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Workshop Training Manual COURSE: WS1020: Central Workshop Indian Institute of Technology Madras CHENNAI - 600036, INDIA
Workshop Training Manual COURSE: WS1020: Central Workshop Indian Institute of Technology Madras CHENNAI - 600036, INDIA
COURSE: WS1020
CENTRAL WORKSHOP
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS
CHENNAI 600036, INDIA
Component name
Meaning
Electrical Wire
Connected Wires
Connected crossing
DIP Switch
SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an
electromagnet
SPDT Relay
Earth Ground
Chassis Ground
Polarized Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Adjustable capacitance
Inductor
Includes iron
Variable Inductor
AC Voltage Source
AC voltage source
Generator
Battery Cell
Battery
5.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
Make connections as per the circuit diagram on the working board.
OBSERVATIONS:
After confirming the circuit connection when switch S1 is switched ON, the tube light started
glowing.
RESULT:
The given experiment was successfully carried out.
6. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE
6.1 One lamp controlled by SPST switch
6.2 Stair case lamp control circuit
6.3 Series parallel lamp circuit
6.4 Godown circuit
6.5 Direct on line starter
6.6 Semi automatic star delta starter
6.7 Automatic star delta starter
7. REFERENCES
1.
2.
Voltage ac and dc
not
in
use,
always
return
the
Digital multimeters have better accuracy and resolution. They usually have auto ranging, and auto
zero facilities, which means the user need only to set the function switch and get the reading.
The digital mutimeter converts an input signal into equivalent digital display. The signal input might
be a dc voltage, an ac voltage, a resistance or an ac or dc current. Advanced meters will also have
facilities to measure capacitance and frequency.
2.1.2 Clamp current meter
The current clamp has two jaws which are opened to allow clamping
around an electrical conductor. This allows the electrical current in the
conductor to be measured, without interrupting the flow of current.
The most common form of current clamp comprises a split ferrite ring. A
wire coil is wound round one or both halves, forming the secondary
winding of a current transformer. The conductor through which the
current to be measured forms the primary.
The other type is based on Hall effect and is more sensitive and both DC
and AC can be measured.
2.1.3
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope is the most versatile of the test instruments. It can be used for waveform analysis,
signal frequency measurement, peak to peak voltage measurement and the most important for
signal tracing.
The heart of an oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube (CRT). The working of a CRT depends upon
generation of electrons by a heated cathode, focusing it to a thin beam and making it to travel
towards positively charged anode. The electron strikes on a glass screen, coated with phosphor
which gives off light, making spot on the screen.
The brightness of the spot can be controlled and so its position. The spot can be deflected to any
part of the screen by applying a varying electric field to the deflection plates four of them
arranged in pairs, called X-plates and Y-plats. The Y-plates deflect the spot vertically up or
down, while the X-plate move it from side to side.
Thus, an oscilloscope can be routinely used to
i)
1
1
1
W,
W,
4
8
2
W, 1 W, and 2 W. You can easily verify this linear relationship between voltage and current
using the fixed 10 k resistance provided between the two ends of one of the breadboards
potentiometers. A potentiometer is a type of resistor that has an adjustable center tap or
slider, allowing electrical connections to be made not only at the two ends, but also at an
adjustable point along the resistive material.
Resistors in series: In a series circuit, the current flowing is the same at all points. The circuit
diagram shows two resistors connected in series with a 6 V battery. The same current, 3 mA,
flows through each of the two resistors.
Resistors in parallel: In a parallel circuit, the voltage across the parallel branches is the same.
The circuit diagram shows two resistors connected in parallel with a 6 V battery. The same
voltage, 6 V, appears across each of the two resistors.
2.2.2
Capacitors
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
3
electric field is present in the dielectric. The value of capacitance is given by C = (orA) / d;
where o permittivity of free space and has the value o= 8.854 1012 F/m, r is relative
permittivity, A is area and d is distance between the plates.
