D.C.

Circuits
Elements of Electrical
Engineering

Source conversion
Voltage
source
connected with series
resistance
can
be
converted
in
to
equivalent current source
with a parallel resistance.
Conversely
current
source with a parallel
resistance
can
be
converted
in
to
equivalent
Voltage
source connected with
series resistance.

Resistance
Definition:

When potential difference The opposition offered by a

substance or material to the
is applied to the copper
flow of electric current is
strip or a conductor as
called resistance .
shown in fig. through the Resistance may be defined as
physical
property
of
a
wire, free electrons start
substance due to which it
moving in a particular
opposes or restricts the flow
direction. While moving
of electrons or electricity
through
the
material,
through it.
these
free
electrons Heat is produced because of
collide with other atoms
collisions of moving free
electrons with the other
and molecules of cu
atoms and molecules.
strips.
Thus the flow of current is
limited. We can say that

Continued..
Certain substances offer very little opposition to flow of
electric current and are called conductors. e.g. metals,
acids and salt solutions. Amongst pure metals silver, copper
and aluminum are the good conductors in the given order.
Those substance which offer very high resistance or
opposition to flow of electric current are called insulators
or relatively poor conductors of electricity, for example
Bakelite, mica, glass, rubber, dry wood, P.V.C. etc.

Unit:
The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by
the symbol of .
Other units are: milliohm(m), Kilo-ohms(K), Megaohms(M ).

Laws of Resistance
Length:
It is directly proportional to its length in the direction of
current.
i.e. R l
Cross section Area:
It is inversely proportional to its area of cross section. i.e. as
the area of cross section increases, its resistance decreases
and vice-versa.
i.e. R (1/a)
Nature of material:
Different materials have different atomic structure because
each material has different atomic weight and atomic
number. Therefore resistance offered by each material will
be different because of the difference in free electrons.

Continued..
Temperature:
When the temperature of a substance is increased the
atoms and molecules vibrate more rapidly, impending the
movement of free electrons through it. On the increasing
temperature , there is no further increase in free electrons
in a conductor.
On account of this , the resistance offered by the
conductor increases. Note that the resistance of insulators
decrease with increase in a temperature.
From the above discussion we can conclude that
R (l/a) => R= ( l / a)
where, = is a constant=depends on the nature of the
material of the conductor which is known as its specific
resistivity or resistivity.

Effect of Temperature on Metals

The
resistance
of
the
material
increases
as
temperature
of a metal
increases.
Atomic structure theory says
that
under
normal
temperature when the metal
is subjected to potential
difference,
ions
i.e.
unmovable charged particles
get formed inside the metal.
The electrons which are
moving
randomly,
get
aligned
in
a
particular
direction as shown in fig.

Continued..
At low temperatures, the ions are almost stationary, but
as the temperature increases the ions gain energy
and start oscillating about their mean position.
Higher the temperature, greater is the magnitude. Such
vibrating ions cause obstruction to the flowing
electrons.

Similarly due to high amplitude of oscillating ions,

chances of collision of electrons are more.
Due to collision and obstruction of oscillations of ions, the
resistance of increases as temperature increases.
But the variation of resistance with respect to the
temperature depends on the property of the material.

Continued..
The resistance of all the pure
metals like Silver, Copper,
Aluminum, etc. increase
linearly with temperature.
For Copper its resistance is
100 at 0 C then it
increases linearly up to
100C.
At a temperature of -234.5
C it is almost zero.
Such variation is applicable
to all the pure metals in the
range of 0 C to 100 C. This
is shown in fig.

Effect of Temperature on
Insulators
The effect of temperature on insulators is exactly
opposite to that of pure metals. Resistance of
insulators decreases as the temperature
increases.
According to the atomic theory, insulators do not
have enough no of free electrons. Hence they are
bad conductors of electrons.
As we increase the temperature , vibrations of irons
increases but due to high temperature few
electrons of atoms gain extra energy and made
available as free electrons.
So as number of free electrons increases though
vibrations of ions increases overall difficulty to the
flow of electrons reduces . This cause decrease in
resistance.

