific location in
a borehole. It is also known in the literature as the Mnard test.
What instruments would you use to measure the deformation of a soil in the field?
(a) Settlement plate and piezometer.
(b) Penetrometer and CPT.
(c) Inclinometer and probe extensometer.
(d) Load cells and strain gages.
Solution:
The correct answer is (c). A definition of each term is as follows:
a) A settlement plate is a thick steel plate placed close to the surface in order to load it and measure
the load-settlement of the soil at that point. It is used to predict the behavior of a shallow footing at
that point by obtaining its soil modulus (stress-strain relationship).
b) A piezometer (also known as a pore pressure cell) is a device that is inserted into the ground and
sealed within the ground to measure the groundwater pressure at a specific point only. It is
different from an observation well because the latter has no subsurface seals and it creates a
vertical connection between strata.
c) A penetrometer is a solid steel tip and rod that is either pushed into the ground at a constant rate,
or driven by blows (like an SPT) in order to (indirectly) measure the shear strength of the soil.
There are many types, such as the Dutch cone, the electric friction, electric-piezo/friction and the
seismic cones. The CPT simply stands for cone penetration test, and is widely used in lieu of the
SPT for soft clays and silts and in fine sands.
d) An inclinometer is a device that monitors the deformation of a soil orthogonally to the axis of the
inclinometers pipe. A probe inside the pipe contains a gravity-sensing transducer designed to
measure the inclination with respect to the vertical.
e) A probe extensometer is a devise for monitoring the deformation or changing distance between
two or more points within a soil mass along a pipe. Inside the pipe is a probe that measures the
deformation either mechanically or electrically.
f) A load cell, also known as a dynamometer, is a device placed into a structure to measure the
amount of load that passes through the cell. They are used in piles, drilled shafts, and earth/rock
anchors.
g) A strain gage is used when a load cell cannot be interposed in the structure due to geometrical
reasons, and measures the load indirectly via the strain, provided the stress-strain relationship is
known.
Solution:
The answer is (d) A Shelby tube (also known as a thin tube sampler).
Answer (a) is wrong. The most common soil and soft rock sampling tool is the Standard Split
Spoon, that splits longitudinally into halves and permit taking a soil or soft rock sample. The
tubes outside diameter is Do = 50.8 mm (2 inches) and its inside diameter is Di = 34.9 mm (1 3/8
inches). This small size has the advantage of being relatively easy to drive into the ground.
However, it has the disadvantage of disturbing the natural texture of the soil. In soft rocks, such as
young limestone, it will destroy the rock to such a degree that the rock is often classified as sand.
A better sampler is the Shelby (or thin-tube sampler). It has the same outside diameter of 2 inches
(although the trend it to use the 3 inch sampler). Compare the degree of sample disturbance of a
Standard split-spoon sampler versus the two popular Shelby thin-tube samplers (2 and 3
outside diameters) via their area ratio Ar which is a measure of samples disturbance.
A standard penetration test (SPT) has been conducted in a loose coarse sand stratum to a depth of
16 feet below the ground surface. The blow counts obtained in the field were as follows: 0 6 in =
4 blows; 6 -12 in = 6 blows; 12 -18 in = 8 blows. The tests were conducted using a US-style donut
hammer in a 6 inch diameter boring with a standard sampler and liner. The effective unit weight
of the loose sand stratum is about 93.8 pcf.
Determine the corrected SPT if the testing procedure is assumed to only be 60% efficient.
Solution: The raw SPT value is N = 6 + 8 = 14 (that is, only the last two sets of 6 penetrations).
The US-style donut hammer efficiency is Em = 0.45, and the other parameters are obtained from the
Table provided on the next page: CB = 1.05, CS = 1.00, CR = 0.85. With these values, the SPT corrected
to 60% efficiency can use Skemptons relation,
'
=
N 60
Notice that the SPT value is always given as a whole number. That corrected SPT N60 is then corrected
for depth. For example, using the Liao and Whitman method (1986),
'
N corrected 60 = N 60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= (9 )
( depth )( effective unit weight )
2, 000 lb / ft 2
(16 ft )( 93.8 pcf
= 10
2-turns on cat-head
0.60
US Donut Hammers
2-turns on cat-head
0.45
Correction Factors for the Boring Diameter, Sampling Method and Boring Rod Length
Correction Factor
Equipment Variables
Value
1.00
150 mm (6 in)
1.05
200 mm (8 in)
1.15
Standard sampler
1.00
1.20
3 4 m (10 13 ft)
0.75
4 6 m (13 20 ft)
0.85
6 10 (20 30 ft)
0.95
1.00
An N60 = 40 was corrected for sampling errors at a depth of 20 feet in a sand stratum that has a
unit weight of 135 lb/ft3. Correct it for depth.
Solution:
Any of these three methods will provide acceptable answers. Notice how similar their results are from
each other:
1. Using the Bazaraa Method (1967):
N corrected
4N '
=
1 + 2 po
N corrected =
but
p0 =
if p0 1.5 kips / ft 2
4N '
3.25 + 0.5 po
and
if p0 1.5 kips / ft 2
(20 ft )(135 lb / ft 3 )
= 2.70 kips / ft 2 > 1.5kips / ft 2
1000 lb / kip
therefore N corrected =
4N '
4(40)
=
= 35
3.25 + 0.5 po 3.25 + 0.5(2.70 kips / ft 2 )
N corrected = N 'CN
20
if p0 is in tons / ft 2
p0
or C N = 0.77 log10
1915
if p0 is in kN / m 2
p0
(20 ft )(135 lb / ft 3 )
= 1.35 tons / ft 2 = 2.70 kips / ft 2
2000 lb / ton
20
CN = 0.77 log10
= 0.90 N corrected = (40)(0.90) = 36
1.35 tons / ft 2
but
p0 =
100
with po in kN / m 2
po
or
= N'
2, 000 psf
with po in psf
po
96.1 kN / m 2
2
po = (1.35 tons / ft 2 )
= 129.7 kN / m
2
1
ton
/
ft
N corrected = 40
100 kN / m 2
= 35
129.7 kN / m 2
Correct the SPT values shown below for a US-type safety hammer in a 2-diameter boring.
Solution:
Skempton proposed in 1986 the following correction for the sampling methods to the raw SPT value,
assuming that only 60% of the energy of the hammer drives the sampler,
N 60 =
Em C B C S C R N
0.60
See the sampling corrections Table on page 15. The depth correction is,
2, 000 lb / ft 2
( depth )( effective unit weight )
( N 1 )60 = N 60
At
N 60 =
depth
of
(0.6)(1)(1)(0.75)(26)
= 20 and ( N )60 = ( 20 )
0.60
+5.2
2, 000 lb / ft
= 39
(8 ft )(127 62.4 pcf )
At +4.1 N 60 =
(0.6)(1)(1)(0.75)(25)
= 19 and ( N )60 = (19 )
0.60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= 35
( 9 ft )(127 62.4 pcf )
At+2.0 N 60 =
(0.6)(1)(1)(0.75)(24)
= 18 and ( N )60 = (18 )
0.60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= 31
(11 ft )(125 62.4 pcf )
At -1.0
N 60 =
(0.6)(1)(1)(0.85)(30)
= 26 and ( N )60 = ( 26 )
0.60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= 39
(14 ft )(126 62.4 pcf )
(0.6)(1)(1)(0.85)(31)
= 26 and ( N )60 = ( 26 )
0.60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= 34
(18 ft )(126 62.4 pcf )
(0.6)(1)(1)(0.95)(30)
At -10 N 60 =
= 29 and ( N )60 = ( 29 )
0.60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= 34
( 23 ft )(126 62.4 pcf )
At -5.0 N 60 =
At -21 N 60 =
feet:
(0.6)(1)(1)(1)(43)
= 43 and ( N )60 = ( 43)
0.60
2, 000 lb / ft 2
= 41
( 33 ft )(130 62.4 pcf )
Notice that the effect of the depth correction decreases with depth.
10
What is the rock description of a sample that has a 40% fractured percentage?
Solution:
The SPTs of rock samples usually provide values of N > 100. The exception is in soft or partially
decomposed sandstone and limestone (grainstones). In these types of rock, it is necessary to use the
rock quality designation (RQD) as a measure of the quality of the rock. The rock quality is based on
the percentage of the sample recovered (what field crews call the fractured percentage). The RQD is
defined as,
RQD =
A RQD = 1 would indicate it was an excellent quality intact rock mass, or in essence, equivalent to a
100%. The table below shows all the RQD quality descriptions.
Description
0 0.25
very poor
0.15
0.25 0.50
poor
0.20
0.50 0.75
fair
0.25
0.75 0.90
good
0.3 0.7
0.90 1.00
excellent
0.7 1.0
11
qu-field / qlab
A shear vane tester is used to determine an approximate value of the shear strength of clay. The
tester has a blade diameter d = 3.625 inches and a blade height h = 7.25 inches. In a field test, the
vane required a torque of 17.0 ft-lb to shear the clay sample, which has a plasticity index of 47%
(PI = LL PL). Determine the un-drained cohesion cu corrected for its plasticity.
47
cu =
T
17.0 ft lb
=
= 168 psf
3
2
(0.3021 ft ) (0.6042 ft ) (0.3021 ft )3
(d h / 2) + (d / 6)
+
2
6
The plasticity index helps correct the raw shear vane test value (Bjerrum, 1974) through the graph
shown above. For a plasticity index of 47% read a correction factor = 0.80. Therefore,
cu corrected = cu = (0.80)(168 psf ) = 134 psf
12
Estimate the angle of internal friction and the unit weight of a medium dense sand located at a depth
of 20 feet below the surface, where the SPT N60 = 9?
Solution.
The corrected SPT N 60' = 9 is based on 60% efficiency. However, the Table provided
is based on 70% efficiency. Therefore, convert via the following relation,
N 70' = N 60'
( 0.60 ) = 9 ( 0.60 ) = 8
( )
( 0.70 )
( 0.70 )
Correlation between SPT values and some Granular Soils Engineering Parameters
Description
Very loose
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very dense
0.85
Dr
Relative density
0.15
0.35
0.65
SPT
1-2
3-6
7 - 15
16 - 30
N'70
Medium
2-3
4-7
8 - 20
21 - 40
3-6
5-9
10 - 25
26 - 45
26 - 28
28 - 30
30 - 34
33 - 38
Medium
27 - 28
30 - 32
32 - 36
36 - 42
28 - 30
30 - 34
33 - 40
40 - 50
pcf
70 - 102
89 - 115
108 - 128
108 -140
128 -147
kN/m3
11 - 16
14 - 18
17 - 20
17 - 22
20 - 23
wet
> 40
< 50
Note #1: These values are based on tests conducted at depths of about 6 m.
Note #2: Typical values of relative densities are about 0.3 to 0.7. Values of 0 or 1.0 do not exist in nature.
Note #3: The value of the angle of internal friction is based on = 28 + 15Dr.
Note #4: The typical value of an excavated soil ranges from 11 to 14 kN/m3.
Notice that an SPT N70 = 8 for a medium dense sand permits estimating the angle of internal
friction = 32 and a moist unit weight of 108 pcf.
13
Read the boring log shown below and determine, (1) the location of the phreatic surface, (2) the
depth of the boring and (3) the number of samples taken.
Solution:
(1) The phreatic surface (the water table) was not encountered in this boring and is noted at the bottom
of the report;
(2) The boring was terminated at 21 feet in depth; and
(3) Five samples were taken. Only one sample (#2) was used for laboratory tests (dry density and
moisture content). Samples #1 and #3 were complete split-spoon samples. Samples #4 and #5 were
incomplete split-spoon samples.
14
Read the boring shown below, and determine: (1) at what depth is the phreatic surface? (2) At
what depth was the boring terminated? (3) What type of sampler was used? (4) What is the lowest
SPT in the limestone?
15
Using the boring log and the SPT versus Soil Engineering Parameters Table to answer these four
questions:
(1) Correct the values of the SPT of Sample S-4 to a 70% sampling efficiency with a standard
sampling method and a US-donut hammer at elevation 17 feet;
(2) Correct the same sample S-4 for depth assuming the unit weight is = 126 pcf;
(3) What are your estimates for the angle of internal friction and unit weight ?
(4) What is the elevation (above sea level) of the groundwater and the elevation of the bottom of
the boring?
Solution:
(1) The log shows a value of N = 15 (Sample S-4) at elevation -16.5; at elevation -17 it has
dropped a small amount to N = 14. Notice that the Legend portion denotes that the sampler was
a 2 O.D. split spoon. Therefore, the sampling correction is,
N 70 =
( N 70 ) = N 70
2000 psf
= (8 )
( h )
2000 psf
8
(126 )(17 ) psf
(3) What are your estimates for the angle of internal friction and unit weight ?
The log identifies this level at -17 as a brown and grey fine to medium SAND. Use the Table
provided in Exploration-10 to obtain an estimate of some of the engineering parameters for
granular soils. Read the SPT for medium sands; then go to the Medium column and read the value
of N = 8 to obtain the values:
17
Classify the soil at depth 11 m below the surface using the cone penetration test (CPT) data shown
below. The clay samples separately recovered at that depth had = 20 kN/m3 and Ip= 20. Estimate the
shear strength su, from the graphs, and compare to laboratory tests on the samples that showed shear
strength of 550 kPa.
Solution.
The CPT is a superior field test to determine soil engineering parameters because it provides continuous
readings, that discriminate between point resistance versus shaft friction. Its major disadvantage is that
samples are not obtained.
From the data, q s = 400 kPa and q c = 11 MPa which gives a fR ~ 3%
18
19
Compare with the laboratory tested value of 550 kPa (a 12% error).
20
Chapter 2
Phase Relations of Soil
Symbols for Phase Relations of soils
e
GS
Voids ratio.
Specific gravity of the solids of a soil.
Porosity.
Degree of saturation.
Va
Volume of air.
VV
VS
Volume of solids.
VW Volume of water.
w
WS
Weight of solids.
WW Weight of water.
g
gd
gb
21
1. - Voids ratio e
e=
VV
VS
2-1
n=
VV
(100% )
V
2.2
e=
n
1 n
and
n=
e
1+ e
2-3
3. - Saturation S
S=
VW
x100%
VV
2-4
WW
x100%
WS
2-5
WS + WW
W
=
V VS + VW + VA
2-6
The unit weight may range from being dry to being saturated.
Some engineers use bulk density to refer to the ratio of mass of the solids and water
contained in a unit volume (in Mg/m3). Note that,
W
m
= g = g
V
V
2-6
d =
WS
=
V 1+ w
w =
WW
VW
w
where = g ( F = ma )
2-7
Note that the above is for fresh water. Salt water is 64 pcf, etc.
2-8
b = ' = SAT w
2-9
SAT =
GS =
S
w
2-10
Typical Values for the Specific Gravity of Minerals in Soils and Rocks
Mineral
Composition
Anhydrite
CaSO4
2.90
Barites
BaSO4
4.50
Calcite, chalk
CaCO3
2.71
Feldspar
KALSi3O8
2.60 to 2.70
Gypsum
CaSO4 2H2O
2.30
Hematite
Fe2O3
5.20
Kaolinite
Al4Si4O10(OH)8
2.60
Magnetite
Fe3O4
5.20
Pb
11.34
SiO2
2.65
Organic
1.0 or less
Skeletons of plants
2.00
Lead
Quartz (silica)
Peat
Diatomaceous earth
24
s
1
dry
SAT =
(GS + e) w e 1 + w
=
w
1+ e
w 1 + e
1+ w
SAT = d + n w = (1 n ) Gs + n w =
Gs w
1 + wGs
SAT = '+ w
Dry unit weights :
d =
1+ w
= Gs w (1 n ) =
GS w
eS w
eGs w
=
=
1 + e (1 + e) w ( S + wGs )
d = SAT n w = SAT
w
1+ e
.
25
A cohesive soil sample was taken from an SPT and returned to the laboratory in a glass jar. It had
a mass of 140.5 grams. The sample was then placed in a container of V = 500 cm3 and 423 cm3 of
water were added to fill the container. From these data, what was the unit weight of the soil in
kN/m3 and pcf?
Solution.
Notice that the 140.5 grams is identified as a mass. The ratio of mass to volume is a density ,
m
140.5 g
g
=
= 1.82
3
V (500 423) cm
cm 3
= g = 1.82 3
cm
1 kg
3
10 g
m 1 kN
9.806
sec 2 10 3 N
2
kN
10 cm
= 17.9 3 ( SI units )
m
1 m
3
= 17.9 3
26
A contractor has compacted the base course for a new road and found that the mean value of the
test samples shows w = 14.6%, GS = 2.81, and = 115.8 lb/ft3. The specifications require that e
0.80.
Has the contractor complied with the specifications?
(a) Yes, the contractor has satisfied with more than required.
(b) Yes, barely satisfied.
(c) No, the contractor has not attained the required compaction.
(d) Not enough data.
Solution:
GS W (1 + w )
G (1 + w )
1+ e = S W
1+ e
lb
1+ e =
= 1.74
lb f
115.8 3
ft
e = 1.74 1 = 0.74
e = 0.74 < 0.80
27
A container has a sample of moist soil with a mass of 23.42 g. The soil is dried in an oven with its
original container. After drying, it is reweighed, and its mass is 19.81 g. If the container has a mass
of 1.73 g, what is the soils moisture content?
a) 18%
b) 20%
c) 30%
d) 85%
Solution:
mmoist = 23.42 g 1.73 g = 21.69 g
mdry = 19.81g 1.73 g = 18.08 g
mwater
w=
= 3.61g
Ww mw 3.61g
=
=
= 19.96% 20% which is (b)
Ws mS 18.08 g
28
A geotechnical laboratory reported these results of five samples taken from a single boring.
Determine which are not correctly reported, if any.
Sample #1: w = 30%, d = 14.9 kN/m3, s = 27 kN/m3; clay.
Sample #2: w = 20%, d = 18
Solution:
wsat =
V
V + VS VS
e VV w VV w VS wVV
=
=
=
= w V = w V
GS VS S VS 1 WS
WS
WS
WS
V + VS VS
1 1
wsat = w V
= w
WS
WS
d S
The water content is in error if it is greater than the saturated moisture, that is,
1 1
w wSAT = w
d S
1
1
= 30% = w = 30% GOOD
1) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 )
14.9 27
1 1
2) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) = 18.5% v < w = 20% WRONG
18 27
1 1
3) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) = 24% > w = 10% GOOD
16 26
1
1
4) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 )
= 22.1% > w = 22% GOOD
17.3 28
1 1
5) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) = 18.5% < w = 22% WRONG
18 27
29
During compaction, the engineer needs to know the relationship between the saturation of the soil
and the ensuing dry density. As a rule, the maximum dry density is in the range of 70% to 85%
saturation. Express the theoretical dry unit weight as a function of the saturation S.
Solution:
30
A soil sample has a unit weight of 105.7 pcf and a saturation of 50%. When its saturation is
increased to 75%, its unit weight raises to 112.7 pcf.
Determine the voids ratio e and the specific gravity Gs of this soil.
Solution:
W ( GS + Se )
1+ e
62.4(GS + 0.50e)
1+ e
62.4(GS + 0.75e)
and 112.7 pcf =
1+ e
105.7 pcf =
(1)
(2)
e = 0.814 and
31
GS = 2.67
Two clay samples were taken from a boring to a laboratory and yielded the following:
Weight of the sample
Sample #1
Sample #2
0.48 N
0.68 N
-5
Volume
3 x 10 m
4.3 x 10-5 m3
0.30 N
0.40 N
Solution.
2 =
W
W WS ( 0.68 0.4 ) N
W2
0.68 N
=
= 15.8 kN / m3 and w2 = w =
=
(100% ) = 70%
5
3
V2 4.3 (10 ) m
WS
WS
0.4 N
b) Their voids ratios if the unit weight of solids in the lab was 27 kN/m3:
32
d =
WS1
d =
WS2
V1
S
0.3 N
27 kN / m3
3
3
10,
000
/
10
/
1
=
N
m
=
kN
m
e
=
=
1 = 1.7
1
d
10kN / m3
3 (10 5 ) m3
S
0.4 N
27 kN / m3
3
3
9,30
0
N
/
m
9.3
kN
/
m
e
1
=
=
=
1 = 1.9
2
d
9.3kN / m3
4.3 (105 ) m3
V2
s field
27 kN / m3
W
9.81kN / m3 ) (1 + 0.6 ) = 15.41kN / m3 =
( w )(1 + w ) =
3 (
V1 field
27.5kN / m
s lab
s field
27kN / m3
W
+
=
1
w
9.81kN / m3 ) (1 + 0.7 ) = 16.37 kN / m3 =
(
)(
)
w
3 (
27.5
kN
/
m
V
2 field
1 field = d (1 + w) =
V1 field =
1 field
5
0.48 N
V1 V1 field V1 ( 3.334 3) (10 )
5
3
=
= 3.114 (10 ) m and
=
=
(100% ) = 3.8%
15.41kN / m3
V1
V1
3 (105 )
2 field = d (1 + w) =
V2 field =
2 field
(100% ) = 3.4%
Notes: The relative variation of the volume of each sample before taking to the lab if its unit weight of solids in the
field was 27.5 kN/m3.
(solid)field = (s)f = 27.5 kN/m3
[(s)f] / s = 27.5/27 = 0.981818181=> therefore a 1.82% loss of water
The 1.82% loss is from water loss, either through evaporation or leakage. Since the water content w is 60% and 70%
for samples #1 and #2 respectively, there is no net effect on the volume of the samples taken. The dry weight of solid is
independent of the amount of water since by definition it is the weight of the solid without any water and the volume
of solid is therefore unaffected. The volume of water however does change, but since the water content or moisture
content is 60% and 70% which falls within 0% < w < 500%, the relative total volume of the field sample should be the
same as the total volume of the lab sample noting of course the weight differences due to the 1.82% loss of water.
The unit weights of the samples would need to be adjusted because of the total weight variation in this case the lab
values of 0.48 N and the 0.68 N is only a percentage of the field values (slightly less than 100%.) A simple correction
of this data would yield closer to true results.
33
The weight of an empty truck is 3,000 lbs. It is filled with 1,000 lbs of soil. The original moisture of
the soil was 12%, but during transportation the moisture dropped to 11.5%.
1) How much water (in gallons) did the soil lose during transportation?
2) How much water (in gallons) must be added to the truck to arrive at the site with a 15%
moisture?
Solution:
WW =
WW =
1, 000lbs
= 103 lb
9.696
1 ft 3 7.48 gallons
the truck lost 4 lbs of water = (4lb )
= 0.48 gallons
1 ft 3
62.4lb
To arrive at the site with a moisture content of w = 15%,
W
w = W = 0.15 WW = 0.15WS = ( 0.15 )( 893lb ) = 134lb
WS
The truck load needs to add 134 -103 = 31 lbs of water 3.71gallons
34
The moist unit weight of a soil is 105 lb/ft3. Given that the w = 15% and Gs = 2.70, find:
a) Dry unit weight d,
b) The porosity n,
c) The degree of saturation S, and
Solution:
105
lb
= 91.3 3
(1 + w)
(1 + 0.15)
ft
b) From the table of useful relationships,
a) d =
d =
n=
Gs w
G
( 2.70 )( 62.4 ) = 1.85 e = 0.85
1+ e = s w =
d
1+ e
( 91.3)
e
0.85
=
(100% ) = 46%
1 + e 1 + 0.85
c ) Since Se = wGs S =
35
Using the previous problem Phases-09, how much mass of water in lbm/ft3 must be added to reach
full saturation.
Solution:
The mass of water that must be added can be found from the relation,
= g
or
ft 3 )
= 119.7lb / ft 3
1 + 0.85
3
lbm
(119.7 - 62.4 ) lb / ft
( mass of water ) = =
= 1.78
2
g
ft 3
32.2 ft / s
1+ e
36
*Phases of soils11: Use the block diagram to find the degree of saturation.
(Revision: Feb-10)
A soil has an in-situ (in-place) voids ratio eo = 1.87, wN = 60%, and GS = 2.75 .
moist and S? All soils are really moist except when dry, that is when w = 0%.
Set VS = 1 m3 (Note: this problem could also be solved by setting V = 1.0 m3).
Solution:
eo =
VV 1.87
=
= 1.87 V = VS + VV = 1 + 1.87 = 2.87 m 3
VS
1
Gs =
37
wN =
Ww
= 0.60
Ws
Ww = 0.60Ws
Ws
Vs
s
=
Ws = Vs ( GS w ) = (1 m 3 ) ( 2.75 ) ( 9.81 kN / m 3 ) = 26.98 kN
w w
Ww = 0.60 (Ws ) = ( 0.60 )( 26.98 )
= 16.18 kN
W = Ws + Ww = 26.98 + 16.19
= 43.16 kN
W 43.16 kN
kN
=
= 15.0 3
3
V
2.87 m
m
Ww 16.19
V
9.81
S= w = w =
= 88.1%
VV
VV
1.87
moist =
*Phases of soils12: Same as Phases-11 but setting the total volume V=1 m3.
(Revision: Feb-10)
A soil has an in-situ (in-place) voids ratio eo = 1.87, wN = 60%, and GS = 2.75 . What are the
moist and S?
Solution:
but eo =
VV
= 1.87 but V = 1 m 3 = VS + VV = VS + 1.87VS = 2.87VS
VS
Gs =
Ww
= 0.60 Ww = 0.60Ws
Ws
Ws
Vs
s
=
Ws = Vs ( GS w ) = ( 0.348 m 3 ) ( 2.75 ) ( 9.81 kN / m 3 ) = 9.39 kN
w w
moist =
S=
= 5.63 kN
W = Ws + Ww = 9.39 + 5.63
= 15.02 kN
W 15.0 kN
kN
=
= 15.0 3
3
V
1m
m
Ww
wN =
Vw w
=
VV
VV
5.63
9.8
=
= 88.1%
0.652
38
A soil sample has a unit weight of 105.7 pcf and a water content of 50%. When its saturation is
increased to 75 %, its unit weight raises to 112.7 pcf. Determine the voids ratio e and the specific
gravity Gs of the soil.
Solution:
S et V = 1 ft 3
2 1 = 112.7 105.7 = 7.0 lbs are 25% of w ater
W S = 112.7 20.8
Vw =
Ww
91.9 lb
20.8 lb
= 0.333 ft 3
62.4 pcf
1
V w = 0.111 ft 3 V v = V a + V w = 0.111 + 0.333 = 0.444
3
V s = 1 V v = 1 0.444 = 0.556
Va =
e=
and
39
GS =
VV
0.444
=
= 0.80
VS
0.55 6
S
WS
91.9 lb
=
=
= 2. 65
w V S w ( 0.556 ) (62 .4 )
A saturated soil sample has a unit weight of 122.5 pcf and Gs = 2.70. Find dry , e, n, and w.
Solution:
Set the total volume V = 1 ft 3 and rearranging terms,
1 WS
+ Ww
w GS
W = W S + W w = 122.5 lb
(1 )
V = VS + Vw =
(2 )
1=
1
122.5 W w
+ Ww
W w = 27.0 lb V w =
Ww
W S = 95.5 lb V S =
WS
95.5 lb
=
= 0.567 ft 3
G S w ( 2.70 ) (62.4 pcf )
27.0 lb
= 0.433 ft 3
62.4 pcf
WS
95.5 lb
=
= 95.5 pcf
V
1 ft 3
dry =
e=
VV
0.433
=
= 0.764
VS
0.567
n=
VV
0.433
=
= 0.433
V
1
n = 43.3%
w=
Ww
27
=
= 0.2 83
WS
9 5 .5
w = 28 . 3 %
40
Determine the weight of water (in kN) that must be added to a cubic meter of soil to attain a 95 %
degree of saturation, if the dry unit weight is 17.5 kN/m3, its moisture is 4%, the specific gravity of
solids is 2.65 and the soil is entirely made up of a clean quartz sand.
Solution:
kN
kN
=
=
= 1 8 .2
3
1+ w
1 + 0 .0 4
m
m3
W = 1 8 .2 = W S + W w = W S + w W S = (1 .0 4 ) W S
= 1 7 .5
W S = 1 7 .5 k N ,
VS =
Vw =
WS
1 7 .5 k N
=
G S w
0 .7 0 k N
= 0 .0 7 m
( 9 .8 1 k N / m 3 )
Ww
W w = 0 .7 0 k N
and
1 7 .5 k N
= 0 .6 7 3 m
( 2 .6 5 ) ( 9 .8 1 k N / m 3 )
3
V a = V V s V w = 0 .2 5 7 m
VV
0 . 0 7 + 0 .2 5 7
= 0 .4 9
=
VS
0 .6 7 3
e =
( 0 .0 4 ) ( 2 . 6 5 )
wGS
=
(1 0 0 ) = 2 1 . 6 %
e
0 .4 9
W e re q u ire a S = 9 5 % , th e re fo re ,
T h e e x is tin g S =
w =
Se
=
GS
( 0 . 9 5 ) ( 0 .4 9 )
2 .6 5
= 0 .1 7
W w = w W S = ( 0 . 1 7 ) (1 7 . 5 k N )
= 2 .9 8 k N
a lr e a d y h a v e W w
= 0 .7 0 k N
= 2 .2 8 k N
m u s t a d d w a te r
3
41
A project engineer receives a laboratory report with tests performed on marine marl calcareous
silt). The engineer suspects that one of the measurements is in error. Are the engineers suspicions
correct? If so, which one of these values is wrong, and what should be its correct value?
G iven
kN
m3
kN
S = unit w eight of solids = 26.1
m3
w = w ater content = 40%
Solution:
S
26.1
= ( 0.4 )
= 1.06 Therefore, these four are correct.
w
9.81
(1)
V = 1 m3 = Va + Vw + VS
but e =
VV
= 1.12
VS
0 = Va Vw + 1.12VS ( 2 )
kN
= 4.9 kN
Ww = wWS = ( 0.40 ) 12.3 3
m
W = 12.3 kN + 4.9 kN
= 17.2 kN
Therefore, the actual unit weight of the soil is,
=
W 17.2 kN
kN
kN
=
= 17.2 3 18.4 3
3
V
1m
m
m
42
You are a Project Engineer on a large earth dam project that has a volume of 5x106 yd3 of select
fill, compacted such that the final voids ratio in the dam is 0.80. Your boss, the Project Manager
delegates to you the important decision of buying the earth fill from one of three suppliers. Which
one of the three suppliers is the most economical, and how much will you save?
Supplier A
Supplier B
Supplier C
Solution: Without considering the voids ratio, it would appear that Supplier B is cheaper than
Supplier A by $1.37 per yd3. But,
Therefore: To put 1yd3 of solids in the dam you would need 1.8 yd3 of soil.
For 1yd3 of solids from A you would need 1.9 yd3 of fill.
For 1yd3 of solids from B you would need 3.0 yd3 of fill.
For 1yd3 of solids from C you would need 2.6 yd3 of fill.
The cost of the select fill from each supplier is (rounding off the numbers):
A=
5.28$
1.9
( 5 ) (10 6 yd 3 ) 3 $ 27, 900, 000
1.8
yd
B=
3.91$
3.0
( 5 ) (10 6 yd 3 ) 3 $ 32, 600, 000
1.8
yd
C =
5.19$
2.6
( 5 ) (10 6 yd 3 ) 3 $ 37, 500, 000
1.8
yd
43
Based on the previous problem data (Phases17), if the fill dumped into the truck has an e = 1.2,
how many truck loads will you need to fill the dam? Assume each truck carries 20 yd3 of soil.
Solution:
Set VS = 1 e =
VV VV
=
= VV = 1.2 which means that there is 1 yd 3 of solids per 1.2 yd 3 of voids.
VS
1
( 5x10
=
1.8 yd of soil
( 2.8x10
( 4.54
yd 3of solids )
= 616,800
44
*Phases of soils19: How many truck loads are needed for a project?
(Revision: Feb-10)
You have been hired as the Project Engineer for a development company in South Florida to build
610 housing units surrounding four lakes. Since the original ground is low, you will use the
limestone excavated from the lake to fill the land in order to build roads and housing pads. Your
estimated fill requirements are 700,000 m3, with a dry density equivalent to a voids ratio e = 0.46.
The in-situ limestone extracted from the lakes has an e = 0.39, whereas the limestone dumped
into the trucks has an e = 0.71. How many truckloads will you need, if each truck carries 10 m3?
Solution:
Assume: VS = 1 m3 e =
VV VV
= = VV = 0.46 m3 in the compacted fill
VS 1
The required 700,000 m3 of fill have 1.46 m 3 of voids per each 1 m3 of solids
Therefore, the 700,000 m3 of fill have 479,400 m3 of solids
Each truck carries 1.71 m3 of fill per 1 m3 solids
In order for the trucks to carry 479,000 m3 of solids they must carry 820,000 m3 of fill
Since each truck carries 10 m3 of fill,
820, 000 m3
The number of truck-loads =
= 82,000 truck-loads.
10 m3
A=
5.28$
1.9
( 5 ) (10 6 yd 3 ) 3 $ 27, 900, 000
1.8
yd
B=
3.91$
3.0
( 5 ) (10 6 yd 3 ) 3 $ 32, 600, 000
1.8
yd
C =
5.19$
2.6
( 5 ) (10 6 yd 3 ) 3 $ 37, 500, 000
1.8
yd
45
A large housing development requires the purchase and placement of the fill estimated to be
200,000 cubic yards of lime-rock compacted at 95% Standard Proctor with an OMC of 10%. Two
lime-rock suppliers offer to fill your order: Company A has a borrow material with an in-situ =
115 pcf, w = 25%, GS = 2.70; Standard Proctor yields a maximum d = 112 pcf; at a cost of
$0.20/yd3 to excavate, and $ 0.30/yd3 to haul. Company B has a borrow material with an in-situ =
120 pcf, w = 20%, GS = 2.70; Standard Proctor yields a maximum d = 115 pcf; a cost of $0.22/yd3
to excavate, and $ 0.38/yd3 to haul.
(1) What volume would you need from company A?
(2) What volume would you need from company B?
(3) Which would be the cheaper supplier?
Solution:
(1) The key idea: 1 yd3 of solids from the borrow pit supplies 1 yd3 of solids in the fill.
(2) Pit A: WS = 92 lb, WW = 23 lb
e=
VV 0.454
=
= 0.83 1.83 yd 3of soil contains 1.0 yd 3of solids.
VS 0.546
Pit B: WS = 100 lb, WW = 20 lb, VW = 0.321 ft3, VS = 0.594 ft3, Va = 0.08 ft3
e=
VV 0.401
=
= 0.68 1.68 yd 3of soil contains 1.0 yd 3of solids.
VS 0.594
= 0.95 d (1 + w ) = 0.95 (112 )(1 + 0.10 ) = 117 pcf WS = 106.4 lb, Ww = 10.6 lb
e=
VV 0.37
=
= 0.59 1.59 yd 3of soil contains 1.0 yd 3 of solids
VS 0.63
Site A requires
= 0.95 d (1 + w ) = 0.95 (115 )(1 + 0.10 ) = 120 pcf WS = 109.1 lb, Ww = 10.9 lb
e=
VV 0.35
=
= 0.54 1.54 yd 3of soil contains 1.0 yd 3 of solids
VS 0.65
Site B requires
$0.50
Cost A = (125,800 yd 3 ) (1.83)
= $ 115,100
3
yd
Cost of using Company B:
$0.60
Cost B = (130, 000 yd 3 ) (1.68 )
= $ 131,100
3
yd
47
A contractor obtains prices for 34,000 yd3 of compacted borrow material from three pits: Pit #3
is $11,000 cheaper than Pit #2 and $39,000 cheaper than Pit #1. The fill must be compacted down
to a voids ratio of 0.7. Pit #1 costs $ 6.00/yd3 and Pit #3 costs $ 5.50/yd3. Pits #2 and #3 reported
their voids ratios as 0.88 and 0.95 respectively. Use a matrix to find,
a) The missing unit cost C2 for Pit #2;
b) The missing voids ratio e for Pit #1;
c) The missing volume of fill V required from each pit; and
d) The amount paid by the contractor for each pit.
Solution:
A summary of the data provided above converted into matrix form, with missing data in red.
The volume of solids Vs contained in the total volume of fill V = 34,000 yd3 can be found from,
V = VV + VS = 0.7VS + VS = VS ( 0.7 + 1) = 34, 000 yd 3 VS =
At Pit #3,
34, 000
= 20, 000 yd 3 of solids
1.7
V3
= 1 + e3 V3 = VS (1 + e3 ) = ( 20, 000 yd 3 ) (1 + 0.95 ) = 39, 000 yd 3 of soil
VS
At Pit #2:
V2
= 1 + e2 V2 = VS (1 + e2 ) = ( 20, 000 yd 3 ) (1 + 0.88 ) = 37, 600 yd 3 of soil
VS
But, the total cost of Pit #2 is TC2 $ 11, 000 = TC3 = $ 214,500
The unit cost of Pit #2 C2 =
At Pit #1: V1 =
TC2 $ 225,500
=
= $ 6.00 / yd 3
3
V2
37, 600 yd
TC1
TC + 28, 000 225, 500 + 28, 000
= 2
=
= 42, 250 yd 3 of soil
3
$ 6.00 / yd
$ 6.00 / yd 3
$ 6.00 / yd 3
e1 = 1.11
48
**Phases of soils22: Find the voids ratio of muck (a highly organic soil).
(Revision: Feb-10)
You have been retained by a local municipality to prepare a study of their muck soils. Assume
that you know the dry unit weight of the material (solids) sm and the dry unit weight of the
organic solids so. What is the unit weight s of the combined dry organic mineral soil whose
organic content is M0? (The organic content is the percentage by weight of the dry organic
constituent of the total dry weight of the sample for a given volume.) What is the voids ratio e of
this soil if it is known that its water content is w and its degree of saturation is S?
Solution:
s =
Ws
1
=
Vs
(Vso + Vsm )
so
(1 - M o )
sm
Therefore S =
Mo
so
sm
1
= so
M o ( sm - so ) + so )
1 - Mo )
(
sm
wS
wS
Vv
S
(b) e =
=
=
=
Vs
Vs
Vs
Vs
Therefore e =
49
w sm so
w S (1)
=
Mo
(1 - M o ) w S M o ( sm so ) + so
+
sm
so
Chapter 3
Classification of Soils and Rocks
Symbols for Classification of soils
Cc Coefficient of gradation (also coefficient of curvature).
Cu Coefficient of uniformity.
RC Relative compaction.
Dx Diameter of the grains (at % finer by weight).
Dr Relative density of a granular soil.
e
Voids ratio.
LL
Liquid limit.
PL
Plastic limit.
SL
Shrinkage limit.
50
*Classify01: Percentage of each of the four grain sizes (G, S, M & C).
(Revision: Sept.-08)
Determine the percentage of gravels (G), sands (S), silts (M) and clays (C) of soils A, B and C
shown below.
Solution:
Notice that the separation between gravels (G) and sands (S) is the #4 sieve which corresponds to a
particle size of 4.75 mm. The separation between sands (S) and silts (M) is the #200 sieve which
corresponds to a particle size of 0.075 mm. Finally, the separation between silts (M) and clays (C) is the
0.002 mm (or 2 micro-meters = 2 m). These divisions are shown above through color differentiation.
Each soil A, B and C is now separated into the percentage of each:
51
Determine the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of gradation Cc for soil A.