Capacitors come in a variety of types, categorized according to the type of dielectric used, which
determines how much capacitance can be squeezed into a small volume. Electrolytic and
tantalum capacitors are polarized, which means that they have a positive end and a negative end,
and the applied voltage should be more positive at the positive end than at the negative end if
you reverse-voltage a polarized capacitor it can burn out, or even explode! Paper, mica, and
ceramic capacitors are unpolarized and can be hooked up in either direction.
The fundamental rule governing the behavior of capacitors is Q = CV, where Q is the charge
stored on the capacitor at a given time, V is the voltage across the capacitor at that time, and C is
the capacitance. Current can flow into or out of a capacitor, but only to the extent that the charge
on the capacitor is changing. In other words, the current into or out of a capacitor is equal to the
time derivative of the charge stored on it.
2.2.3
RC Circuits
Integrator using RC Network
2.2.4
Transformer
A Transformer is a static apparatus consists of two or more
inductors. First inductor is powered by AC, inducing an AC voltage
across the second inductor. If the second inductor is connected to a
load, power will be electromagnetically coupled from the first
inductor (connected to power source) to the load. The powered
inductor in a transformer is called the primary winding. And
whereas the unpowered inductor in a transformer is called the
secondary winding.
Transformers step up or step down voltage according to the
ratios of primary to secondary wire turns. A transformer designed
to increase voltage from primary to secondary is called a step-up
transformer. A transformer designed to reduce voltage from
primary to secondary is called step-down transformer.
Losses in the Transformer;
i)
ii) Core loss: A time varying current in transformer, which causes a time varying magnetic
field in its core, causes energy losses in the core material which are dissipated as heat, due to
two processes:
Eddy current: From Faradays law of induction, the changing magnetic field can induce
circulating loops of electric current in the conductive metal core. The energy in these
currents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of the core material.
hysteresis: Changing or reversing the magnetic field in the core also causes losses due to
the motion of the tiny magnetic domains it is composed of. The energy loss is proportional
to the area of the hysteresis in the BH graph of the core material.
By being able to transfer power from one circuit to another without the use of interconnecting
conductors between the two circuits, transformers provide the useful feature of electrical
6
isolation. Transformers designed to provide electrical isolation without stepping voltage and
current either up or down is called isolation transformers.
E.m.f Equation of a transformer is given by E = 4.44
Turns Ratio =
NP
NS
Current Ratio =
IS
IP
Voltage Ratio = VP
VS
230V
50Hz
NP
NS
VP
VS
NP
NS
Po
100 %
Pin
I2
230/12Volts
a
V1
f N Volts
Transformer Efficiency
I1
RL = 80
V2
under no load condition will give core loss (primary power secondary power).
under full load condition will give copper loss (power loss core loss) and efficiency
(secondary power/primary power *100)
2.2.5
A PN junction thus allows current to flow easily in one direction but blocks current flow in the
reverse direction.
When the P-type material is at a more positive voltage than the N-type material, the diode is said
to be forward-biased. When the P-type material is more negative than the N-type material, the
diode is said to be reverse-biased.
VR
VR
ID
1 k
1 k
1N4004
VD
1N4004
VD
V-I characteristic of the diode under forward and reverse condition can be obtained by using
above circuit.
2.2.6
7805
IN4001
+
9V
230V
50Hz
1
2
+5V
10uF
1000uF
V1
9V
7905
2
3
1
1000uF +
-5V
10uF
Operational amplifier
An operational Amplifier is a direct coupled high-gain amplifier usually consisting of one or
more differential amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage
Operational Amplifier, was used in the computing field to describe amplifiers that performed
various mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication differentiation and
integration
By the proper selection of feedback components, operational amplifier circuits could be used to
add, subtract, average, integrate, and differentiate.
2.3.2
2.3.3
Practical
105
Bandwidth BW
Input Impedance Zin
Output Impedance Zout
10-100Hz
0
CMRR
>1M
10-100
Depends slightly on average input
Vc = (V++V )/2
Common-Mode signal
10-100dB
Ideal op-amp
Practical op-amp
+ AVin
Vin
Vout
Vin
Zout=0
2.3.4
Vout
AVin
Pin details
OFFSET
NULL
2.3.5
Zout
Zin
Op-Amp
Properties
8 N.C.
-IN
+IN
V1
V+
6 OUTPUT
Vo
V2
OFFSET
NULL
Loop gain
9
i1~0
Vo
i2~0
Rout
Vo' +
Vload
Rload
Vo
(Voltage Gain)
Rload
Rload Rout
20log(0.707)=3dB
Gd
0.707Gd
Frequency-Gain Relation
Ideally, signals are amplified from DC to the
highest AC frequency
1
fc
f1
(frequency)
few kHz.