Effect of Temperature on Alloys

The resistance of alloys increases as the temperature
increases but rate of increase is not significant.
In fact the alloys like manganin, eureka etc. show almost
no change in resistance for considerable change in
the temperature.
Due to this property alloys used to manufacture the
resistance boxes.
The study of effect of temperature on resistance is very
useful in finding out the temperature rise of cables,
different windings in machines etc.
Such study is possible by introducing the factor called
resistance temperature coefficient of the material.

Continued..

Summary
Sr.
No.

Substance

Effect

Pure metals
(silver, copper,
aluminum, iron etc.)

Resistance increases as increase in

temperature.
Rate of rise of resistance with respect
to temperature is large and uniform.
Temperature coefficient of resistance is
positive.

Alloys
(eureka, manganin,
Constantine etc.)

Resistance increases as increase in

temperature.
Rate of rise of resistance with respect
to temperature is very small and
irregular.
Temperature coefficient of resistance is
positive but very small thus negligible.

Insulators
(glass, mica, rubber etc)
Semiconductors
(Silicon, Germanium)
Electrolytes, liquid

Resistance decreases as increase in

temperature.
Rate of rise of resistance with respect
to temperature is negative and nonuniform.

Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance

Continued..
The variation of resistance with temperature is
governed by a property of the material is called the
temperature coefficient of resistance.
The change in resistance of a material with rise in
temperature can be expressed by means of temperature
coefficient of resistance.
If the resistance of any pure metal is plotted on a temper
base, it is found that over the normal range of temperatures,
the graph is practically a straight line.
If this line is extended backward, it cuts the temperature axis
at some temperature, -t0 C.
It means that the theoretically, the resistance of pure
metal is zero at -t0 C. This temperature is known as
inferred zero resistance temperature.

Continued..
R2 t0 t 2

(1)
R1 t0 t1

R1 , R2= resistances at temperatures t1 C and t2 C

respectively.
Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of R0
Rt
t t
C
t and let its resistance at this
at 0 C be heated
to
0
[t 2 t , t1 0]
R0R t 0 0
temperature be
t.
t t
R0
Rt 0
t0 0

t
R0
Rt 1
t
0

t
Rt R0
R0
t0

1
Rt R0
R0t ( 2)
t0

Continued..
Change _ in _ resis tan ce,
R Rt R0
R

1
R0t
t0

R 0 R0t (3)
Where,

1
temperature _ coefficient _ of _ Re sis tan ce _ of _ material _ at _ 0C
t0

It is evident that charge in resistance due to change

in temperature depends on the following:
It is directly proportional to the initial resistance.
It is directly proportional to the rise in
temperature.
It depends on the nature of the material of the
conductor.

Continued..
The equation (3), may be rewritten as
0

R
( 4)
R0t

If R0 = 1, t = 1C, then
0 R (5)

So, the temperature coefficient of resistance of the

material may be defined as the increase in resistance
per ohm original resistance per C rise in temperature.
Unit:
R
ohm
0

C 1
R0t ohm C

Graphical Determination of

The value of can also be

determined
graphically
from
resistance
versus
temperature graph for a
conductor
which
is
a
straight line.
The resistance of the
conductor is R0 at 0C and
it becomes Rt at tC.

Continued..
By definition

Rt R0
R0t

but , from _ the _ graph,

Rt R0 CD
t rise _ in _ temperature
AD
CD
0
R0 AD
0

CD AD
R0

But CD/AD is the slope of the straight line AB which is

the temperature/resistance graph of the material.
0

Slope _ of _ temp / Re sis tan ce _ graph

Original _ resis tan ce(i.e. _ at _ t 0)

Continued..
From the previous slide discussion following point we can
conclude:
The variation of depends
temperature
Slope on
_ of the
_ temp
/ Re sis tan ce _ graph
0
R0

Similarly ,
Slope _ of _ temp / Re sis tan ce _ graph
t
Rt

From above equations it is clear that the value of 0 is maximum

as R0 is minimum and it decreases as the temperature is
increased.
This is clear from the fact that the slope of the graph is constant
but Rt has higher value than R0.
Thus, the value of is temperature dependent.