Solution:
From the grain distribution curve, D60 = 1.4 mm, D30 = 0.95 mm and D10 = 0.50 mm, therefore the
coefficients are,
D
1.40 mm
CU = 60 =
= 2.8 and
D10 0.50 mm
D302
( 0.95) = 1.29
CC =
=
D60 D10 (1.40 )( 0.50 )
2
A uniform soil has a coefficient of uniformity Cu less than 4, whereas a well-graded soil has a
uniformity coefficient greater than 4 for gravels and greater than 6 for sands. Since soil A has a low
value of 2.8, and it is sand, this corresponds to a poorly-graded sand (SP). Steep curves are uniform
soils (low Cu) whereas diagonal curves are well-graded soils (high Cu).
Smooth curved soils have coefficients of curvature Cc between 1 and 3, whereas irregular curves have
higher or lower values. Soils that are missing a type of soil (a gap) are called gap-graded (Cc will be less
than 1 or greater than 3 for gap-graded soils).
Therefore, this soil is classified as poorly-graded sand (or SP).
52
Use the grain-size distribution curve shown below to classify soils A and B using the USCS. Soil
Bs Atterberg limits are LL = 49% and PL = 45%?
Solution:
Classify Soil A:
For soil A, the distribution is G = 2%, S = 98%, M = 0% and C = 0%.
CU =
D60 1.40 mm
=
= 2.8 , therefore, soil A is a poorly graded sand (SP).
D10 0.50 mm
Classify Soil B:
For soil B, the distribution is G = 0%, S = 61%, M = 35% and C = 4%.
CU =
53
D60
0.45 mm
=
= 90 , therefore, soil A is very well graded silty sand (SM).
D10 0.005 mm
A site has an unsuitable in-situ soil A that does not compact properly. In lieu of removing that soil
A, you have decided to improve it by mixing it with a borrow pit soil B to produce an improved
new soil C that will compact better.
You desire a coefficient of uniformity Cu of about 100 for the new soil C. Determine the relative
percentages of these two uniform soils A and B so that they will result in better graded soil C. Plot
your results.
The plots of soils A and B are as shown below,
Soil A is composed of 2% G, and 98% S: (6% coarse sand, 85% medium sand and 7% fine sand).
It is obviously a poorly graded sand (SP).
Soil B is composed of approximately 33% S, 55% M and 12% C. It is a well-graded sandy silt.
Consider several solutions as shown below with A/B ratios of 30/70, 35/65, 40/60 and 50/50. The
best is the 50/50 solution via D10 = 0.006 mm,
CU =
D60
D60
= 100 =
D60 = 0.6mm
0.006mm
D10
54
55
Classify 05
(Revision: Sept.-09)
A sample of soil weights 1.5 N. Its clay fraction weighs 0.34 N. If its liquid limit is 60% and its
plastic limit is 26%, classify the clay.
Solution:
W = 1.5 N
Wclay = 0.34 N (or 23% of W)
Ip = PI = LL PL = 60% 26% = 34 %
A =
IP
34%
=
1.5
% of clay fraction 23%
The activity number 1.5 falls above the U-line in Skemptons diagram (see Classify-03). Therefore, this
is a CH clay, and is probably a member of the Montmorillonite family.
56
Classify 06
(Revision: Sept.-09)
During a hydrometer analysis a soil with a Gs = 2.60 is immersed in a water suspension with a
temperature of 24C. An R = 43 cm is obtained after 60 minutes of sedimentation. What is the
diameter D of the smallest-size particles that have settled during that time?
Solution:
Using the table below, for Gs = 2.60 and T= 24C, K= 0.01321.
D=
L
= 0.01321
t
9.2 cm
= 0.00517 mm = 5.2 x 10-3 mm ( a silt)
60 min
57
Gs
2.45
0.01510
0.01511
0.01492
0.01474
0.01456
0.01438
0.01421
0.01404
0.01388
0.01372
0.01357
0.01342
0.01327
0.01312
0.01298
2.50
0.01505
0.01486
0.01467
0.01449
0.01431
0.01414
0.01397
0.01391
0.01365
0.01349
0.01334
0.01319
0.01304
0.01290
0.01276
2.55
0.01481
0.01462
0.01443
0.01425
0.01408
0.01391
0.01374
0.01358
0.01342
0.01327
0.01312
0.01397
0.01283
0.01269
0.01256
2.60
0.01457
0.01439
0.01421
0.01403
0.01386
0.01369
0.01353
0.01337
0.01321
0.01306
0.01291
0.01277
0.01264
0.01249
0.01236
2.65
0.01435
0.01417
0.01399
0.01382
0.01365
0.01348
0.01332
0.01317
0.01301
0.01286
0.01272
0.01258
0.01244
0.01230
0.01217
2.70
0.01414
0.01396
0.01378
0.01361
0.01344
0.01328
0.01312
0.01297
0.01282
0.01267
0.01253
0.01239
0.01225
0.01212
0.01199
2.75
0.01394
0.01376
0.01359
0.01342
0.01325
0.01309
0.01294
0.01279
0.01264
0.01249
0.01235
0.01221
0.01208
0.01195
0.01182
2.80
0.01374
0.01356
0.01339
0.01323
0.01307
0.01291
0.01276
0.01261
0.01246
0.01232
0.01218
0.01204
0.01191
0.01178
0.01169
Classify 07
(Revision: Sept.-09)
The fines fraction of a soil to be used for a highway fill was subjected to a hydrometer analysis by
placing 20 grams of dry fines in a 1 liter solution of water (dynamic viscosity 0.01 Poise at 20
degrees centigrade). The specific gravity of the solids was 2.65.
a) Estimate the maximum diameter D of the particles found at a depth of 5 cm after a
sedimentation time of 4 hours has elapsed, if the solutions concentration has reduced to 2
grams/ liter at the level.
At that moment,
b) What percentage of the sample would have a diameter smaller than D?
c) What type of soil is this?
Solution:
a) Using Stokes relation: v =
where
s w 2
d
18
but G s =
s
w
d =
or
d (mm) =
18 L(cm)
s w t (min)
dyne s
cm 2
s = G s w =
( 2.65 ) ( 9.81
dynes / cm 3
= 26
dynes / cm 3
dynes sec
18 x10 2
( 5 cm )
cm 2
= 0.020 mm
dynes
9.81
(2.65 1.00)(14, 400 sec)
3
cm
Portion smaller =
V
s w
W s w
1) =
1000 cm 3 2.65 x 1
(1.001 1) = 0.08
20 g 2.65 1
Classify 08
(Revision: Sept.-09)
Dr =
emax e
emax emin
d ( field )
( d max
d min ) ( d max )
d min ) ( d ( field ) )
Solution:
d (min) = dry unit weight in loosest condition (voids ratio emax)
d
d =
WS G S W
=
V
1+ e
1
Dr =
d min
1
d min
d
1
d max
=
d max d min d d max d min d ( field )
For example, what is the RC (relative density) of a sand in the field if it was tested to be at 98%
Standard Proctor, its maximum unit weight was 18.8 kN/m3 and its minimum unit weight was 14.0
kN/m3?
RC = 98% =
d ( fie ld )
d ( S td . P r o c t .)
d ( fie ld )
1 8 .8
d ( fie ld )
=
d max d min d (18.8 14.0 )(18.4 )
59
= 1 8 .4 k N / m
Classify 09
(Revision: Sept.-09)
The data obtained from relative density tests is shown below. Calculate the range of relative
densities.
Limiting
Average in kN/m3
max
18.07
17.52
min
14.77
15.56
16.97
field
Solution:
Dr = n min max
max min n
15
.
56
16
.
97
17
.
52
14
.
77
16
.
97
60%
D
r
83%
60
Classify 10
(Revision: Sept.-09)
South Florida has two types of sand, a quartzitic sand (s2 = 165.5 pcf) and calcareous sand (s1 =
146.3 pcf). At a particular site, their voids ratios were found to be:
for the quartzitic sand, max = 0.98 and emin = 0.53
for the calcareous sand, max = 0.89 and emin = 0.62
These voids ratios were measured by using a mold with a diameter of 4 inches and a height of 4.59
inches. The dry quartzitic sand weight was 3.254 lbs, and the dry calcareous sand was 2.868 lbs.
Find their relative densities and dry unit weights. Comment on these results.
Solution:
By definition
Dr =
e max e
e max e min
d 2 h
4
(4) 2 (4.59)
P1
S1
P1
2.868
) 12 3
4
146.3
= 0.70
2.868 12 3
146.3
S1
d 2 h
4
(4) 2 (4.59)
P2
S2
P2
S2
3.254
) 12 3
4
165.6
= 0.70
3.254 12 3
165.6
(
Notice that e1 = e2
For the calcareous sand, Dr1 =
0.89 0.70
= 0.70 and
0.89 0.62
0.98 0.70
= 0.62
0.98 0.53
The two types of sand have different relative densities because the calcareous sand grains are
more tightly packed than the quartzitic sand grains.
For the calcareous sand, d1 =
1 + e1
1 + e2
146.3
= 86.1 pcf (but Dr1 = 0.70)
1 + 0 .7
165.6
= 97.4 pcf (but Dr21 = 0.62)
1 + 0 .7
As a result, the dry unit weight is greater for the soil with the lower relative density.
61
Classify 11
(Revision: Sept.-09)
2R
60
= 0.167 = 16.7%
360
3
V V V
3
V
Vsphere ( tetr )
e=
VV
=
VS
sphere
V sphere
0.943R 0.167 4 / 3 R 3
= 0.35
0.167 4 / 3R 3
ALTERNATE METHOD:
d 2
Volume of cube = d 2
2d
= d32 2
d3 2 3
Volume of sphere = 4
= d
6 3
2
2d 2 d 3
Vcube Vsphere
3
= 0.35
emin =
=
2 3
Vsphere
d
3
e = 0.35 OK !!!
62
Chapter 4
Compaction and Soil Improvement
Symbols for Compaction
e Voids ratio.
GS Specific gravity of the solids of a soil.
n Porosity of the soil.
OMC Optimum moisture content.
S Degree of saturation.
3
4 3
V ( 1 30 ft 9.44*10 m Standard Proctor mold, ASTM D-698).
Va
Volume of air.
VS
Volume of solids.
Water content.
VS
63
A Standard Proctor test has yielded the values shown below. Determine:
a) The maximum dry unit weight and its OMC; remember V = 1/30 ft3.
b) The moisture range for 93% of maximum dry unit weight.
No
Moisture %
3.26
8.24
4.15
10.20
4.67
12.30
4.02
14.60
3.36
16.80
Solution:
(lb/ft3)
w(%)
d (lb/ft3)
3.26
8.24
97.8
90.35
4.15
10.20
124.5
113.0
4.67
12.30
140.1
124.8
4.02
14.60
120.6
105.2
3.36
16.80
100.8
86.30
130
and d =
V
1+ w
125
120
OMC = 12.3 %
110
105
100
95
90
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
w(%)
64
W(Newton)
14.5
15.6
16.3
16.4
16.1
(%)
20
24
28
33
37
Solution:
Trial No.
=
d =
W kN
m3
V
1+
(kN m )
3
15.4
16.5
17.3
17.4
17.1
12.8
13.3
13.5
13.1
12.5
OMC = 28 %
OMC = 28%
13.6
d (kN/m)
13.2
12.8
12.4
12
18
20
22
24
26
28
w(%)
65
30
32
34
36
38
The results of a Standard Compaction test are shown in the table below:
(%)
6.2
8.1
9.8
11.5
12.3
13.2
(kN/m3)
16.9
18.7
19.5
20.5
20.4
20.1
15.9
17.3
17.8
18.4
18.2
17.8
d =
1+
19.5
18.2
16.9
15.6
14.3
13
5
6.1
7.2
8.3
9.4
10.5
11.6
12.7
13.8
14.9
16
w%
S=
Gs d max
w
9.8
Saturation S = 71%
66
The in-situ moisture content of a soil is 18% and its moist unit weight is 105 pcf. The specific
gravity of the soil solids is 2.75. This soil is to be excavated and transported to a construction site,
and then compacted to a minimum dry weight of 103.5 pcf at a moisture content of 20%.
a) How many cubic yards of excavated soil are needed to produce 10,000 yd3 of compacted fill?
b) How many truckloads are needed to transport the excavated soil, if each truck can carry 20
tons?
Solution:
105 pcf
= 89 pcf versus d ( construction site ) = 103.5 pcf
1 + w 1 + 0.18
103.5 pcf
3
a ) Volume to be excavated = 10, 000 yd 3
= 11, 630 yd
89 pcf
d (borrow site) =
27 feet 3 105 lb
(11, 630 yd ) yd 3 feet 3
= 824 truck loads
truck ton
3
67
A Standard Proctor test was performed on a clayey gravel soil; the test results are shown below.
Find the degree of saturation at the optimum condition; assume that Gs = 2.60.
Test
w%
3.00
4.45
5.85
6.95
8.05
9.46
9.90
1.94
2.01
2.06
2.09
2.08
2.06
2.05
19.4
20.1
20.6
20.9
20.8
20.6
20.5
d kN/m3
Solution:
wGs
but e = s 1 = s d
d
e
d
20.9
SOMC = wOMC Gs d OMC = ( 0.0695 )( 2.60 )
= 0.74
2.6
0
10
20.9
(
)(
)
s d
2.1
2.05
1.95
1.9
1.85
1.8
2
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5
10 10.5 11 11.5
w%
68
The relative compaction (RC) of a sandy road base in the field is 90%. The maximum and
minimum dry unit weights of the sand are d(max) = 20.4 kN/m3 and d(min) = 13.9 kN/m3. Determine
the field values of:
a) The dry unit weight in the field;
b) Relative density (of compaction) Dr;
c) The moist unit weight when its moisture content is 15%.
Solution:
The relative compaction RC is the dry unit weight obtained in the field, as compared to the Standard
Proctor obtained in the laboratory.
d ( field ) d ( field )
=
d ( field ) = ( 0.90 )( 20.4 ) = 18.4 kN / m3
d (max)
20.4
=
= 0.768 = 76.8%
d (max) d (min) d ( field ) ( 20.4 13.9 ) 18.4
69
A Standard Proctor compaction test performed on a sample of crushed limestone (Gs = 2.70)
obtained a maximum dry unit weight of 90 pcf at OMC. A field compacted sample showed a
moisture of 28% and a unit weight of 103.7 pcf.
Find the relative compaction (RC).
Find the degree of saturation S of the field soil sample.
Solution:
moist
103.7
= 81.0 pcf
1 + w 1 + 0.28
d ( field ) 81.0 pcf
a ) RC =
=
= 0.90
d max 90.0 pcf
d ( field ) =
Se = wGs
S=
70
An embankment for a highway 30 m wide and 1.5 m thick is to be constructed from a sandy soil,
trucked in from a borrow pit. The water content of the sandy soil in the borrow pit is 15% and its
voids ratio is 0.69. Specifications require the embankment to be compacted to a dry unit weight of
18 kN/m3. Determine, for 1 km length of embankment, the following:
a) The dry unit weight of sandy soil from the borrow pit required to construct the embankment,
assuming that GS = 2.70;
b) The number of 10 m3 truckloads of sandy soil required to construct the embankment;
c) The weight of water per truck load of sandy soil; and
d) The degree of saturation of the in-situ sandy soil.
Solution:
GS w
2.7 (9.8)
kN
=
= 15. 7 3
1+ e
1 + 0.69
m
b) T he volum e of the finished em bankm ent V = 30 m (1.5 m )(1km lo n g ) = 45x10 3 m 3
d ( reqd )
d ( borrow
pit )
(V ) =
18
3
3
( 45 x10 ) m
15.7
3
3
45 x10 m
= 5,160 truck-loa ds
3
10 m
kN
18
=
15.7
71
wGS
( 0.15 )( 2.70 ) = 0.59 = 59%
=
e
0.69
124
122
d(max)
120
=
10
0.29
0.43
0.30
0%
0.41
0.46
114
P o ro s ity
116
V o id R a tio
9 .7
98% S. Proctor
1 4 .3
118
0.32
0.49
0.33
0.52
0.34
112
110
108
5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
w%
72
Solution :
Gs w
The crossing of the ZAV (zero air voids) curve is due to an incorrect assumption of Gs ,
a) Since zav =
is from 9.7% to 14.3% for 98% of Standard Proctor or ( 98%) d max = ( 0.98)(119.5) = 117.1pcf
The total weight of soil in the pavement is W = V = ( 32,000 ft3 ) (117.1pcf ) = 3.75x106 lbs
The weight of water Ww at the low end (9.7%) is,
3.75x106 lbs
( 0.097)
1.097 7.45gal
Ww
Vw = =
40,000gallons
3
w
62.4 pcf
ft
1.143 7.45gal
Ww
Vw = =
56,000gallons
3
w
62.4 pcf
ft
Therefore, the average volume of water is (1/2)( 56,000 + 40,000) = 48,000gallons
Therefore, the volume of water required = 48,000 8,000 gallons.
73
3.00
4.45
5.85
6.95
8.05
9.46
9.90
d / w
1.94
2.01
2.06
2.09
2.08
2.06
2.05
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
Find the d max and the OMC from the compaction curve;
Find the degree of saturation at the above conditions.
Calculate the percentage of air for a given porosity n and the saturation S.
Find the equation that describes the points of equal saturation.
Determine the equation for S = 100%
Discuss the characteristics of this last curve and equation.
Solution:
a)
22
21.5
21
OMC = 7.7%
20.5
3
d (kN/m )
20
19.5
19
18.5
18
2
10
11
74
b)
Se = wGs S =
wGs d max
2.09
=
7.7%
2.65
(
)(
)
= 76%
e w d max
2.65
2.09
c)
a
n
nS
1-n
S
ns =
VV VW VW VW
=
=
= VW
V VV
V
1
a = 1 nS (1 n ) = 1 nS 1 + n
a = n(1 S ) = Va
That is, the percentage of air a is equal to the porosity n times the factor (1 - S), where
S is the degree of saturation.
S=
volume of water
volume of water
=
=
volume of air+volume of water 1 volume of soil grains
w d
w S
S s
S = w d + S d =
w w s + S w
w s
1 d
s
75
12
10
d = (1-a2)s
6
Asymptotes
a=0
4
a1
a2
a3
0
0
12
15
18
21
24
27
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
S = 100%
S1
0.2
S2
0
0
10
20
30
40
A Standard Proctor test yields the values listed below for a soil with Gs = 2.71. Find:
n)
o)
p)
q)
r)
s)
The plot of the dry unit weight versus the water content;
The maximum dry unit weight;
The optimum moisture content;
The dry unit weight at 90% of Standard Proctor;
The moisture range for the 90% value;
The volume of water (in gallons) that must be added to obtain 1 cubic yard of soil at the
maximum density, if the soil was originally at 10% water content.
w (%)
10
13
16
18
20
22
25
(pcf)
98
106
119
125
129
128
123
d (pcf)
89
94
102.6
105.9
107.5
104.9
98.4
Solution:
a) The plot of d (dry unit weight) versus w (water content):
125
120
115
110
100% Proctor
105
90% Proctor
100
95
OMC=20%
90
85
0
10
20
moisture range
(b) From the plot, the maximum dry unit weight is dmax = 107.5 pcf.
(c) From the plot, the optimum moisture content is OMC = 20%.
(d) The 90% value of the maximum dry unit weight dmax = (0.9) (107.5) = 96.8 pcf
(e) The moisture range for the 90% value is approximately from 13% to 26%.
77
30
A
W
V = 1 ft3
W = 98 lb
w = 0.10 =
Ww=9
Ws=89
lb
Ww
Ww = 0.10Ws
Ws
A
V = 1 ft3
W
S
Ww=21.5
W = 129 lb
Ws= 107.5
w = 0.20 =
Ww
Ww = 0.20Ws
Ws
Added water =
78
Your company has won a contract to provide and compact the fill material for an earth levee, with
the dimensions shown below. The levee fill is a silty clay soil to be compacted to at least 95% of
maximum Standard Proctor of d = 106 pcf at an OMC of 18%. Your borrow pit has a silty clay
with an in-situ moist density of 112.1 pcf at 18%, and a Gs = 2.68. When the soil is excavated and
loaded on to your trucks, the voids ratio of the material is e = 1.47. Your trucks can haul 15 cubic
yards of material per trip.
a) Determine the volume of fill required for the levee;
b) Determine the volume required from the borrow pit;
c) Determine the required number of truckloads.
Solution:
450 ft long
1
1
a) Volume of levee = ( 20')( 40') + ( 20')( 20') + ( 20')( 60') ( ft 2 )
= 23,300 cy
3
2
2
27 ft / cy
b) To find the volume required from the borrow pit consider that the weight of solids is the same
in both,
But d =
Ws (borrow) = Ws ( levee )
Ws
V
or Ws = dV
112.1
= 95 pcf and
1 + w 1 + 0.18
100.7 pcf
= Vlevee d (levee) = ( 23,300 cy )
d (borrow)
95 pcf
where d (borrow) =
Vborrow
79
or d (borrow)Vborrow = d (levee)Vlevee
= 24,700cy
d ( hauled )
but d ( levee ) = 100.7 pcf
and d ( hauled ) =
GS w ( 2.68 )( 62.4 )
= 67.7 pcf
=
1 + e
1 + 1.47
d ( levee )
100.7 pcf
Vhauled = Vlevee
= ( 23,300 yd 3 )
= 34, 700 yd 3
67.7 pcf
d ( hauled )
Vhauled
34, 700 yd 3
Number of truck-loads =
=
= 2,314
3
truck capacity 15 yd / truck load
80
A towns new reservoir will impound its fresh water with a small earth dam, rectangularly shaped
in plan. The perimeter of the dam will be 2,200 ft long by 1,750 ft wide, and its cross-section is
shown below in figure B. The dam is to be built with a silty clay soil, with a specific gravity of 2.70,
available from three different local sources. Specifications call for a compacted soil at the dam
with a dry unit weight of 97 pcf at an OMC of 31 percent. Assume all voids are totally devoid of
any gas (or air). The borrow suppliers quoted the following:
Pit
Price ($/yd3)
Gs
S (%)
w (%)
1.05
2.69
65
22
0.91
2.71
49
22
0.78
2.66
41
18
Questions:
1. What is the dams cross-sectional area?
a) 675 ft2
b) 2,100 ft2
c) 2,350 ft2
d) 2,700 ft2
e) 2,550 ft2
81
2. What is the approximate total volume V of soil required for the dam?
a) 2,550 ft3
b) 300,000 yd3
c) 900,000 yd3
d) 1.22 Myd3
e) 0.75 Myd3
3. What is the approximate volume of water impounded (stored) in the dam?
a) 6,300,000 ft3
b) 134 acre-ft
c) 7 Mft3
d) 154 acre-ft
e) 45 106 gallons
4. What is the unit weight of soil of the compacted earth dam?
a) 127 pcf
b) 97 pcf
c) 86 pcf
d) 98 pcf
e) 128 pcf
5. What is the designed voids ratio e of the compacted soil in the dam?
a) 1.1
b) 0.92
c) 0.84
d) 0.79
e) 1.2
6. What is the voids ratio e of the material in pit A?
a) 0.98
b) 0.91
c) 1.02
d) 1.1
e) 0.72
7. What is the voids ratio e of the material in pit B?
a) 0.93
b) 1.22
c) 0.81
d) 1.01
e) 1.00
82
83
Chapter 5
Permeability of Soils
Symbols for Permeability
A area of a seepage surface.
C Hazens coefficient.
d Diameter of a capillary tube
Dx Diameter of a soil % finer (represents % finer by weight)
e The voids ratio.
GS Specific gravity of the solids of a soil.
h Thickness of the aquifer.
H Thickness of the soil layer.
hC Height of the rising capillary
i Hydraulic gradient.
k coefficient of permeability in DArcys equation .
kH Coefficient of horizontal permeability..
kV Coefficient of vertical permeability
L Distance of the hydraulic head loss.
Ludgeon Standard unit for permeability ( 10 4 mm
sec
).
84
85
A test boring was performed at an elevation 955 feet MSL, and it found the phreatic surface
(water table) 5 feet below the ground surface. An aquifer stratum was identified, and a sample of
its soil showed the grain size distribution below. Estimate the permeability using Hazens formula
with the coefficient C = 12. A piezometer (measures the location of the WT) was installed 2500 feet
downstream from the boring, and showed its phreatic surface at elevation 942 feet MSL. If the
thickness of the aquifer was a uniform 12 feet between both points, estimate the quantity of flow
per foot of width in gallons/hour (1 ft 3 7.45 gallons ).
Solution:
Allen Hazens (1893) formula for the permeability k = C ( D10 ) 2 = (12 ) (0.16mm)2 = 0.31
mm
s
3
hour
L
sec hour 25.4mm12in 1ft 2,500 ft
D10
D10 = 0.16 mm
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION DIAGRAM
86
A canal and a river run parallel an average of 250 feet apart. The elevation of the water surface in
the canal is at +1050 feet and in the river at +1021 feet. A stratum of sand intersects both the river
and the canal below their water levels. The sand is 6 feet thick, and is sandwiched between strata
ft 3
if the permeability of
of impervious clay. Compute the seepage loss q from the canal in
day mile
ft
the sand is 2 x10-3
.
sec
250
ELEV. +1050
ELEV. +1021
CLAY
6
SAND
CLAY
Solution:
DArcys formula for q yields,
L
s day
250 ft
mile
ft 3
q = 635, 000
day mile
q=k
87
The topmost layer is loose, clean sand, 1 meter thick. Its vertical permeability kV can be estimated
using Hazens formula with C = 1.5 (to over-estimate) and the sieve analysis shown here. Its kH is
known to be approximately 500% of the kV. Below the sand stratum is a marine marl, 3 meters
thick, with a kV = kH = 10-6 m/s. What is the combined kHcomb for the upper 4 m in cm/sec?
Sand
1m
.
Marl
3m
Solution:
Use Hazens formula to find the permeability, where k is in cm/s if C ranges from 0.8-1.5. D10 is in mm.
Use the grain-size distribution curve of Permeability-02.
6
6
k1 H1 + k2 H 2 (1,920 x10 m / s ) (1 m ) + (10 m / s ) ( 3 m )
=
=
= 4.8 104 cm / s
H1 + H 2
1m + 3 m
88
The soil profile shown below is typical of Miami-Dade County. Estimate the equivalent
permeabilities kV(eq) and kH(eq) in cm/sec, and the ratio of kH(eq) / kV(eq)..
1m
Fine Sand
k = 1x10-1 cm/sec
Pamlico Formation
5m
Porous Limestone
k = 2x10-3 cm/sec
Miami Formation
3m
Fine Sand
k = 1x10-3 cm/sec
k = 2x10- 4 cm/sec
Solution:
kV (EQ) =
H
H1 H2 H3 H4
+ + +
k1 k2 k3 k4
( 2,100 cm)
3
(1+ 5 + 3 +12) m
1m
5m
3m
12 m
+
+
+
101cm / s 2103 cm / s 103 cm / s 2104 cm / s
= 0.32103 cm / s
(6,551x10 )s
1
1
(1)(101) + (5)(2103 ) + (3)(103 ) + (12)(2104 )
kH ( EQ) = [ H1k1 + H2k2 + H3k3 + H4k4 ] =
H
( 21 m)
kH ( EQ) = 4.8103 cm / s
Therefore
kH 4.8103 cm / s
=
= 15
kV 0.32103 cm / s
89
Estimate the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical permeability of these four strata.
H1 = 3
-3
k1 = 10 cm/sec
k2 = 2x10-4 cm/sec
H2 = 3
k3 = 10-5 cm/sec
H3 = 3
k4 = 2x10-3 cm/sec
H4 = 3
Solution:
The equivalent horizontal permeability of all four layers is:
kH(eq) =
kVeq =
H
H1 H 2 H 3 H 4
+
+
+
kV1 kV2 kV3 kV4
12 ft
3'
3'
3'
3'
+
+ 5 +
3
4
10
2 x10
10
2 x10 3
k H eq
k V eq
8 x1 0 4 c m / s
=
= 22
0 .3 7 x 1 0 4 c m / s
90
The soil layers below have a cross section of 100 mm x 100 mm each. The permeability of each soil
is: kA =10-2 cm/sec.; kB =3 x 10-3 cm/sec; kC = 4.9 x 10-4 cm/sec. Find the rate of water supply in
cm3/hr.
h=300 mm
hA
H1=150 mm
hB
H2=150 mm
H3=150 mm
Solution:
This is a trick drawing: it looks like a horizontal flow, but in reality it is a vertical flow because the
flow has to cross through every layer; it can not bypass any layer. Therefore, every soil layer has the
same flow v = v1 = v2 = v3 and the total head h = h1 + h2 + h3.
kV ( eq ) =
H
450mm
=
= 1.2 (10 3 ) cm / sec
150mm
150mm
150mm
H1 H 2 H 3
+
+
+
+
2
3
k1 k2
k3 1x10 cm / s 3 x10 cm / s 4.9 x104 cm / s
q = keq iA = keq
91
300 mm
3, 600sec
h
3
A = (0.0012 cm / s )
(10
cm
)(10
cm
)
= 291 cm / hour
H
450 mm
1 hr
The coefficient of permeability of fine sand is 0.012 cm/sec at a voids ratio of 0.57. Estimate the
increased permeability using the Kozeny-Carman formula of this same sand when its voids ratio
has increased to 0.72.
Solution:
Using the Kozeny-Carman formula,
e3
k=
(1 + e )
3
e13
( 0.57 )
k
1 + e1
0.012
1 =
=
= 1 + 0.573 = 0.544
3
e2
k2
k2
( 0.72 )
1 + e2
1 + 0.72
0.012
k2 =
= 0.022 cm / s
0.544
Notice that since k1 = 0.012 cm/s the permeability has almost doubled. A 26% increase
92
The soil below is a dense well-graded clayey sand with d = 112 pcf and Gs = 2.63, a permeability k
= 240 mm/min at a voids ratio of e = 0.85; the cross-sectional area of the tank is 36 ft2. Find (a) the
seepage rate q in ft3/min., and (b) the direction of the flow.
h = 4 feet
H1=2
H2=6
Clayey sand
Solution:
a) The hydraulic gradient i and the voids ratio e are:
i=
h 4 ft
=
= 0.667 and
H 2 6 ft
e=
Gs w
1 =
(2.63)(62.4 pcf )
1 = 0.465
112 pcf
The Casagrande formula relates the known permeability k0.85 at e = 0.85 to an unknown
permeability k at any voids ratio e,
mm 1 in 1 ft
= 0.239 ft / min
min 25.4 mm 12 in
ft
ft 3
2
q = kiA = 0.238
(0.667)(36 ft ) = 5.74
min
min
93
Determine the different heights hc that water will raise in three different capillary tubes, with
diameters:
d1 = 0.00075 mm (corresponding to a fine clay sized particle),
d2 = 0.075 mm (corresponding to the smallest sand sized particle) and
d3 = 0.75 mm (corresponding to a medium sand sized particle).
Assume that the surface tension is 0.075 N/m with an angle = 3o.
Solution:
The surface tension of water Ts ranges from about 0.064 to 0.075 N/m (0.0044 to 0.0051 lb/ft). In this
problem we have chosen the largest value. Notice that the negative sign indicates that the water has risen
due to the capillary tension.
94
hc =
h1 =
-4 ( T s ) ( c o s
d w
4 ( 0 .0 7 5 N / m ) ( c o s 3 )
d ( 9 .8 1 k N / m 3 )
4 ( 7 .5 x 1 0 2 N / m
) (c o s 3 ) = - 4 1
( 7 .5 x 1 0 m ) ( 9 .8 1 k N / m )
4 ( 7 .5 x 1 0 N / m ) ( c o s 3 )
= - 0 .4 1 m =
( 7 .5 x 1 0 m ) ( 9 .8 1 k N / m )
4 ( 7 .5 x 1 0 N / m ) ( c o s 3 )
= - 0 .0 4 1 m
( 7 .5 x 1 0 m ) ( 9 .8 1 k N / m )
7
h2 =
410m m
h3 =
95
= 41 m m
How much does the capillary water rise above the water table in a very fine sand (d = 0.1 mm)
if the surface tension force is To = 0.064 N/m with an = 3?
Solution:
hc =
hc
Capillary flow
96
Another method of determining the capillary rise in a soil is to use Hazens capillary formula. The
3 m thick dense silt layer shown below is the top stratum of a construction site, has an effective
diameter of 0.01 mm. What is the approximate height of the capillary rise in that silt stratum?
What are the vertical effective stresses at depths of 3 m and 8 m below the surface? The free
ground water level is 8 meters below the ground surface, the S =26.5 kN/m3, and the soil between
the ground surface and the capillary level is partially saturated to 50%.
Dense silt
h1 = 3 m
Clay
h2 = 5 m
Solution:
1.
0.0306
0.0306
=
= 15.3 m
0.2 D10 ( 0.2 )( 0.01 mm )
kN
1 + w ( 26.5 )(1.148 )
SAT = S
= 21.8 3
=
m
1.40
1+ e
For 50% saturation,
w=
Se
kN
1 + w ( 26.5 )(1.074 )
= S
= 20.3 3
=
1.40
m
1+ e
Therefore,
( V ')3 = h1 = ( 3 )( 20.3 ) = 61 kPa
( V ')8 = h1 + ( h2 ) SAT = ( 3 )( 20.3 ) + ( 5 )( 21.8 ) = 170 kPa
97
0.0
1.8
4.4
8.0
Solution:
1,540 gal
= 154 gallons / minute
10 min
The perimeter of the trench is L ' = 2 ( 6 ft + 1.5 ft ) = 15 ft and H = ( 4.4 ft 1.8 ft ) = 2.6 ft
Q =
98
Borings were taken at the site of an intended impoundment pond and the in-situ voids ratios at
various depths are shown in the figure below. A constant-head permeability test was performed on
sample #1 (which was 6 high and 2 in diameter) subjected to a pressure head of 27: after 5
seconds, 50 grams of water were collected through the sample.
Impoundment pond area = 4.4 miles2
ELEV
0
e = 0.750 (Sample 1)
h
10
e = 0.217
(Sample 2)
Geomembrane
15
e = 0.048
(Sample 3)
L
20
e = 0.015
(Sample 4)
25
e = 0.006
(Sample 5)
what depth (to the nearest 5 feet) would you place the bottom of the pond in order to keep the total
seepage Q below 50,000 gal/min?
Assume seepage only through the bottom of the pond, and that the pond is kept filled.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the permeability k of sample # 1.
From Darcy;
Q= k i A, therefore
k=
q
4q
=
iA i d 2
but , q =
50cm3
cm3
= 10
,
5sec
sec
and
i=
h 27in
=
= 4.5
L
6in
( 4 ) 10
cm
(10mm / cm)
4q
mm
in
ka =
=
= 0.122
2
2
i d
sec
cm
2
4.5 ( 6in ) 2.54
in
Step 2: Determine the new permeability of the sand due to vibroflotation densification.
k = 1.4k0.85 e 2
Therefore
kb 0.066
=
= 0.54
ka 0.122
k = 1 .4 k 0 .8 5 e 2 therefore k0.85 =
k
(0.122mm / sec)
= 0.155 mm / sec
2 =
1.4e
1.4(0.752 )
k = 1.4 k 0.85 e 2
(x ratio)
Depth (feet)
Original eo
Original k (mm/sec)
Densified k (mm/sec)
0.
0.
0.
0.
-5
0.750
0.122
0.066
-10
0.217
0.010
0.005
-15
0.048
0.005
2.76x10
-20
0.015
5.08x10
-25
0.006
1.03x10
-4
-5
2.74x10
-5
-5
0.56x10
-5
Q = kiA
or
ki =
k h
Q
=
L
A
1mm
ft 3
6,
680
3
min 3.281 10 ft
Q
=
= 2.79 104 mm
2
sec
A
( 4.4mile2 ) 5280 ft mile (1min ) 60 sec min
101
h
15
4 mm
4
=
2.76 x10
= 4.14 x10 mm / sec
L
10
sec
or at a depth of: -20 ft.
h
20
5 m m
4 m m
=
0 .5 6 x1 0
= 0 .2 2 4 x1 0
L
5
se c
se c
Therefore, place the bottom of pond at -19 feet.
Q
A
( 10
mm
sec
0
0
-5
-10
Depth
ft
-15
18.7 ft
-20
2.76
-25
-30
102
Chapter 6
Seepage and Flow-nets
Symbols for Seepage and Flow-nets
103
b)
filter
c)
Equipotential Lines
Flow Lines
Well
Solution:
a) Incorrectly drawn mesh, because two equipotential lines intersect each other (equipotential lines
and flowlines must intersect orthogonally to each other).
b) Incorrectly drawn mesh, because two flow-lines intersect each other (same as above).
c) The well should be at the center of the net (a sink or a source point).
104
The completed flow net for the dam shown below includes a steel sheet-pile cutoff wall located at
the head-water side of the dam in order to reduce the seepage loss. The dam is half a kilometer in
width (shore to shore) and the permeability of the silty sand stratum is 3.5 x 10-4 cm/s. Find, (a) the
total seepage loss under the dam in liters per year, and (b) would the dam be more stable if the
cutoff wall was placed under its tail-water side?
15 m
h = 6.0 m
2.0 m
1
10.0 m
17.0 m
2
IMPERVIOUS STRATUM (CLAY OR ROCK)
Solution:
(a) Notice that h = 6.0 m, the number of flow channels Nf = 3 and the equipotentials Neq = 10.
Forcheimers
Using
q = k h
Nf
N eq
equation,
cm m
3
6
2
= 3.5 104
(6.0 m) = 6.3 10 m / sec/ per m of dam width
sec 100 cm
10
Since the dam is 500 meters wide (shore-to-shore) the total flow Q under the dam is,
103 liters
sec
million liters
6
Q = Lq = 500 m 6.3 106 m3 / sec
31.5 10
= 100
3
year
year
1 m
b) No. Placing the cutoff wall at the toe would allow higher uplift hydrostatic pressures to develop
beneath the dam, thereby decreasing the dams stability against sliding toward the right (down-stream).
105
Using the flow net shown below, (1) determine the seepage underneath the 1,000 foot wide
concrete dam, and (2) the velocity at point a in feet/hour, where the height of the nets square is
19 feet. The soil has a GS = 2.67, D10 = 0.01 mm. Overestimate the flow by using Hazens coefficient
C = 15 to determine the permeability k.
h = 30 feet
feet
5 feet
a 19
Solution:
Nf
N eq
mm 1 in 1 ft 3, 600 sec
ft 3
5
= 0.0015
12
ft 2
ft 3
Q = Lq = (1, 000 ft ) 0.185
= 185
hr
hr
0.185 ft 3
q
ft
5 hr
v= =
0.002
A (19 ft high )(1 ft wide )
hr
106
In western Miami-Dade County, the Everglades are contained with levees. Levee #111 runs
North-South about 2 kilometers west of Krome Avenue and its cross section is show below.
Laboratory tests indicate that the permeability of the 80-year old levee is 0.30 m/day. What is the
volume of water lost through the levee along each kilometer in m3/day?
50 m
12 m
50 m
WT
2m
23 m
2:1
2:1
D
DRAINAGE
E
112 m
2.7 m
N
Q = Lq = L k h f
N eq
107
m
m3
3
= (1, 000 m ) 0.3
( 23 m ) = 2, 070
da
y
day
10
Find the seepage through the earth dam shown below in gallons/day if the sieve analysis shows the
D10 to be 0.17 mm, and the dam is 1,200 feet wide. What is the pressure head at the top of the
aquiclude and at mid-dam (point A)?