Unity Gain frequency f1: the gain at unity
Cutoff frequency fc: the gain drop by 3dB from dc gain Gd
GB Product : f1 = Gd fc
2.3.7
Feedback Amplifier
Vi
Vo = A (Vi- Vo)
Vo
Vi
2.3.8
Vo
A
1 A
By ohms law
Vin
Ri
Vf
iR f
The ideal buffer does not require any input current and
Vo
Vf
Vo
iR f
Vi R f
Vo
Ri
10
Vo
Vi
Rf
Ri
Such a buffer is used in many sensor and data acquisition system applications.
2.3.9
Rf
Ri
V ~
By ohms law
in
i
2.3.10 Noninverting Amplifier
Its uses feedback and the input signal is applied to the
non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp
Vin
Ri
Vf
iR f
Vo
Vi
Vf
Vo
Vi
iR f
Vo
Vi
Vo
Vi
Rf
Ri
Vi R f
Ri
V ~
in
V01 V2
V2
Ri
V01 V2
Rf
( Ri
Rf )
Rf
[1
Ri
V02 V1
Rf
Rf
Ri
Rf
Ri
V02
V0
V01
V0
(V2 V1 )
Rf
Ri
Vref
Vo
Vin
Vo
Ri
Ri
Rf
V1
Rf
of an op-amp with a known voltage called the reference voltage on the other input .
It is open loop op-amp, with two analog inputs and a digital outputs; the output may be (+) or (-)
saturation voltage , depending on which input is larger
5V
Logic 1
4V
2V
Not Used
0.8V
Logic 0
0V
0
t
The AND gate performs logical multiplication, commonly known as AND function.
The AND gate has two or more inputs and single output.
The output of AND gate is HIGH only when all its inputs are HIGH
If X and Y are two inputs, then output F can be represented mathematically as F = X.Y
Here dot (.) denotes the AND operation
X
0
0
1
1
X
F=X .Y
Y
Y
0
1
0
1
F=(X.Y)
0
0
0
1
2.3.16 OR Gate
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
12
F=(X+Y)
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
F= X
Y=X'
X
F=(X .Y)
Y
Y
0
1
0
1
F=(X.Y)
1
1
1
0
X
F=(X+Y)
Y
Y
0
1
0
1
F=(X+Y)
1
0
0
0
13
F=(X Y)
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
F=X Y
Y
2.3.21 Universal Gates
1. Universal gates are the one, which can be used for implementing any gate like AND, OR and
NOT.
2. NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates.
3. But there are few rules that need to be followed when implementing NAND or NOR based other
gates.
4. To facilitate the conversion to NAND and NOR logic, we have two new graphic symbols for
these gates.
X
X
F=(X .Y)
F=(X+Y)
Output
Inputs
2.3.22 Multiplexer
Enable
1
2
Outputs
2.3.23 De-multiplexers
Input
n-1
14
see at any given point of time only one output gets connected to input.
3.0 Soldering practices
3.1 Soldering
Clean Surface
Flux
Recommended solder type
Recommended soldering Iron type and wattage
Recommended soldering Iron tip
Good timing
3.3 Flux
3.4 Solders
Tin/Lead
40/60
50/50
60/40
63/37
Melting Point
230 C
214 C
190 C
183 C
Cleaning
Tinning
Tinning is the Process of coating fresh
solder to a cleaned soldering iron tip. It
helps to reduces oxidization and
increases the amount of heat transfer to
the connection.
Soldering.
Wetting
Wetting is the penetration of solder into
the surface of metal parts. Actually, it is
the process, which gives physical
strength and good electrical connections.
Desoldering is done to remove the solder from a joint, because of replacement for a faulty
component or for fixing a dry joint.