Number of flow channels N f = 3
Number of equipotential drops N eq = 7
Using Hazen's formula k = CD 102 = 15 D102 = 15(0.17 mm ) 2 = 0.43
mm
sec
40
rock toe
7
0
25
A3
Solution:
N
mm 1inch 1 ft 7.5 gallons
3 86,400sec
Q = Lq = L kh f = (1,200 ft ) 0.43
40 ft )
(
Neq
sec 25.4 mm 12inches 1 ft
7 1day
gallons
Q = 18.8106
day
4.4
At point "A" the dynamic pressure head is
( 40 ft ) = 25.1 feet
7
2
The static head at "A" is approximately ( 40 ft ) = 26.7 feet
3
Therefore, the total head = static + dynamic = 25.1 ft + 26.7 ft = 51.8 feet
108
The cross-section of an earth dam 5,000 feet wide is shown below. Determine (a) the seepage flow
through the dam, in ft3 / minute, (b) the hydraulic gradient in square I, and (c) the pore pressures
along a trial failure surface along the line ED.
109
Solution:
(a) From graph D10 = 0.04 mm. Using Hazens relation, with C = 15 to overestimate the permeability of
the dam,
Nf
Q = Lq = L k h
N eq
ft 3
Q = 454, 000
day
3
= ( 5, 000 ft ) 0.024
( 40 ft )
day
sec 25.4 mm 12 inches
iI =
h
40/9
=
= 0.40
lI
11.2
pore pressure
u=
40' - 2.5
40
9
62.4 =
1803 psf =
1.80 ksf
u=
40' - 3
40
9
62.4 =
1664 psf =
1.66 ksf
u=
40' - 4
40
9
62.4 =
1387 psf =
1.39 ksf
u=
40' - 5
40
9
62.4 =
1109 psf =
1.11 ksf
u=
40' - 6
40
9
62.4 =
832 psf =
0.83 ksf
u=
40' - 7
40
9
62.4 =
555 psf =
0.55 ksf
u=
40' - 8
40
9
62.4 =
277 psf =
0.28 ksf
110
A cofferdam is to be built in the middle of a bay to place the foundations of a tall television tower.
A plan area of the cofferdam is 30 m long by 10 m wide. A sample taken from the bay bottom was
subjected to a hydrometer analysis: 20 grams of bay bottom dry fines were mixed with 1 liter of
water. The specific gravity of the solids was found to be 2.65. The dynamic viscosity of water is 102
Poise (dynes-sec/cm2) at 20oC. After 1 hour of precipitation, the hydrometer dropped 16 cm. The
soil is uniform in size, with 80 % passing the # 200 sieve.
e) What type of soil was the sample?
f) Will a large 3 m3 per minute pump be adequate to maintain a 1 m draw down below the bay
bottom? Use FS > 2.
Pump
CL
7m
1m
15 m
Clay stratum
111
Solution:
a) Use Stokes formula to find diameter of the bay bottom particles:
D10 = d =
18
L
18
.
=
S W t W ( GS 1) t
d = 0.070 mm
Therefore the soil is silt (0.075 mm to 0.002 mm).
b) Hazens formula permits us to estimate the permeability k of the soil:
k = CD102
mm
mm
= 15(0.07 mm ) 2 = 0.074
sec
sec
Use Forheimers formula to estimate the total flow Q into the cofferdam:
q = k h
Nf
N eq
4 m
2 mm
5 m
= 7.4 x10
( 8m ) 3
= 29.6 x10
ms
sec
8 10 m m
60 s
m3
5 m
Q = ( perimeter )( q ) = 80 m 29.6 x10
.
= 1.42
m s min
min
3 m 3 / min
= 2.11 > 2 OKAY Pump is adeq uate !
Pump FS =
1.42 m 3 / min
112
A new office building will require a two-level underground parking garage. The plan size of the
site is 100 x 80 meters. Some of the soil properties are shown below.
a) At what depth of the excavation will the limestone (shear strength = 0.1 MN/m2) have a
punching shear failure? Suggest using a 1m x 1m plug as a model.
b) What size pump do you need (m3/minute) with a factor of safety of 3?
Pump
Elevation +0 m
Sand = 1 7
kN
m3
Elevation 1.0 m
Anchor
Limestone
= 19
kN
m3
Nf = 3
Neq = 8
8
F2
Elevation 7 m
F1
F3
Elevation 9 m
1
2
7
3
4
113
Sandstone
6
= 21
kN
m3
Elevation 11 m
Solution:
a ) T h e u p li f t f o r c e a t p o i n t A i s f o u n d b y ,
Fy = 0
F u p l if t - F s h e a r
F u p l if t = u A =
( h w ) A
F s h e a r = A = 0 .1
MN
m2
r e s is ta n c e
= 0
kN
(1 m
m3
kN
(4 x ) m 2 = 4 0 0 x
m
=
( 6 m ) 9 .8 1
59
= 0 .1 4 7 m w i t h F S = 7
400
T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o e le v a t i o n - 6 m .
x =
)=
59 kN
x =1m
b ) D e t e r m i n e t h e f lo w q u a n t i t y w i t h F o r h e i m e r 's f o r m u la ,
a N
Q = qL = Lk
b N
w here
f
q
k = C D 120 = (1 2 .5 ) ( 0 .0 9 5 m m
= 0 .1 1 3
mm
sec
h = 5m
mm 3
m
60
3
3
3
(5 m )
10
= 4 .6 m / m i n 5 m / m i n
s
e
c
8
m
m
m
3
m
F o r a F S = 3 u se a 15
pum p.
m in
Q =
( 3 6 0 m ) 0 .1 1 3
114
The figure below shows a dewatering plan to build the foundations of an office building below the
water table and without sheet-piling. The plan area of the excavation is 400 m long by 100 m wide.
The soil has a D10 of 0.02 mm. What size pump do you need (gpm) with a Factor of Safety = 2?
Dewatering wells
Marshy soils
h = 2m
Excavated site
CL
h = 2m
h = 2m
1
2
3
h = 2m
Lowered WT
Neq = 4
Nf = 3
Solution:
N otice that h = 8 m , N f = 3, N eq = 4 and L = perim eter = 1, 000 m .
T he perm eability k = C ( D10 ) = (15 )( 0.02 m m ) = 0.006 m m / s
2
N
Q = L q = L k h f
N
eq
mm
m3
3 m
60 s
=
200
+
800
m
0.006
8
m
=
2.16
)
) 3
(
(
s
m in
4 10 m m 1 m in
m3
ft 7.45 gal
g a l lons
Q = 2.16
= 60 0
3
m in 0 . 30 m
ft
m in
Therefore, for a factor of safety of 2 use at least a 1,200 gallons per minute pump or
The figure below shows the profile of a square excavation (in plan view) in a layered soil, where
the vertical permeability is 5 x 10-5 m/s and the horizontal permeability is roughly ten times higher
than the vertical. Estimate the dewatering capacity requirements, in m3/hour, to prevent the
excavation from flooding. The value of h is to scale, but you may use 10 m.
CL
40 m
10m
10m
40 m
80 m
CL
Sheet-pile wall
Datum for h
( square)
h=0
h=1(1/3)m
h=2(2/3)m
h=4m
h=5(1/3)m
h=6(2/3)m
( square)
h=8m
h=9(1/3)m
( square)
( square)
h = 10
4m
Scale
116
Solution:
h = 10m , N
k =
kxk y =
= 4 , N eq = 8
( 5 x1 0
m / s )( 5 x1 0 5 m / s ) = 1 .6 (1 0 4 m / s )
Nf
Q = qp = k h
N eq
4 m
4
p = (1 .6 ) 1 0
(1 0 m ) ( 3 2 0 m )
s
m 3 3, 6 0 0 s
m3
Q = 0 .2 5 3
= 911
hr
s hr
117
An earth dam on a pervious but strong earth foundation has the cross-section shown in the figure
below. The core of the dam is sealed from the jointed rock foundation with a thin layer of grout.
g) State the function and properties of the core shell and drains;
h) What is the function of the grout between the core and foundation? Under what conditions is it
most important?
i) Calculate the seepage quantity per foot of length of the dam through the dam, through the
foundation, and the total seepage quantity.
j) What grading requirements should be specified for the inclined filter A?
k) What minimum permeability k is required in the horizontal drain B to prevent saturation
from rising into the random fill zone? Give the results of k in ft/day.
Reservoir surface
H=100 ft
inclined filter A
10 ft
shell
core
L = 150 ft
horizontal drain B
Note: The grain size of core = 100% passes 1, 15% size = 1/8, and 85% size = 0.001 in.
Foundation layer permeability k2 = 0.1 ft/day
Solution:
(a)
The core is used to retain water within the dam, that is, to resist seepage. The material should be
relatively impermeable (clay) and should not shrink or swell excessively.
The shell provides the structural strength to support and protect the core. The material must be
more permeable than the core material, strong and durable.
118
h1=5 ft
grout
The drains are provided to reduce the pore water pressures in the foundation and in the
embankment to increase stability. The drains also remove seepage water to reduce soil erosion.
The drain material must be permeable enough to permit drainage with a low head loss and yet
fine enough to keep the adjacent soil in place.
(b)
The primary function of the grout between the core and foundation is to form an impervious
layer which prevents seepage along the contact surface. This becomes most important when the
ratio k2/k1 becomes large.
(c)
Calculate the seepage Q by using the flow net shown in the figure.
1) Through the dam: Q = k1(h/L)b in ft3/day/ft where b is the normal distance between
streamlines. The flow net divides the core into 4 zones (#1 at the bottom, #4 at the top).
4
Q = k1 ij bj = k1 (h)j (b)j
j=1
j=1
In zone #1, the flow net is nearly rectangular, so (b)1 = 2; for zone # 4, (b )j = 1
hL = 98
hL = 98
6
Zone#2 ZL = 10 hL = 90
hL = 90
5.5
Zone#3 ZL = 25 hL = 75
5.5
hL = 75
4.5
Zone#4 ZL = 55 hL = 45
4.5
hL = 45
3
119
5.5
4.5
120
At what value of h2 will it minimize k? Clearly it is when h2 = 0, although this does seem unrealistic
since we are saying that the flow at the lower end of the drain has zero depth. Nevertheless, it gives us a
minimum value, which is:
kmin = 2LQ = 2(150)(3.83) = 46 ft/day
h1 2
121
52
Chapter 7
Effective Stresses and Pore Water Pressure
Symbols for Effective Stresses and Pore Water Pressure
122
What force is required to hold an empty box that has a volume of 1 cubic foot, just below the
water surface?
Solution:
The volume of the displaced water is 1 ft3.
Therefore, the force is the weight of 1 ft3 of water = 62.4 lbs / ft3.
What is the force required to hold the same box 10 feet below the surface?
123
A sample was obtained from point A in the submerged clay layer shown below. It was determined
that it had a w = 54%, and a Gs = 2.78. What is the effective vertical stress at A?
hw = 25 m
water
Saturated clay
hs = 15 m
A
Solution:
The effective stress at the point A consists solely of the depth of the soil (not of the water)
multiplied by the soil buoyant unit weight.
In order to find ' there are a number of derivations, such as this one,
( GS + e ) W
W where the voids ratio e can be found through Se = wGS
1
+
e
and noticing that S = 1 because the soil is 100% saturated, e = wGS = ( 0.54 ) (2.78)
' =
( GS + e ) W
h
=
9.81
(15 m )
W soil
+
+
1
e
1
0.54
(2.78)
( )
124
The City of Houston, Texas has been experiencing a rapid lowering of its phreatic surface (drawdowns) during the past 49 years due to large volumes of water pumped out of the ground by
industrial users.
a) What was the effective vertical stress at a depth of 15 m in 1960?
b) What is the effective stress at the same depth in 2009?
c) What happens to the ground surface as a result of the draw-downs?
Solution:
a)
w h ere
' = SAT W
125
Effective Stress-03B
Revision
In the soil profile shown below, show a plot of the pore water pressure and the effective stress
along the right margin of the figure, with numerical values at each interface. Pay heed to the
capillarity in the upper clay. Assume S = 50%.
Solution:
h = (62.4) x (4) = -250
h = (62.4) x (6) = 562
h = (110.7) x (6) = 664
h = {[(110-62.4) x (4)] + 664} = 854
h = {[(117-62.4) x (9)] + 854} = 854
h = 664 250 = 414
h = 0 + 854 = 854
h = 562 + 1346 = 1908
u + '
Depth (ft)
-250
664
414
10
854
854
19
562
1346
1908
126
Chapter 8
Dams and Levees
Symbols for Dams and Levees
127
Calculate the uplift force at the base of the weir, per foot of width. Points A and B are at the
corners of the concrete levee.
Solution:
HA HB
N eq
30 ft 5 ft
= 1.8 ft / drop
14 drops
35.3 + 20.1
F = L A
w = 98 '
( 62.4 ) 3 = 169, 000 = 16 9
2
2
ft
ft
ft
128
The uplift (hydrostatic) force under the concrete gravity dam shown below varies as a straight line
from 67% of the headwater pressure at the heel, to 100% of the tail-water at the toe. Assume
Concrete = 145 pcf
a) Determine the Factor of Safety against overturning; and
o
b) Determine the FS against sliding, if the sand that underlay the dam has = 3 7 .
129
Solution:
Step 1: Determine all forces on the dam
FV = 0
k
1
V1 = weight of dam = 0.145 3 (300 ft )(40 ft ) + (260 ft )(300 ft ) = 7,395 kips / ft
ft
2
M0 = 0
x1 , from toe O =
k 1
(60 ft )(52 ft ) = 97 kips / ft
3
ft 2
1
(52 ft ) = 17.3 ft left of toe
3
1
k
2
H 1 : lateral force from headwater = 0.0624 3 (285 ft ) = 2,534 kips / ft
ft
2
1
y1 , from toe O = (285 ft ) = 95 ft above the toe.
3
1
k
2
H 2 : lateral force from tailwater = 0.0624 3 (60 ft ) = 112 kips / ft
2
ft
1
y 2 , from toe O = (60 ft ) = 20 ft above the toe.
3
x 2 , from toe O =
1
( pLEFT + pRIGHT )( 300 ft ) = 2, 534 kips / ft
2
1
k
(11.9 + 3.7 ) 2 ( 300 ft ) = 2,340 kips / ft
2
ft
k
k
k
300 ft 1
2
3.7 2 (300 ft )
+ 11.9 2 3.7 2 (300 ft ) (300 ft )
ft
ft
ft
2 2
3
x3 , from toe O =
= 176.3 ft left of toe
k
1
k
k
3.7 2 (300 ft ) + 11.9 2 3.7 2 (300 ft )
2
ft
ft
ft
130
Step 3: The factor of safety (FS) against overturning (taken about the toe),
FS =
V x + V2 x 2 + H 2 y 2
resisting moments
= 1 1
overturning moments
V3 x3 + H 1 y1
FSoverturning =
GOOD
FS sliding =
131
Chapter 9
Stresses in Soil Masses
Symbols for Stresses in Soil Masses
The angle of the plane of interest angle with respect to the major principal stress (1).
max Maximum normal axial stress.
min Minimum normal axial stress.
The normal stress on a plane with an angle with respect to the major principal stress plane (1).
max maximum shear stress.
minx Minimum shear stress.
The shear stress on aplane with an angle respect to the major principal stress plane (1).
The angle of internal friction of the soil.
Unit weight of the soil.
n Shear stress.
n Normal stress.
qu Ultimate shear strength of a soil.
Symbols for Boussinesq Stresses
B Width of the loaded selected region.
GS Specific gravity of the solids of a soil.
L Length of the loaded selected region.
m The ratio (B/Z).
n The ratio (L/Z).
N Normal load carried by a foundation.
Dp Increased stress on the soil from a surface loaded area.
p Stress of the loaded area.
z Depth of the soil at the point of interest.
Unit weight of the soil.
Symbols for Newmark
IV The influence value in the Newmark chart (for example, a chart divided into 100 areas, each is IV=0.01.
AB Scale to the depth of interest to determine the size of the surface structure graph the Newmarks graph.
C consolidation.
M Nomber of squares (enclosed in the Newmark chart).
po The effective stress at the point of interest.
q The load of the footing.
qu Ultimate shear strength of a soil.
x stress at an specific point (x).
z Depth of the stratum stat of the soil.
132
133
134
Boussinesq Isobars for a Square Footing (left) versus a Strip Footing (right).
135
P
pz = 2
z
1
3
P
= 2 I1
5/
2
2
2 ( r / z ) + 1 z
136
137
Boussinesq Influence factor I4 (the influence of a rectangular loaded area upon a point
A beneath a corner of the rectangular area).
138
139
140
Case-1: A single column with a load of 1,000 kips is supported by a square footing 10 feet by 10
feet in plan view.
Case 2: A 10 feet wide continuous (wall) footing that carries 10 kips per linear feet.
Find the stress increase in a soil mass at the following depths:
(a) 5 feet and 10 feet below the center of the footing,
(b) 5 feet and 10 feet below the edge of the footing, and
(c) 5 feet beyond the edge of the footing, both 5 and 10 feet below the ground surface:
Solution.
Use the charts on pages 202 through 204 to read the answers.
Case 1: The stress at the square footings invert is the column load divided by the footing area.
Q 1, 000 kips
=
= 10 ksf
B2
100 ft 2
This is 100% of the stress at the footing invert. It decreases as the stress spreads out in all directions
below the footing.
a) The stress at 5 feet below the center of the footing is
141
A rectangular footing carries a single column and measures B = 10 feet wide by L = 14 feet long.
The total load of the footing and column results in a uniform load of 10,500 pounds per square feet
at the footings invert.
Determine the stress increase in the soil mass from this footing at a depth of z = 25 feet below the
footings invert.
Solution.
The simple 2:1 method assumes that the stress is reduced from 100% at the footings invert to
decreasing values at increasing depths due to the spreading out of the stress over an increasing area,
based on the 2 vertical: 1 horizontal geometry.
The stress at z= 25 feet is given by,
z =
142
A rail gantry crane has been installed close to an existing water main (point A). A pressure cell
placed at point A measured a vertical pressure increase of 35 psf due to the two line loads and the
point load P = 50 kips. What is the magnitude of the line load q2 (lb/ft)?
Line load = q2
P = 50 k
?s z
A
Solution.
The pressure increase at A due to the concentrated load P1 is found by Boussinesq,
3P z 3 3 ( 50, 000 lb )
1 =
=
2 L5
2
( 3 ft )
16 + 3
2
= 0.56 psf
The pressure increase at A due to the line load q1 is also found by Boussinesq,
2 =
2q1 z 3
( x2 + z 2 )
2 ( 750 lb / ft )( 3 ft )
2
2
(12 ft ) + ( 3 ft )
= 0.55 psf
3 =
2q2 z 3
( x2 + z 2 )
2q2 ( 3 ft )
2
2
( 4 ft ) + ( 3 ft )
= 0.0275q2 psf
Use the Law of Superposition to add these three pressures; they must equal 35 psf,
1 + 2 + 3 = 0.56 + 0.55 + 0.0275q2 = 35 psf
q2 = 1, 232 psf
143
The truck parked over the drainage culvert box has the rearmost axle directly over the center of
the box. The next axle is 48 inches to the front of the rearmost axle. Each axle has four (4) tires
and weighs 18,000 lbs. Calculate the stress contributed by each tires of the truck.
Solution.
The vertical stress increase from each tire can be found using the Boussinesq point load formula and/or
its influence factor I1 (table on page 205). The formula is shown below, with the data from Tire #2 as an
example,
V-truck
P 3
= 2
z 2
4, 500lb 3
1
=
5/ 2
2
r 2 ( 2 ft ) 2
+ 1
1
= 95.0 psf
5/ 2
2 ft 2
+ 1
2 ft
144
All eight (8) tires will contribute an increase in the vertical stress, as shown in the following table,
Tire #
x (ft)
y (ft)
r (ft)
z (ft)
r/z
P (lbs)
0.50
4500
307.5
1.00
4500
95.0
4.00
4500
0.451
4.50
4500
0.258
4.123
2.06
4500
8.506
4.472
2.24
4500
6.092
8.944
4.47
4500
0.266
9.849
4.92
4500
0.168
Total stress
The total vertical stress increase from the truck tires is 418 psf.
145
418 psf
Point loads of 2000, 4000, and 6000 lbs act at points A, B and C respectively, as shown below.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at a depth of 10 feet below point D.
10 feet
10 feet
5 feet
Solution.
Using the Boussinesq (1883) table on page 202 for vertical point loads, the vertical increase in stress
contributed by each at a depth z =10 feet is found by,
P
pz = 2
z
1
3
P
= 2 I1
5/ 2
2
2
r / z ) +1 z
(
Increase in
the load at:
P
(lbs)
r (ft)
z (ft)
r/z
I1
p
(psf)
p from A
2,000
(102+52) 1/2 =
11.18
10
1.12
0.0626
1.25
p from B
4,000
(102+52) 1/2 =
11.18
10
1.12
0.0626
2.50
p from C
6,000
10
0.50
0.2733
16.40
Therefore, the vertical stress increase at D from the three loads A, B and C is 20.2 psf.
146
Determine the vertical stress increase in a point at a depth of 6 m below the center of the invert of
a newly built spread footing, 3 m by 4 m in area, placed on the ground surface carrying a
columnar axial load of N = 2,000 kN.
Solution:
The Boussinesq solution for a rectangular loaded area only admits finding stresses below a corner
of the loaded area. Therefore, the footing must be cut so that the load is at a corner (shown as
the quarter of the area), where the reduced footing dimensions for the shaded area are B1 = 1.5 m
and L1 = 2.0 m.
N = 2,000 kN
B=3m
L=4m
Depth = 6 m
B1 1.5m
L 2.0m
=
= 0.25 and n = 1 =
= 0.33
z 6.0m
z 6.0m
Use the table and extrapolate and find I 4 = 0.0345
m=
2, 000 kN
N
qz = qo (4 I 4 ) =
(4
I
)
=
4 )( 0.0345 ) = 23 kN / m 2
(
( 3 m )( 4 m )
BL
147
Find the effective stress increase in the soil at a depth of 4 m below the footing, and then find the
increase in the stress due to a drop of the WT from originally 1 m below the footing to 5 m below
the footing.
N = 4,500 kN
B=3m
WT
L=5m
WT-1
Depth = 4 m
WT-2
Solution:
q=
N 4,500 kN
kN
=
=
300
A
15 m 2
m2
m=
B 1.5 m
L 2.5 m
=
= 0.375 and n = =
= 0.625
z
4m
z
4m
I 4 = 0.076
a) The total stress increase from the footing is,
po = q(4 I 4 ) = ( 300 )( 4 )( 0.076 ) = 91.2 kN / m 2
and the effective stress when the WT is 1 m below the footing is,
po' = po u = ( 91.2 ) ( 3 m )( 9.8 ) = 61.8 kN / m 2
b) When the WT drops from -1 m to -5 m below the footing, the effective stress is
identical to the total stress. Therefore the effective stress increase is,
po = 91.2 kN / m 2 which is a 48% increase in stress.
148
p = p1 p2
149
A clay sanitary pipe is located at a point C below the footing shown below. Determine the increase
in the vertical stress p at the depth of the pipe, which is z = 5 feet below the footing invert, and 3
feet away from its edge. The footing has a uniformly distributed load q = 1,800 psf.
q = 1,800
psf
. .
. . .
4 ft
5 ft
2 ft
10 ft
3 ft
10 ft
PLAN VIEW
5 ft
3 ft
SECTION
VIEW
Solution:
For the expanded 5 x 13 area,
m=
B 5
= = 1 and
Z 5
n=
L 13
= = 2.6 therefore, I 4 = 0.200
Z 5
m=
B 3
= = 0.6 and
Z 5
n=
L 5
= = 1 therefore, I 4 = 0.136
Z 5
lb
p = q ( I 4 - I 4' ) = 1,800 2 (0.200 - 0.136) = 115 psf
ft
150
Calculate the stress increase at the point A due to the new road embankment.
p2
25m
15 ft
p 1
p 3
Z
15 ft
The contribution from the central portion of the fill is p2 whereas the contribution from the left and right
hand slopes are p1 and p 3 respectively. Using Boussinesq,
Solution: The contribution from the central portion of the fill is p2 , whereas the contribution from the
left and right hand slopes are p1 and p 3 respectively. Using Boussinesq,
p1
2x1 2(15')
2z 2(15')
=
=2 =
=2
B1
15'
B1
15'
p1
lb
= 0.25 p1 = (0.25)(15') 120 3 = 450 psf
q
ft
------p2
2x2 2(12.5')
2z 2(15')
=
= 1 =
= 1.2
B2
25'
B2
25'
p 2
lb
= 0.47 p 2 = (0.47)(15') 120 3 = 846 psf
q
ft
-------p3
2x3 2(40')
2z 2(15')
p 3
lb
=
= 5.3 =
=2
= 0.02 p 3 = (0.02)(15') 120 3 = 306 psf
q
ft
B3
15'
B3
15'
151
Determine the average stress increase below the center of the loaded area, between z = 3 m and z =
5 m.
q = 100 kN/m2
3m
5m
1.5 m
.
.
z
1.5 m
3m
A,
SECTION
VIEW
3m
PLAN VIEW
Solution:
The stress increase between the required depths (below the corner of each rectangular area) can be given
as:
( H )( I ( H )) ( H1 )( I 4 ( H1 ))
(5)( I 4 ( H 2 )) (3)( I 4 ( H1 ))
pavg ( H 2 / H1 ) = q 2 4 2
= 100
H 2 H1
53
For I4(H2):
m = B / H2 = 1.5 / 5 = 0.3
n = L / H2 = 1.5 / 5 = 0.3
For I4(H1):
m = B / H1 = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5
n = L / H1 = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5
p av(H 2 /H 1) = 100
(5)(0.038) (3)(0.086)
= 3 .4 kN /m 2
53
The stress increase between z = 3 m and z = 5 m below the center of the load area is equal to:
152
The vertical stress v in a soil at any depth below the surface can be estimated as a function of the
soil unit weight by the equation,
v =
( ) dz
v
100
(95 + 0.0007
) dz
If a particular stratum has a function = 95 + 0.0007 v , where is in pcf and v is in psf, find the
vertical stress at a depth of 100 feet below the surface.
Solution:
d v
=
( 95 + 0.0007 V )
100
dz
0
ln ( 95 + 0.0007 V )0 V = z100
0
0.0007
v = 135,800 ( e0.0007 z 1)
100
At Z = 100
= 9,840 psf
v = 135,800 (1.0725 1)
v = 9,840 psf
(Revision: Sept.-08)
153
A construction site has a surface layer of aeolic sand 2 m thick, underlain by a 10 m thick clay
stratum. The project involves placing a wastewater treatment tank, 10 m x 10 m in plan, with a
contact pressure po = 400 kN/m. Find the stress down the centerline of the tank at the top and the
bottom of the clay stratum using Newmarks influence chart shown below.
Solution:
BB == 1100 m
m
B = 10 m for point #1
SSA
AN
ND
D
22 m
m
1
C
CLLA
AY
Y
1100 m
m
B = 10 m for point # 2
2
x
AB = 2 m
AB = 12 m
The increase in the vertical stress is found from p = po M (IV) where M is the number of squares
enclosed in the Newmark chart and (IV) is the influence value.
For p1, AB = 2 m p1 = po M(IV) = (400 kN/m) (190) (0.005) p1 = 380 kN/m
For p2, AB = 12 m p2 = po M(IV) = (400 kN/m) (42) (0.005) p2 =
84 kN/m
154
Find the stress at the point A shown below, at a depth of 3 m below the edge of the footing. The
plan of the square footing has been plotted on top of the Newmark graph to a scale of AB = 3m
and placed in such a way that point A falls directly over the center of the chart.
Solution:
The number of elements inside the outline of the plan is about M = 45. Hence,
6 6 0 kN
2
p = q M ( IV ) =
( 4 5 )( 0 .0 0 5 ) = 1 6 .5 k N / m
( 3 m )( 3 m )
The number of elements inside the outline of the plan is about M = 45. Hence,
6 6 0 kN
2
p = q M ( IV ) =
( 4 5 )( 0 .0 0 5 ) = 1 6 .5 k N / m
( 3 m )( 3 m )
155
The footing shown below has a load q = 1.8 ksf. Find the stress at a depth of 5 feet below the
footing invert, at the point C.
Influence Value (IV) = 0.005
Depth Point = Z
Solution:
Set AB = 5 and draw the footing to that scale. The number of affected areas M =8, therefore
p = q M (IV) = (1,800 psf)(8)(0.005) = 72 psf
156
A small but heavy utility building will be placed over a 2 m thick sand stratum. Below the sand is
a clay stratum 2 m thick. Find the stress at points A and B in the clay stratum directly below point
C at the surface.
Solution:
kN
m2
kN
Point B (bottom of clay)
q B = q M ( IV ) = (100 )(100 )( 0.005 ) = 50 2
m
q + qB ( 70 + 50 )
kN
qaverage = A
=
= 59 2
2
2
m
Point A (top of clay stratum) q A = q M ( IV ) = (100 )(136 )( 0.005 ) = 68
157
A circular oil storage tank will be built at the shore of Tampa Bay. It will be 20 m in diameter, and
15 m high. The tank sits upon a 2 m thick sand deposit that rests upon a clay stratum 16 m thick.
The water table is at practically at the surface. Find the stress increase from a fully loaded tank, at
mid-clay stratum, (a) directly under the center of the tank, and (b) at its outer edge, using the
Newmark influence chart shown below.
Set AB 10 m
Solution:
The contact stress is qo = (0.95)(9.81 kN/m3)(15m) = 140 kN / m 2
At mid-clay depth along the centerline of the tank (depth = 10 m) OQ = 10 m
kN
m2
158
A small but heavily loaded utility building has dimensions of 20 m x 20 m. It applies a uniform
load on its mat foundation of 100 kN/m2. Its mat foundation sits 1 m below the surface. The soil
profile consists of 3 m of a dry sand, with = 17.5 kN/m3 under laid by a 5 m thick clay layer with
a = 18.5 kN/m3, a moisture content of 22%, Cc = 0.30 and a Gs = 2.70. The clay stratum is under
laid by another sand stratum, and the phreatic surface coincides with the top of the clay stratum.
l) Using the Newmark method, what are the new stresses at the top and bottom of the clay
stratum due to the buildings loading?
m) What is the expected differential settlement between the buildings center and one of its
corners, in mm?
n) If a laboratory sample 4 thick of the field clay attained 50% consolidation in 5 hours, what
time will the clay layer in the field attain 60% consolidation?
q =100 kN/m2
3m
1m
2m
SAND
C
= 18.5 kN/m3
5m
CLAY
w = 22 %
Solution:
(1) Set AB = 2 m and observe that the building's foot-print covers the entire graph.
E = 100 kN / m 2
Set AB = 7 m and the number of units M = 175
F = qM ( IV ) = (100 )(175 )( 0.005 ) = 87.5 kN / m 2
The stress at point C has dropped to 50% of the stress at E,
C = 50 kN / m 2
and D = ( 0.96 )( 50 ) = 48 kN / m 2
159
(100 + 87.5 )
2
( 50 + 48 )
2
= 93.8
= 49
kN
m2
kN
m2
(2) The differential settlement between the center and a corner of the building is,
Cc = 0.30 and GS = 2.70
wGs ( 0.22)( 2.70)
=
= 0.59
S
1
The in-situ stress at mid-clay stratum before the building is built is,
Seo = wGS eo =
po = sand hsand + clay hat mid clay = ( 3 m)(17.5) + ( 2.5 m)(18.5 9.8) = 74.3
kN
m2
Therefore,
the settlement at the center H =
2
1
( 0.18)( 2x25.4 mm)
24 hours 365 days
2
160
The horizontal stress on a soil particle at a depth of 130 ft is of its vertical stress. If the average
unit weight of the intervening soil mass above is 116.4 pcf, and the shear stress on the soil
particles failure plane is 30 psi, what is the soils average angle of friction?
Solution:
The vertical stress is the major principal stress 1 and the horizontal stress is the minor principal stress
3. The shear stress is related to these two principal stresses via the angle , which is the angle to the
failure plane with respect to the principal stress 1. These are related by the equation,
1 3
2
sin 2
= 2 90
Therefore,
1 = h = (116.4lb / ft 3 )(130 ft )
1 ft 2
= 105 psi
2
144in
From =
1 2
2
sin 2
we have 30 psi =
2 = 120
= 2 90 = (120 ) 90 = 30
161
A soil particle is found to be subjected to a maximum stress of 14.6 kN/m2, and a minimum stress
of 4.18 kN/m2. Find the and on the plane of = 50 with respect to the major principal
stresses, and also find max.
(a) The graphical solution,
= 36kN / m 2
= 9 . 2 kN / m 2
3 = 4.18kN / m 2
1 = 146 kN / m 2
kN
1 + 3 1 3
14.6 4.18 14.6 + 4.18
+
cos 2 ( 50 ) = 3.6 2
+
cos 2 =
2
2
m
2 2
kN
14.6 + 4.18
= 1 3 sin 2 =
sin 2 ( 50 ) = 9.2 2
2
m
kN
1 3
= 9.4 2
m
2
maximum =
162
Equations for the principal stresses in the elastic half-space shown below for a uniformly loaded
strip footing are as follows: 1
=
q/
+
sin
)
and
=
q/
sin
3
/2
/2
).
The direction of the major
principal stress bisects the angle .
Calculate the vertical stress y, the
horizontal stress x, and xy at
point A if x = 0.75B and y = 0.5B
using Mohrs diagram.
Solution:
=
1 + 2
= 85.23
2 = 94.77
47.38
1 + 3
,
=
+ = arc tan 2.5 = 68.20
= arc tan 0.5 = 26.57
2 + = 180
= 85
163
Given the general stresses at a point in a soil, determine the principal stresses and show them on a
properly oriented element.
164
A sample of clean sand was retrieved from 7 m below the surface. The sample had been under a
vertical load of 150 kN/m2, a horizontal load of 250 kN/m2, and a shear stress of 86.6 kN/m2. If the
angle between the vertical stress and the principal stress is 60, what is the angle of internal
friction of this sample?
Solution:
165
Using a Mohr circle, determine the normal and shear stresses on the plane AB.
Solution:
- 40 lb/ft
y = 90 lb/ft2
=30
n
x = 125 lb/ft2
n
xy = - 40 lb/ft2
(a)
1 =
(b)
y + x
2
y x
2
+
+ xy
2
2
90 + 125
90 125
2
+
1 =
+ (40)
2
2
1 = 151 psf
3 =
y + x
2
y x
2
+ xy
2
2
n =
1 + 3
1 3
cos 2
2
2
151 + 64 151 64
+
cos 60 = 129 psf
n =
2
2
n = 1 3 sin 2
2
151 64
sin 60 = 38 psf
n =
2
+
90 + 125
90 125
2
3 =
+ (40)
2
2
3 = 64 psf
2
166
Solution:
2
2
1 X + Y
1 = 922 psf
400 + 750
Y X
400 750
2
2
+
=
=
(
300)
XY
2
3
2
2
2
3 = 228 psf
Knowing the principal stresses permits to calculate the stresses on the normal plane,
n =
1 + 3
1 3
cos 2 =
2
2
922 228
n = 1 3 sin 2 =
sin 2 ( 45 ) = 347 psf
2
2
167
From the stress triangle shown below, find (a) the maximum and minimum principle stresses, (b)
the angle alpha, as shown, (c) the angle theta, and (d) the value for the maximum shear stress.
B
3 = 0
20 kN/m2
10 kN/m2
A
Graphical Solution:
OR
B Analytical Solution:
max = 12.5
1 =
20 =
2
1 +1
1
2
1=25
3=0
2
+
1
2
1 +1
2
COS 2
COS 2
1 =
40
1 + cos 2
1+cos2
n =
1 3
2
SIN 2
10 =
(, )
1
2
SIN 2
1 =
20
SIN 2
(20, -10)
1 = 25 kN/m2
(b)
= 63.4
= 2 = 126.9
..
1 =
(c)
and
3 = 0
1 - 2 sin 2 + cos 2 = 0
(a)
20
= 25 KN / m2 ,
sin 126.90
3 =0
= 63.4
and
168
The temporary excavation shown below is braced with a steel tube strut. Every morning, a
misguided foreman tightens the screw mechanism on the strut just to be safe. The stress on a
soil particle at point A, just behind the wall, has been measured with a pressure sensor installed by
the Engineer. It now measures 40 kN/m2. If the potential failure planes in the soil behind the wall
sustain 60 angles with respect to the vertical wall, estimate the normal and shear stresses at that
point A along a potential failure plane.
Solution:
At point A:
v = h = (1.25 m) (16 kN/m3) = 20 kN/m2
v is the minor principal stress at A,
Since = 60 is with respect to the major principal stress (1) plane, then v= 3
= (1+3)/2 + (1-3)/2 cos 2 = (40+20)/2 + (40-20)/2 cos 120
= 25 kN/m2
and = (1-3)/2 sin 2 = (40-20)/2 sin 120
= 8.7 kN/m2
169
Solution:
For sand c=0.
By inspection in OAB
(180-2)+90+=180
2=90+
= 45 + /2
A failure test on a clean sand (i.e. c=0) shows that 1=11.5 ksf and 3=3.2 ksf at failure. Find
the angle for this sand.
170
Solution.
001 = (300+125)/2 = 212.5 psf
0102 = (300-125)/2 = 87.5 psf
01B = 87.52 + 552 = 103 psf
171
o) Derive the equation that transforms a general state of stress to the principal state of stress.
(Hint: Use Mohrs circle for a graphical solution).
p) Determine the value of the major principal stress.
q) Determine the angle between the major principal stress and the state of stress shown in the
figure above.
172
A soil sample has been tested and when plotted developed the Mohr-Coulomb envelope of failure
shown below. Find (1) axial stresses at failure, (2) the normal and shear stresses on the failure
plane, (3) the angle of failure with respect to the principal axis, and (4) the soil tensile strength.
+
(2.) f =
f =
(3.)
25
2 = 115
96 kN/m2
(4.) qu
Solution:
1f = qu = 300 Pa
f = = 86 Pa
f = = 136 Pa
= 115/2 = 57.5
qu = -123 Pa
173
(1.) 1f = qu
A dry sample of sand was tested in a triaxial test. The angle of internal friction was found to be
36. If the minor principal stress was 300 kPa, at what value of maximum principal stress will the
sample fail? The same test was then performed on a clay sample that had the same , and
cohesion of 12 kPa. What was the new maximum principal stress?
Solution:
= 36
T
R
0
a)
Failure will occur when the Mohr circle becomes tangent to the failure envelopes.
R
= sin
d
R
(1 - sin )
R= R
sin
sin
R
(1+ sin )
1 = d + R =
+R=R
sin
sin
(1+ sin )
1=
= tan2 (45 + )
3 (1 sin )
2
3 = d R =
36
) = 1160 kPa
2
b)
H = c(cot )
1 + H = ( 3 + H ) tan2 (45 + )
2
H = (12 kPa)(cot 36) 17 kPa
36
) 17 = 1,200kPa
2
174
Derive the general formula of the horizontal stress as a function of the vertical stress, cohesion and
the angle of internal friction.