Desoldering Pump
The usual way is to use a desoldering pump which works like a small spring-loaded
pump, only in reverse! (More demanding users using CMOS devices might need a pump
which is ESD safe.)
A spring-loaded plunger is released at the push of a button and the molten solder is then
drawn up into the pump. It may take one or two attempts to clean up a joint this way, but
a small desoldering pump is an invaluable tool especially for PCB work.
Desoldering Wick
An excellent alternative to a pump is to use desoldering wick which are packaged in
small dispenser reels.
This product is a specially treated fine copper braid which draws molten solder up into
the braid where it solidifies.
The best way is to use the tip of the hot iron to press a short length of braid down onto
the joint to be de-soldered.
The iron will subsequently melt the solder, which will be drawn up into the braid. Take
extreme care to ensure that you don't allow the solder to cool with the braid adhering to
the work, or you run the risk of damaging PCB copper tracks when you attempt to pull
the braid off the joint.
+5V
When the circuit is first turned on, the discharge input (pin
7) is disconnected from ground and output (Pin 3) is set
high because the trigger input (pin 2) is below 33% Vcc
Voltage.
The capacitor, C, starts to charge through resistors RA and
RB.
16
RA
TP2
7
IC 555
RB
TP3
C
5
0.01 F
TP1
The threshold input (Pin 6) is used to detect the voltage across the capacitor. The voltage across
the capacitor reaches 66.6% of Vcc, the output is set low and the discharge input is connected
back to ground.
f = 1 / (0.693 (RA+2RB)C)
Now, the capacitor starts discharging though resistor RB.
When the voltage across the capacitor reaches 33% of Vcc, the cycle repeats and creates a series
of output pulses.
An astable circuit triggers from previous output pulse whereas a monostable circuit requires an
externally applied trigger
The astable 555 timer circuit can be used in the following applications:
modulate transmitters such as ultrasonic and IR transmitters
create an accurate clock signal
turn on and off an actuator at set time
intervals for a fixed duration
3.9 MONOSTSABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
+5V
10k
IC 555
TP2
TP3
TP1
TRIGGER
PULSE
2 1
C
100 F
0.01 F
T = 1.1 RC
The length of the output pulse depends on the charging time of capacitor. This rate is determined
by the charge capacity of the capacitor C, and resistance R.
The monostable 555 timer circuit can be used in the following applications:
o
o
o
Disadvantage: R-2R resistor ladder only increases linearly with the number of bits as it needs
only resistors.
10k
+12V
10k
10k
10k
741
20k
20k
20k
3
20k
20k
+
-12V
D0
D1
D2
D3
Vo
Rf (
D0
R
2 D1
R
4 D2
R
+5V
+5V
Vin
1k
Pin 14: +5V
Pin 7 : GND
4
+5V
1
0
324
9
G3
7486
1k
5
0
+
324
G2
D1
330
1
1k
2
3
7486
324
2
1k
18
11
G1
D0
330
8 D3
)
R
6. Line coder
7. Line decoder
8. Voice Video Coders & Multiplexers
9. De-multiplexer & Voice Video Decoders
1. Toggle the switches SWO to SW7 (in the 8-bit data transmit block) and see the
corresponding LEDs LO to L7 (in the 8-bit receive block) toggling. The OFT now has a
working fiber-optic link set up.
2. Connect one of the telephone handsets to the telephone socket PHONE 1. Blow into the
mouthpiece. You should hear the blowing sound in the earpiece, without any other noise. OFT
is now installed and ready for use.
6.3 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM) OF SIGNALS
The basic multiplexer in optic fiber trainer has twelve 64 kbps channels which are time
multiplexed. Time Division Multiplexing is also the basis of time-switching used today in
Telecom switches. While multiplexing, say the voice signal from port 1, is transmitted before
the voice signal from port 2. But at the receiver, the first received signal can be fed to port 2,
and the later signal to port 1, resulting in switching between the two ports.
PROCEDURE
1. During power on, both even and odd marker patterns at the marker generator and
marker reference blocks will be set automatically as follows: Even marker in both blocks:- all
bits set to zeros and odd marker in both blocks:- 6th bit set to one and other bits are don't care.
i.e. Even marker
0000 0000
Odd marker
x1xx xxxx
2. Ensure that the marker patterns are set to the above power-on default settings. Turn
on at least one of the Switches SW0-SW7 in the 8-bitdata transmit block. This ensures that
the multiplexer is correctly aligned.
3. When the optical link is working, the LEDs L8 and L9 in the marker detection block
will be OFF without any flicker. Toggle SW0 and observe the toggling of L0. The digital link
and the TDM MUX-DEMUX are now set up.
4. Connect the telephone handsets at PHONE 1 & PHONE 2.
5. OFT is now being used in the loop-back mode. The data and voice channels
multiplexed on the Transmit side are de-multiplexed on the Receive side of the Trainer. The
voice input at the mouthpiece is now being looped back through the fiber to the earpiece. Check
this by disturbing the fiber link by removing the fiber from PD1, while speaking into the mouthpiece of one of the handsets. Note that you can now no longer hear yourself in the earpiece.
(The best way to check this is to blow into the mouthpiece while you disturb the link). Use
22
oscilloscope (CRO) provided to you to observe Time Division Multiplexed wave form by
connecting Tx frame clock in CRO channel 1 and Tx Data in CRO channel 2. The CRO
display in channel 2 should be similar to one given as Figure 2 (FRAME WITH MARKER
AND SLOTS).
6. TIME SWITCHING OF VOICE: Establish the fiber link again. Remove the
shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S7 and S8 in the timing & control block on the
Transmitter side. Using the patch cords, interchange the voice slots by interconnecting the Slot
Select 1 signal [post A of S7] to the Voice Enable 2 [post B of S8] and the Slot Select 2 signal
[post A of S8] to the Voice Enable 1 [post B of S7]. Voice 1 and Voice 2 are now crossconnected and a conversation can be carried out between two people using the two phones. The
two slots carrying voice data are now time-switched to provide the necessary connection. Carry
on a conversation, while at the same time turning data switches SWO-SW7 on and off, to
observe the simultaneous transmission of eight bit data in one channel and two voice channels
on the link.
7. Reconnect the shorting links S7 and S8 to restore the original connection. However,
now remove the shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S27 and S28 in the timing &
control block on the Receiver side, and cross-connect them as explained before. Note that once
again the Voice 1 and Voice 2 are cross-connected. Now remove S7 and S8 again and crossconnect as before. Note that Voice 1 Microphone signal is now connected back to Voice 1
speaker again. Switching at both Transmitter and Receiver ends cancel out each other.
containing the marker sequence generating false marker detection. Such markers are also
examined in this experiment. Figure 2 shows a TDM frame with Marker and Slots.
block. Now change one bit in the even marker in the receiver block (say bit 5). Check if
the de- multiplexer is working. Press the RESET switch. Observe that the
communication is lost. Change the even marker in the receiver block back to the setting
of the even marker in the transmitter side. Check the functioning of the de- multiplexer.
3. Now set the switches SW7 - SWO as 11000011. Press the RESET switch several times
till you find the receive LEDs L7-LO all lighting up. Press the RESET Switch several
times again. You will find that while most of the time L7-LO correspond to SW7-SWO,
sometimes all the LEDs light up. This is when a data slot has been falsely accepted as a
marker. The voice communication will now be totally disrupted. Check this by listening
on a handset. Change anyone of the switches SW7-SWO. Notice that the OFT system is
working again.
4. The marker is supposed to be a unique bit pattern in the data stream which is identified
at the receiver to signal the beginning of a frame. What happens if the bit pattern is
contained elsewhere as data (either in one slot or sharing two slots)?