Solution:
= 45 +
ad =
2 = 90 +
1 3
2
sin
ad
af
(1)
af = af + af = (c) cot +
tan =
c
of
1 +3
(2)
of
= cot of = (c) cot
c
(3)
1 -3
2
oa =
1 -3
sin =
(c )cot + 1 + 3
1 -3
2
af = (c) cot +
1 -3
+3 1 -3
sin (c )cot + 1
=
2
2
cot
2 (c ) sin
= 1 (1 - sin ) - 3 + (1 + sin )
sin
Since
cos
tan 45 0 +
1 sin
and
1 = 3 tan 2 45 0 + + 2c tan 45 0 +
175
1 -3
2
1 +3
sin
(c ) cos +
1 sin
1 + sin
tan 2 45 0 +
1 sin
2
1 + sin
= 1
1 sin
Chapter 10
Elastic Settlements
Symbols for Elastic Settlements
N Raw value of the STP (obtained in the field).
qo Contact pressure.
C1 Embedment coefficient.
C2 Creep correction factor.
ES Soil elastic modulus.
Eeq Equivalent modulus.
(e) Differential settlement between adjacent foundation.
Hi Elastic settlement.
I
IZ
Poissons ratio.
MT Transverse moment.
176
You are required to move a 60-ton truck-mounted crane onto your construction site. The front
wheels carry 20% of the load on tires inflated with 80 psi air pressure. Calculate the possible
rutting depth to your temporary jobsite road built from in-situ compacted medium sand. A
surface SPT test shows an N = 12 and the tires bearing area is roughly square. Use the
Schmertmann method to estimate the rutting.
Solution:
Each front tire has a square bearing area of BxB such that:
B2 =
tire's load
(0.5)(20%)(120, 000 lb)
=
= 150 in 2 B = 12.2 inches
2
tire pressure q o
(80 lb / in )
A rough estimate of the soils elastic modulus is Es = 14N = 14(12) = 168 ksf.
Since the sand is compacted, it is a dense sand, and the influence factor Iz is equivalent to the strain .
The strain reaches a maximum value of 0.6. Therefore, the average value of the strain is about 0.3
throughout its depth to 2B = 2(12.2 inches) = 24.4 inches. Since the crane loads are on the surface and
only for a few days, it is permissible to assume that there is no creep and therefore C1 = C2 = 1.
Therefore, for the single layer of soil, the rutting is,
144 in 2
lb
0.30
k
= C1C2 qo dz = (1)(1)(80 2 )(
)(24.4 in)
2
2
in 168 k / ft
ft 1, 000 lb
Es
0.5 inches of rutting.
177
Estimate the settlement of a square footing placed on a fine, medium dense sand, embedded 4 ft
below the ground surface, for long-term use. Use the Schmertmann method.
Assume
Es
14 where Es is in ksf; used for fine medium sands.
N
Solution:
Layer z
1
2
3
(in)
42
60
66
Es
(ksf)
140
210
168
Iz=
I z z
Es
0.30
0.46
0.16
=
0.090
0.130
0.061
0.281
Q
200 k
Df =
( 4 ft ) (0.120 kcf ) = 3.60 ksf
2
B
49 ft 2
The coefficients for the Schmertmann method are C1 and C2 :
The contact pressure on the soil is, qo =
D
0.48
Depth factor C1 = 1.0 0.5 f = 1.0 0.5
= 0.93
3.60
qo
Creep factor C2 = 1.35 for a five year period .
The Schmertmann formula for the elastic settlement is,
2B
Determine the elastic settlement of a deep spread footing after five years of the 3 ft. x 3 ft. footing
when it is placed on a uniform clean sand with = 110 pcf.
Solution:
Q 64 kips
=
= 7.11 ksf
B 2 ( 3 ft )2
The SPT value indicates that the soil is a loose sand. The modulus E for loose sand can be calculated
using the following formula:
ES 10 ( N + 15 ) ksf
179
Average
strain at
mid
ZZ/E
Layers
thickness
Z (feet)
SPT
(average)
N
Soils
elastic
modulus
E (ksf)
stratum
(ft /kip)
1.5
210
0.35
0.0025
4.5
220
0.30
0.0061
Layer
number
= 0.0086
The correction factors are as follows:
0.5 D f
1. Depth factor, C1 = 1
q D
f
0
( 0.5 )( 0.110 )( 4 )
= 1
= 0.97
7.11 ( 0.110 4 )
t yr
5
2. Creep factor, C2 = 1 + 0.2log
= 1 + ( 0.2 ) log
= 1.34
0.1
0.1
The total elastic settlement is,
= CC
7.11( 0.110)( 4)( 0.0086) = 0.07 ft = 0.84in
1 2 ( qo Df ) dz = ( 0.97)(1.34)
0 Es
2B
180
Use the 2:1 method to find the average stress increase (q) due to the applied load Qu in the 5-foot
sand stratum directly beneath the footing. If ES = 400 ksf and v = 0.3, what is the expected
immediate settlement Hi?
Qu=120 kips
Solution:
The settlement H of an elastic media (the 5 foot thick sand stratum in this case) can be found from the
theory of elasticity as,
1 v2
H = qo B
Iw
Es
For square and flexible footings the influence factor is about IW = 0.95. The 2:1 method essentially
assumes that the stress reduces vertically by a vertical slope of 2 units vertically to 1 unit horizontally.
The stress increase can be found by integrating the above equation,
q =
1
H
H2
Qu
( B + Z ) dz
H1
where H1 = 0 feet (the footings invert) to H2 = 5 fee (bottom of the sand stratum).
181
1 Q
1 120kip 120kip
q =
=
= 1.82ksf
H B + z 0 5 ft 6 ft
11 ft
but
1 0.32
120 kip
12 in
1 v2
H = qo B
Iw =
6
ft
0.95
(
)
(
)
= 0.52 inches
2
3
6
400
Es
ft
ksf
ft
182
The allowable bearing capacity of a 30-ft thick, medium dense sand stratum (with = 36o and =
112 pcf) is 3 ksf. Column A has a design load of 430 kips and column B has a design load of 190
kips. Select footing sizes and determine the differential settlement (H) between them. Is this
(H) acceptable for columns spaced 30 ft apart?
Solution:
Footing size for column A:
BA =
QA
=
qall
430 kips
= 12 feet
3 ksf
BB =
QB
190 kips
=
= 8 feet
qall
3 ksf
H A 12 ft
=
= 1.5
H B
8 ft
Therefore if the settlement at column B is HB = 1 in., then the settlement at column A will be HA =
1.5 in. Then,
( H )
=
L
( 0.5
in )
12in
( 30 ft )
ft
= 0.0014
Both of these values [(H) and ] are acceptable, since (H) should be < 1" and < 0.0033.
183
Compute the average stress q at mid-clay stratum, for the values shown below, using: (a)
Boussinesq's method, (b) Westergaard's method, and (c) the 2:1 method.
Also, determine the size of a square spread footing, in order to limit total settlement H = Hi +
Hc + HS to only 1.5 inches.
Estimate the initial settlement H i = 0.05 Z s where Zs is the thickness of the granular
stratum beneath the footing in feet, to give Hi in inches.
Solution:
Assume an initial value of B = 10 feet.
Q = 240 kips
S= 110 pcf
SAND
CLAY
WT
= 120 pcf
eo = 1.11
Cc = 0.42
ROCK
qo =
Q 240 kips
=
= 2.4 ksf
AB 100 ft 2
(a) Stress at mid-clay stratum using Boussinesqs method (use the charts on page 205) for a square
footing:
q
= 0.52 q = ( 0.52 )( 2.4ksf ) = 1.25 ksf
qo
184
(b) Stress at mid-clay stratum using Westergaards method for a square footing:
q
= 0.33 q = ( 0.33)( 2.4 ksf ) = 0.79 ksf
qo
(c) Stress at mid-clay stratum using the 2:1 method for a square footing:
The depth (Z) from the footing invert to mid-clay is 7.5 feet:
B = 10 ft.
z = 7.5 ft.
qo
B+z
q=
Q
240 kips
=
= 0.78 ksf
AB + Z (10 ft + 7.5 ft ) 2
Note that the Boussinesq method provides the highest predicted stress. Since this would predict faster
consolidation rates, it is the least conservative method. Therefore, for this problem, use the 2:1 method's
stress of 0.78 ksf. The instantaneous settlement (Hi):
H i = 0.05 Z s = 0.05 5 ft = 0.11 in
The in-situ effective stress qo' at mid-clay layer, before placing the footing is:
kip
kip
kip
qo ' = s hs + c hc = 0.11
9 ft + 0.120 3 0.0624 3 2.5 ft = 1.13 ksf
3
ft
ft
ft
Using q = 0.78 ksf from the 2:1 method, the total settlement H is equal to the immediate Hi, plus the
consolidation Hc, and the secondary settlement Hs, but limited to no more than 1.50 inches.
H = H i + H C + H s = 1.50 inches
185
But Hi = 0.11 in, and Hs is negligible for this problem. Therefore the maximum permissible
consolidation settlement Hc is limited to:
H c = 1.50 in H i = 1.50 in 0.11 in = 1.39 in
or
H c =
Cc H
q + q
log o
= 1.39 in =
1 + eo
qo '
'
12 in
1.13 ksf + q
ft
log
= 1.39 in
1 + 1.11
1.13 ksf
( 0.42 ) 5 ft
q =
Q
AB + Z
B+Z =
Q
240 kips
=
= 26.6 ft
q
0.34 ksf
Therefore B = 19 feet
Since the initial B = 10 feet, the new value of 19 feet should be used to re-iterate towards a better
solution that converges.
186
Compute the immediate settlement Hi using the Schmertmann formula using an average q
value (qv1 = 233.3 kPa, qv2 = 163.3 kPa, qv3 = 77.0 kPa, qv4 =44.0 kPa and qv5 = 28.0). Es at point A is
Df
20,400 kPa,
= 0.5 and C1 = C2 = 1. Compare the results with an alternate method
B
1 v2
I w , where v = 0.3 and Iw = 0.95.
using H = qo B
E
s
Q = 2,100 kN
B = 3m x 3m
1.5 m
1.5 m
3m
B
SAND
5m
ROCK
Solution:
The average stress from multiple layers is solved via this formula,
qv =
163.3
77.0
44.0
+
q
+
q
+
+
q
=
+
kPa
+
kPa
+
kPa
2
3
n
1
6m
H 2
2
qv = 104 kPa
The elastic settlement via Schmertmann is,
H = C1C2 (0.6B)
q
1000 mm 104 kPa
= (1)(1)( 0.6)( 3 m)
= 9.2 mm
Es
m 20, 400 kPa
187
Determine the elastic settlement using the Schmertmann method of the 10'x 10' footing as shown
below. Estimate the elastic modulus using ES = 10(N + 15), where ES is in ksf and N is the
corrected SPT value.
Solution:
The data from these strata are placed into a table below.
Layer
Layer No.
Thickness
1
2
3
4
5
Z, (feet)
5.0
5.0
2.5
2.5
5.0
= 2B = 20 ft
Soil Modulus
IZ =
ES, (ksf)
(average strain)
I Z Z
(ft/kp)
E
360
260
300
560
190
0.35
0.50
0.35
0.25
0.10
=
0.00486
0.00962
0.00292
0.00112
0.00263
0.02115
188
Df
0.5(0.1)(5)
)]= 1-
= 0.75
q - D f
1.5 - (0.1)(5)
189
A mat foundation located 8 feet below grade supports a ten story building upon an area of 50 ft by
150 ft, and carries a uniform load of 6 ksf. For the soil profile conditions shown below, determine
the total settlement at the center and a corner of the foundation. The structure is of reinforced
concrete with column spacing at 25 ft. Is the calculated differential settlement acceptable?
Solution:
a) Using the Schmertmann method,
Layer z (in) Es (ksi) Iz = (Iz/Es)z (in3/kip)
300
3.47
0.35
30.26
300
3.47
0.50
43.23
300
8.33
0.30
10.80
= 84.29
( 0.100 )( 8 )
= 1.0 0.5
= 0.92
6
0.100
8
(
)(
)
(
f )
2B
Es
= C1C2 ( qo D f )
Df
1 =
q + q 0.20(25x12)
5.95 +0.72
CcH 1
=
= 1.48 in
log 10 o
log 10
1+ e o
1+1
5.95
qo
0.20(25x12)
5.95+0.54
= 1.13 in
log 10
2
5.95
0.35(25x12)
7.58 +0.42
= 1.25 in at the centerline
log 10
1+0.96
7.58
q . 0.05q = 0.30
2 =
0.35(25x12)
7.58 +0.30
= 0.96in
log 10
1+0.96
7.58
0.15(25x12)
8.65+0.24
= 0.28in
log 10
1+0.89
8.65
0.15(25x12)
8.65+0.18
= 0.21in
log 10
1+0.89
8.65
e
=
H 1+ e o
where e = C c log
q o + q
qo
191
Chapter 11
Plastic Settlements
Symbols for Plastic Settlements
e
Voids ratio.
ES
CC
Compression index.
GS
OCR Over-consolidation ratio (ratio of in-situ stress divided by the overburden stress).
H
Pe
Degree of consolidation.
192
a. How high will the water rise in the piezometer immediately after the application of the
surface load of 3 ksf?
b. What is the degree of consolidation from the 3 ksf at point A, when h =15 ft.?
c. Find h when the degree of consolidation at A is 60%.
p = 3 ksf
h
20 feet
15 feet
Sand
4 feet
10 feet
Clay
Rock
Solution:
a) Assume a uniform increase of the initial excess pore water pressure throughout the 10-foot
thickness of the clay layer:
193
3,000
= 48.1 feet
62.4
uA
U A = 0.6 = 1 A = 1
u0 3, 000 psf
u A = (1 0.6 )( 3, 000 psf ) = 1, 200 psf
h=
uA
194
A new building is planned upon the site shown below. Assume that the clay solids have a specific
gravity of 2.67. Find the primary consolidation settlement if the clay is normally consolidated.
p = 1 ksf
Sand
8 feet
= 110 pcf,
Water Table
7 feet
Clay
17 feet
Solution:
The stress of the clay at its mid stratum before the building was built is ,
p o = d sand H dry sand + ( sat w ) H sat sand + ( sat w ) H mid clay
= (0.11kcf )(8 ft ) + (0.115 0.0624) kcf (7 ft ) + (0.120 0.0624) kcf (8.5 ft )
p o = 1.74 ksf
The consolidation settlement is ,
H =
195
HCc
p + p (17 )(12 ) (0.36)
1.74 + 1
log 10 o
=
log 10
= 7.6 i nches
1 + eo
po
1 + 0.91
1.74
Calculate the settlement of the 10-foot thick clay layer shown below that will result from the
columns load carried by a 5-foot square footing. The clay is normally consolidated. Apply
Boussinesq's formula to find the reduction of the vertical stress with depth.
200 kips
5
10 feet
5 x 5 footing
Sand
Ground Water Table
5 feet
Clay
10 feet
Solution:
H 2 I 4( H 2 ) H1 I 4( H1 )
B
L
pavg = 4q
,n' =
where I 4( H 2 ) = f m =
H 2 H1
H2
H2
5
B = L = = 2.5 feet
2
196
m =
B 2.5
=
= 0.167 and
H1 15
n =
L 2.5
=
= 0.167
H1 15
I 4( H1 ) = 0.075
H
5
5
25
15
(
)(
)
2
1
197
Find the total settlement under a building that applies the load shown below.
q = 1.2 daN/cm2
4.6 m
Ground Water Table
Sand
6.0 m
7.6 m
Solution:
Notice that the data provided does not include a unit weight for the clay stratum. Therefore, this value
must be determined through the other information provided.
s = wGs = 27.8 kN m3
m3
The results of a laboratory consolidation test on a clay sample are given below:
Pressure, p
(kN/m2)
Void ratio, e
23.94
1.112
47.88
1.105
95.76
1.080
191.52
0.985
383.04
0.850
766.08
0.731
Solution:
c) Find the compression index, Cc. From the slope of the graph,
Cc =
e1 e2
0.9 0.8
=
= 0.451
p2
500
log log
300
p1
200
The clay stratum shown in the profile below has a total vertical stress of 200 kN/m2 at its midheight with a voids ratio of 0.98. When the vertical stress increases to 500 kN/m2 the voids ratio
decreases to 0.81. Find (a) the effective overburden pressure at mid-height of the compressible
clay layer, and (b) the voids ratio of the clay if the total pressure at its mid-height is 1000 kN/m2.
Clay
Unit Weight = 125.4 lb/ft
Solution:
a ) po = [ h ]dry sand gravel + [ ' h ]saturated sand gravel + [ ' h ]mid clay stratum
po = (132 lb ft 3 )(8 ft ) + (132 62.4) lb ft 3 (20 ft ) + (125.4 62.4) lb ft 3 (11 ft )
po = 3.14 ksf
b) Cc =
0.427 =
201
e1 e2
0.98 0.81
=
= 0.427
log( p2 p1 ) log(500 200)
0.98 e2
e2 = 0.68
log(1000 200)
Find the settlement due to lowering of the phreatic surface from elevation 349.5 to 344.0 using
the boring report shown below.
Solution:
po = ( 0.110 pcf )( 7 ft ) + ( 0.110 pcf )( 6 ft ) +
C H
c log po + q1
1+ e
po
0
0.030(10)
H1 =
log 3 + 1.16 = 0.032 ft
1 + 0.96
3
0.034(10)
H 2 =
log 3 + 0.693 = 0.157 ft
1 + 0.96
3
versus 0.083ft the additional settlement.
H1 =
202
Oedometer (consolidation) tests of several samples from the clay stratum yields the consolidation
curve shown below. Given that Gs = 2.65, find (a) the value of po, (b) The value of pc and (c) the
OCR of the clay.
Solution:
1200 kN
1.5m
2m
4m
3m
WT
4mx4m
Sand
b = 9.1 kN/m3
Clay
b = 9.2 kN/m3
b = 9.0 kN/m3
a) In order to find the in-situ stress po before the footing was built, we need to find the unit weight
of the sand stratum,
bGs
(9.1kN / m3 )(2.65)
d =
=
= 14.6 kN / m3
Gs 1
1.65
The stress po is found at mid-clay stratum,
po = [ h( d )]dry(sand ) + [ h( )]sand + [ h( )]clay
203
An odometer test was performed on a peat soil sample from an FDOT project in the Homestead
area. The results are shown below. The initial sample thickness is 20 mm, with two-way drainage
through porous stones, simulating field conditions. The vertical stress increment is 10 kPa.
Estimate of the coefficient of consolidation cv as,
3H dr
Coefficient of consolidat ion(C v ) =
4t
Time (minutes)
0.32
0.64
1.28
2.40
4.80
9.60
16.0
Settlement
0.16
0.23
0.33
0.45
0.65
0.86
0.96
0.57
0.8
1.13
1.55
2.19
3.10
4.0
(mm.)
time = (min)
a)
b)
c)
d)
( 12 )
Solution:
(1)
0
S ettlem en t (m m .)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
3.40
1
1.2
(2)
204
vt x = 3.40 min1/ 2
and
2
3d 2
3(10mm) 2 (1min)(1m) 2
7 m
cv =
=
= 1.08 10
4t x 4(11.56 min)(60sec)(1000mm) 2
sec
(3)
1 mm
= 0.05 ev = 5%
20 mm
10 103 N
Eo =
=
= 200 103 Pa = 200 kPa
2
ev
0.05 m
(4)
2.30 z ' k 1 + e
z k
k
Cc
cv =
cv = = Eo
1 + eo
w
Cc
ez w
w
)(
2
1.08 107 m
9.81 kN 3
cv w
s
m = 5.3 109 m
k=
=
Eo
sec
200 kN 2
m
205
An oedometer (consolidation) test is performed on a normally consolidated clay stratum that is 8.5
feet thick, and it found that the clays initial voids ratio was eo = 0.8 and its primary compression
index is Cc = 0.28. The in-situ stress at mid-clay layer is po = 2,650 psf, and the building exerts a
pressure through its mat foundation of 970 psf. The secondary compression index C = 0.02.
The time of completion of the primary settlement is approximately 18 months. What is the total
consolidation of the 8.5 foot clay stratum 5 years after the primary consolidation?
Solution:
H s =
po' + p '
2, 650 + 970
e p = eo e = eo Cc log
= 0.8 ( 0.28 ) log
= 0.76
'
p
2,
650
1
The total consolidation settlement is thus =H p + H s = 2.15 + 0.59 = 2.74 inches
206
A 3-m thick, doubly-drained saturated stratum of clay is under a surcharge loading that
underwent 90% primary consolidation in 75 days. Find the coefficient of consolidation cv of this
clay in cm2/sec.
Solution:
The clay layer has two-way drainage, and Tv = 0.848 for 90% consolidation.
Tv H dr2
(0.848)(150 cm) 2
=
= 0.00294 cm2/sec
t
(75 days 24 60 60)
Percent consolidation
cv =
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
207
1.1 1.2
Buildings load
q = 4 ksf
20
WT
SAND
CLAY
25
SAND
Solution:
The coefficient of consolidation cv =
cv =
TvH dr2
is the same for the lab and field samples.
t
Tv H dr 2
Tv H dr 2 Tv H dr 2
=
=
t
t laboratory t field
( 0.15) (2 in)
( 78 hours )
(0.40)(12.5 ft 12 in / ft ) 2
t field
2
1day 1 year 0.40 (12.5 ft 12in / ft )
t field = ( 78 hours )
(2in) 2
24hours 365days 0.15
208
Using the information derived from Problem 11, how long will it take a 30-mm thick undisturbed
clay sample obtained from the field to undergo 90% consolidation in the laboratory?
Solution:
The Time Factor Tv is the same 90% in the field as in the laboratory, therefore,
T90 =
cv t90( field )
H dr2 ( field )
t90( lab ) =
209
c (75days 24 60 60)
cvt90
= v
=
3, 000mm 2
30mm 2
(
(
)
)
2
field
2
laboratory
Laboratory tests on a 25mm thick clay specimen drained at both the top and bottom show that
50% consolidation takes place in 8.5 minutes.
a) How long will it take for a similar clay layer in the field, 3.2 m thick, but drained at the top
only, to undergo 50% consolidation?
b) Find the time required for the clay layer in the field as described in part (a) above, to reach a
65% consolidation.
Solution:
(1)
tlab
H dr2 ( lab )
t( field ) =
t( field )
H dr2 ( field )
(3.2m) 2 (8.5 min)
25mm
2 1000mm
(2)
2
cv =
Tv H dr2
t50
t( field 65)
25
(0.197)
T65 H dr2
(0.34)(3.2m) 2
=
=
= 961, 400 min = 668 days
cv
0.36 105 m 2 / min
210
A clay layer 20 feet thick sitting on top of granite bedrock, experiences a primary consolidation of
8.9 inches. Find:
(d) The degree of consolidation when the settlement reaches 2 inches.
(e) The time to reach 50% settlement if cv is 0.002 cm2/sec.
(f) The time for 50% consolidation if the clay stratum is doubly-drained?
Solution:
2
(a ) U % =
100 = 22.5%
8.9
(b) T50 = 0.197 and
t=
Tv
cv
(0.197) ( 20 ft )( 30.48cm / ft )
=
= 424 days
1hr days
2
0.002
/
sec
cm
(
) 360 sec
24h
2
2
dr
Percent consolidation
T
(c) t = v H dr2 =
cv
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
Percent consolidation
Time factor , Tv
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Time factor , Tv
211
An oedometer test on a 1 thick, doubly-drained sample from the clay stratum (shown below)
attained 50% consolidation in 6.5 minutes. Find:
(a) The total differential settlement of the fully loaded tank.
(b) The time required for 75% consolidation in the field.
(c) The depth of excavation for minimal settlement.
Solution:
a) The surface load from the oil tank (neglecting the weight of the tank) is p:
p = h oil = (40 ft )(60 pcf ) = 2.4 ksf
Using the Boussinesq pressure diagram (next two pages) for B = 75' , provides the stress levels at
any point in the soil mass, thus,
The stress at point A 0.91p = 0.90 ( 2.4 ) = 2.2 ksf
point B 0.43p = 0.43(2.4) = 1.0 ksf
The in-situ effective stress at point A was po, before the tank was built:
212
H A =
Tv field H 2 field
t75
Tvlab H 2 field
tlab
ft
( 0.2 ) 0.5in
2
0.480 )( 28.5 ft )
(
12in
cv =
=
6.5 min
t 75
Add the 11 feet of the clay to the 10 feet of the sand on top of the clay for a
213
A common method used to accelerate the consolidation of a clay stratum is a sand surcharge, as
shown below. The surcharge load will force the clay to attain a large part of its settlement before
the structure with the same load is built. This method minimizes the settlement of the structure.
An office building is planned to be built on the site shown below. The total weight of the building
is 136,000 kips, spread over a square foundation 200 ft by 200 ft. Field tests showed that the clay
stratum has a liquid limit of 28 percent, an initial void ratio of 0.95, a = 130 pcf and a
consolidation coefficient of 10-3 in2/second. The sand stratum has a CC = 0.01, a = 125 pcf and an
initial void ratio of 0.70. The sand surcharge has a = 115 pcf.
(d) Determine the total settlement at mid-clay under the center of the surcharge.
(e) The time required to attain 60% consolidation of the clay stratum (i.e. TV = 0.30). This is the
lead time required to place the surcharge before construction.
(f) The SPT in the sand stratum is N = 15.
h ft
Sand Surcharge
(Area = 200 x 200)
WT
15 ft
30 ft
20 ft
Sand
Clay
Impermeable rock
Solution:
(a) The weight of the new building is estimated at Q = 136,000 kips. The surcharge will have to weigh
the same, spread over an area = 200 x 200 = 40,000 ft2, using a fill with a unit weight of = 115
pcf. The unit pressure of the surcharge surcharge is,
Q
136, 000kips
=
= 3.4 ksf
A
40, 000 ft 2
lb
but , qsur = sur h = 115 3 (h) = 3.4 ksf h = 30 feet high
ft
Both the sand and clay strata contribute to the settlement. However, the settlement from the clay
stratum is a consolidation settlement, such that,
qsur =
214
p + p (240in)(0.162)
HCc
3.5 + 3.45
log10 0
log10
=
= 5.94 inches
(1 + e0 )
(1 + 0.95)
3.5
p0
creep factor C2 = 1
0.30
= C1C2 qo dz = (1)(1)(3.4ksf )(
)(360 in) = 1.75in
210 ksf
E
The total settlement = 5.94in + 1.75in = 7.69in
b) The lead time t required for the surcharge to accomplish its task is,
2
T H dr2
(0.30)
20
ft
12
in
/1
ft
(
)(
)
1min 1hr 1day
t= v
=
(
v
The total settlement that has taken place at 200 days (60% consolidation) is,
Total Time = H S + (60%) H C = 1.73in + (0.6)(5.94in) = 5.3 inches
215
A uniform surcharge of sand 20 feet in height will be placed over the marl stratum as shown
below, in order to preconsolidate that layer for a future building. The in-situ voids ratio of the
marl is 0.59, and its index of compression can be found from a relation proposed by Sowers as Cc =
0.75 (eo 0.30). Find the total settlement of the surcharge at its point A.
The coefficient of consolidation cv for the marl can be found from the relation,
cv =
k (1 + eo ) 2
ft /day
av w
Percent consolidation
Find the time required (in days) for the marl to attain 50% consolidation.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
Time factor , Tv
216
Solution.
o = h = 120
lb
( 20 ft ) = 2, 400 psf
ft 3
lb
= h = 125 3 ( 20 ft ) = 2,500 psf
ft
4
2
3
day
t=
217
Tv H dr2
cv
( 0.2 )( 40 ft )
=
2.5 ft 2 / day
= 128 days
An oedometer (consolidation) test was performed on a clay sample 3 cm high, drained on both
sides, and taken from mid-stratum shown below. Seventy percent consolidation was attained in
6.67 minutes. Find:
(b) The time required to attain 70% consolidation of the clay stratum.
(c) The magnitude of that settlement in that time.
Solution.
(a) Since the soil is the same clay in the laboratory and the field, and both are 70% consolidation,
t field H 2field
Tv H dr 2
Tv H dr 2 Tv H dr 2
cv =
=
=
= 2
t
tlab
H lab
t laboratory t field
2
or t field
t H 2
700cm
6
= lab 2F = ( 6.67 min )
= 1.45 10 min = 2.76 years
HL
1.5cm
(b) The amount of settlement that takes place at 70% consolidation is,
C H
p '+ p '
H 70% = ( 0.70 ) c log10 o
po '
1 + eo
The in-situ stress at mid-clay stratum before the surcharge was applied was,
po ' = i hi = (18kN / m3 ) ( 2m ) + ( 20 9.81) kN / m3 ( 3.5m ) = 71.7kN / m 2
i
and p ' = 72 kN / m 2
70% H =
218
An oedometer test was performed on a peat soil sample from an FDOT project in the Homestead
area. The results are shown below. The initial sample thickness was 20 mm with two way
drainage through porous stones, simulating field conditions. The vertical stress increment is 10
kPa. Use an estimate of the coefficient of consolidation cv as,
3H dr2
cv =
4t
Given Data
Time(min)
0.00
0.32
0.64
1.28
2.40
4.80
9.60
16.00
Settlement (mm)
0.00
0.16
0.23
0.33
0.45
0.65
0.86
0.96
Time^1/2(min)^1/2
0.00
0.57
0.80
1.13
1.55
2.19
3.10
4.00
Solution:
e)
Settlement vs. Time^1/2
Time^1/2(min)^1/2
0.00
0.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
0.20
0.40
y = 0.2503x + 0.0376
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
219
1.00
0.96,3.69
5.00
f)
2
3d 2
3(10 min) 2 (1 min)(1m) 2
8 m
cv =
=
= 9.178 * 10
4t x
sec
4(13.62 min)(60 sec)(1000mm) 2
g) The strain at the end of the loading is:
(1mm)
v = =
= 0.05 or 5%
L (20mm)
Eo =
v 10 * 10 3 N
=
= 200kPa Vertical Modulus
v
0.05m 2
Cc
but Coduto (page 424)
1 + eo
2.30 z k 1 + e0
k
or cv = z
w Cc
z w
*note: (2.30 is for ln; use 1.0 for log)
k
= E o
w
cv =
k=
cv w
Eo
m 2
kN
9.178 *10 8
9
.
81
sec
m
=
= 4.50 *10 9
kN
s
200 2
220
Find the Cc and the apparent OCR for a superficial clay stratum that is 4m thick. The water is
at the surface. A sample of the clay has a water content of 27.9%, and a specific gravity of 2.65. An
oedometer test showed the following results:
Voids Ratio
0.736
15
0.733
28
0.73
60
0.675
230
0.638
480
0.6
930
Solution:
Cc = [Ca-Cb]/[log(Oz b)-log(Oz a)] = [0.675-0.600]/[log(930)-log(230)] = 0.123
Se = wGs
(Saturation means S = 1)
221
Two tall buildings sit next to each other in the downtown area of Boston. They are separated by a
narrow 5 foot alley and are both 50 stories high (550 feet tall). They also have similar foundations,
which consist of a simple mat foundation. Each mat is a thick reinforced concrete slab, 5 feet thick
and 100 feet by 100 feet in plan view. The total load (dead + live + wind) of each building is
150,000 kips.
The mats are sitting upon a thick prepared stratum of carefully improved soil 40 feet thick, that
has an allowable bearing capacity of 17 ksf. Below the compacted fill stratum lays a medium to
highly plastic clay stratum 38 feet thick. Below the clay stratum is a thick layer of permeable sand.
The water table coincides with the interface between the improved soil and the clay. The dry unit
weight of improved soil is 110 pcf, whereas the in-situ unit weight of the clay is 121 pcf.
The clay has a specific gravity of 2.68. Also a moisture content of 32%, a PI of 52% and a PL of
12% before building A was built in 1975. The clay has a consolidation coefficient of 10-4 in2/sec.
The second building B was finished by early 1995. Assume that each buildings mat rotates as a
rigid plate.
How much do you predict will building A drift towards building B by early 1996, in inches?
(Note: The drift of a building is its horizontal movement at the edge of the roof level due to lateral
loads such as wind or earthquakes, or the differential settlement due to unequal pressures.)
Given:
P = 150,000 kips
qa = 17 ksf;
=121 pcf,
cv = 10-4 in2/sec
For the improved soil:
d =110 pcf
222
Diagram 1
PLAN VIEW
A
PLAN VIEW
B
BUILDING A
BUILDING B
50 Stories = 550 ft
50 Stories = 550 ft
Completed 1975
Completed 1975
150,000 kips
150,000 kips
Fill
Clay
Sand
223
Solution:
Initial Condition: Geostatic Stresses
( z )induced =
q=
[(
q 2BLz f B 2 + L2 + z 2f
( (
1/ 2
)] B
4 z 2f B 2 + L2 + z 2f + B 2 L2
+ L2 + 2 z 2f
B2 + L2 + z 2f
+ sin
2 BLz f B2 + L2 + 2 z 2f
1/ 2
z 2f B 2 + L2 + z 2f + B 2 L2
p 150,000 10 3
=
= 15,000 lbs
A
(100 )(100 )
zf = 58 ft (at mid-clay)
Replacing the values of q, B, L and zf into the Boussinesqs equation yields:
(z )induced = 8008.65 lb/ ft2 , 1059.79 lb/ ft2
Exists differential stresses at the corners of the foundation.
Stresses due to fill:
(z )fill = H fill fill = (110) (38) = 4,180 lb/ ft2
The total final stresses at corner C
(zf )C = zo + (z) induced + (z) fill
= 2344 lb/ ft2+ 8008.65 lb/ ft2 + 4180 lb/ ft2 = 14,532.65 lb/ ft2 14,533 lb/ ft2
The total final stresses at corner D
(zf )D = zo + (z) induced + (z) fill
= 2344 lb/ ft2+ 1059.79 lb/ ft2 + 4180 lb/ ft2 = 7,583.79 lb/ ft2 7,584 lb/ ft2
(Note: Both buildings A and B will experience the same final stress due to fill, loadings and geostatic
factors).
Time Factor
Determining the time factor for building A:
Tv = _4Cvt_
H2dr
For 21 years: t = 662,256,000 sec
Tv A =
Degree of Consolidation
U = [1-10 (0.085+Tv)/0.933] x 100%
The degree of consolidation at TvA = 165.56 is:
224
=100%
By early 1996, 21 yrs after the load was applied, the soils are completely consolidated.
Therefore,
U=
c
( c )ult
c = ( c )ult
Assuming normally consolidated soils
c =
z
Cc
H log f
z
1 + e0
0
1 + eo
(Eqn 1-1)
zo
d =
Gs w
1+ w
121
(2.68 )(62.4 ) - 1 = 0.82
= 91.67 e0 =
1 + 0.32
91.67
Recall that uniform stress does not exist beneath the corners of the mat foundation. Therefore, we will
have differential settlement.
At corner C:
H= 40 ft
c =
0.486
(40 ft ) log 14,533 = 8.46 ft = 101.55 in
1 + 0.82
2,344
At corner D:
H= 40 ft
225
c =
0.486
(40 ft ) log 7,584 = 5,45 ft = 65.35 in
1 + 0.82
2,344
Diagram 2
DRIFT = x
550 ft
A
'
5.45 ft
8.46 ft
D' ?
3.01 ft
C'
100 ft
226
Estimate the average settlement from primary consolidation of the clay stratum under the center
of the bridge pier.
Solution:
Stress at mid-clay stratum:
kN
kN
= 5 8 .9
3
m
m2
kN
kN
7 m x 9 .8 0
= 6 8 .6
3
m
m2
kN
kN
2 m x 9 .6 0
= 1 9 .2
3
m
m2
3 m x 1 9 .6 2
for a total
o = 1 4 6 .7
kN
m2
227
5m
= 0.5 00 I 4 = 0.07 1
10m
28 x10 3 kN
Q
kN
= 4 I4
= 4 ( 0.07 1 )
= 9 9.5 2
A
m
8 m x 10 m
m =
4m
= 0.28 6
10 m
a nd
n=
C
p + p
0.31
146.7 + 99.5
= c log10 o
= 4m
log10
= 0.15 m
1
+
1
+
0.81
1
4
6
.7
e
p
o
o
228
Chapter 12
Shear Strength of Soils
Symbols for Shear Strength of Soils
c The cohesion of a soil particle.
cu
p
p
q
q
qu Ultimate shear strength of a soil.
u Pore water pressure.
u c
ud
The normal axial stress.
1 stress
1 stress
3 stress
3 Confirming pressure
d
The shear stress.
f The normal shear stress at a failure.
The angle of internal friction of the soil.
The angle of inclination of the plane of failure caused by the failure shear stress.
Effective stress.
229
A consolidated un-drained triaxial test was performed on a specimen of saturated clay with a
kg
chamber pressure 3 = 2.0 2 . At failure,
cm
kg
kg
1 3 = 2.8 2 , u = 1.8 2 and the failure plane angle = 57 .
cm
cm
Calculate (1) the normal stress and (2) shear stress on the failure surface and (3) the
maximum shear stress on the specimen.
Solution:
kg
cm2
kg
cm 2
1 3
Shear stress
Normal stress
Maximum shear
kg
4.8 2
sin 2 =
sin114 = 1.27
cm 2
2
kg
1 + 3 1 3
4.8 + 2 4.8 2
+
cos114 = 2.83
+
cos 2 =
cm 2
2 2
2 2
MAX =
1 3
2
kg
4.8 2
sin 2 =
= 1.4
cm 2
2
at
= 45
230
*Shear strength02: Why is the maximum shear not the failure shear?
(Revised Oct-09)
Using the results of the previous Problem 01, and = 24, c ' = 0.80
kg
, show why the sample
cm 2
Solution:
On failure plane
kg
cm 2
kg
cm 2
Compare that to = 1.27 kg/cm from the previous problem, and note that they are equal, and so for
both, S 57 = 57 failed. .
Now at the plane of maximum shear stress = 4 5
kg
4.8 + 2 4.8 2
+
cos 90 = 3.4 2
cm
2 2
kg
' = 3.4 1.8 = 1.6 2
cm
kg
cm 2
The shear strength at 45 is much larger than at 57, therefore failure does not occur.
231
Continuing with the data from the two previous problems, the same soil specimen is now loaded
kg
slowly to failure in a drained test, that is u = 0, with 3 = 2.0 2 . What will be the major principal
cm
stress at failure?
Solution:
a) Analytically, in a drained test u = 0; at failure '3 = 3 = 2
kg
, on the failure plane = 57 .
cm 2
' + 2 '1 2
' 2
and = 1 sin114 = ( 0.457 ) '1 ( 0.914 )
2
kg
kg
kg
At failure s = '1 = 7.31 2 ; = 3.6 2 and = 2.38 2
cm
cm
cm
b) Graphically,
232
A drained triaxial test on a normally consolidated clay showed that the failure plane makes an
angle of 58 with the horizontal. If the sample was tested with a chamber confining pressure of
103.5 kN/m2, what was the major principal stress at failure?
Solution:
= 45 +
58 = 45 +
2
= 26
Using the equation that relates the major principal stress 1 to the minor principal stress 3, and with c =
0 (the value of cohesion for a normally consolidated clay),
233
2
26
kN
= (103.5 ) tan 45 + = 265 2
2
2
m
Triaxial tests performed on samples from our Miami Pamlico formation aeolian sand, showed the
peak stresses listed below. Plot these values on a p-q diagram to find the value of the internal angle
of friction.
1 = 76 psi
for 3 =
15 psi
p = 45.5,
q = 30.5 psi
(1)
1 = 148 psi
for 3 =
30 psi
p = 89.0,
q = 59.0 psi
(2)
1 = 312 psi
for 3 =
60 psi
p = 186.0,
q = 126.0 psi
(3)
1 = 605 psi
p = 362.5,
q = 242.5 psi
(4)
Solution:
Remember that p = (1 + 3)/2 and q = (1 3)/2
q (psi)
300
= 34
200
3
100
2
1
p(psi)
100
200
300
400
ta n
q4
2 4 2 .5
=
= 0 .6 6 8
p4
3 6 2 .5
s i n = t a n = 0 .6 6 8
= 42
234
A consolidated-drained triaxial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay. The results
kN
kN
'3 = 276 2
are as follows:
( d ) f = 276 2
m
m
Determine:
(a) The angle of friction ;
(b) The angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane, and
(c) The normal stress and shear stress f on the failure plane.
Solution:
For normally consolidated soil the failure envelope equation is:
= ' ta n
because c = 0
For the triaxial test, the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure are as follows:
kN
m2
and
'3 = 3 = 276
kN
m2
Part A.
The Mohr circle and the failure envelope are shown in the figure below, from which:
'1 '3
'1 '3
AB
552 276
2
sin =
=
=
=
= 0 .3 3 3
'1 + '3
'1 + '3 5 5 2 + 2 7 6
OA
2
235
= 1 9 .4 5
Part B.
= 45 +
= 45 +
1 9 .4 5
= 5 4 .7
2
Part C.
'
and
'1 + '3
'1 '3
2
'1 '3
2
cos 2
sin 2
kN
,
m2
'3 = 276
kN
m2
equations,
' =
and
236
Triaxial un-drained tests were performed on clay samples taken from the stratum shown below.
kN
The tests were taken with pore water pressure measurements, and c ' = 20 2 , and = 24
m
Solution:
a) For the gravel:
kN
m3
kN
kN
kN
kN
kN
kN
For '1 = 1 u = 1 w (9 + 3.5) = 297 10 3 (12.5m ) = 173 2
m
m
kN
kN
kN
S = c '+ '1 tan ' = 20 2 + 173 3 tan 24 = 96.6 2
m
m
m
237
kN
m2
kN
kN
kN
+ (13m + 3.5m )10 3 = 251 2
2
m
m
m
238
Two similar clay soil samples were pre-consolidated in triaxial equipment with a chamber
pressure of 600 kN/m2. Consolidated-drained triaxial tests were conducted on these two
specimens. The following are the results of the tests:
Specimen 1:
3 = 100
( d ) f
Specimen 2:
kN
m2
= 410.6
3 = 50
kN
m2
( d ) f
kN
m2
= 384.37
kN
m2
Find the values of the cohesion c and the angle of internal friction .
Solution:
For Specimen 1, the principal stresses at failure are,
3 ' = 3 = 100
kN
m2
3 ' = 3 = 50
239
kN
m2
kN
m2
kN
m2
These two samples are over-consolidated. Using the relationship given by equation
+ 2c tan 45 +
2
2
+ 2c tan 45 +
2
2
( 434.4 ) = ( 50 ) tan 2 45 +
+ 2c tan 45 +
2
2
( 76.2 ) = ( 50 ) ta n 2 45 +
1 = 1 2
2
12
12
+ 2c tan 45 +
2
2
kN
m2
240
A soil test is performed in the shear-box shown below. The test data lists the stresses and
displacements. Assign positive normal stresses to compression and positive shear stresses are
counter-clockwise. Plot the Mohr circles of stress for each stage.
DISPLACEMENTS(mm)
Stage
XX
YY
xy
yx
(kpa)
(kpa)
(kpa)
(kpa)
30
70
0.30
-0.50
71
70
31.0
-31.3
c (peak)
2.50
-0.60
145
70
43.3
=49.0
3.00
-0.82
10.00
1.50
90.6
70
24.5
-32.0
Solution:
For small displacements, the x and y planes remain perpendicular. Use a compass to locate by trial and
error the center of the Mohr circle. The center of the circle must lie on the axis, and it must be
equidistant from the two stress points ( ' xx , xy ) and
( '
yy
, yx ) .
TABLE OF VALUES
STAGE
S'=
1 '+ 3 '
2
1 ' 3 '
2
S'
kPa
kPa
50
20
0.40
70.5
31.2
0.44
c (peak)
103
60
0.58
5.25
70
32
0.46
21
241
242
243
An engineer is evaluating the stability of the slope in the figure below, and considers that the
potential for a shear failure occurs along the shear surface shown. The soil has an angle
' = 30 and no cohesive strength. Compute the shear strength at point A along this surface when
the groundwater table is at level B, then compute the new shear strength if it rose to level C. The
unit weight of the soil is 120 lb/ft3 above the WT and 123 lb/ft3 below.
Solution:
lb
lb
u = z z w = 62.4 3 (20 ft ) = 1248 2
ft
ft
lb
lb
lb
lb
' z = H u =120 3 (26 ft ) + 123 3 (20 ft ) 1248 2 = 4332 2
ft
ft
ft
ft
lb
lb
s = ' tan ' = 4332 2 tan 30 = 2501 2
f
t
f
t
lb
lb
u = z z w = 62.4 3 (32 ft ) = 1997 2
ft
ft
lb
lb
lb
lb
' z = H u =120 3 (14 ft ) + 123 3 (32 ft ) 1997 2 = 3619 2
ft
ft
ft
ft
lb
lb
s = ' tan ' = 3619 2 tan 30 = 2089 2
ft
ft
244
Samples have been obtained from both soil strata shown in the figure below. A series of shear
strength tests were then performed on both samples and plotted in diagrams below. The c and
values obtained from these diagrams are shown in the figure below. Using this data, compute the
shear strength on the horizontal and vertical planes at points A, B, and C.
Solution:
Point A - Horizontal plane:
' = H u = (17.0
kN
kN
kN
)(3.0m) + (17.5 3 )(1.1m) (9.8 3 )(1.1m)
3
m
m
m
245
s = 57.2 kPa
s = 35.5 kPa
s = 68.1 kPa
s = 54.4 kPa
Commentary
At each point the shear strength on a vertical plane is less than that on a horizontal plane because
K < 1. In addition, the shear strength at point B is greater than that at point A, because the
effective strength is greater. The strength at point C is even higher than at point B because it is in
a new strata with different c, , and K values. Thus, the strength would increase gradually with
depth within each stratum, but change suddenly at the boundary between the two strata.
Draw the shear strength envelope for the ML stratum and then plot the upper half of the Mohr
circle for point A on this diagram. Assume the principal stresses act vertically and horizontally.
246
Samples have been obtained from both soil strata shown in the figure below. A series of shear
strength tests were then performed on both samples and plotted in diagrams below. The c and
values obtained from these diagrams are shown in the figure below. Using this data, compute the
shear strength on the horizontal and vertical planes at points A, B, and C.
Solution:
' = H u = (17.0
kN
kN
kN
)(
3
.
0
m
)
+
(
17
.
5
)(
1
.
1
m
)
(
9
.
8
)(1.1m)
m3
m3
m3
s = 57.2 kPa
s = 35.5 kPa
s = 68.1 kPa
s = 54.4 kPa
Commentary
At each point the shear strength on a vertical plane is less than that on a horizontal plane because
K < 1. In addition, the shear strength at point B is greater than that at point A, because the effective
strength is greater. The strength at point C is even higher than at point B because it is in a new strata
with different c, , and K values. Thus, the strength would increase gradually with depth within each
stratum, but change suddenly at the boundary between the two strata.
Draw the shear strength envelope for the ML stratum and then plot the upper half of the Mohr circle for
point A on this diagram. Assume the principal stresses act vertically and horizontally.
248
Triaxial un-drained tests were performed on clay samples taken from the stratum shown below.
The test were taken with pure water pressure measurements and yield a c` = 20 kN/m3, and =
24.Find (1) the clay shear strength at mid-stratum, and (2) the effective and total stresses at that
same level acting on a vertical face of a small element.
H=4
sandy gravel
n= 0.30
H= 13m
=16 kN/m3
1
clay
H= 7m
=17.6 kN/m3
Solution:
For the gravel: sat = sat + nw = [16 + (0.3)10] = 19 kN/m3
For the clay:
3 = k 1 = 0.5(172) = 86 kN/m3
= 24.
S= 96.6 kN/m3
C` = 20
KN
/m
249
Triaxial un-drained tests were performed on clay samples taken from the stratum shown below.
The test were taken with pure water pressure measurements and yield a c` = 20 kN/m3, and =
24.Find (1) the clay shear strength at mid-stratum, and (2) the effective and total stresses at that
same level acting on a vertical face of a small element.
H=4
Sandy
gravel
H=
n= 0.30
1
3
3
H=
7m
=16 kN/m3
Clay
=17.6 kN/m3
Solution:
For the gravel: sat = sat + nw = [16 + (0.3)10] = 19 kN/m3
For the clay:
3 = k 1 = 0.5(172) = 86 kN/m3
= 24.
S= 96.6 kN/m3
C` = 20 KN/m3
250
A clay layer, 20 feet thick is covered by a 40 foot sandy gravel stratum with a porosity of 30%, and
a dry unit weight of 103 pcf. Tests on the un-drained samples of the clay gave c = 2.9 psi, SAT =
112 psf and ' = 24o. Find:
(a) the soil shear strength s = c + 'tan' at the clay's midlevel (point A), and
(b) the effective and total stress acting on the vertical face of a soil element at the clay midlevel
(point A).
d=13'
H1=40'
H2=20'
d = 103 pcf
n = 30%
c = 2.9 psi
sat = 112 pcf
' = 24o
Solution:
a) In order to find s, it is required to know the sat of the sand.
e=
n
0.30
0.30
(1+ e) 103(1+0.429)
=
=
= 0.429 and G S = d
=
= 2.36
1- n 1 - 0.30 0.70
62.4
W
sat =
( G S + e) W (2.36 +0.429)62.4
=
= 122pcf
1+ e
1.429
*Assume that the clay was normally consolidated to find ' at midlevel in the clay (point A),
that is c = 0.
251
lb
x
2
= 45 o + = 45 o + 24 = 57 o_2 = 114 o
x1 =
c
0.42
=
= 0.939ksf
tan tan 24 o
x2 =
s
1.95
=
= 4.38ksf
tan tan 24 o
o
o
x 3 = s( tan 24 )= 1.95( tan 24 )= 0.868ksf
252
R=
s
1.95
=
= 2.13ksf
cos cos 24 o
253
A clay layer, 20 feet thick is covered by a 40 foot sandy gravel stratum with a porosity of 30%, and
a dry unit weight of 103 pcf. Tests on the un-drained samples of the clay gave c = 2.9 psi, SAT =
112 psf and ' = 24o. Find (1) the soil shear strength s = c + 'tan' at the clay's midlevel (point A),
and (2) the effective and total stress acting on the vertical face of a soil element at the clay midlevel
D=13
H=40
Sand
d= 103 pct
n= 30%
H= 20
Clay
c = 2.9 psi
' = 24o
Rock
(point A).
Solution:
In order to find s, it is required to know the sat of the sand.
e=
n
0.30
0.30
(1+ e) 103(1+0.429)
=
=
= 0.429 and G S = d
=
= 2.36
1- n 1 - 0.30 0.70
62.4
W
sat =
( G S + e) W (2.36 +0.429)62.4
=
= 122pcf
1+ e
1.429
* Assume that the clay was normally consolidated to find ' at midlevel in the clay (point A), that is c =
0.
254
lb
x
2
= 45 o + = 45 o + 24 = 57 o_2 = 114 o
x1 =
c
0.42
=
= 0.939ksf
tan tan 24 o
x2 =
s
1.95
=
= 4.38ksf
tan tan 24 o
o
o
x 3 = s( tan 24 )= 1.95( tan 24 )= 0.868ksf
255
R=
s
1.95
=
= 2.13ksf
cos cos 24 o
256
Derive the general formula that gives the value of the major principal stress 1 as a function of the
minor principal stress 3, the cohesion c and the angle of internal friction .
Solution:
h
= 45 +
ad =
2 = 90 +
1 3
2
2
2
f
c
3
45
ad
fa
(1)
fa = fo + oa = (c) cot +
tan = c
fo
1 + 3
fo
= cot
c
fo = (c)(cot )
oa = 3 +
( 1 3 )
2
oa =
( 1 + 3 )
2
fa = (c) cot +
( 1 3 )
2
Introducing (1) into (2): sin =
( + 3 )
(c) cot + 1
2
257
( 1 + 3 )
2
(2)
1 + 3
2
1 3
2
cos
sin
+3
3
sin ] = 1
2
2
]=
3
2
] - [
+3
sin ]
2
2(c) cos
(1 + sin )
+ ( 3 )
= 1
(1 sin )
(1 sin )
Since
cos
tan (45 + )
2
(1 sin
1 = 3 tan 2 45 +
and
(1 + sin )
tan2 (45 + )
(1 sin )
2
+
2
c
tan
45
2
2
258
Chapter 13
Slope Stability
Symbols for Slope Stability
259
A slope cut to 1.5H:1V will be made in a shale rock stratum that has bedding planes that have an
apparent dip of 16 (see the figure below). If the acceptable factor of safety against failure is at
least 2 along the lower-most bedding plane, is this slope stable? Use a unit weight of 20.1 kN/m3,
and bedding strength parameters of c = 22 kPa and = 30.
Solution:
T he traingule of rock above the potential slip plane has a weight W per unit width,
kN
kN
1
( 85.0 m )(11.3 m ) 20.1 3 = 9, 650
2
m
m
W =
85.0 m
= 88.4 m
cos16
T herefore,
L=
FS =
kN
kN
22 2 ( 88.4 m ) + 9, 650
cos16 tan 30
m
m
FS =
= 2.7 > 2
kN
9, 650
sin 1 6
m
OK
260
In the previous problem the slope appeared to be stable with a factor of safety = 2.7. What
happens to that factor of safety if the water table rises to the level shown below? Use a unit weight
of 20.1 kN/m3, and bedding strength parameters are reduced by the effective parameters of c = 15
kPa and = 20.
Solution:
T h e w e ig h t W o f th e r o c k tr ia n g le p e r u n it w id th is s till 9 , 6 5 0
kN
m
T h e l e n g t h L o f t h e s li p p la n e i s s t i l l 8 8 . 4 m .
T h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e i s b a s e d o n a n e s t i m a t e o f i t s v a lu e a l o n g t h e l e n g t h L ,
a t w a t e r d e p t h z w a b o v e t h e p l a n e t h a t r a n g e f r o m 0 t o 3 . 2 m ; c o n s e r v a t i v e ly ,
kN
z w = 9 .8 1
(3 . 2 m ) = 3 1 . 4 k P a
m3
c ' L + (W ) c o s u t a n
R e s is tin g F o rc e s
FS =
=
=
D riv in g F o rc e s
(W ) s i n
u =
kN
9 , 6 5 0 m c o s 1 6 ( 3 1 .4 k P a ) t a n 2 0
FS =
= 1 .7 6 < 2
kN
9
,
6
5
0
s
i
n
1
6
T h e c o m p u t e d f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f 1 .7 6 i s l e s s t h a n t h e m i n i m u m a c c e p t a b l e
v a lu e o f 2 , t h e r e f o r e t h i s d e s i g n i s N O T a c c e p t a b le . N o t i c e t h a t a r i s i n g W T
d e c r e a s e s th e s ta b ility o f th e s lo p e.
kN
15
(8 8 . 4 m
m2
261
)+
NG
Determine if the work site shown below is safe, provided you consider the minimum acceptable
factor of safety for the man-made waterfront slope shown below to be 2. Assume the arc radius is
80 feet; the circular lengths are AB = 22 feet and BC = 102 feet. The total weight of the soil per
unit width are Wsoil = 205 kips and Wcrane =70 kips. The site is located in a seismic zone with a
seismic coefficient of 0.15.
20
15
40
15
15
A
Wcrane
45
Clayey sand
SEA
c = 0.2 ksf
= 40
C
15
Wsoil
Sandy clay
c = 1.8 ksf
= 15
Solution:
Mr = R[S1(AB)+S2(BC)] = R[(C1+1tan1)AB + (C2+2tan2)BC]
= 80[(0.2+0.125(8)(tan40)22 + (1.8+(0.130 0.064)(21)(tan15)(102)] = 80[23k + 221k] = 19,500 k-ft
W (d )
M 0 = Wb1 - WwH (d 1 ) - WWV (b2 ) + Vb3 + ae 2
g
= 205(40)(1/2)(0.064)(15) - (0.064)[30(15)+(1/2)(40)(15)]15+70(55)+205(0.15)(50)
Mo = 8,200 - 7.2 720 +3850 +1540 = 12,900 k-ft
Therefore: FS = Mr/Mo = 19,500/12,900 = 1.51
Not Good!
GOOD!
262
The stability of a slope was analyzed by the method of slices. One of the trial curved surfaces
through the soil mass yielded the shearing and normal components of each slice as listed below.
The curved length of the trial curved surface is 40 feet, the soil parameters are c = 225 lb/ft2 and
= 15. Determine the factor of safety along this trial surface.
Solution:
FS =
263
Slice
Shearing Component
Normal Component
Number
(W sin ) (lb/ft)
(W cos ) (lb/ft)
-38
306
-74
1410
124
2380
429
3050
934
3480
1570
3540
2000
3210
2040
2190
766
600
= 7,751 lb/ft
= 20,166 lb/ft
cL + (W cos ) tan n
W sin
**Slope-05: Method of slices to find the factor of safety of a slope with a WT.
(Revision: Oct.-08)
lb
ft 2
and ' = 29 . The unit weight is 119 pcf above the groundwater table, and 123 pcf below. Using
the ordinary method of slices, compute the factor of safety along the trial circle.
A 30 ft tall, 1.5H:1V slope is to be built as shown below. The soil is homogeneous, with c ' = 400
Solution:
Weights:
W1
lb
1 0 .3
= 1 0 .8
119 = 6, 620
b
2
ft
W2
1 0 .3 + 1 2 .5
= 9 .4
b
2
W3
b
W4
b
lb
5 .2
1 1 9 + 9 .4
1 2 3 = 1 5, 8 0 0
ft
2
lb
1 2 .5 + 1 4 .6
5 .2 + 1 0 .0
= 1 2 .1
1 1 9 + 1 2 .1
1 2 3 = 3 0, 8 0 0
2
2
ft
lb
5 .0
1 2 .9 + 8 .0
= 2 .9
1 7 .0 + 7 .1
1 7 .8 = 1 6 2 0
2
ft
2
W5
lb
1 6 .8 + 12 .8
10 .7 + 7.3
= 9.3
11 9 + 9.3
1 23 = 3 9, 90 0
b
2
2
ft
W6
lb
12 .8 + 9 .9
7.3
= 7 .6
1 19 + 7.6
1 2 3 = 2 6, 70 0
b
2
ft
2
W7
9 .9
= 4 .0
b
2
lb
1 19 = 2, 4 00
ft
264
lb
1 0 .0 + 1 0 .7
u4 =
6 2 .4 = 6 5 0
2
f
t2
lb
1 0 .7 + 7 .3
u5 =
6 2 .4 = 5 6 0
2
ft 2
lb
7 .3
u6 =
6 2 .4 = 2 3 0
2
f
t2
u7 = 0
c 'l +
( Deg )
lb
c ' 2
ft
( Deg )
lb
u 2
ft
6620
-18
400
29
11.4
8,000
-2,000
15,800
-7
400
29
160
9.5
11,700
-1,900
30,800
400
29
470
12.2
18,600
4,300
39,900
24
400
29
650
13.9
20,800
16,200
26,700
38
400
29
560
11.8
12,700
16,400
13,700
53
400
29
230
12.6
8,000
10,900
24,00
67
400
29
10.2
4,600
2,200
= 84, 400
= 46,100
Slice
W
( lb)
b
( ft )
W
( cos ul ) tan '
b
Note how slices # 1 and 2 have a negative because they are inclined backwards.
265
W
( lb )
b
Using the Swedish slip circle method, compute the factor of safety along the trial circle shown in
the figure below.
Solution:
Divide the slide mass into vertical slices as shown. One of the slice borders should be directly below the
center of the circle (in this case, the border between slices 2 and 3). For convenience of computations,
also draw a slice border wherever the slip surface intersects a new soil stratum and whenever the ground
surface has a break in slope. Then, compute the weight and moment arm for each slide using simplified
computations as follows:
266
Solution:
Weights
W1
2 .0
= 4 .6
b
2
kN
1 7 .8 = 8 0
m
W2
kN
2 .0 + 9 .8
= 7 .0
1 7 .8 = 1 3 0
b
2
m
W3
kN
9 .8 + 1 2 .9
= 2 .9
1 7 .8 = 5 9 0
b
m
2
W4
5 .0
1 2 .9 + 8 .0
= 2 .9
1 7 .0 + 7 .1
1 7 .8 = 1 6 2 0
b
2
2
W5
5 .0 + 1 0 .3
8 .0
= 7 .2
1 7 .0 + 7 .2
1 7 .8 = 1 4 5 0
b
2
2
W 6
kN
1 0 .3 + 9 .8
= 0 .8
1 7 .0 = 1 4 0
b
2
m
W7
9 .8
= 5 .1
b
2
kN
1 7 .0 = 4 2 0
m
Moment arms:
d 1 = 7 .0
d2 =
d3 =
d4 =
d5 =
d6 =
d7 =
267
4 .6
= 8 .5 m
3
7 .0
= 3 .5 m
2
2 .9
= 1 .5 m
2
7 .1
2 .9 +
= 6 .5 m
2
7 .1
2 .9 + 7 .1 +
= 1 0 .9 m
2
0 .8
= 1 7 .6 m
2 .9 + 7 .1 + 7 .2 +
2
5 .1
2 .9 + 7 .1 + 7 .2 + 0 .8 +
= 1 9 .7 m
3
kN
m
kN
m
Slice
Su ( kPa )
( Deg )
Su
W
b
kN
W
d
b
80
-8.5
-690
130
-3.5
-450
390
1.5
890
1620
6.5
10,530
1450
10.9
15,800
140
17.6
2,460
420
19.7
8,280
80
76
6080
6
40
30
1200
= 36,830
= 7280
FS =
d ( m)
R2
180
S
W
b d
u
( 23.6 )
180
7, 280
= 1.9 2 < 2
36, 8 3 0
Not Goo d
268
Chapter 14
Statistical Analysis of Soils
Symbols for the Statistical Analysis of Soils
269
Chapter 15
Lateral Pressures from Soils
Symbols for Lateral Pressures from Soils
Dx Diameter of the grains distributed (represent % finer by weight).
e The voids ratio.
GS Specific gravity of the solids of a soil.
H Maximum depth of excavation or thickness of a soil layer.
hsoil depth of the soil.
icritical Critical hydraulic gradient.
kH Horizontal permeability.
kV Vertical permeability.
u pore water pressure.
Effective stress.
V Vertical Effective stress.
g Bouyant unit weight of a soil.
SAT Saturated unit weight of a soil
W Unit weight of water.
VW Volume of water.
w water content.
270
Ka =
Kp =
271
cos2 ( - )
sin( + )sin( )
cos2 cos( + ) 1 +
cos(
+
)cos(
cos2 ( + )
sin( )sin( + )
cos2 cos( ) 1
cos( )cos( )
272
Kp for = 0 and = 0.
273
Consider a small 10-foot tall and 3 feet thick concrete retaining wall. The backfill behind the wall
will be from local sandy gravel with a dry unit weight of 115 pcf and an angle of internal friction
of 30 degrees. The wall will not have to retain water.
Estimate, (a) the lateral force on the wall from the backfill in an active pressure condition, (b) its
stability against overturning, and (c) its stability against sliding (use a Factor of Safety 2).
Solution:
30
(a) The Rankine active earth pressure coefficient is, K a = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45
= 0.33
2
2
The lateral pressure at the bottom of the wall is pa = hK a = ( 0.115 kcf )(10 ft )( 0.33) = 0.38 ksf
The force against the wall is Fa =
1
( pa ) h = ( 0.5 )( 0.38)(10 ) = 1.9 kips per foot of wall
2
(b) The stability of the wall against overturning is found by taking moments about the point "O"
at the toe of the wall,
Factor of Safety ( FS ) =
NG
(c) The stability of the wall against sliding towards the left is found by,
Factor of Safety ( FS ) =
NG
274
(a) Compare the Rankine and Coulomb lateral earth pressure coefficients for a wall that retains a
granular backfill soil with = 35, = 12, = 0 and = 20. (Note: is the angle of friction
between the soil and the backside of the wall; is the angle of the slope for the backfill behind
the wall and is the back of the walls angle with respect to the vertical).
(b) What is the passive earth force on the wall at failure if the wall is 10 m high, = 18.1 kN/m3
and c = 9 kN/m2?
Solution:
a) Rankines active and passive earth pressure coefficients,
35
) = 0.271
K a = tan 2 (45 - ) = tan 2 (45 2
2
35
) = 3.690 Note that
K p = tan 2 (45 + ) = tan 2 (45 +
2
2
Ka =
1
KP
Kp =
cos2 ( - )
sin( + )sin( )
cos2 cos( + ) 1 +
cos( + )cos( )
cos2 ( + )
cos2 (35 - 0)
cos2 (35 + 0)
= 0.323
=
= 3.517
2
2
sin(
)sin
+
sin(35
12)sin(35
(
)
+
20)
2
cos2 cos( ) 1
cos 0 cos(12 0) 1
cos(
)cos(
)
cos(12 0)cos(20 0)
275
Using the Rankine method, find the magnitude and location of the passive pressure force Fp with
respect to the heel of the wall (point B), exerted upon a temporary retaining wall by a large
jacking system (which is not shown in the figure).
Solution:
276
Find the lateral at-rest force F o on the wall and its location with respect to the top of the wall.
Given: Sand #1 has a unit weight of 105 pcf, c = 0 psf and = 30; Sand #2 has a unit weight of 122
pcf, c = 0 psf and = 30.
Solution:
From Jaky's empirical relation, K o = 1 sin ' = 1 sin 30 = 0.50
' = 0 ksf , because there is no surcharge loading upon the surface of Sand #1.
at z = 10 feet 'h = K o 'v = ( 0.5 )( 0.105kcf )(10 ft ) = 0.525 ksf
at z = 0 feet
at z = 20 feet 'h = ( 0.5 ) ( 0.105 )(10 ) + ( 0.122 0.0624 )10 = 0.823 ksf
Fo = f i = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + F 4 =
z=
( 2.63)( 6.67 ) + ( 5.25 )(15 ) + (1.49 )(16.67 ) + ( 3.12 )(16.67 ) = 173.1 kip ft
12.5 kip
277
12.5 kip
A 21 foot high retaining wall supports a purely cohesive soil ( = 0) with a cohesion of 630 psf and
a unit weight of 113 pcf. Find:
(a) The Rankine active earth pressure on the wall.
(b) Estimate the depth of separation of the clay from the wall, and (c) find the lateral force upon
the wall whilst considering the clay separation.
21 ft
zK a
2c K a
Solution:
2c K a
2 ( 0.630ksf )
2c
=
=
= 11.2 feet
Ka
K a ( 0.113kcf )(1)
c) The total (Rankine) active earth force upn the wall Fa is,
1
Fa = H 2 K a 2cH K a
2
but there is no contact on the wall where the tension crack exists, therefore
Fa =
1
HK a 2c K a
2
) H 2cK
1
2c 2
2
= H 2cH K a +
2 ( 0.63ksf )
1
2
Fa = ( 0.113kcf )( 21 ft ) (1) 2 ( 0.63ksf )( 21 ft )(1) +
= 5.48 k / ft of wall
2
( 0.113kcf )
2
278
A 4 m wall retains a dry sand backfill with a unit weight of 18.3 kN/m3, an angle of internal
friction of 36 and a porosity of 31%. The backfill is fully drained through weep holes.
1) What is the magnitude of the backfill force on a 1 m wide slice of wall if it is not allowed to
deflect?
2) What is the magnitude of the backfill force on the same 1 m wide slice, if the wall does deflect
enough to develop a Rankine active earth pressure condition?
3) What is the new force on the wall, and its location from its heel, if the walls weep holes are
clogged and the water table now rises to within 1 m of the ground surface behind the wall?
Solution:
1) No deflection of the wall means the soil is "at rest" and K 0 = 1 - sin = 1 - sin 36 = 0.41
kN
2
2) When th e wall deflects to the left sufficiently to develop an active pressure condition,
36
K a = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45
= 0.26
2
2
kN
2
279
kN
)(1m )(0.26) = 4.8 kN / m 2
m3
kN
)(1m)(0.26) = 4.8 kN / m 2 F2 = (4.8kN / m 2 )(3m) = 14.4 kN / m
3
m
kN
c = ' hK a = (11.5 3 )(3m)(0.26) = 9.0 kN / m 2 F3 = (9.0kN / m 2 )(3m) = 13.5 kN / m
m
The water pressure and force,
bc = d hK a = (18.3
w = w h = (9.81
kN
)(3m) = 29.4 kN / m 2
m3
Therefore
= 74.4 kN / m
i =1
The percent increase in load upon the wall due to flooding is,
F =
( 74.4kN 38kN ) =
38kN
96% increase.
280
A 7.0 m high retaining wall has a horizontal backfill of dry sand with a unit weight of 17.2 kN/m3
and an angle of internal friction = 32. The wall is cast-in-place concrete, with a friction angle
= 20. Ignoring the effect of the passive pressure upon the toe of the footing, find the magnitude of
the active earth force upon a length of wall equal to 3.5 m assuming Rankine conditions.
Solution:
The force applied to the wall first requires the coefficient of active earth pressure,
32
K a = tan 2 (45 ) = tan 2 (45
) = 0.307
2
2
The horizontal force FH per unit width of wall is,
FH = h 2 K a = (17.2kN / m3 )(7 m) 2 (0.307) = 129.5 kN / m
The FH is related to the total force R on the wall as a function of the angle of wall friction ,
FH
129.5kN / m
=
= 138 kN / m
cos
cos 20
We are asked what is the total force every 3.5 m,
FH = R cos R =
FH
FV
281
Calculate the active force Fa and its location with respect to the heel of the 6 m wall (point A), for
the worst case (clogged weep holes).
1m
WT
3m
= 30
H=6m
= 21.2 kN/m3
Weep holes
3m
= 90
Porous limestone
A
0
S o lu tio n .
T h e w o r s t a c t i v e p r e s s u r e lo a d o c c u r s w h e n t h e w a t e r ta b le r a i s e s t o th e to p o f t h e w a ll.
30
K a sa nd = ta n 2 ( 4 5
) = ta n 2 ( 4 5
) = 0 .3 3 3
2
2
90
K a lim e s to n e = t a n 2 ( 4 5
) = ta n 2 ( 4 5
) = 0 t h e li m e s to n e d o e s n o t lo a d th e w a ll.
2
2
T h e = 9 0 i s r e a lly a c o m b in a ti o n o f s h e a r a n d c o h e s io n ( " c e m e n t a ti o n " ) .
p 1 = ' h1 K
p2 =
= (
SAT
) h1 K
= (1 8 . 5 - 9 . 8 ) ( 3 ) ( 0 . 3 3 ) =
8 .7 k N / m
5 8 .8 k N / m
H = (9 .8 )( 6 m )
F1 = p 1 h1 = ( 0 . 5 ) ( 8 . 7 ) ( 3 m )
1 3 .1 k N / m
F 2 = p 2 H = ( 0 .5 )(5 8 .8 )( 6 m )
F to ta l
= 1 7 6 .4 k N / m
= 1 8 9 .5 k N / m
T h e lo c a tio n y =
h1
y1 F1 + y 2 F 2
=
F to ta l
+
F1
(4 m
) (1 3 . 1 ) + ( 2 m
(1 8 9 . 5 )
) (1 7 6 . 4
= 2 .1 m fro m A .
Ftotal
p1
h2
F2
A
p2
282
Draw the pressure diagram on the wall in an active pressure condition, and find the resultant Ftotal
on the wall and its location with respect to the top of the wall.
q = 2.5 ksf
w.t.
0.83
c=0
= 115 pcf
H = 20
10
= 30
b
c=0
= 125 pcf
= 40
0.83
0.66
10
0.18
+
5
1.25
0.66
0.13
Solution:
Step 1
Ka1 = tan2 (45- 30/2) = 0.333
Ka 2 = tan2 (45- 40/2) = 0.217
Step 2
The stress on the wall at point a is:
The stress at b (within the top stratum) is:
= 1.01 ksf
pb - = (q + h) Ka 2
= 0.66 ksf
pc = [q + (h)1 + (h)2] Ka 2
= 0.79 ksf
= 8.30 kips/ft
= 6.60 kips/ft
= 29.0 kips/ft
Step 4
The location of forces is at:
y =
= 0.66 ksf
284
Solution:
Notice that the vertical pressure diagram will always increase in magnitude, but the horizontal pressures
are governed by the Ka coefficient, which may increase or decrease the pressures on the wall.
-0.25
-0.84
c+
3.25
no water present
20
Sandy clay
16.75
c = 500 psf
10
= 10
b+
Dense sand
+0.48
b-
+1.29
c=0
= 40
= 130 pcf
+0.48
= 0.59 ksf
= -0.25 ksf
b+ = Ka 1 h 2c K a 1 + q Ka
= (0.7) (0.11) (20) (2) (0.50) 0.70
= 1.29 ksf
285
+0.77
= 0.48 ksf
= tan2 40 = 0.70
F1 = (-0.25)(3.25)
F2 = (1.29)(16.75)
= +10.80 k/ft
F3 = (0.48)(10)
= + 4.80 k/ft
F4 = (0.29)(10)
= + 1.45 k/ft
Ftotal
= +16.6 kip/ft
286
The wall shown below will be used to retain the sides of an excavation for the foundations of a
large building. The engineer has decided to use earth anchors in lieu of braces or rakers to
stabilize the wall.
a) What is the minimum distance x from the anchor to behind the wall?
b) What is your recommended factor of safety for the anchor? What is an economical load for the
anchor?
x
Grouted anchor A
24
= 30
c = 150 psf
O
.
Solution:
(1) The anchor must be beyond the passive slip plane, or (x) tan 30 = 19 or x = 33 feet.
(2) Ka = tan2(45 - /2) = 0.33 and Kp = tan2(45 + /2) = 3.0
The active force upon the wall per unit width Fa is:
Fa = H2Ka -2cH K a = (0.105)(24)2(0.33) - 2(0.15)(24) 0.33 = 5.84 kip/ft with the force
located at = (19) = 6.33 above point O (note that the tensile portion does not load the wall).
The potential passive failure force (from the anchor) on the wall Fp is:
Fp = H2Kp + 2cH K p = (0.105)(24)2(3) + 2(0.15)(24) 3 = 103 kip/ft
287
The factor of safety should be the same for an active failure as a passive failure. Therefore, a simple
Fp
Fp 103 kips
equation could be written as, Fa ( FS ) =
or (FS)2 =
=
= 17.6 FS = 4.2
( FS )
Fa 5.84 kips
Note that this corresponds to a load in the anchor of (5.84)(4.2) = 24.5 kips/ft (which is the same as
using the passive force = (103)/(4.2) = 24.5 kips/ft). The horizontal spacing of the anchors is not
influenced by this analysis, and depends on cost factors. A common spacing would be 10 feet, which
means A = 245 kips.
288
Plot the pressure diagram and find the resultant force F and its location under an active pressure
condition.
At h=0
at h = -6
at h = -8
at h = -(8+dh)
from p = h Ka - 2cKa
at h = -(17 + dh)
at h = -25
p5 = (4 - w)h K4a = (0.120 - 0.0624)(8)(1) = 0.46 ksf 1.76 + 0.46 = 2.22 ksf
at h = -(25 + dh)
at h = -30
289
R = Fi = 57.1 kips
57.1 kips
290
Calculate the Factor of Safety against, (a) overturning, (b) sliding, and (c) bearing capacity
failures.
0.4
m
= 10
0.62m
H = 8
m
1
H = 9.58m
2
1.5 m 0.6 m
3.5 m
0.75
m
0.96m
1 =
16.8
kN
m
2 =
conc =
17.6
23.6
kN
m
kN
m
291
yc
1 =
32
2 =
28
c1 =
c2 =
30
kN
m
Ka = cos
= cos10o
= 0.322
Kp
292
e=
B Mr Mo
2661 777
= e = 2 .8
= 0.31 m
2
V
749
qtoe =
V
B
6e 749 6(0.31)
2
1 + B = 5.6 1 + 5.6 = 178 kN/m
Df
1.75
= 1 + 0 .4
= 1.14
B'
4.98
Ph
-1
= tan (244 / 749) = 18.04
V
= tan 1
Fqi = Fci = 1 2 = 0.96
90
Fi = 1
18.04
= 1
= 0.58
28
Fd = 1
2 Df
2
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin )
= 1 + 2 tan28(1-sin28) (1.75/5.6)) =
B
= 1.08
qu = (1/2)(17.6)(4.98)(16.7)(1)(0.58) + (30)(25.8)(1.14)(0.96) + (30.8)(14.7)(1.08)(0.96) =
= 1740 kN/m2
293
Using the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion combined with Rankines theory, find the coefficient of
active earth pressure Ka as an investigation of the stress conditions in soil at a state of plastic
equilibrium (in other words, when the soil mass is on the verge of failure).
Solution:
The definition of an active pressure condition is when h decreases until it touches point D on the
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
Find a:
From the figure,
sin =
CD
CD
=
AC AO + OC
3 v a
CD = radius of failure circle = 1
=
2
2
AO = c cot
+3 v a
OC = 1
=
2
2
294
v a
sin =
v + a
c cot +
2
a
+a
2c.cos + v
sin = v
2
2
1 + sin
1 + sin
90 +
= 45
2
2
1 + sin
= tan ( + )
cos
= tan (45
+ )
= tan 45 +
2
sin 45 +
2
cos 45 +
2
cos 45 +
cos
2
1 + sin
sin 45 +
2
But for any complementary angles and (90 - ), cos = sin (90 - ).
Thus, cos (45
295
sin (45 -
cos (45
sin 45
cos
=
= tan 45
1 + sin
2
cos 45
2
=
=
=
= tan 2 45
2
2
1 + sin 1 + sin 1 + sin (1 + sin )
2
(1 + sin )
a = v tan2 (45 -
) - 2c tan (45 -
Rankines
expression
gives
the
effective
pressure at failure!!!
Using this equation, the slip planes can be described by the grid of lines shown below:
296
**Lateral-15: The magnitude and location of a seismic load upon a retaining wall.
(Revision: Sept-08)
The reinforced concrete retaining wall shown below will be subjected to a horizontal seismic load
of 0.2 g without a vertical component. Determine,
(a) The magnitude of the active earth force Pa on the wall;
(b) The magnitude of the earthquake active earth force Pae on the wall;
(c) The location of the resultant of both forces.