5. To avoid this situation, the receiver circuit is usually designed to detect a marker
repeating itself once in a frame. It is only the repetition of the marker bit pattern over
several frames which allow the bit pattern to be accepted as the marker. It is highly
unlikely that a random data stream will have this pattern repeating at the same position
in every frame. However, to avoid even such an unlikely possibility, which we generated
deliberately in steps 3 above, the marker is sometimes chosen to be different in alternate
frames; i.e. a certain bit pattern is taken as a marker called the even marker, and another
bit pattern with at least one bit different from the above is taken as the odd marker. The
"even marker" is to be the marker in say every even frame and the "odd marker" in the
odd frames. Data inserted in the frame is extremely unlikely to have this pattern
repeated. OFT allows setting up a Double marker, where the odd marker consists of
only 1 bit, i.e. bit 6, which would normally be set to be the opposite of the corresponding
bit in the even marker.
6. Disconnect the shorting link S31 to activate double marker detection. Program the even
marker pattern as 10011011 and odd marker pattern as - 1 - - - - - - in both the marker
generation and marker reference blocks. Bits other than 6 in the odd marker are 'don't
care'. Press the RESET switch. Operate the data switches and observe the multiplexer
operation. Note that both L8 and L9 are OFF when both markers are locked. Now make
bit 6 of the odd marker at the Rx side ZERO without changing the odd marker in the Tx
side. L9 will now turn ON indicating loss of alternate marker only. Turn bit 6 of the odd
marker back to ONE. Change one of the bits of the even marker in the Rx side without
25
changing the even marker in the Tx side. Again note that L9 goes ON, indicating
alignment with only the odd marker and loss of the even marker. Now turn bit 6 of the
odd marker at the Rx side to ZERO. Note that both L8 and L9 go ON, indicating loss of
both the markers. Correct the odd and even markers at the Rx side to once again lock the
frame. L8 and L9 now go OFF.
The marker is a repetitive bit pattern placed in some predefined positions in one
or more (multiple) frames. The receiver searches for this pattern in the received data.
Once this pattern is found for several successive frames (or multi-frames), the receiver is
considered to be locked, and de-multiplexing is carried out. Locking on to the correct
marker is crucial to correct de-multiplexing. We saw in the experiment that all
communication is totally disrupted when the receiver locks on to a false marker.
REFERENCES
1. Optic Fiber Trainer Lab manual.
26
Pneumatics
Hydraulics
Do not disconnect hoses when the pump is running as severe burns from hot fluid can
result.
Clean your hand with soap and water after completing the experiment.
6. COMPONENTS USED IN PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS
6.1 Symbols of Pneumatics and Hydraulics:Fig .1 and 2 show the symbols of components used in pneumatics and hydraulics system as per
international standards. These symbols are used in building circuits in this laboratory course.
29
30
7.
2. Oil tank
: to store oil
Figure 5 shows the circuit diagram for a simple hydraulic system to operate a double acting
actuator.
31
Input elements
(Push button valves, Roller lever valves,
Switches)
Supply elements
(Compressor, Reservoir, FRL unit)
Figure 6: Signal flow in a pneumatic system
32
9.
9.1 Exercise: Design and simulate a pneumatic circuit to operate a single acting cylinder
by pressing a push button operated 3/2 way valve
Aim: - To operate a single acting cylinder by using a 3/2 push button operated valve.
Components required:1. Single acting cylinder
2. Normally closed3/2 push button valve
3. FRL unit(Filter, Regulator, Lubricator)
4.
Connecting tubings
5. Pressure source
Operate the push-button 3/2 valve and check the function of the circuit.
33
10. 1 Design a hydraulic circuit for speed control of a double acting actuator
Aim: - To design and operate a hydraulic double acting cylinder at variable speeds by using 4/2way manually operated valve
Components used:1. Hydraulic double acting cylinder
2. 4/2-way Manual lever operated valve
3. Flow control valve
4. Hydraulic power pack
5. Hydraulic hoses
Procedure:1. Select all the components as per the circuit diagram.
2. Fix all the components properly on the test rig.
3. Connect all the components as per the circuit diagram shown in Figure 8.
4. Switch on the pump.
5. Set the pressure relief valve to approximately 30-35 bar.
6. Operate the lever operated 4/2 valve and check the function of the circuit.
7. Adjust the flow control valve and check the speed variation.
8. Switch off the pump
9. Disconnect all the tubes and components.
10. Clean the equipments by using cotton and clean your hand with soap.
34
35