1m
Pa
Solution.
sin 2 ( + ')
sin ( ) sin ( + )
sin 2 ( 90 + 36 )
Ka =
sin ( 36 + 24 ) sin ( 36 0 )
sin ( 90 ) sin ( 90 24 ) 1 +
sin ( 90 24 ) sin ( 0 + 90 )
sin 2 (126 )
0.654
Ka =
=
= 0.2346
2
2
sin ( 60 ) sin ( 36 )
( 0.866 )( 0.588)
sin ( 66 ) 1 +
( 0.914 ) 1 +
sin ( 66 )
( 0.914 )
297
sin
+
sin
'
(
)
(
)
cos 'sin 2 sin ( ' ) 1 +
sin 2 ( 36 + 90 11.3 )
K ae =
sin ( 36 + 24 ) sin ( 36 0 )
sin 2 ( 90 ) sin ( 90 24 ) 1 +
sin ( 90 24 ) sin ( 0 + 90 )
= 0.372
1
2
Pae = H 2 (1 kV ) K ae = ( 0.5) (18kN / m3 ) ( 5m ) (1 0) ( 0.372 ) = 83.7 kN / m
2
The earthquake force is Pae = Pae Pa = 83.7 53 = 30.7 kN / m
The location of the resultant earthquake force z is, found by locating the force Pae at a height
0.6H above the base of the wall; the active earth force Pa is obviously ( 0.33) H above the base.
2
2
0.6 H )( Pae ) + (1/ 3) H ( Pa ) ( 0.6 )( 5m ) ( 30.7kN / m ) + (1/ 3)( 5m ) ( 53kN / m )
(
z=
=
= 2.1 m
Pae
(83.7kN / m )
2
298
The reinforced concrete retaining wall shown below will be designed to a horizontal seismic
loading of 0.2 g. Assume no vertical seismic component (kv=0). Determine,
(a) The weight of the wall Ww under static conditions;
(b) The weight of the wall under seismic conditions, for zero lateral displacement;
(c) The weight of the wall under seismic conditions, for a lateral displacement = 1.5 inches.
1m
H=5m
= 36
= 2/3 = 24
Solution.
299
Chapter 16
Braced Cuts for Excavations
Symbols for Braced Cuts for Excavations
300
You have been asked by a contractor to design the internal supports (struts) of a temporary utility
trench, as shown below. In order to design the steel horizontal strut shown, you must first find the
force and moment on one of them, if they are spaced every 4 m horizontally.
Two triaxial laboratory tests were performed on samples of the clayey sand. The first sample had
a confining pressure of 0 kN/m2, and the sample reached failure with a deviator stress of 90
kN/m2. (N.B.: the deviator stress is the additional vertical stress required to reach failure, i.e. s-1 to
s-3). The second sample had its confining stress increased to 30 kN/m2. The deviator stress needed
to attain failure was 160 kN/m2.
Further laboratory tests show that this clayey sand had an in-situ voids ratio of 0.46 at a moisture
of 34% (assume Gs = 2.65). Show all your calculations.
301
(kN/m2)
(kN/m2)
KA = tan2 (45o )
2
s =
(G s )( W ) (2.65)(9810)
=
1+ e
1 + 0.46
S = 2 = 17.8 kN/m2
o
302
2m
F1
F2
2
18.27
3m
F3
F4
34.99
4
11.36
F5
5
19.62
F = F
Ftot =
Located at y f =
+ F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 = 237.96 kN/m
(237.96kN/m)(4m) 951.84 kN
RA = 209.40 kN
304
Shear Diagram
742.44 kN
0 kN
-209.40 kN
Moment Diagram
490.0kN-m
0 kN-m
0 kN-m
0.66 m
305
2.34 m
Design a braced excavation for a large sanitary sewer force-main, which is a reinforced concrete
pipe with a diameter of 3 m. The trench should be 5 m deep and 5 m wide. The phreatic surface is
below bottom of excavation. The SPT for the silty clay is Navg = 20, and = 17 kN/m. Assume = 0.
Solution:
Use Strouds relation to estimate the un-drained cohesion of the soil (the previous problem provided the
shear strength):
cu = KN = (3.5 kN/m) (20) = 70 kN/m.
Therefore,
if
if
H
cu
H
cu
In this problem,
H
cu
Also, since H/ cu < 6, the sheet-piling should extend at least 1.5 m below bottom.
306
Ka = 1. therefore
therefore
3 = a = ()(zc)Ka - 2c Ka
OK
Step 2: Determine the lateral loads at strut locations and excavation bottom.
Isolation the left portion between the surface and strut #2.
MF2 = 0
= F1(1.16m)-(0.5)(1.25m)(26)[0.51+1.25/3]-(0.51)(26)[0.51/2] = 0
therefore, F1 = 15.9 kN/m
Fy = 0
Isolating the right portion between strut #2 and the trench bottom, by symmetry
F22 = F12 = 13.6 kN/m
Fy = 0
307
= - F22 + (3.75-0.51)(26)- F3
Finding moments at A, B, & C (that is, the areas under the shear diagram):
MA = (0.60)(12.48)(0.60/3) = 0.75 kN-m/m
MB = (1.25)(26)(1.25/3)-15.9(0.65) = 3.56 kN-m/m
MC = (2.71)(26)(2.71/2) = 96 kN-m/m
Obviously, Mmax = 96 kN-m/m
Step 4: Select the steel-piling .
(May use 3 m to
308
Braced cuts in clay may become unstable if the bottom heaves upward and fails a section of wall.
FSagainst heaving = [cNc(0.84 + 0.16 B/L)]/ H = (70)(6.4)(0.84)/(17)(5) = 4.4 > 2 O.K.
Step 8: Expected lateral yielding of the sheet-piling and ground settlement behind the wall.
309
A four-strut braced sheet pile installation is designed for an open cut in a clay stratum, as shown
below. The struts are spaced longitudinally (in plan view) at 4.0 m center to center. Assume that
the sheet piles are pinned or hinged at strut levels B and C.
Find: 1. The lateral earth pressure diagram for the braced sheet pile system.
2. The loads on struts A, B, C, and D.
Solution:
From Terzaghi and Peck (1967), a clay is soft, medium or stiff,
if
if
4c
> 4 the clay is soft to medium then a = H 1 u
cu
H
H
a = 0.2 H to 0.4 H
4 the clay is stiff then
cu
310
H
cu
qu 96 kN / m 2
=
= 48 kN / m 2
2
2
(4)(48 kN / m2 )
3
2
=
.3
kN
/
m
)(12
m
)
1
(17
= 15.48 kN / m
3
(17.3 kN / m )(12 m)
The lateral earth pressure diagram for the braced sheet pile system in soft clays is,
=0
FA = 100.6 kN
From
H =0
FB1 = 1
FB 2 = FC1 = 1
=0
4.5 m
=0
2
FD = 209.0 kN
311
)( 3.0 m ) = 0
From
H =0
Therefore,
FA = 100.6 kN
FB = 85.2 kN + 92.9 kN = 178.1 kN
FC = 92.9 kN + 69.6 kN = 162.5 kN
FD = 209.0 kN
312
Chapter 17
Bearing Capacity of Soils
Symbols for the Bearing Capacity of Soils
313
Meyerhof
Hansen
Angle
(Degrees)
Angle
(Radians)
Kp
Nc
Nq
Nc
Nq
Nc
Nq
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
0.0000
0.0175
0.0349
0.0524
0.0698
0.0873
0.1047
0.1222
0.1396
0.1571
0.1745
0.1920
0.2094
0.2269
0.2443
0.2618
0.2793
0.2967
0.3142
0.3316
0.3491
0.3665
0.3840
0.4014
0.4189
0.4363
0.4538
0.4712
0.4887
0.5061
0.5236
0.5411
0.5585
0.5760
0.5934
0.6109
0.6283
0.6458
10.18
10.61
11.07
11.56
12.07
12.61
13.19
13.80
14.44
15.13
15.87
16.65
17.49
18.38
19.33
20.36
21.46
22.65
23.92
25.30
26.80
28.42
30.18
32.10
34.19
36.49
39.01
41.78
44.85
48.26
52.05
56.29
61.04
66.40
72.48
79.40
87.33
96.49
5.70
6.00
6.30
6.62
6.97
7.34
7.73
8.15
8.60
9.09
9.60
10.16
10.76
11.41
12.11
12.86
13.68
14.56
15.52
16.56
17.69
18.92
20.27
21.75
23.36
25.13
27.09
29.24
31.61
34.24
37.16
40.41
44.04
48.09
52.64
57.75
63.53
70.07
1.00
1.10
1.22
1.35
1.49
1.64
1.81
2.00
2.21
2.44
2.69
2.98
3.29
3.63
4.02
4.45
4.92
5.45
6.04
6.70
7.44
8.26
9.19
10.23
11.40
12.72
14.21
15.90
17.81
19.98
22.46
25.28
28.52
32.23
36.50
41.44
47.16
53.80
0.00
0.08
0.18
0.28
0.39
0.51
0.65
0.80
0.96
1.15
1.35
1.58
1.84
2.12
2.44
2.79
3.19
3.63
4.13
4.70
5.34
6.07
6.89
7.83
8.90
10.12
11.53
13.15
15.03
17.21
19.75
22.71
26.20
30.33
35.23
41.08
48.11
56.62
5.10
5.38
5.63
5.90
6.19
6.49
6.81
7.16
7.53
7.92
8.34
8.80
9.28
9.81
10.37
10.98
11.63
12.34
13.10
13.93
14.83
15.81
16.88
18.05
19.32
20.72
22.25
23.94
25.80
27.86
30.14
32.67
35.49
38.64
42.16
46.12
50.59
55.63
1.00
1.09
1.20
1.31
1.43
1.57
1.72
1.88
2.06
2.25
2.47
2.71
2.97
3.26
3.59
3.94
4.34
4.77
5.26
5.80
6.40
7.07
7.82
8.66
9.60
10.66
11.85
13.20
14.72
16.44
18.40
20.63
23.18
26.09
29.44
33.30
37.75
42.92
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.11
0.15
0.21
0.28
0.37
0.47
0.60
0.74
0.92
1.13
1.37
1.66
2.00
2.40
2.87
3.42
4.07
4.82
5.72
6.77
8.00
9.46
11.19
13.24
15.67
18.56
22.02
26.17
31.15
37.15
44.43
53.27
5.10
5.38
5.63
5.90
6.19
6.49
6.81
7.16
7.53
7.92
8.34
8.80
9.28
9.81
10.37
10.98
11.63
12.34
13.10
13.93
14.83
15.81
16.88
18.05
19.32
20.72
22.25
23.94
25.80
27.86
30.14
32.67
35.49
38.64
42.16
46.12
50.59
55.63
1.00
1.09
1.20
1.31
1.43
1.57
1.72
1.88
2.06
2.25
2.47
2.71
2.97
3.26
3.59
3.94
4.34
4.77
5.26
5.80
6.40
7.07
7.82
8.66
9.60
10.66
11.85
13.20
14.72
16.44
18.40
20.63
23.18
26.09
29.44
33.30
37.75
42.92
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.07
0.11
0.16
0.22
0.30
0.39
0.50
0.63
0.78
0.97
1.18
1.43
1.73
2.08
2.48
2.95
3.50
4.13
4.88
5.75
6.76
7.94
9.32
10.94
12.84
15.07
17.69
20.79
24.44
28.77
33.92
40.05
47.38
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
0.6632
0.6807
0.6981
0.7156
0.7330
0.7505
0.7679
0.7854
0.8029
0.8203
0.8378
0.8552
0.8727
107.13
119.59
134.31
151.89
173.09
198.99
231.10
271.57
323.57
391.94
484.34
613.53
801.95
77.50
85.97
95.66
106.81
119.67
134.58
151.95
172.29
196.22
224.55
258.29
298.72
347.51
61.55
70.61
81.27
93.85
108.75
126.50
147.74
173.29
204.19
241.80
287.85
344.64
415.15
67.00
79.77
95.61
115.47
140.65
173.00
215.16
271.07
346.66
451.28
600.15
819.31
1155.97
61.35
67.87
75.31
83.86
93.71
105.11
118.37
133.87
152.10
173.64
199.26
229.92
266.88
48.93
55.96
64.20
73.90
85.37
99.01
115.31
134.87
158.50
187.21
222.30
265.50
319.06
64.07
77.33
93.69
113.99
139.32
171.14
211.41
262.74
328.73
414.33
526.45
674.92
873.86
61.35
67.87
75.31
83.86
93.71
105.11
118.37
133.87
152.10
173.64
199.26
229.92
266.88
48.93
55.96
64.20
73.90
85.37
99.01
115.31
134.87
158.50
187.21
222.30
265.50
319.06
56.17
66.76
79.54
95.05
113.96
137.10
165.58
200.81
244.65
299.52
368.67
456.40
568.57
314
The bearing capacity of a soil is its ability to carry loads without failing in shear. There are four major
methods to predict failure. The fist method was developed by Karl Terzaghi in 1943. Field tests in
Canada by Meyerhof (1963) lead to modification factors. Finally, Brinch Hansen in Denmark (1970)
and Vesic in the USA modified these factor to a greater refinement.
These bearing capacity factors are based on these three authors:
Terzaghi (1943):
where, q = D f
Nq =
a2
a cos 2 ( 45 / 2 )
where a = e(
0.75 / 2 ) tan
N c = ( N q 1) cot
N =
tan K p
1
2
2 cos
Meyerhof (1963):
and for inclined loads, qult = cN c Fic Fdc + qN q Fiq Fdq + 0.4 BN Fi Fd
and the factors are,
N q = e tan tan 2 ( 45 / 2 )
N c = ( N q 1) cot
N = ( N q 1) tan (1.4 )
Brinch Hansen (1970):
N = 1.5 ( N q 1) tan
315
The square footing shown below must be designed to carry a 294 kN load. Use Terzaghis bearing
capacity formula to determine B of the square footing with a Factor of Safety =3.
W = 294 kN
Df = 1 m
= 18.15 kN/m3
= 35
c =0
B
Solution:
Terzaghi's formula for the ultimate bearing capacity qult of a square footing is,
qult = 1.3c ' N c + qN q + 0.4 BN
where q = D f
The allowable bearing capacity qall with the factor of safety of 3 is,
qult 1
= 1.3c ' N c + qN q + 0.4 BN
and
3
3
294 1
= 1.3c ' N c + qN q + 0.4 BN
or
B2 3
For =35, N c =57.8, N q =41.4, and N =41.1.
qall =
qall =
W 294 kN
=
B2
B2
316
The square footing shown below must be designed to carry a 294 kN load. Use Meyerhofs bearing
capacity formula to determine B with a factor of safety =3.
W = 294 kN
Df = 1 m
= 18.15 kN/m3
= 35
c =0
B
Solution:
Meyerhof's formula for the ultimate bearing capacity qult of a square footing is,
qult = c ' N c Fsc Fdc Fic + qN q Fsq Fdq Fiq + 0.4 BN Fs Fd Fi
where q = D f
Since the load is vertical, all three inclination factors Fic =Fiq =Fi =1.
B
1
B
Fsq = 1 + tan = 1 + tan 35 = 1.70 and Fs = 1 0.4 = 1 0.4(1) = 0.6
L
1
L
2 Df
2 1
Fdq = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin )
= 1 + 2 ( tan 35 ) (1 sin 35) 1.25 and Fd = 1
B
B
The allowable bearing capacity qall with the factor of safety of 3 is,
qult 1 '
= c N c Fsc Fdc + qN q Fsq Fdq + 0.4 BN Fs Fd
3
3
294 1 '
or
= c N c Fsc Fdc + qN q Fsq Fdq + 0.4 BN Fs Fd
B2 3
For = 35, N c = 46.12, N q = 33.30, and N = 37.15.
qall =
and
qall =
W 294 kN
=
B2
B2
317
The square footing shown below must be designed to carry a 294 kN load. Use Brinch Hansens
bearing capacity formula to determine B with a factor of safety =3.
W = 294 kN
Df = 1 m
= 18.15 kN/m3
= 35
c =0
B
Solution:
Hansen's formula for the ultimate bearing capacity qult of a square footing is,
qult = c ' N c Fsc Fdc Fic + qN q Fsq Fdq Fiq + 0.4 BN Fs Fd Fi
where q = D f
Since the load is vertical, all three inclination factors Fic =Fiq =Fi =1.
B
1
B
Fsq = 1 + tan = 1 + tan 35 = 1.7 and Fs = 1 0.4 = 1 0.4(1) = 0.6
L
1
L
2 Df
2 1
Fdq = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin )
= 1 + 2 ( tan 35 ) (1 sin 35) 1.255 and Fd = 1
B
B
The allowable bearing capacity qall with the factor of safety of 3 is,
qult 1 '
= c N c Fsc Fdc + qN q Fsq Fdq + 0.4 BN Fs Fd
3
3
294 1 '
or
= c N c Fsc Fdc + qN q Fsq Fdq + 0.4 BN Fs Fd
B2 3
For = 35, N c = 46.12, N q = 33.30, and N = 33.92.
qall =
and
qall =
W 294 kN
=
B2
B2
318
The square footing shown below must be designed to a load of 30,000 kgm. Using a factor of safety
of 3 and using Terzaghis method, determine the size B of the square footing.
m = 30,000 kgm
Df = 1 m
= 1,850 kg/m3
= 35
c =0
B
Solution:
The soil density = 1,850 kgm / m3 converts to a unit weight via = g ( like F = ma ) ,
kg m
m
1,850 m3 9.81 s 2
= 18.15 kN / m3 and the load to be supported by the footing is,
= g =
(1, 000 N / kN )
W = ma =
(1, 000 N / kN )
m
s 2
= 294 kN
qult 1
P 294
= 1.3c ' N c + qN q + 0.4 BN
and qall = 2 = 2
3
3
B
B
294 1
or
= 1.3c ' N c + qN q + 0.4 BN
2
B
3
For = 35, N c = 57.8, N q = 41.4, and N = 41.1,
qall =
294 1
= ( 0 ) + (18.15)(1) (41.4) + (0.4) (18.15) B (41.1) B 3 + 2.52 B 2 2.96 = 0
2
B
3
B = 0.90 m
319
Using Terzaghis method, distinguish between the value of the local shear failure versus the
general shear failure.
Solution:
Terzahi's general bearing capacity failure of a square footing is,
qult = 1.3c ' NC + qN q + 0.4 BN
For = 28 N c = 31.6, N q = 17.8, N = 15.0 and q = D f = (0.115)(2) = 0.23 ksf
Therefore,
qult = 1.3(0.30)(31.6) + (0.23)(17.8) + 0.4(0.115)(2.5)(15.0) = 18.1 ksf
To find the value of the bearing capacity of a local shear failure, the cohesion and angle
of internal friction are reduced by two-thirds,
'
'
'
'
qult
local = 1.3c ' N c + qN q + 0.4 BN
2
2
where c' = c = (0.30) = 0.2 ksf
3
3
2
2
and ' = ( ) = (28) = 18.7 which give N c' = 16.2, N q' = 6.5 and N' = 4.52
3
3
'
qult local = (1.3) (0.2)(16.2) + (0.23)(6.5) + (0.4)(0.115)(2.5)(4.52) = 6.2 ksf
qult general failure = 18.1 ksf
320
Compare the results of the Hansen and the Meyerhof bearing capacity formulas to the results of a
field test that took a rectangular footing to failure when the load reached 1,863 kN. Given B = 0.5
m, L = 2.0 m, c = 0, triaxial = 42 and = 9.31 kN/m3 (the WT is at the surface).
Pult = 1,863 kN
WT
Df = 0.5 m
B = 0.5 m
Solution:
qult =
Pult
1, 863 kN
=
= 1, 863 kPa
BL ( 0.5 m )( 2.0 m )
321
Use Meyerhofs bearing capacity formula (with a factor of safety = 3) to select a footings width B
if, (a) the water table is as shown below, and (b) if the water table rises to the ground surface?
The soil has a unit weight of 112 pcf, a moisture of 10%, = 25, a cohesion cu = 240 psf and a
specific gravity of solids of Gs = 2.68.
Solution:
(a) Find SAT to determ ine ',
dry =
1 + wN
dry
Ws
112
= 101.8 pcf and V s =
=
1.10
G s w G s w
set V = 1 ft 3 V s =
101.8
= 0.61 ft 3 V v = V V s = 1 0.61 = 0.39 ft 3
2.68 ( 62.4 )
V
but sat = dry + n w = dry + v w sat = 101.8 + (0.39) ( 62.4 ) = 126.2 pcf
V
and ' = sat w = 126.2 62.4 = 63.8 pcf
T ry B = 5.7 feet with M eyerhof's equation,
q ult = c ' N c ( Fcs Fcd Fci ) + qN q ( Fqs Fqd Fqi ) + 0.5 BN ( F s F d F i )
w here the load inclination factors Fci , Fqi and F i = 1
25
K p = tan 2 45 + = tan 2 45 +
= 2.46, therefore
2
2
B
5.7
Fcs = 1 + (0.2) K p = 1 + (0.2)
(2.46) = 1.49
L
5.7
For 10
Df
Fcd = 1 + (0.2)
4
K p = 1 + (0.2)
2.46 = 1.22
5.7
Df
4
Fqd = F d = 1 + (0.1)
K p = 1 + (0.1)
2.46 = 1.11
5.7
B
5.7
B
Fqs = F s = 1 + (0 .1) K p = 1 + (0.1)(
)(2.46) = 1.25
5.7
L
322
qult 18.6
Q
200
=
= 6.2 ksf therefore B 2 =
=
= 32.25 ft 2 B = 5.7 ft
FS
3
qall 6.2
qult 16.62
Q
200
=
= 5.54 ksf and B 2 =
=
= 36.1 ft 2 B = 6.01 ft
FS
3
qall 5.54
323
Using the Hansen method, what are the ultimate and allowable bearing capacities for the footing
shown below if you require a factor of safety of at least 2?
Solution:
Always use the effective unit weight of water in the bearing capacity formulas. The average effective
weight e of the soil can also be given by the formula:
dw
'
2
wet + 2 ( H d w )
2
H
H
35
e = (2H dw )
wet
dry
16.5
=
= 0.63 m 3
G s wet (2.68) ( 9.8 )
18.10
kN
= 16.5 3
1 + 0.10
m
and
Vs =
and
dry =
1+ w
kN
m3
324
tan 3 5 = 1 .7 0
2 D f
2 1
= 1 + 2 tan (1 sin )
= 1 + 2 tan 3 5 (1 sin 3 5 )
= 1 .1 0
2 .5
B
B
2 .5
= 1 0 .4
= 1 0 .4 (
) = 0 .6
L
2 .5
= 1 .0
Fq s = 1 +
Fq d
F s
F d
B
2 .5
tan = 1 +
L
2 .5
325
1, 4 9 7
= 7 4 9 kP a
2
Use the Hansen formula to determine the gross normal load N on the column shown below using a
factor of safety of 3.
N
=18.1 kN/m3
=32
0.61 m
c=0
0.61 m
Solution:
The Hansen formula for a footing is,
qult = cN c Fcs Fcd + qN q Fqs Fqd + 0.5 BN y Fys Fyd
The inclination factors Fci , Fqi , and F i are all equal to 1 because the load is vertical.
For = 32 , N c = 35.49, N q = 23.18 and N = 20.79 and B / L = 1
Nq
Fcs = 1 +
= 1 + ( 23.20 / 35.50 ) = 1.65
Nc
Fqs = 1 + tan = 1 + 0.62 = 1.62
B
Fys = 1 0.4 = 1 0.4 = 0.60
L
2 Df
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin )
= 1 + (2)(0.62)(0.22)(1) = 1.273 for D f / B 1
B
Fyd = 1
(1 Fqd )
1 1.273
Fcd = Fqd
= 1.273
= 1.292
N q tan
23.20 0.62
326
327
A rectangular footing measures 5 feet by 2.5 feet. Determine the gross ultimate load Qult applied
eccentrically upon the footing, and the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil qult, given that = 115
pcf, c = 0 and = 30.
Solution:
The effective width footing width B ' = B - 2 e x = ( 2.5 ) - 2 ( 0.2 ) = 2.1 ft
and the effective length L ' = L - 2 e y = ( 5 ) - 2(0.4) = 4.2 ft.
328
A square 8 x 8 footing is loaded with an axial load of 400 kips and Mx = 200 ft-kips, My = 120 ftkips. Un-drained triaxial tests (the soil is not saturated) gave = 33 and c = 200 psf. The footing
depth Df = 6.0 feet, the soil unit weight is 115 pcf, and the WT was not found.
Use the Hansen equation with the Meyerhof reduction factors and a FS = 3 to find the
Solution:
Eccentricities
ex =
My
Q
120 ft k
= 0.3 feet
400
and
and
ey =
M x 200 ft k
=
= 0.5 feet
Q
400
Adjusting the from triaxial (tr ) to a plane-strain value ( ps ) via Lees formulation,
N q = e tan 36 tan 2 45 +
= 37.8
2
Nc =
(N
and
B
Sc = 1 + 0.2 K p r
Lr
7
= 1.73
= 1 + 0.2 ( 3.85 )
7.4
D
d c = 1 + 0.2 K p
Br
= 1 + 0.2
and
6
3.85 = 1.34
7
d q = d = 1.0 .
qult = 0.5 BN S d i g b + cN c S c d c ic g c bc + qq N q S q d q iq g q bq
Also i = g = b = 1.0 for this problem, since = 0 = i (inclination factor f / load Q with t vertical) = 4
g (ground factor with t inclined ground on side of footing)
b (base factor with t inclined ground under the footing)
qult = 0.5 ( 0.115 )( 7 )( 40.1)(1) + ( 0.200 )( 50.6 )(1.73 )(1.34 ) + ( 0.115 )( 6 )( 37.8 )(1) =
qult = 16.1 + 23.5 + 26.1 = 65.7 ksf
q all =
qult 65.7
=
= 21.9 ksf
FS
3
1
R ex
e 2
0.3 2
= 1 x = 1
= 0.81
8
B
Rey
e 2
0.5 2
=1 y = 1
= 0.75
8
B
Qall 851
=
= 13.3 ksf
B 2 64
400
(The contact load qo = 13
= 6.1 ksf )
851
330
Use the boring logs show below to recommend an allowable soil pressure qall for the footings
located in the vicinity of elevation 284, boring No. 2?
The building is a four-story (five on the low side) office building with column loads around 160
kips. State your reasons.
Topsoil
Boring No.5
Boring No.2
Boring No.3
Elevation
295.0
295
Elevation
290.6
Elevation
292.8
5
4
290
Elevation
288.0
Sandy
Got
10 Firmer
285
Got Firmer
25
Got Firmer
22
280
Cohesive
275
Got
firmer
Got
27 Firmer
36 6 in.
boulder
38
34
7
13
14
7 brown
16
25
71
46
29
Hard
71
51
47 Hard
69
38
34
62
67
39
32
Hard
270
Got
Firmer
Got
Firmer
Dark
6
Got
Firmer
Elevation
296.6
Boring No.4
69
74
Notes:
Solution:
It is presumed that all the buildings footings will be placed at roughly elevation 284 or thereabouts.
This is fine for the building area covered by borings # 3, 4 and 5 because they have good SPT values.
Meyerhof has proposed formulas for the allowable bearing capacity adjusted so that the settlement is
limited to 1-inch. These formulas are:
qall =
331
N
( K D ) for B 4 ft
4
N B +1
qall =
Df
1.33
B
where K D = 1 + 0.33
47 + 51 + 71
= 56.33 56 (#3, 4, and 5)
3
qall
q0
Q
B2
160kips
= 7.9 qall = 13.9 ksf
20.25sf
N
( KD )
4
qo
kd =1+ 0.33Df /B
56 0.33Df
1 +
and Df = 0 qall = 14 ksf
B
4
160 kips
Q
=
= 13.06 13 ksf 14 ksf OK
2
(3.5)2
B
For footings in area of borings # 1 and #2, they will be deeper by 1-story (ie. for 5-story building). That
places the shallow foundation at elevation 274 ft. This area will have bearing in the same strata. N= 32
and using B= 3.50 and Df = 4.5
qall=
N
kd
4
kd =1+0.33Df /B 1.33
Kd =
32
4
0.33 x 4.5
1 +
= 1.33
3.50
NOT GOOD
Q
qall = 10.64 ksf q0 = 2 = 10.51 ksf 10.64 ksf
B
332
Chapter 18
Shallow Foundations
Symbols for Shallow Foundations
333
334
Design a square reinforced concrete footing for a column 15x15 with 4 # 8 rebars, and,
D L = 100 kips
LL = 120 kips
2) Check ultimate parameters: that is the actual soil pressure qo under Qult,
QULT = 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL = 1.2 (100 ) + 1.6 (120 ) = 120 + 192 = 312 kips
qO =
QU
312
=
= 5.5 ksf < 10 ksf for qult GOOD
2
2
B
( 7.5 ft )
15
B = 7.5 feet
15 + d
335
d 2 vc + o
4
qo
+ d vc +
4
2
2 qo
w (B w ) = 0
4
2
5.5
5.5 15 2 15 5.5
2
d 23.7 +
+ d 23.7 +
7.5
=0
4
4 12
12 4
d 2 + 1.25d 3.0 = 0
Which yield to two solutions for d =
+1.22 ft
2.47 ft
When the column has a rectangular area bxc, the formula is,
( 7.5 ) 2 ( 5.5 )
BLqo
15 15
2
4d + 2 ( b + c ) d
=0
= 4d + 2 + d
12 12
23.7
vc
2
Bw
Unit strip of the cantilever arm =
=L
2
15
7.5 12
L=
= 3.13 ft
2
B = 7.5 ft
15
1 ft
q0
336
MU
k
2
5.5
3.13
12
ft
in
(
)
(
)
2
ft
q o L2
= 359 in kips
=
=
2
2
d a
M U = AS f y
where
= 0.9 for tension
2
AS f y
AS ( 60 )
=
= 1.96 AS
a=
0.85 f 'C b 0.85 ( 3 )(12 in )
Substituting a into the M U equation above,
d a
M U = ( 0.9 ) AS f y
MU
d a
= AS
( 0.9 ) f y
2
A
359 in kip
= AS 15 in 1.96 S
2
( 0.9 )( 60 ksi )
15 AS 0.98 AS 2 5.99 = 0
As2 15.3 As + 6.11 = 0
AS = 0.41 in 2 per foot of footing
The total steel required across the footing is AS = 7.5 ft (0.41 in2/ft) = 3.08 in2 (Check ACI 10.5.1) for
minimum steel and ACI 7.12 for temperature and shrinkage,
AS
0.41
=
= 0.0023 > 0.0018
bd 12 (15 )
min =
3 f c'
= 0.0018bh or
fy
min =
200
= 0.0018
fy
Therefore, AS = 7.5 (0.0023)(12)(15) = 3.1 in2 or 0.59 in2 per foot of footing
For B = 90 (7.5) use 6 # 7 bars ( AS = 3.18 in2 ) @ 12 inches on center
or 5 # 8 bars ( AS = 3.95 in2 ) @ 12 inches on center
Check for Development length Ld (ACI-318-08.12.3), and the embedment length of the dowels.
337
338
The footing shown below is a square footing with the dimensions and loads as shown.
a) Compute the loads eccentricity e.
b) Check the bearing pressure at ultimate load.
c) Calculate the wide beam shear.
M
P = 165 kips
M = 20 ft-kips
DL = 100 kips
d
LL = 65 kips
3-d
15
7 feet
f 'C = 3 ksi ,
f y = 60 ksi .
P = DL + LL
Solution:
a) Compute the load eccentricity: e =
M
20
=
= 0.121 ft
P 165
6 ( 0.121' )
6 e 165
P
q = 1
=
=
1
B 7 ' x7 '
7'
A
224
= 5.05 ksf
= 3.72
165
and
Q
qall = qmin u
P
224
= 4.1 ksf
= 3.02
165
Then consider qall = 5.1 ksf < qall (FS) = 4 (1.5) = 6 ksf, GOOD.
339
B
c
7
1
T ) = 4.6( 1 ) = 9.2 kips
2
2
2
2
5.1 + 4.1
= 4.6
2
Equation (1)
Vu
2 f c' b
(9.2)(1000)
= 9.3 inches 12 in assumed
(0.75)(110)(12)
Equation (2)
3 - d
4.1 ksf
5.1 ksf
M =
Vdx =
0
5 .9 x 0 .1 5 7 x 2
0
2
3
ft k ip
d x = 2 5 .9
ft
340
Find, 1) The soil pressure under the footing for the given loads,
2) The footing thickness T, and
3) The flexural steel reinforcement As.
M
N
N Mc
qo =
A
I
qo =
qo
341
165k
( 7 ' x7 ' )
max
bd 3 ( 7 ' )( 7 ' )
where
I=
=
= 200 ft 4
12
12
( 20k . ft )( 3.5 ft ) =
200 ft 4
= 3.7 ksf
and
qo
min
GOOD
My
N
3.0 ksf
3.7 ksf
qu =
qu
=
A
I
200 ft 4
( 7 ' )( 7 ' )
max
= 5.9 ksf
and
qu
min
= 4.7 ksf
My
Q
4.7 ksf
5.9 ksf
342
d
T
3
3 minimum cover
Check wide-beam shear: Assume d =12, (controls for rectangular footing).
Q
My
w =12
12
Critical
Section
Vu
d
From
Vu = 82, 600 lbs , but
d =
Vu
f 'c b
Vu = 2 f 'c bd ,
Check for punching shear (controls for square footings, such as this one).
d/2
c =
12
Critical Section
ACI 11.11.1.2
b0 /4
7
343
d
Vu = 4 f 'c bo d , where bo is the perimeter of the critical section; bo = 4 c + 2
2
d =
Vu
4 f 'c b
( 5.9
ksf ( 7 ft x 7 ft 2 ft x 2 ft )1000 )
( 0.85 )( 4 ) (
3000
) ( 4 )( 24
in )
= 14.8 in assumed;
must increase d.
Recalculate by trying d = 14.0 in.
d =
Vu
4 f 'c b
( 5.9
( 0.85 )( 4 ) (
3000
) ( 4 )( 26 in )
= 13.5 in
q Bl 2 ( 5.9 ksf
Mu = s
=
2
a=
As f y
0.85 f 'c b
( where
)( 7 ft )( 3 ft )
2
b = B)
then
= 186 kip . ft
As =
The ultimate moment Mu is given by: M u = As f y d with Mu = 186 kip-ft , and = 0.9 .
2
kip
in 2
a
a = 0.07 ft
and
As = 0.3 a = 0.021
2
Percentage of steel
p=
As
A
0.021 ft 2
= s =
= 0.00257 > pmin = 0.0018
bd Bd ( 7 ft )(1.167 ft )
344
As
min
= 0.021 ft 2 = 3.024 in 2
3000
Ld = 19.3 in
>
18 in
Actual Ld
( provided )
= B
>
fy
Ld = 0.04 Ab
f'
c
>
0.0004d b f y
c
12in
( cover ) = 7 ft
6 in 3 in = 75 in
2
1 ft
and
A2
2
Ag
A
3 kips
2
0.85 f 'c Ag 2 = 0.85 ( 0.70 )
(144 in ) ( 2 ) = 514 kips
2
A
in
g) Dowels to column:
Since bearing strength is adequate, a minimum area of dowels should be provided across the interference
of the column and footing (ACI 318-02 15.8.2.1)
Minimum area of steel = 0.005 (area of column) = 0.005 (144 in2) = 0.72 in2.
Use 4 # 4 bars
h) Final design
345
AS = 0.20 in 2 ( 4 ) = 0.80 in 2
Find the footing dimensions B x L to carry a moment induced by winds of 800 kN-m.
Solution:
Select a test value for B x L. Set B x L = B2 and check the increase in soil pressure due to wind
N
(800 kN + 800 kN )
=
= 8 m2
kN
qa
200
2
m
M
800
e=
=
= 0.5 m
N
1600
B2 =
B = 2.82 m
L 6 ( 0.5 ) = 3 m
N 1600 kN
=
= 160 kPa
A
10 m 2
N
6e
BL 1 +
1600
10
6 ( 0.5 )
1 +
= 280 kPa
4
346
q avg =
N
1600 kN
=
= 130 kPa
A 2.75 ( 4.5 ) m 2
q max =
6 ( 0.5 )
= 130 1 +
= 217 kPa
6e
4.5
BL 1 +
N
1 6 0 0 kN
=
= 1 0 7 kP a
A
3 m (5 m )
N
6e
BL 1 +
1600
15
6 ( 0 .5 )
1 +
= 1 7 1 kP a
5
347
GOOD
Design the previous footing using f ' c = 21 MPa and f y = 415 MPa .
Solution.
1) Check the ultimate pressures:
e=
M
800
=
= 0.5 m
N 1600
2240 6 ( 0.5 )
=
= 239 kPa
1 +
5
6e 15
A 1 +
L
N
2240 6 ( 0.5 )
=
=
= 60 kPa
1
5
6e 15
A 1
L
qmax =
qmin
Nu
qavg =
2240 kN
= 149 kPa
15 m 2
<
(15
x 149 )
=0
2240
T 0.50 m
dv = qdx
40.2 x 2
0
0
2.25 T
V =
Vc 1290
=
2T
2T
T 2 + 40.8T 24.7 = 0
T = 0.60 m
349
a=
3) a) Find AS ( Longitudinal ):
Mu =
2.25
2.25
Vdx =
As f y
0.85 f 'c b
40.2 x 2
266
x
M u = As f y d
2
415 As
= 23.3 As
0.85 ( 21)(1)
2.25
266 x 2 40.2 x 3
dx
=
2 6
= 597 kN .m
a Mu
As d =
2 fy
23.3
597
As 0.6
= As 2 0.0515 As + 1.37 x10 2 = 0
=
2
0.9
415
(
)
As = 28.2
Check
cm 2
m
p=
As
0.00282
=
0.0047 > 0.002 GOOD
1 ( 0.6 )
bd
q=
kPa
2
2
( 3 0.5 )
( B 0.5 )
215
q
2
wl 2
=
= 168 kN .m
Mu =
=
2
2
2
a M
and As d = u
2 fy
Check for
As 2 0.0515 As + 0.000386 = 0
As = 7.61
cm 2
m
As 7.61 x 10 4 m 2
=
= 0.00126 < 0.002
1 ( 0.6 )
bT
Use minimum
m2
cm 2
= 12
m
m
4) Check footing:
Longitudinal steel:
28.2
cm 2
1m 2
(3 m) = 84.6 cm2
= 8 .4 6 x 1 0 3 m
2
m
1 0, 0 0 0 c m
350
Sketch:
351
Design a continuous footing for the warehouse wall with the loads shown below:
Roof
12 in
Floor Slab
4 ft
Solution:
1) Assume an initial footing thickness T = 12:
From ACI 7.7.2, the minimum cover is 3 from the steel to the footing invert.
Therefore, d = 12 - 3 - 0.5 / 2 = 8.75
Assume # 4 bars.
12 in
T=12 in
352
b =12 in
a
T
B
Find the ultimate soil pressure qult.
The actual soil pressure from the structure is,
qo = qall qconcrete qsoil-above footing
qo = 2 ksf (1 ft )( 0.15 k/ ft3 ) ( 3 ft )( 0.110 k/ ft3 ) = 2 0.15 0.33 = 1.52 ksf
Estimate B = Q/ qo = 4.2 k/ 1.52 ksf = 2.76 ft. per unit length. Therefore, assume B = 3 ft.
Ultimate load, U = 1.2 DL +1.6 LL = 1.2 ( 3 ) + 1.6 ( 1.2 ) = 4.0 + 2.0 = 6.0 kips
Therefore, the soil pressure at ultimate loads qu is:
qu = U / ( B )( 1 ) = 6.0 kips/ ( 3 ft )( 1 ft ) = 2.0 ksf < qult = 4 ksf GOOD
2) Check the shear strength of the footing:
The critical section for shear section occurs at a distance d from the face of the wall.
(ACI 15.5 & ACI 11.11.1 ).
qo = 2.1 ksf
B = 3 ft
Vu = (12 d ) qo (1)
12
b =12
in
12
12 in - d
d
Vu
qo = 2.1 ksf
353
The ultimate shear Vu = (12 8.75) ( 1 ft / 12 in ) x 2.1 k/ ft2 = 0.57 kips / ft of wall
The concrete shear strength must be: Vu Vc = 2 f' c bd
Vu = 0.85 2 3000 12in 8.75in = 9.8 kips / ft of wall >> 0.57 kips / ft
Since Vu << Vc , we can reduce the thickness of the footing T from 1.0 ft to say 0.85 ft (~10).
Therefore, d = 10 3 0.5 / 2 = 6.5 > 6 = dmin from ACI 15.4
Rechecking,
where = 12
( ACI 7.12.2.1 )
354
Therefore,
As = min b d = ( 0.0018 )( 12 in )( 6.5 in )
= 0.14 in2 per ft. of wall use 1 # 4 every ft. of wall ( As = 0.20 in2 )
4) Check the development length, Ld ( ACI 12.2 ):
Ld = 0.04 Ab
fy
f' c
60,000
= 8.8"
3000
Therefore,
B = 3.5 ft
T = 13
As = 1 # 4 @ 12 along the wall
Use minimum steel in longitudinal direction, to offset shrinkage and temperature effects ( ACI
7.12 ):
As = ( 0.0018 )( b )( d ) = 0.0018 ( 42 in )( 6.5 in ) = 0.49 in2
Provide 3 # 4 bars at 12 o.c. ( As = 0.60 in2 )
356
Design a spread footing for the billboard sign shown below using FBC-2004 and ASCE 7- 02.
Ignore the torsion and the wind load on the column, and the water table.
c = 150 pcf
= 20
V = 146 mph
32'
20'
P = 10 k
24" STEEL COLUMN 40 ' HIGH
WITH 1" THICK WALLS
20'
Z
Y
X
D
B
solution:
STEP #1: Find the wind load as per ASCE 7-02, assuming an Exposure C, Category I.
qz = 0.00256 Kz (IV)2
Kz = 0.98
I = 1.05
F = qz Gh Cf Af
V = 146 mph
Gh = 1.26
Cf = 1.2
The sign shape factor is
Therefore:
357
F=
M
32
=
= 1.6
N
20
qz = 52 psf
Step #3: Calculate the footings bearing capacity using Hansens formula.
c (cohesion) = 0.150 ksf
q = Df = (embedment pressure) = (0.130 ksf)(3 ft) = 0.39 ksf
B = (footing width initial assumptions) = 5 ft
L = (footing length initial assumptions) = 15 ft
Nq (factor for embedment at = 20) = e tan tan2(45+/2) = 6.40
Nc (factor for cohesion at = 20) = (Nq 1)cot = 14.83
N (factor for width at = 20) = 1.5 (Nq 1)tan = 2.95
Fsq = (shape factor for embedment) = 1.0 + (B/L) sin = 1.11
Fsc = (shape factor for cohesion) = 1.0 + (Nq / Nc) (B/L) = 1.14
Fs = (shape factor for width) = 1.0 0.4 (B/L) = 0.867
Fdq = (depth factor for embedment) = 1 + 2 tan (1 sin )2 (Df/B) = 1.19
Fdc = (depth factor for cohesion) = 1.0 + 0.4 (Df / B) = 1.24
Fd = (depth factor for width) = 1.0
Fic = (inclination factor) = 0.5 -
1-H
(Af Ca)
358
- 6P e
( (3x10x50x0.150) ) = 240 kips
P
- 6P e x
+ 2 y +
where P = 15 kips +
2
BL
FTG WT
BL
BL
My
P
Mx
ey =
P
972
= 4 .0 5 '
2 40
150
=
= 0.6 25 '
24 0
GOOD
Check Sliding RS = V tan f + CB = 240 tan f + 150 (10) = 1587 kips >> 32.4 kips
#3
LOAD COMBINATION = 0.75 (1.2D + 1.6L + 1.7W)
FACTORED LOADS:
Pu
D = 36 4 = 32
and
fY = 60000 PSI
A = AS x FY / 0.85 FC B
AS = MU x 12 / F FY (D A/2)
A = 1.64 in.
AS = 0.83 in2
R=
AS
0.83
=
= 0.0022 > 0.0018 OK
BD
12 x 32
USE # 7 @ 8 O/C,
Therefore;
As = 0.90 in2 OK
1.64
132
2
M U = ( 0.9 )( 60 )
= 126 kip-ft > 116 kip-ft GOOD
12
Use a footing 10 feet x 50 feet x 3 feet thick with # 7 bars @ 8 on-center top and bottom, each
way.
NOTE: In lieu of such a large and expensive footing, a short drilled shaft would be an
efficient and inexpensive foundation. That alternative will be covered in the drilled shaft
section later in this course.
360
Chapter 19
Combined Footings
Symbols for Combined Footings
361
Find a suitable rectangular combined footing for the conditions shown below.
Given
f 'c = 3 ksi
f y = 60 ksi
Column #1
Column #2
12 in x 12 in
16 in x 16 in = 1.33 ft x 1.33 ft
4 # 7 bars
6 # 8 bars
DL = 80 kips
DL = 120 kips
LL = 60 kips
LL = 110 kips
140 kips
230 kips
Edge of column #1 is at the Property Line (PL); spacing between columns is 20 ft on-center.
Solution:
STEP 1: Convert column loads to ultimate; then, convert qall to qult.
Ratio:
P1 = 140
P1 = 230
= 370
= 512 kips
U ltimate U
512
=
=
= 1.38
Service
S
370
qult =
= 192 kips
U
512
= 1.38 ( 2.5 ) = 3.45 ksf
( q all ) =
S
370
362
STEP 2:
=0
say : 13 ft
Thus , L = 2 x = 26 ft
The rounding to 26 ft will prevent complete closure of the moment diagram, but negligibly.
B=
( P1u + P2 u ) =
Lq u
512
= 5.70 ft
26 ( 3.45 )
kip
ft
STEP 3: Draw shear (V) and moment (M) diagrams. The column loads are treated as concentrated
loads acting at the centers of the columns. The shear and moments diagrams are shown below.
363
STEP 4: Determine the footing depth T based on one-way (wide-beam) and two-way (punching) shear,
as shown in figure below. Note that the punching analysis reflects on a three-sided section for column 1
and four-sided section for column 2. We shall first determine d via a wide-beam analysis, and then
check for punching shear. From the shear diagram, the maximum shear is near column 2 at a distance d
from the face of column 2.
V
,
Bd
vc = 2
= 2.11 ft = 25.30 in
vc =
167.5
= 11.02 ksi
( 7.2 )( 2.11)
At column 2
( 41.3)
A=
144
<
= 11.84 ft 2 and
( 41.3 )
Perimeter =
4 = 13.76 ft
12
305.76
= 9.61 ksi
(13.76 )( 2.11)
<
4 f 'c
26.8 ksf
OK
364
M u (12, 000)
(842)(12, 000)
=
= 0.0763
'
2
f c bd
(3000)(69)(25.3) 2
wf c'
= 0.0039 > 0.0033 < max
fy
GOOD
As = Bd = (0.0039)(69)(25.3) = 6.81 in 2
Use 11 # 8 bars (As = 8.63 in2) at 6 in o.c. across top of footing (at approximately 4 in from each
Side). Provided that 1/3 of the bars extend the full length of the footing, the bars could be cut off as
dictated by the moment requirements (moment diagram). However, the saving is not worth the effort
(engineering, fabrication, placing, etc.). Thus, typically, all bars will run the full length of the footing.
Based on
200
, As
fy
min
+As = 1.07 x 5.25 = 5.75 in2. Use 8 # 8 bars; As = 6.28 in2 > 5.75 in2; this is larger by the required
positive moment. Place these bars at 8.5 in. c.c. and say 4 in. from bottom.
Also, based on the moment diagram, running 1/3 of As (three bars) the full length of the footing satisfies
both code and moment requirements. The other five bars could be cut off at, say, half length and placed
on the right half (column 2 side) of the footing.
STEP 6: Determine As in the short direction. Reference is made to the figure below. The widths s1 =
12 + 0.75(25.3) = 31.00 in. = 2.58 ft and s2 = 16 + 1.5(25.3) = 54.0 in. = 4.5 ft.
s1
s2
2
l1
2.58 ft
365
l2
15.77 ft
4.50 ft
3.15
ft
Column #1
P
192
=
= 12.94 ksf
B s1 ( 5.75 )( 2.58 )
q'=
l1 =
( 5.68 1 ) 2.37 ft
2
2 12
M 1 = (12.94 )( 2.37 )
= 436.0 k in
2
Placing the transverse steel above the positive longitudinal steel, d = (25.92 1) = 25.92 in
As ( 25.92 0.98 As ) =
Thus,
461.92
( 0.9 )( 60 )
Solving
0.334 in 2 0.895 in 2
=
ft
s1
width.
Based on pmin
s1
s2
As =
2
l1
l2
2.68 ft
4.70 ft
15.47 ft
3.15
ft
See the figure above to determine transverse steel reinforcement for the footing.
As = 3.00 in 2
= 26.3 in
ld
available
>
2.75 in 2
= 2.34 ( 2 ) = 28 in
q' =
355
= 13.30 psf
( 4.70 )( 5.68 )
l2 =
M2
k in
366
As ( 25.92 0.92 As ) =
375.71
= 4.82 in 2 Based on pmin
0.9 ( 60 )
As =
4.82 in 2
width.
s2
As = 5.40 in 2
As in 15.47 ft sec tion = 15.87 in 2 , Thus use 27 # 7 bars at 6.75 in. c.c.
Thus, dowel size, should be one size smaller than column bars; use 4-#6 As = 1.76 in 2
Column 2:
In our case,
f c' = ( 0.85)( 0.65)(16 )(16 )
3000
= 424 ksi > 320 ksi GOOD
1000
367
GOOD
368
Design the combined rectangular footing shown below using the assumptions given.
Solution:
STEP 1: Convert column loads to ultimate; convert qa to qultimate .
P1 = 255k
P2 = 330k
= 585
= 932
369
x = 10.8 feet
say
Note: Rounding the 10.8 to 11 will prevent the closure of the moment
diagram, but thi is acceptable with hand calculations. A computer
program is better.
B=
P1ult + P2ult
Lqo
410k + 522 k
=
= 5.31 feet B = 5' 4" in construction
(22 ')(7.97 ksf )
k
ft 2
370
V
BdVc = 341k (42.3d ) k
Bd
But Vc = 2 f 'c = 2 (0.85) 3500 = 100.6 psi = 14.5 ksf (for wide beam shear)
(5.31 ft ) d (14.5ksf ) = 341k 42.3d d = 2.86 ft = 34.3 inches
Using d = 34.3 check diagonal tension at column # 1
A = 1836 in 2 = 12.75 ft 2
Hence V = 410 k (12.75 ft 2 ) (7.97 ksf ) = 308.4k
d
Perimeter = 2 (18"+ ) + (18"+ d ) = 2 (35.1") (52.3")
2
= 122.5" = 10.2 ft
Vc =
for diagonal
V
308.4k
=
= 10.6 ksf < 4 f 'c tension shear
( perim) d (10.2 ') (2.86 ')
4 (0.85) 3500
201 psi
29 ksf
OK
371
Vc =
V
334k
=
= 6.0 ksf < 4 f 'c
( perim) d (19.4 ') (2.86 ')
29 ksf
OK
a
M
As (d ) =
but
2 f y B
a=
As f y
0.85 f 'c
As (50 ksi ) 1
= 1.40 As
0.85 (3.5 ksi ) 12"
As = 2.5 in 2 ft
width
OK
in 2
(5.31 ft ) = 13.3 in 2 of steel
ft
Use 11 #10 bars (1.27 in 2 each x 11 = 14 in 2 ) at 6 spacing center-to-center.
total = 2.5
372
Design the combined footing shown below using (ACI 318-02), given fc = 3 ksi and fy = 60 ksi,
DL = 140 k
DL = 180 k
LL = 90 k
LL = 110 k
Solution:
Compute the footing dimensions:
X =
373
P2 L c c
( 2 9 0 ) (1 6 )
=
= 8 .9 2 fe e t
P1 + P2
290 + 230
L c1
13
+ x) = 2(
+ 8 .9 2 ) = 1 8 . 9 3 '
2
12
A=
u s e L = 1 9 fe e t
P1 + P2 230 k + 290 k
=
= 148.6 ft 2
qall
3.5 ksf
A 148.6 ft 2
The footing width is, B = =
= 7.82 feet; use 8 feet
19 ft
L
Check:
Vu 704 kips
kips
=
= 37.05
L
ft
19 ft
GOOD
w = 37.05 k/ft
1.0833 ft
x
374
Note: These two values would be exact if we corrected qult to 5.28 ksf.
Integrating from x = 0 to x = 1.083 ft
q = 37.8
V=
1.083
312 k
kip
= 250.3
1.083 ft
ft
37.05 kips
ft
The maximum moment, and its location is found by setting the shear equal to zero in terms: V = 0
V = 37.5 x 312 = 0 x = 8.42 feet
M max =(37.05)[
(8.42) 2
] (312)(8.42 0.542) = 1145 kip ft
2
Similarly, integrate
from 15.9 ft < x 17.17 ft , and from 17.17 ft < x 18.93 ft
375
376
Find the depth d for wide beam shear, at the location of the largest shear (that is, at the interior of
column #2, V max = 277.5 kips). The allowable concrete stress VC is given by ACI 318-02- 114.1,
vC = 2 f c ' = (2)(0.75) 3000 = 82.16 psi = 11.83 ksf where = 0.75
Vbeam = Vmax wd = 277.5 37.05d
Vconcrete = BdvC = 8d (11.83 ksf ) = 94.64d
Check the punching shear: vc = 4 f c' = (4)(0.75) 3000 = 164.3 psi = 23.66 ksf
At column #1, the perimeter p in shear is,
2.1
) + (1.08 + 2.1) = 7.5 feet
2
= pdVc = 7.5(2.1)(23.66) = 373 kips provided > 349 kip needed = P1 GOOD
perimeter p = 2(1.08 +
Vshear
capacity
377
GOOD
M u (12, 000)
(1082)(12,000)
=
= 0.07 which gives w 0.008
'
2
f c bd
(3000)(96)(25.3)2
wf c' (0.008)(3)
=
=
= 0.0004 < min (0.0033) therefore use min = 0.0033
fy
(60)
As = min bd = (0.0033)(96)(25.3) = 8.01 in 2
Use 11#8 bars at 6" o c (this provides 11x 0.79 = 8.69 in 2 > 8.01 in 2 required )
For temperature steel As = 0.002 Bh = 0.002(96)(30) = 5.76 in 2
These top bars must be hooked (see ACI 12.1, 2) at column #1s end; remember to use 3cover.
Positive steel (at column #2)
MU =
83.9 kip ft
= 10.5 kip -ft ft
8 ft
This area of steel is obviously too low, therefore use same as above 11#8, etc.
Design for shrinkage steel requirements and spacing of bars (ACI 7.4.3).
Transverse steel (short direction)
q u lt =
Pu 1 + Pu 2
312 + 392
=
= 4 .6 3 k s f
BL
(8 )(1 9 )
25.3
d
a + = 13 +
= 25.65 in = 2.14 ft
2
2
d = 24.2 inches
(8
ft 1.083 ft )
= 3.46 ft
2
and M =
378
R=
M (12, 000)
(27.7)(12, 000)
=
= 0.0018 which gives a w 0.003
'
2
f c bd
(3000)(96)(25.3) 2
wf c' (0.003)(3)
=
= 0.00015 << 0.002 of min
fy
(60)
379
Design a trapezoid-shaped footing, with columns at ends of footing as shown below, where fc = 21
MPa, fy = 414 MPa, qall = 120 kPa and L = 7 m.
7m
4 # 25-mm bars
6 # 25-mm bars
DL = 355 kN
DL = 535 kN
LL = 265 kN
LL = 490 kN
Solution:
Step 1. Convert P1 and P2 to ultimate loads P1u and P2u, and qall to qult:
Ratio =
P1 = 620
P2 = 1025
= 1645
= 2529 kN
ultimate.loads 2529
=
= 1.54
actual.loads
1645
=0
x=
A=
(a + b )L = (a + b )7 = 3.5(a + b )
2529
Also, A =
P = 2529 = 13.7 m
qu
184.5
380
Thus,
13.71 = 3.5(a + b)
From
Simplifying,
or (a + b) = 3.92 m
L (a + 2b )
x =
3 (a + b )
or
3 (a + 2b )
4.31 =
(a + b )
0.8471a 0.1529b = 0
a = 0.60 m
OK
Step 3. Draw the shear V and moment M diagrams on the next sheet.
381
(1)
(2)
Step 4. Determine d. First, well evaluate wide-beam shear at the narrow end, and then
Or
vc = 660 KPa =
Also,
V
bd
660 =
Thus,
V
V
=
(0.3885d + 0.716)d 0.3885d 2 + 0.716d
V = 256.4d 2 + 472.56d
or
(4)
or
vc =
741.5
= 662 which is close to 660 kPa
(1.108)(1.01)
OK
a
M
Use As d =
2 0 .9 f y b
a=
As f y
0.85 f ' c b
400 As
= 22.4 As
0.85(21)(1)
at x = 1.5 m, we have
3
22.4 As
1115
As1.01
= 2.65 10
=
2 (0.9 )(400 )(1000(1.18))
Or
As 0.09018 As + 0.000234 = 0
2
382
7m
3.32
0.6
2.5
3.5
3.32
Possible Arrangement of As
Solving
As = 0.0036m 2 = 36
cm 2
width
m
As 0.0036
=
= 0.00356 > min ; OK < max
bd (1)(1.01)
Width b
Per 1 m
For Width
min.*
No. of
(m)
Kn-m
Width
1.5
1.18
1115
36
42
42
2.5
1.57
1695
31
48.5
48.5
10
3.84
2.09
2005 max
27.3
57
57
12
2.54
1725
19
48.5
51
25-mm
Bars
* As based on min is probably debatable, particularly near the wide end, since b varies so greatly. Thus
using 12-25-mm bars are deemed as satisfactory (no cutoffs) for the 4 m on right side.
Step 6. Ast in the transverse direction. The effective transverse beam width s2 can be
approximated as before.
3.095
L2 =
0.4 = 1.147
2
qL2 P
M =
=
A
2
strip
s1
(1.147 )2
, etc.
s2
7m
2.87 m
3.32 m
By inspection ,
Thus, Asmin = (5-25-mm bars)
384
4 25-mm bars
4 25-mm bars
Fig. 7.11 Illustration of final design details for footing in Example 7.2
385
DL = 1210k
1375k
LL = 325
LL = 615
1825k
TL= 1825k
3200k
Solution:
Locate centroid: x
3200
16.0
Length: 2 * 16.0 = 32.0
Clearance: 32.0 26.5 = 5.5
3200
32
x 8.5 = 11.8 12.0
Width = Combined Load:
Length x qallow
Required depth: d =
6018
0.298x12
= 42
1175000
= 175 psi
12(12) 7 * (54)
8
Longitudinal Steel:
Bottom steel + As =
Top steel
6018
= 90.85 in2
(1.44)(54)
O =
- As =
Combined Footing
Transverse steel:
O =
(5)(32)(8330)
= 100 in
280( 7 ) * 55
8
Vc
=
0.075(12)(12) ( 78 ) 55
V = V Vc = 1175 515 = 660 k
6 sets of #6 stirrups
Av = 5.28 in2
5.28(16)( 7 ) * 55
Avfujd
8
Spacing = s =
=
= 6 in.
V'
660
387
For 12 spacing:
For 24 spacing:
515
**Combined Footing06: Strap footing (or grade beam) between two columns.
(Revision: Sept-08)
Design a strap-footing given fc = 3.5 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, and qult = 3.85 ksf.
Column #1
Column #2
12 in x 12 in with 4 # 7 bars
DL = 80 kips
DL = 120 kips
LL = 60 kips
LL = 110 kips
Solution:
P1 = 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL = 1.2( 80 kips) + 1.6( 60 kips) = 192 kips.
P2 = 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL = 1.2(120 kips) + 1.6(110 kips) = 320 kips.
The left edge of column #1 is placed at the property line (P.L.).
= 370 kips
= 512 kips
From
Fy = 0,
R1 = 218.2 kips
R2 = 293.8 kips
Step 2:
L1 = 2(0.5 + e) = 2(0.5 + 3) = 7 feet
B1 = R1 / (L1)(qult) = 218.2 / (7)(3.85) = 8 feet
L1
= 0.875
B1
The ratio appears reasonable. If a specific clearance between footings is required, then
adjustment of L1 and L2 would be in order. If we select to make footing # 2 a square,
B=L=
R2
293.8
=
= 8.73 feet
qu
3.85
389
Step 4:
Design the strap using the figure above and V = 23.6 kips and M = 493 k-ft. While a deeper strap is more
efficient than a wider but shallower one, a too narrow strap may pose some practical or functional
concerns (for example, limited space for reinforcement, lateral or torsional stiffness, etc). The
recommended range for strap footing widths b is,
L'
2 fe e t b
fe e t
10
In addition, the effective depth d, should be 50 to 100 % larger than theoretically needed, in order to
reduce the number of reinforcing bars, provide spacing and minimize the effects of an uneven
excavation and perhaps even eliminate the need for stirrups.
Let L = 14 feet, the distance between footings. In this problem L/10 = 1.4 ft; hence use b = 2 ft.
V = vc bd
where
M u (12, 000)
(493)(12, 000)
=
= 0.122 which gives w = 0.149
'
2
f c bd
(3500)(24)(24) 2
wf c' (0.149)(3.5)
=
= 0.0087 therefore
fy
(60)
As = bd = (0.0087)(24)(24) = 5.0 in 2
Use 7 # 8 bars ( which provide As = 5.5 in 2 ) at 3.25 inches o c, extended to the footings.
Step 5. Design of the footings using the figure below. In footing #1, for b = 8 feet and
Determine the section thickness d for the strap.
With vc = 12.7 ksf,
Solving,
390
1+0.75d =23
in
3.83 ft
40 in
8 ft
#1
#2
12 in + d = 28
12 in + d/2=20
7.0
14.0
9.0
where
V
173.3
=
= 26.14 > 4 f 'c =(4)(0.75) 3500 = 25.55 ksf
pd (5.43)(1.22)
Not Good
vc =
V
184
=
= 24.4 < 25.55 ksf GOOD
pd (5.43)(1.33)
The transverse steel. In the transverse direction, a disproportionate percentage of the column load P1 is
carried by the left side of the footing #1. Hence, concentrate more of the transverse steel in that segment
of the footing (as done for similar cases of rectangular and trapezoidal footings). On the other hand,
footing #2 resembles a spread footing condition, and therefore will be treated that way. Thus, for footing
#1, assume the shaded width s, as 12 in. + 0.75d = 2 feet, as shown in the figure.
391
9 ft
q=
192
= 10.66 ksf the critical section for flexure at the face of the column.
(2)(8)
10.66(3.5) 2
= 65.3 k-ft
2
(65.3)(12, 000)
M (12, 000)
R=
=
= 0.0091 which gives w = 0.011
'
2
(3500)(8 x12)(16)2
f c bd
M=
wf c' (0.011)(3.5)
=
= 0.00064 < 0.0033 = min
fy
(60)
V
(297.6 kip )
=
= 20.6 ksf < 4 f c'=(4)(0.75) 3500=25.55 ksf
pd (10.67 ft )(1.33 ft )
Good
392
vc =
V
292.6
=
= 20.61 ksf < 4 f c'=(4)(0.75) 3500=25.55 kips Good
pd (10.67)(1.33)
qult ( L' )2
(3.85 ksf)(3.83 ft)2
=
= 28.3 k-ft
2
2
M (12, 000)
(28.3)(12,000)
R=
=
= 0.0035 which gives w = 0.004
'
2
(3500)(8 x12)(16)2
f c bd
M=
wf c' (0.004)(3.5)
=
= 0.0002 < 0.0033 = min
fy
(60)
R=
M (12, 000)
(502)(12,000)
=
= 0.062 which gives w = 0.071
'
2
f c bd
(3500)(8 x12)(16)2
wf c' (0.071)(3.5)
=
=
= 0.0042 > 0.0033 = min
fy
(60)
As = bd = (0.0042)(108)(16) = 7.25 in 2
Use 13 # 8 bars (As = 10.20 in2) and extend the 7 # 8 bars from the strap the full length (7 feet) and add
3 # 8 bars at approximately 16 inches c.c. on each side of strap bars.
393
394
Chapter 20
Mat Foundations
Symbols for Mat Foundations
395
Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of a mat foundation measuring 45 feet long by 30 feet
wide placed 6.5 feet below the surface and resting upon a saturated clay stratum with cu = 1,950
lb/ft2 and = 0.
Solution:
Mat foundations in purely cohesive soils have the following ultimate bearing capacity:
0.4 D f
0.195 B
)(1+
)
L
B
0.195 ( 30 ft )
0.40 ( 6.5 ft )
= 5.14(1.95 ksf ) [1+
] [1 +
] = 12 ksf
( 45 ft )
( 30 ft )
396
What will be the net allowable bearing capacity of a mat foundation 15 m long by 10 m wide,
embedded 2 m into a dry sand stratum with a corrected SPT to 55% efficiency N55 = 10? It is
desired that the allowable settlement is Hall = 30 mm.
Solution:
The allowable bearing capacity of a mat foundation in granular soils was proposed by Meyerhof (with a
Factor of Safety of 3) to be based on the SPT corrected to a 55% efficiency as,
qall = 12.5 N 55 [1 +
0.33D f
B
][
0.33 ( 2 ft )
H all
30 mm
] = 12.5 N55 [1 +
][
] = 151 kN / m 2
25.4 mm
25.4 mm
(10 ft )
397
The mat shown above is 30 m wide by 40 m long. The live and dead load on the mat is 200 MN.
Find the depth Df for a fully compensated foundation placed upon a soft clay with a unit weight
= 18.75 kN/m3.
Df
Solution:
The net soil pressure q under the mat is the load from the building Q over the entire
mat, minus the weight of the soil excavated D f ,
Q
Df
A
When the mat is fully compensated, the weight of the soil W excavated is equal to the
weight of the newly imposed building Q, in other words q = 0 and therefore,
q=
Df =
Q
[200x103 kN ]
=
=9m
A [(30 m)(40 m)(18.75 kN / m3 )]
398
The mat foundation shown below is 30 m wide by 40 m long. The total dead plus live load on the
mat is 200 MN. Estimate the consolidation settlement at the center of the foundation; Cc and eo of
the normally consolidated clay are 0.28 and 0.9 respectively.
Solution:
The net load per unit area q is,
q=
The pressure at mid-clay (depth of 18 m below the mat) is found via Boussinesq as,
z 18m
z 18m
L 40m
m= =
= 0.6 n = =
= 0.45 and
=
= 1.33 pm = 0.66q
B 30m
B 40m
B 30m
pm = 0.66q = ( 0.66 ) (135 kN / m 2 ) = 89 kN / m 2
The in-situ stress at mid-clay layer before the mat foundation is built is,
po = ( 4m ) (15.7 kN / m3 ) + (13m )(19.1 9.81) ( kN / m3 ) + ( 3m )(18.6 9.81) ( kN / m3 ) = 210kN / m 2
The consolidation (plastic) settlement is,
H =
399
( 210 ) + ( 89 )
p + pm ( 0.28 )( 6, 000mm )
Cc H
log10 o
log
=
= 136 mm
10
1 + eo
po
1 + ( 0.9 )
( 210 )
A building is to be supported by a rigid reinforced concrete mat foundation, whose dimensions are
20 m wide by 50 m long. The load on the mat is to be uniformly distributed with a magnitude of 65
kPa. The mat rests on a deep deposit of saturated clay with an approximate un-drained Youngs
modulus Eu = 40 MPa and a Poisson ratio = 0.4. Estimate the immediate settlement at the center
and corner of the mat.
Solution:
Since the mat foundation is stiff, use the rigid factor Cs is found from the L x B ratio,
L
50
=
= 2.5, which by interpolation in the chart provides a Cs = 1.20.
B
20
One of the possible equations for immediate settlement Hi is this one,
Hi = C s q B (
1 - 2
1 - (0.4)2
2
) = (1.20)(65 kN/m )(20 m) [
] = 0.033 m
Eu
40x103 kN / m 2
Since the mat is assumed to be rigid, the surface settlement at both the center and at the corners of
the mat, are the same, which is 33 mm.
400
A transfer girder carries a load of 9,000 kips. It is supported by two square reinforced concrete
columns, 30 in x 30 in. The columns are to be supported by a mat foundation upon a soil that has
an allowable bearing capacity qa = 4 ksf.
Using a load factor of 1.5, fc = 4 ksi, concrete shear vc = 31 ksi and fy = 60 ksi, design the width and
length B by B of the mat and its thickness T.
Solution:
The square mat has dimensions BxB, B2qa = Q therefore B =
9000
= 47.4 feet
2
The effective depth d of the mat can be found using the approximate formula,
4d2 + 2(b + c)d =
BLq
where b = c = 30 in = 2.5 feet, and the column load = 2,000 kips
vc
3000
or
31
The thickness T = d + 0.4 (for cover and reinforcing) = 4.25 feet = 50 inches
401
A small office building with the column loads shown below is founded 3 m deep into a sand
stratum with a unit weight of 18 kN/m3. The foundation is the mat shown below. All the columns
are 0.5 m x 0.5 m. The concrete strength is f c = 20.7 MN/m2 and the steel yield strength is fy =
413.7 MN/m2. Determine their reinforcement requirements in the y-direction only.
402
Solution:
Step 1:
Find the soil pressures, the location of the soil reactions resultant and the eccentricities in the x and y
directions.
The service load = (400 2) + (500 2) + 450 + 350 + (1500 4) + (1200 2) = 11, 000 kN
The moments of inertia of the mat in the x and y-directions are,
xy 3 16.5 21.53
IX =
=
= 13, 670 m 4
12
12
x 3 y 16.53 x 21.5
IY =
=
= 8, 048 m 4
12
12
To find the eccentricity in x and y directions, take moments about the axes.
For the eccentricity about the y-axis, take
y'
=0
x'
16.5
7.56 = 0.69 m
2
=0
21.5
10.60 = 0.15 m
2
Step 2.
Find the soil reaction pressures.
Let us factor the applied loads: 1.7(Service Loads) = 1.7(11,000 kN) = 18,700 kN
The two eccentricities ex and ey create moments about the centroid. The soil reaction is no longer
uniform, and varies linearly between the columns. These moments are:
Mx = R ey = (18,700 kN)(0.15 m) = 2,805 kN-m
My = R ex = (18,700 kN)(0.69 m) = 12,903 kN-m
The soil reaction pressure at any point under the mat is found from the relation:
q=
403
R M yx Mx y
18, 700
12, 903( x) 2,805 ( y )
A
Iy
Ix
16.5 21.5
8, 048
13, 665
Therefore,
kN / m 2
Step 3.
Using the equation for q, prepare a table of its value at points A through J.
POINT
R/A
1.6x
0.21y
(kN/m )
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(kN/m2)
52.7
-8
-12.8
10.5
2.21
42.11
52.7
10.5
2.21
54.91
52.7
12.8
10.5
2.21
67.71
52.7
-8.16
-10.5
-2.21
63.29
52.7
-10.5
-2.21
50.50
52.7
-8
-12.8
-10.5
-2.21
37.7
52.7
-4
-6.4
10.5
2.21
48.51
52.7
-4
-6.4
-10.5
-2.21
44.10
52.7
6.4
10.5
2.21
61.31
52.7
6.4
-10.5
-2.21
56.9
Step 4.
Determine the effective depth d and the thickness T of the mat.
a) Check a critical edge column (for example, one of the 1.5 MN at the left edge):
U = factored column load = 1.2(1.0) + 1.6(0.5) = 2 MN or 1.7(1.5) =2.55 MN
b0 = critical perimeter = 2(0.5 m + d/2) + (0.5 + d) = (1 + d) + 0.5 + d = 1.5 + 2d
Using VC Vu (from ACI 318-05) and fc = 20.7 MN/m2 (3 ksi),
d2 + 0.75 d 0.76 0
d=
b) Check the largest corner column (the 0.45 MN at top right corner):
d = 0.36 m (This does not control).
c) Check the most critical internal column (the 1.5 MN):
404
b0 = 4(0.5 + d) = 2 + 4d
0.85(0.34)( 20.7 )(2 + 4d )(d ) = 2 MN
5.26d 2 + 2.63d 2 = 0
d = 0.415m
use d = 23 inches or 585 mm
and T = 23+3+1 = 27 in or 686 cm
Step 5.
Find the average soil reaction for each strip:
Strip AGHF (W = 4.25 m)
q1 =
q A + qG 42.11 + 48.5
kN
=
= 45.31 2
2
2
m
q2 =
qH + qF 44.1 + 37.7
kN
=
= 41 2
2
2
m
Strip GIJH (W = 8 m)
q1 =
q2 =
q1 =
61.31 + 67.71
kN
= 64.51 2
2
m
q2 =
63.29 + 56.9
kN
= 60.1 2
2
m
Q1 = 1.7(500) = 850 kN
Q2 = 1.7(1500) = 2550 kN
Q3 = 1.7(1500) = 2550 kN
Q4 = 1.7(500) = 850 kN
Step 6.
Find the maximum positive moments for each span at midpoints a, b & c.
Ma = 0
M A = (850 3.5 m)
M A = 302.36
=0
=0
kN-m/m
2
(439.3 + 415.76) 10.5
+ Mb = 0
M b = (850 10.5m) + ( 2550 3.5m )
2
2
M b = 5718 kN-m/m
Step 7.
Calculate maximum negative moment at d, column B, see page 449:
( )
2
(439.3 + 427.52) 7
+ Md = 0
M d = (850 7m)
2
2
M d = 4668.5 kN-m/m
Step 8.
Design the strip for flexure:
406
As f y
AS =
0.85 f `c b
Mu
f y (d a 2)
1.3 in2
Negative moment:
Try #9 @ 9 o.c.
Good
Use #9 @ 9 top.
Use top and bottom reinforcing throughout the mat in the y-direction.
Step 9. Sketch the mats cross-sections and reinforcement.
407
Good
Chapter 21
Deep Foundations - Single Piles
Symbols for Single Piles of Deep Foundations
408
A concrete pile 20 m long with a cross section of 381 mm x 381 mm is fully embedded in a
saturated clay stratum. The clay has sat = 18.5 kN/m3, =0 and cu = 70 kN/m2. The water table lies
below the tip of the pile. Determine the allowable capacity of the pile for a FS = 3 using the method.
Solution:
The ultimate capacity of the pile Qult is given by the simple formula,
Qall =
409
Qult 1,890kN
=
= 630 kN
3
3
Find the ultimate load of a slightly tapered precast pre-stressed concrete pile, given
Pile length
L = 50 ft
Width of pile
b = 16 in
Nq* = 55
= 110 lb/ft3
= 30
K = 1.3
= 0.8
Solution:
410
Find the length of a 14 square pile required to carry a 50 ton load embedded in a firm sand (N =
25).
Given: Design load
Side length of the square pile
D = 1.167 ft
Atmospheric pressure
Pa = 2 ksi
(N1)60 = 25
( N 1)60 = 25
Factor of safety
FS = 3
Solution:
Ultimate load Qult = Qdesign FS = (100)(3) = 300 kips
Length of the pile is found from Meyerhofs method,
411
Find the ultimate and the design (allowable) capacities of a prestressed precast concrete pile
(PSPC) driven with a 72 blows/feet criterion. The piles are 30 feet long and have 14 square cross
sections. The hammer available is a LinkBelt 520 with a ram weight of 5,070 lbs and a drop height
of 5.2 feet. The hammer efficiency is 0.9, and the contractor intends to use scrap plywood in place
of cushion blocks (hence, n = 0.4).
L = 30 ft
b = 14 inches
h = 5.2 feet
Hammer efficiency
e = 0.9
Coefficient of restitution
n = 0.4
sc = 0.37 in
sp = 0.18 in
ss = 0.10 in
Factor of safety
FS = 3
Solution:
The ultimate load capacity Qult of a driven pile is found through Hilley's formula,
Qult =
(W
+ s ) (W
12Wram h eeff
s + 0.5 ( sc + s p
ram
+ n 2W pile )
ram
+ W pile )
14in
W pile = b L concrete =
( 30 ft )( 0.150kcf ) = 6.13kips
12in / ft
( 5.07 k ) + ( 0.4 )2 ( 6.13k )
12 ( 5.07 kips )( 5.2 ft ) ( 0.9 )
= 311 kips
Qult =
( 0.17in ) + 0.5 ( 0.37in ) + ( 0.18in ) + ( 0.10in ) ( 5.07k ) + ( 6.13k )
2
The service load is commonly a factor of 2 to 3 from the ultimate pile capacity:
Qservice =
412
A highway bridge will be founded on 14 x 14 square pre-stressed pre-cast (PSPC) concrete piles
at mid-stream. Establish the driving criterion for a 50 ton design capacity for these end bearing
piles using MKT S-14 pile driving hammer with a plywood cushion. Given:
Design load
L = 50 ft
Width of pile
b = 14 in
Factor of safety
FS = 3
Wr = 14 kips
Hammer energy
HE = 37.5 ft-kips
Hammer efficiency
e = 0.9
n = 0.4
sc = 0.37 in
ss = 0.10 in
Solution:
Ultimate load: Qult = Qall FS = (100)(3) = 300 kips
Weight of the pile Wp = b2Lwc = (14 in/12 in/ft)2(50 ft)(150 lb/ft3) = 10.21 kips
Hileys dynamic pile driving formula is,
Qult =
W + n 2W p
12 Wr he
X r
s + 1/2(S c + S p + S s )
Wr + W p
300 =
413
For the pile described below, find: a) the ultimate point load using the Meyerhof method, b) the
ultimate point load using the Vesic method, c) an approximate ultimate point load method, d) the
ultimate shaft friction resistance, and e) the total design load.
Given: Pile length in sand
L = 25 m
Diameter of pile
D = 0.305 m
Atmospheric pressure
Pa = 100 kN/m2
Nq* = 150
N* = 71
Irr = 50
dry = 16 kN/m3
= 32
c = 0
Water table
WT = 5 m
w = 9.81 kN/m3
= 32
c = 0
= 37
c = 0
K = 1.4
= 0.7
Factor of safety
FS = 4
Solution:
a) Ultimate point load using Meyerhofs method
414
Where
and
L = 5 m
p = D = 3.14(0.305 m) = 0.958 m
Qs = 995 kN
e) Total design load
415
Find the allowable pullout capacity for a 10.4 m long by 406 mm square concrete pile embedded in
a sand stratum.
Given: Pile length in sand
L = 10.4 m
D = 0.406 m
= 15.8 kN/m3
= 30
K = 1.4
= 0.7
Factor of safety
FS = 4
Solution:
Unit skin friction at depth z =0, fs(0) = 0 kN/m2
Unit skin friction at depth z = L where L = 8D = 8(0.406) = 3.25 m
p = 4D = 4(0.406 m) = 1.624 m
416
A square concrete pile (406 mm x 406 mm) is driven into a sand stratum that has a = 15.8
kN/m3, a relative density of 70% and a = 30
30. If the pile has reached refusal at a depth of 10.4
feet long, estimate its allowable pullout capacity T using a FS = 4.
Solution:
L
The criterion that = 8, means that Lcr = 8 (0.406 m) = 3.25 m
D cr
Since L > Lcr the ultimate pullout capacity Tult is provided by the formula,
1
Tult = (perimeter)()(Lcr) 2 (Kw ) tan + (perimeter)()(Lcr)(Kw) tan (L - Lcr)
2
Dr = = 0.70, in other words = 0.70() = 0.70(30) = 21 and assume Kw =1.4
Therefore,
1
Tult = (0.406 m x 4)(15.8 kN/m 3 )(3.25 m)2 (1.4) tan21
2
+ (0.406 m x 4)(15.8 kN/m 3 )(3.25 m)(1.4) tan 21 (10.4 m 3.25 m)
= 73 + 320 = 393 kN
The allowable pullout capacity is Tall =
417
Tult 393
=
= 98 kN
FS 4
To illustrate the calculation of the settlement of a single pile, consider the case of a large bored pile
in clay. The pile has been tested by Whitaker and Cooke (1966) and is denoted as Pile F in the
graphs shown here.
The pile details are as follows:
Average Es along shaft = 10,500 lb/sq in (675 tons/sq ft, 72, 400 kN/m2)
Determination of I and
From Fig. 21.1, Io = 0.085 (for L/d = 19.5 and db/d = 2.0)
From Fig. 21.2, RK = 1.35 (for K = 285)
From Fig. 21.3, Rv = 1.0
Treating the pile as a floating pile in a deep soil layer, Rh = 1.0
PI
From =
, I = 0.085 X 1.35 X 1.0 X 1.0 = 0.115
Es d
From Fig. 21.4, o = 0.215
where I = IoRKRhRv
= settlement of pile head
P = applied axial load
Io = settlement-influence factor for incomp pile in semi-infinite mass, for vs = 0.5.
RK = correction factor for pile compressibility
From Fig. 21.5, CK = 0.76
From Fig. 21.6, Cv = 1.0
= 0.215 X 0.76 X 1 = 0.164
418
419
P SU
92
=
= 110 tons (1100 kN)
1 0.836
I
The settlement at ultimate yield shaft is Y 1=
E sd
0.115 * 110 * 12
(PYl ) =
= 0.112 in.
2.0 * 675
The settlement at ultimate failure of pile [Pu = 92 + 158 = 250 tons (2500 kN)] is
u = Psu + Pbu
I Pbu
P L
0.115
158
+ Pbu su
=
*
*
(1 ) Ap E p 2.0 * 675 0.165
u =
E sd
0.165
39.5 * 12
12 + 158 92 *
= 1.088
*
0.835 3.14 * 19.3 * 10
Piles are being considered for a power plant, specifically a closed-ended steel pipe pile, 24.4 m long
and 0.32 m in diameter, driven into a fine sand grading to coarse and having an average standard
penetration value, N, of about 16. The water table was 3.4 m below the surface. On the basis of
the available data, the following values were adopted:
Bulk unit weight above water table = 17.3 kN/m3.
Submerged unit weight below water table = 7.8 kN/m3.
Angle of internal friction angle prior to installation:
1 = 25 (0 2.4 m)
1 = 32 (2.4 18.3 m)
1 = 30 (18.3 20.8 m)
1 = 33 (> 20.8 m)
Solution:
(Reference to Poulos and Davis).
First, find the ultimate skin resistance (given by =
3
1 +10), as follows:
4
= 28.75 (0 2.4 m)
= 34 (2.4m 18.4 m)
= 32.5 (18.3 20.8 m)
= 34.75 (>20.8 m)
The values of Ks tan a are 1.00 (0 2.4 m), 1.30 (2.4 18.3 m), 1.18 (18.3 20.8 m), 1.35 (20.8). If it
is assumed that the critical depth is less than 2.4 m below the surface, then for = 28. 75, zc/d = 5.0;
that is, zc = 5.0 x 0.32 = 1.56 m. Thus, the assumption is justified. At the critical depth, the effective
overburden stress is :
Nq W
The formula for the ultimate load capacity of a single pile Pu = Fw C K S tan a + Ab vb
0
422
0 + 26.99
1.56 + 26.99 (2.4 1.56 )
0.32 2
1.35
This compares well with the measured value of 1,112 kN (125 tons) from a load test.
The second type of pile (B) considered was a Raymond Standard Pile, 10 m long, with a head
diameter of 0.55 m and a tip diameter of 0.20 m. The pile taper w= 1, so Fw = 3.35 (0-2.4 m), and
F = 4.1(2.4-18.3 m). Assuming again that the critical depth is above 2.4 m, zc / d = 5.0 as before,
and taking an average value of d of 0.51, zc = 2.55 m, that is, greater than 2.4 m. However, the
difference is negligible and hence zc will be taken as 2.55 m. At this level,
+ 40
Nq W
Pu = Fw C K S tan a + Ab vb
0
0 + 41.52
(41.52 + 44.12 )
Pu =
0.15 + 44.12 (10 2.55)
0.51 3.35 1.00 2.4 +
2
2
2
0.20
0.33 4.1 1.30 + 44.12
88
4
The measured ultimate load for this pile was 2,400 kN (270 tons).
423
424
425
Chapter 22
Deep Foundations - Pile Groups and Caps
Symbols for Pile Groups and Caps of Deep Foundations
426
Design a pile cap footing to support an 18 square column subjected to a live load reaction of 180
kips and a dead load reaction of 160 kips at service loads. The testing laboratory recommends an
ultimate pile load of 70 kips per pile, and a service pile load of 42 kips per pile. The vertical steel in
the column consists of 12 No.7 bars. Use c = 3000 psi, y = 40,000 psi, and 12 diameter piles.
Solution.
Since the footing weight will be about 3 kips/pile, the net service load per pile is 42.0-3.0 = 39.0 kips/
pile. The number of piles required in N=W/P = 340/39 = 8.7, or 9 piles. Use a pile pattern as shown in
Fig. 22.1. The net ultimate load is used to design the footing; thus Wu = (1.4) (160) + (1.7) (180) = 530
kips, and the load per pile is Pu = 530/9 = 58.9, say 59.0 kips/pile, which is less than the maximum
ultimate load, 70 kips/ pile. Punching shear around a single pile often governs the footing depth
determination, except in cases in which the loads are small. In this case, it will be shown that beam
shear governs. Referring to Fig. 22.2, we calculate the punching shear stress.
After several trials,
assume d = 19.5. The shear perimeter is bo = (12 + d) = 99.0. The permissible shear force around
the pile will be,
Vc = 4fc bod = 43000 (99) (19.5) / 1000 = 423 kips
Since the actual shear force is the nominal pile reaction, Pn = Pu/ = 59.0/0.85 = 69.4 kips < 423 kips,
the pile will not punch through the pile cap (footing).
Fig 22.2
Perimeter shear (punching shear) must now be checked around
the column in a similar manner. In this case, all of the nominal
pile reactions outside of the critical section plus any partial
reactions outside of the critical section will contribute to
punching shear for the column. Refer to Fig. 22.3. Assuming
Fig. 22.1
No. 6 bars will be used, clearance above the pile butts will be 3
and embedment of the piles will be 6. The total dept required will be 28.75. For practical reasons use
29; this furnishes an effective depth d = 19.625. Thus c = a + b = 18.0 + 19.625 = 37.625 and bo =
4(37.625) = 150.0. Hence, Vou = 472 kips on 8 piles outside of the critical section as shown on Fig.
22.3. The permissible punching shear force (c = 18/18 < 2) is given by (6.12) as:
Vc = 4 3000 (150) (19.625) / 1000 = 644.9 kips
427
The force to be resisted is Vn = Vou/ = 472/0.85 = 555.3 kips; therefore the pile cap (footing) is
satisfactory for punching shear. Beam shear must now be checked. Refer to Fig. 22.4. Three piles exist
beyond the critical section, so Vu = (3) (59.0) = 177.0 kips. Since b = B= 8-6 = 102, the permissible
beam shear (one-way shear) force on the critical section is
Fig. 22.4
Fig. 22.3
The force to be resisted is the nominal shear force, Vn = Vu / = 177/ 0.85 = 208.2 kips. Hence the
footing is satisfactory for beam shear. The bending moment about the face of the column must now be
investigated. Refer to Fig. 22.4
Mu = (177) (27/12) = 398.3 ft-kips
Fig. 22.5
428
A pile group is constructed in a sand stratum (plan shown below) with piles of =18 in and a
center-to-center spacing of 36 inches.
Find the pile group efficiency using the Converse-Labarre formula;
Piles are acting in friction only; select a hammer to drive them;
Determine the allowable load-bearing capacity of the pile group (for a FS = 4);
Determine the allowable horizontal load on the pile cap, and the collective bending moment
capacity.
Solution:
a) The Converse-Labarre group efficiency is,
d
(n 1)m + ( m 1)n
where = arctan ( in degrees )
90mn
s
d
18"
= arctan = arctan
= 26.6
s
36"
(3 1) ( 3) + (3 1) ( 3)
= 1 ( 26.6 )
= 1 ( 26.6 )( 0.015 ) = 0.61 or 61%
90 ( 3)( 3)
= 1
Wp
Wr
429
2
1
1
k
2
Wr = W p = [ (1.5 ft ) ( 20 ft ) 1.5 3 = 2.9 kips
1
2
2 4
ft
c) QW
Vulcan
INI00
McKiernan-Terry
DE30
LinkBelt
312
Foster
K13
Berminghammer
B225
Mitsubishi
M14
= QP + QS = QS
(for friction piles only)
20
Q w = D (1)(0.125) tan
but =
H2
20 2
= D (0.125) tan 38
= 92 kips
2
2
Q u group
Q group
= 0 . 61 = u
Q u SINGLE NO . PILES
92 kips 9
Q u group
505
=
FS
4
38
) =362.5 kips
2
2
2
H u L = (362 .5 )( 20 ) = 4833 k-ft
3
3
430
A square group of 25 piles extends between depths of 1 m and 13 m in a deposit of stiff clay 25 m
thick over-laying rock. The piles are 0.6 m in diameter and are spaced at 2 m on centers in the
group. The un-drained shear strength of the clay at pile base level is 170 kN/m2 and the average
value of un-drained strength over the depth of the piles is 105 kN/m2. The adhesion coefficient is
0.45, Eu is 65 MN/m2 and mv is 0.07 m2/MN. The pore pressure coefficient A is 0.24. If the total load
on the pile group is 12,000 kN, determine the load factor and the total settlement.
Solution:
1. At the base level, cu = 170 kN/m2. Therefore,
431
5. The width of the group is 8.6 m. Therefore the ultimate load on the group assuming a block failure,
and taking full un-drained strength on the perimeter:
432
433
= (0
To calculate the consolidation settlement, the clay below the equivalent raft will be divided into four
sublayers each of thickness H = 4m. The pressure increment () at the center of each sublayer is equal
to the load of 12,000 kN divided by the spread area and is shown in the Table below. The settlement
coefficient is obtained from the last graph that is shown below. The diameter of a circle having the same
area as the equivalent raft is 14.2 m. Thus H/B = 16/14.2 = 1.1. Then from the graph with the settlement
coefficients for A = 0.24 and H/B = 1.1, the value of is 0.52 and the consolidation settlement is:
Z (m)
Area (m2)
(kN/m2)
mvH
14. 62
56.3
15.8
18. 62
34.7
9.7
10
22. 62
23.5
6.6
14
26. 62
17
4.8
(mm)
Soed =
36.9
= i + c = 6 + 19 = 25 mm
Chapter 23
Deep Foundations: Lateral Loads
Symbols for Lateral Loads on Deep Foundations
435
**Lateral loads on piles-01: Find the lateral load capacity of a steel pile.
(Revision: Oct-08)
Determine the lateral load capacity Qg of a steel H-pile (HP 250 x 0.834) fully embedded to a depth
of 25 m in very dense submerged sand. The top end of the pile is allowed to deflect laterally 8 mm.
For simplicity assume that there is no moment applied to the top of the pile (that is, Mg = 0).
Solution:
The subgrade modulus ks is a description of the reaction of the soil mass to vertical loads. The modulus
of horizontal subgrade reaction nh is a function of ks at any depth z,
k z = nh z
nh modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction
lb/in3
kN/m3
- loose
6.5 to 8.0
1,800 to 2,200
- medium
20 to 25
5,500 to 7,000
- dense
55 to 65
15,000 to 18,000
- loose
3.5 to 5.0
1,000 to 1,400
- medium
12 to 18
3,500 to 4,500
- dense
32 to 45
9,000 to 12,000
Type of soil
Dry or moist sand
Submerged sand
436
From this table and the soil conditions noted above, choose nh = 12 MN/m3 for the modulus. Now
choose the parameters for the steel H-pile,
437
For the steel HP 250 x 0.834 pile, the moment of inertia about the strong axis is Ip = 123 x 10-6 m4, its
modulus of elasticity is Ep = 207 x 106 kN/m2, the steels yield strength is Fy = 248 MN/m2 and the pile
depth d1 = 0.254 m.
T=
EpI p
nh
(12 , 000 )
= Az
Q gT 3
EpIp
+ Bz
M gT 2
EpIp
but M g = 0
In this problem we are given this value of = 8 mm, and we want to find the allowable lateral load Qg,
at a depth z = 0, where the coefficient Az is taken from a table of coefficients kz = nh z for long piles.
438
The magnitude of the lateral load Qg limited by the displacement condition only is,
Qg =
(E p I p )
AzT 3
Since the value of the allowable lateral load Qg found above is based on the limiting displacement
conditions only, and ignores that the pile has a moment capacity, that moment capacity at any depth z is
found through,
M z = Am Q gT
The table above shows that the maximum value of Am at any depth is 0.772. The maximum allowable
moment that the pile can carry is,
M max = Fy
Qg =
439
Ip
d1 / 2
= 248 MN / m
(123 x10
)
) ( 0.254 m / 2 ) = 240 kN m
6
( 240 kN m ) = 268 kN
M max
=
AmT ( 0.772 )(1.16 m )
m4
This last value of Qg emanating from the moment capacity is much larger than the value of Qg = 54 kN
found for the deflection criterion.
Therefore use, Qg = 54 kN
440
**Lateral loads on piles-02: Find the lateral load capacity of a steel pile. (US Units)
(Revised Nov-09)
Determine the lateral load capacity Qg of a steel H-pile (HP 10 x 57) fully embedded to a depth of
82 feet in very dense submerged sand. The top end of the pile is allowed to deflect laterally .31
inches. For simplicity assume that there is no moment applied to the top of the pile (that is, Mg =
0).
Figure 1:
Solution:
Step 1: The sub-grade modulus (ks) is a description of the reaction of the soil mass to vertical loads. The
modulus of horizontal sub-grade reaction nh is a function of ks at any depth z,
kz = nh z
From Table 1 for the soil conditions noted, choose nh = 45 lb/in3 for the modulus.
T =5
Ep I p
np
=5
(3.01e7lbf / in 2 )(294in 4 )
(45lb / in3 )
442
In this problem we are given this value of = 0.31 inches, and we want to find the allowable lateral
load Qg, at a depth z = 0, where the coefficient Az is taken from a table of coefficients kz = nh z for long
piles.
The magnitude of the lateral load Qg limited by the displacement condition only is,
Qg =
( E p I p )
AzT 3
(0.31in)(3.01e7lbf / in 2 )(294in 4 )
=
= 12139lbf
(4090)(3.81)3
Since the value of the allowable lateral load Qg found above is based on the limiting displacement
conditions only, and ignores that the pile has a moment capacity, that moment capacity at any depth z is
found through,
The table above shows that the maximum value of Am at any depth is 0.772. The maximum allowable
moment that the pile can carry is,
Working backwards from Qg = 268 kN = 60248 lbf then Am = 0.768
443
SI Units:
British Units:
M max = Fy
Ip
d1 / 2
= (3.60e 4lbf / in 2 )
(294in 4 )
(10in) / 2
= 2,116,800lbf in = 176,400lbf ft
Qg =
M max (176,400lbf ft )
=
= 60,000lbf
AmT
(.772)(3.81 ft )
This last value of Qg emanating from the moment capacity is much larger than the value of Qg = 12139
lbf found for the deflection criterion.
Therefore use, Qg = 12139 lbsf
444
**Lateral loads on piles-03: The Broms method for pile lateral loads.
(Revised Nov-09)
For the previous problem, use the Broms method to determine the lateral load capacity Qg of a
flexible steel H-pile (HP 250 x 0.834) fully embedded to a depth of 25 m in very dense submerged
sand. The top end of the pile is free and allowed to only deflect 8 mm. The unit weight of the soil is
= 18 kN/m3 and the angle of internal friction is = 35.
Solution:
The moment at steels yield failure is,
M y = S( Fy ) =
) 248 x10
F )
(
(
/2
( 0.254 m ) / 2
Ip
d1
(123 x10
=
m4
kN / m 2 = 240 kN m
( 240 kN m )
( 0.250 m )
35
18 kN / m tan 45
2
= 926
Broms graphs are used to determine the ultimate lateral resistance for long piles in sand shown in (a), or
in clays shown in (b). We use (a):
445
Using Broms graph (a) for granular soils, the ratio of 926 and a ratio of e / D = 0 yields an ultimate
lateral resistance ratio of approximately 140, therefore,
35
3
= 5
nh
=
EpI p
12 MN / m 3
= 0.86 m 1
e
= 0 which is a free-headed pile.
L
Using Broms graph for estimating the deflection of the pile head in sands (a) and in clays (b), we find
for sands a value of 0.15,
Broms graphical solutions for estimating the deflection of the pile head in granular soils is shown
below, and for cohesive soils below that one,
446
447
Using figure (a) for the granular soils, the ratio yields,
EpIp
) (n )
3/ 5
2/5
0.15 by interpolation
Qg L
Qg =
EpI p
) (n )
3/ 5
2/ 5
0.15 L
2/ 5
= 40 kN
This value 40 kN is much smaller than the 581 kN found above, therefore,
448
Design a steel sheet-pile cellular dolphin for a mooring bollard that will be subjected to an
equivalent horizontal load of 60 kips. The live load upon the dolphin will be 250 psf, and assume
that there are negligible wave forces because it is located in a shielded area. The mooring
geometry limits the diameter of the dolphin to 20 feet or less. Choose a FS = 2.5. The site
conditions are shown below.
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the Required Depth of Embedment D of the steel sheet-pile cell.
For = 30 Ka = 0.33 and Kp = 3.0 and Kp Ka = 2.67
449
(K
Ka
(K
Ka
actual
FS
2.5
2.5
Using Tschebotarioff's analysis, the forces E1 and E 2 are,
reduced
E1 = area ( abc ) 2d
E 2 = area ( cfg ) 2d
pmax = K p K a D = (1.07 ) D
=0
P + E2 = E1
=0
and with = 20 ,
E1 =
where e1 =
2
3
450
D2
( 20' )
( 2' )( 0.150 kcf ) + ( 4' )( 0.106 kcf ) + ( 55' )( 0.065 kcf ) = 1, 350 kips
h=
4
4
Note that W R in the figure.
W =
M
M
= 400 kip ft
451
Step 4: Check the Bearing Capacity of the soil beneath the cell.
The ultimate bearing capacity of a soil under a cellular dolphin is given by the formula shown below.
The bearing capacity factors are functions of the angle of internal friction = 30, Nq = 22.5 and N =
20.
The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil beneath the cell is,
1
1
qultimate = qN q + ( 0.6 ) dN = D f N q + ( 0.6 ) dN
2
2
1
qultimate = ( 0.065 )( 20' )( 22.5 ) + ( 0.6 )( 0.065 )( 20' )( 20 ) = 37 ksf
2
The total load pressure ptotal from the cell is,
ptotal = ( 2' )( 0.150 pcf ) + ( 4' )( 0.106 pcf ) + ( 55' )( 0.065 pcf ) + ( 0.250 psf ) = 4.6 ksf
qultimate 37 ksf
=
= 8 GOOD
4.6 ksf
ptotal
452
Chapter 24
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls and
Bridge Abutments
Symbols for Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls
453
Design a reinforced concrete wall with a backfill = 125 pcf, an allowable soil bearing capacity of
qall = 3 ksf, and a friction at the base of = 30. Design the wall and check for its stability under
working loads. (Note: All loads, shears and moments are per linear ft. of retaining wall).
3
1'
15'
18.33'
16'-6"
1.83'
Pv
Ph
6.11'
1'-6"
2'
5
3'
1'-6"
5'-6"
10'
Solution:
30
2
K a = tan 2 45 = tan 2 45
= tan ( 30 ) = 0.33
2
2
454
Moment About A
Area
Area
Force
(kip)
Arm
(ft)
Moment
(kip-ft)
x 5.5x 1.83
= 5.03 x 0.125 =
0.63
1.83
1.2
5.5 x 15.0
= 82.5 x 0.125 =
10.31
2.75
28.4
1.0 x 15.0
= 15.0 x 0.150 =
2.25
6.00
13.5
0.56
6.67
3.7
10.0 x 1.5
= 15.0 x 0.150 =
2.25
5.00
11.3
6
Pv
3.0 x 2.0
= 6.0 x 0.125 =
0.75
2.00
8.50
6.4
6.11
40.4
H = 6.60
Ph
V=18.75
M=104.9
Location of Resultant
From point A, 104.9 = 5.6 ft
18.75
then e = 5.6 10 = 0.6 ft
o.k. < B
10
Pp =
Min F =
455
cos
= 5.8 kips
1/2 H 2
10.9
10.9 + 4.7
= 1.7 kips , Max F =
= 2.4 kips
66
66
OK without Key
Pv
Ph
5'
As = 1.06 in/ft
=1.06/(14 x 12) = 0.0063 >0.005 and <0.0278 OK
14"
456
#6 @ 10"ctrs
8'-10"
17 kip-in
2"
143 kip-in
286 kip-in
133 kip-in
5'
10'
6'
#6 @ 5"ctrs
top of base
457
496 kip-in
448 kip-in
248 kip-in
15'
(10 / 3)
wt. of soil over toe = 2.0 (0.125) = 0.25 ksf
wt of concrete base = 1.5 (0.150) = 0.23 ksf
Net toe pressure for design = qmax - wt. of soil over toe - wt of concrete base
= 5.63ksf - 0.25ksf - 0.23 ksf = 5.15 ksf
1'-6"
3'
d =14"
Assume arm = 13 in
T = 278/13 = 21.4 kips = 0.59 in/ft
(40 x 0.9)
14 x 12
459
2.33 ksf
2.11 ksf
1'-6"
5'-6"
Assume arm = 13
T= 410/13 = 31.5 kip
As = 31.5kip = 0.88 in/ft
(40 x 0.9)
Use #6 @ 6 ctrs. As = 0.88 in/ft > 0.002 and >0.005 and < 0.0278 OK
Compressive stress block and shear OK
Development length: Extend full base width, therefore ld OK
Horizontal shrinkage steel in stem:
460
3
1
12"
#4@ 9" front face
#4@18" back face
Vert. bars, back face
#6 @ 10"
16'-6"
#4 @ 2'-0"
3'
1'-6"
5'-6"
#6 @ 6"
2"x6" key
#6 @ 6"
1'-6"
2'
Vert. bars,
back face
#6 @ 5"
6" drains
@ 10'-0"
461
#4 @ 12"
Design a bridge abutment for a backfill of = 110 lb/ft3, an equivalent surcharge of 3 feet, an
allowable soil pressure of 3.5 kips/ft2, and an allowable shear between soil and base of 45% of the
vertical shear.
L v =5.26 k
L h =0.24 k
3.88'
12" 12"
12'-0"
12"
5'-6"
2
3'-6"
12"
1'-6"
4'-0"
2'-6"
6'-0"
3'-0"
9"
8
A
7'-0"
Note:
Solution:
Phs = 30(3.0)(12) = 1.08 kips
Ph = 1/2(30)(122) = 2.16 kips
462
Stability Computations:
Moments about A
Area
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Lv
Force
2.89
0.61
0.06
0.34
0.30
0.08
0.97
1.58
Arm
1.25
3.00
2.83
2.88
3.50
3.17
4.00
3.50
Moment
3.61
1.83
0.15
0.98
1.05
0.25
3.88
5.53
5.26
3.88
20.40
Lh
0.24
9.00
2.16
Phs
1.08
6.00
6.48
Ph
2.16
4.00
8.64
SH = 3.48 kips
SV = 12.09 kips
Location of Resultant
From point A,
54.96
7 .0
B
= 4.55 then e = 4.55 = 1.05 <
12.09
2
6
12.09 6 1.05
1 +
7
7
ok
463
5.43
= 1.6 > 1.5
3.48
ok
ok
Design a bridge abutment for a backfill of _ = 110 lb/ft3, an equivalent surcharge of ___ feet, an
allowable soil pressure of 3.5 kips/ft2, and an allowable shear between soil and base of 45% of the
vertical shear.
Solution:
Phs = 30(3.0)(12) = 1.08 kips
Ph = 1/2(30)(122) = 2.16 kips
464
Stability Computations:
Moments about A
Area
Arm
Moment
2.5x10.5x0.11
2.89
1.25
3.61
1x5.5x0.11
0.61
1.83
1/2x1x1x0.11
0.06
2.83
0.15
0.75x3x0.15
0.34
2.88
0.98
2x1x0.15
0.3
3.5
1.05
.5x1x1x0.15
0.08
3.17
0.25
1x6.5x.15
0.97
3.88
7x1.5x0.15
1.58
3.5
5.53
Lv
5.26
3.88
20.4
Lh
0.24
2.16
Phs
1.08
6.48
Ph
2.16
8.64
H
465
Force
3.48kips
V
12.09kips
MA
54.96kips
Location of Resultant
From point A,
54.96
7.0
B
= 4.55 ft then e = 4.55 = 1.05 ft <
12.09
2
6
OK
Sliding:
466
Vertical Reinforcement
Ph + Phs = 8.64 +6.48 = 15.12
M = 15.12 x 12/3 x 12 = 726 kip in
Use 6 batter on front, then t = 9 + 6 = 15
Assume arm 15 4 = 11
T = 726/11 = 66 kip
As = 66/ 40 x 0.9 = 1.83 in^2/ft
At bottom of wall Use #5 @ 2in =1.86in^2/ft or #9 at 6 c.c. = 2.00in^2/ft
p = 2.00/ 14 x 9 = 0.015 >.005 < 0.0278 OK
Check compressive stress block
C = T = 66kip / 2.55 x 12 x 0.9 = 2.39 >2 NOT GOOD
Check Shear
15.12 / 14x9 x .75 = 160psi > 110 psi. Need Shear Design for stirrups
Resisting Moment
Top : 2 x 40 x .9 x 9 = 648 kip in
Bottom : 2 x 40 x.9 x 14 = 1008 kip in
Horizontal shrinkage in stem
Required = 0.002 x 14 x 9 = 0.336in^2/ft
Use #4@9 c.c front As = 0.27in^2/ft
Use #4@18 c.c back As = 0.13in^2/ft
Total As = 0.27 + 0.13 = 0.40
467
Chapter 25
Steel Sheet Pile Retaining Walls
Symbols for Steel Sheet Pile Retaining Walls
468
Select an appropriate steel sheet-pile section and its total length L to retain a medium sand backfill
for the conditions shown below without an anchoring system.
= 115 pcf
' = 65 pcf
= 35 therefore
K a = 0.27 and K p = 3.70
Solution:
Step 1. Determine the pressures on the cantilevered wall.
From statics, find the dimension z shown in the figure of previous page,
Assume a value for D,
Calculate z,
Use z to check if M = 0; adjust D for convergence.
(1)
FH = 0
1
D
z
D
Hp A1 + ( p A1 + p A 2 ) + ( pE + pJ ) ( pE + p A 2 ) = 0
2
2
2
2
Solving for z ,
z=
( 2)
( pE pA1 ) D Hp1
p E + pJ
M = 0 about any po int, say F ,
D2
z2
D2
D2
1
H
( H ) pA1 D + + ( pA1 ) + ( pE + pJ ) ( pE + pA2 ) + ( p A2 pA1 ) = 0
2
3
2
6
6
6
pE = D K p K a p A1 = 65 D ( 6.29 ) 435
= 409 D 435
pJ = D K p K a + HK p
feet
(10.5 )
(10.5 )
1
M F = 2 (14 )( 435)(10.5 + 4.67 ) + ( 435) 2 + ( 620 435) 6
2
+ ( 3 , 860 + 14 , 860 )
(1.60 )
(10.5)
( 3 , 860 + 620 )
= 730 ft lb
6
6
This value is close to zero, therefore adopt D = 10.5 feet .
470
y=
p A1
( K p Ka )
'
435
= 1.06 feet
( 65)( 6.29 )
1
1
p A1 H = ( 435 )(14 ) = 3 , 040 lb
2
2
1
1
P2 = p A1 y = ( 435 )(1.0 ) = 218 lb
2
2
also,
1 '
K p K a x 2 = P1 + P2
2
P1 =
x2 =
2 ( P1 + P2 )
( K p Ka )
'
2 ( 3 , 040 + 218 )
( 65)( 6.29 )
= 16 x = 4.0 feet
1
2
P3 = ' K p K a ( 4 ) = 3 , 280 lb
2
M max = P1l1 + P2 l2 P3 l3
where ,
H
+ y+ x
3
2y
+x
l2 =
3
x
l3 =
3
l1 =
2 (1.0 )
14
4 .0
M max = P1l1 + P2 l2 P3l3 = ( 3 , 040 ) + 1.0 + 4.0 + ( 218 )
+ 4.0 ( 3 , 280 )
3
3
471
472
473
Determine the required length L of steel sheet-piles for the site conditions shown below for an
unanchored wall.
= 120 pcf
' = 60 pcf
c = 750 psf
= 0
Solution:
Step 1. Determine all the pressures
on the cantilevered wall.
750
c red u ced
c red u ced =
750
= 50 0 p sf
1 .5
q u = 2 c = 2 (5 0 0 ) = 1 , 0 0 0 p s f
T h e fin a l s tr e n g th ( lo n g te r m s tr e n g th o f th e s o il ) b e c o m e s ,
c = 0
= 27
T h e c r itic a l h e ig h t H
H
4c
4 (5 0 0 )
(1 2 0 )
is ,
= 1 6 .7 fe e t > 1 4 fe e t
474
2c
2 ( 500 )
(120 )
= 8.3 feet
(1)
FH = 0
8c ( z )
1
( 4c H ) D = 0
( H 2c )( H H o ) +
2
2
Solving for z ,
z=
( 2)
2 D ( 4c H ) ( H 2c )( H H o )
8c
M = 0 about any po int, say F ,
MF =
H Ho
1
( H 2c )( H H o ) D +
2
3
D2
8cz 2
c
H
+
(
) =0
6
2
475
z=
2 D ( 4c H ) ( H 2c )( H H o )
8c
= 0.16 D 0.97
and
H H o 8cz 2
1
D2
M F = 2 ( H 2c )( H H o ) D + 3 + 6 ( 4c H ) 2 = 0
680 )( 5.7 )( D + 1.90 ) 8 ( 500 ) z 2 320 D 2
(
=
+
=
=0
2
6
2
1938 ( D + 1.90 ) + 666.7 z 2 160 D 2 = 0
z2 =
Check M F =0
666.7
z = 0.9 feet < 1.27 feet not satisfactory
Check M F =0
666.7
z = 1.65 feet > 1.27 feet acceptable.
476
Select an appropriate steel sheet-pile section and its total length L to retain a sand backfill for the
conditions shown below without an anchoring system.
Sand backfill :
= 110 pcf
' = 60 pcf
= 34 K a = 0.28
pE = D1 K p K a = ( 65 ) D1 ( 6.37 ) = 414 D1
Determine the pressure on the wall from the surcharge,
a ) above point C : psurcharg e = 300 K a = ( 300 )( 0.28 ) = 84 psf
b ) below point C : psurcharg e = 300 K a' = ( 300 )( 0.26 ) = 78 psf
Determine the pressure on the wall due to the line load ,
K 4 .0
=
= 0.111
H 36
pH = ( 0.55 ) Q = ( 0.55 )( 2 , 000 ) = 1,100 lbs
with its resultant at = ( 0.60 ) H = ( 0.60 )( 36 ) = 21.6 feet from the dredge line
Locating the point y,
477
y=
pC 2
'(K K
'
p
'
a
( 692 ) = 1.67
) ( 65)( 6.37 )
=
feet
1
1
H 1 pB = (10 )( 308 ) = 1, 540 plf
2
2
P2 = H w pB = ( 26 )( 308 ) = 8 , 008 plf
P1 =
1
1
H w ( pC 1 pB ) = ( 26 )( 745 308 ) = 5 , 681 plf
2
2
1
1
P4 = ypC 2 = (1.67 )( 692 ) = 578 plf
2
2
Psurcharg e ( + C ) = ( H 1 + H w ) psurcharg e = ( 36 )( 84 ) = 3 , 024 plf
P3 =
1
1
pDE D1 = ( 414 D1 ) D1 = 207 D12
2
2
Force (lb)
ap
= 0,
Arm (ft)
Moment (ft-lb)
1)
1,540
- 2.33
-3,588
2)
3)
8,008
5,681
+14.00
+18.33
+112,112
+104,133
4)
Sur(+C)
578
3,024
+26.56
+9.00
+15,930
+27,216
D + 1.67 + 27.0
Sur(-C) 78D1 +130 + 1
39D12 +2,236D1 +3,619
Line-load
1,100
+5.40
+5,940
5)
2D
but
( -M ) = 138 D + 5 , 935 D
( +M ) = ( M )
Passive
3
1
2
1
+ 3 , 588
D1 = 6.50 feet
478
1
(16.8) x 2
2
2
x + 37 x 1,100 = 0 x = 20 feet
11,870 = 1, 540 + 1,100 + 308 x +
(2)
( 308)( 20 )
-
(3)
(16.8)( 20 ) ( 20 ) =
-
= 61, 600
(4)
22 , 400
2
+ ( 11,870 )( 20 + 1.0 ) = + 249 , 000
( 5 ) - ( 1,100 )( 20 + 10 14.4 ) =
17 ,150
Maximum moment
S=
479
Initially, assume that there is no moment reduction due to the flexibility of the steel sheet-piling.
Therefore, select a section MZ-38, that has a S = 46.8 in3 / foot of wall.
480
M design
M max imum
From the curves (next slide) calculate the design moment and the stress for the sheet pile that was
selected on page 472.
( H + D)
P=
EI
481
( 36 + 11)(12 )
3 , 373
=
=
6
I
( 30 )(10 ) I
4
Pile Sections
M Z-32
M Z-38
Section m odulus S (per foot)
M om . of Inertia I (per foot)
3 , 373
P =
I
R atio = M de sign / M m ax .
M design = R atio( M m ax . )
= Ratio (1,340)
M
Stress = design
S
46.8 in
280.8 in 4
M Z-27
30.2 in 3
220.4 in 4
184.2 in 4
38.3 in
12.0
15.3
18.3
0.73
0.67
0.62
900 in-kip
833 in-kip
980 in-kip
980 in-kip
46 . 8 in 3
21.0 ksi
900 in-kip
38 . 3 in 3
23.5 ksi
833 in-kip
30 . 2 in 3
27.6 ksi
Based on Rowes Theory of Moment Reduction, the following sheet-pile selections may be used,
482
Find the anchor force T and the steel sheet-pile length L for these conditions,
Sand backfill
=0 K a = 1.0
'=65 pcf
c=850 psf
=0 K a = 1.0
Solution:
Step 1. Introduce a Factor of Safety for the cohesion.
The shear strength of the cohesion is typically reduced through a Factor of Safety of between 1.5 to 2.0;
let us use FS = 1.7,
P4 = 412 D
Step 4. Find the depth of embedment D.
F = P + P + P P T = 0
( 2 ) M ( about the anchor tie rod ) = 0
(1)
ap
D = 7.0 feet
The required length L of the sheet-piling is,
L= H + D = 20 + 7 = 27 feet
Step 5. Find the tensile force in the anchor tie rod T.
= 0,
484
Chapter 26
MSE (Mechanically Stabilized Earth) Walls
Symbols for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
485
Determine the length L of a geotextile-reinforcing for the 16 foot high temporary retaining wall
shown below. Also determine the required vertical spacing of the reinforcing layers Sv and the
required lap length ll. The geotextile chosen has an allowable strength of G of 80 lb/inch, and the
available granular backfill has a unit weight of = 110 lb/ft3 and the angle of internal friction is
= 36.
Comment: These geotextile walls are usually used for temporary civil works, such as detour
roadways, temporary abutments or excavation walls, etc. If the wall must become permanent,
then the face is stabilized and the plastic geotextile is protected from ultra-violet light through a
layer of shotcrete.
16 feet
Solution:
The active pressure on the wall is,
G
G
=
a FS ( zK a ) FS
( zK a ) FS
( zK a ) FS
( 80 x12 lb / ft ) = 1.9
(110 )(12 )( 0.26 )(1.5)
feet 22 inches
( zK a ) FS
( 80 x12 lb / ft ) = 1.4
(110 )(16 )( 0.26 )(1.5)
feet 17 inches
486
Notice how the spacing becomes denser the deeper we go below the surface; choose SV = 20 inches from
z = 0 to z = 8 feet; below z = 8 feet use SV = 16 inches throughout, as shown in the figure.
Step 2: Find the length of each layer of geotextile L, which is composed of two parts, lR which is the
length of the geotextile within the Rankine failure zone, and le which is the effective length of the
geotextile beyond the failure zone (see the first figure, page 408). Again use FS = 1.5, and the angle F
is the soil-to-geotextile angle of friction, which is usually assumed to be 2/3 of the soil. Other values
can be used, and a few are shown in this table,
S ( 0.26 )(1.5 )
( H z ) + SV K a ( FS ) =
(H z)
+ V
tan ( 45 / 2 )
2 tan F
tan ( 45 36 / 2 )
2 ( 0.445 )
L = ( 0.51)( H z ) + 0.438 SV
L = l R + le =
487
From this equation, we can now prepare a table with the required lengths.
SV
(0.51)(H-z)
(0.438SV)
inches
feet
feet
feet
feet
feet
16
1.33
1.67
7.48
0.731
8.21
56
4.67
1.67
5.78
0.731
6.51
76
6.34
1.67
4.93
0.731
5.66
96
8.00
1.67
4.08
0.731
4.81
112
9.34
1.33
3.40
0.582
3.99
144
12.00
1.33
2.04
0.582
2.66
176
14.67
1.33
0.68
0.582
1.26
Based on this table, use L = 8.5 feet for z 8 feet and L = 4.0 feet for z > 8 feet.
Step 3: Find lap length ll for the geotextile, but never smaller than 3 feet,
ll =
SV a ( FS )
4 v tan F
SV ( 0.26 )(1.5 )
4 tan ( 23 ) ( 36 )
= 0.219 SV
Comment:
These MSE problems commonly
use Rankines active pressure
coefficient. However, the actual
value of K must depend on the
degree of restraint of the type of
reinforcement, as shown in this
figure:
488