Computation of Resistance at
Different Temperatures
(i) If R0 and 0 are given, then the resistance Rt at any
other temperature, tC can be calculated as under:
R = Rt R0 = 0R0t
Rt = R0 + 0R0t = R0 [1+ 0t]------------------------(1)
(ii)In case R0 is not given but 0 is given, then relation
between the known resistance R1 and t1C and the
unknown resistance R2 at t2C can be found as follows:
R1 = R0[1+ 0t1]
R2 = R0[1+ 0t2]
Take the ratio, We get

Continued..
R2 R0 [1 0t 2 ]

R1
R0 [1 0t1 ]

R2 [1 0t 2 ]

( 2)
R1 [1 0t1 ]

R2
[1 0t 2 ][1 0t1 ]1
R1

R2
[1 0t 2 ][1 0t1 ]
R1

R2
2
1 0t 2 0t1 0 t1t 2
R1

neglect _ 0 t1t 2
2

R2 R1[1 0 (t 2 t1 )] (3)

Continued..
In case, R0 and 0 are not
known,
the
relation
between known R1 at t1C
and unknown R at t2C
can be found as follows:

Consider a conductor
having resistance R1 and
R2 at t1C and t2 C
respectively.

Let
1
be
the
temperature coefficient
of resistance at t1C.

Continued..
We know that
Slpoe _ of _ graph
R
Simillarly ,
Slpoe _ of _ graph
t1
( 4)
R1

Slope _ of _ graph t1 R1 (5)

From _ fig ,
Slope _ of _ graph

CD R2 R1

( 6)
BD t 2 t1

R2 R1
t1 R1
t 2 t1
R2 R1 t1 R1 (t 2 t1 )
R2 R1 t1 R1 (t2 t1 )
R2 R1[1 t1 (t 2 t1 )] (7)

Computation of at Different
Temperatures
The value of temperature co-efficient() of resistance is not constant.
Its value depends upon the initial temperature on which the
increment in resistance is based.
If the initial temperature is 0C the value of is 0. Similarly, if the
initial temperature is t1, the value of is t1.
(i)Relation between 0 and t1 :
Consider a conductor of resistance R0 at 0C . When its temperature
is raised to t1C its resistance to R1.

R1 R0 [1 0t1 ] (1)
Let us suppose that the conductor of resistance R 1 at t1C be now
cooled down to 0C to give a resistance of the value R0

then, R0 R1[1 t1 (0 t1 )]
R0 R1[1 t1t1 ] (2)

Continued..
From equation: (2)
R0 R1 R1 t1t 1
t1

R1 R0
(3)
t 1R1

Substituting the value of

R1 from eq: (1)
t 1

R0 [1 0t 1] R0
t 1R1

t 1

R0 R0 0t 1 R0
t 1R0 [1 0t 1]

t 1

( 4)
1 0t 1

t1

0
1 0t 1

From Eq: (4)

Similarly, if the final

temperature
is t2C and

(5)
1

t
the corresponding value
of is t2 then
0

t2

0 2

t 2

1 0t 2

t2

t 2

t1
1

1 0t 1

(5)

0
From
1 (4)
1 and
1 0(5)
t 2 1 0t 1

t 2 t1
0

t1

(t 2 t1 )

(t 2 t1 )

t1

(t 2 t1 )

( 6)

Continued..
The temperature co-efficient of resistance is a function
of temperature. As temperature increases the
temperature co-efficient of resistance decreases.
If t1 is known at temperature t1C then t2 at
temperature t2C can be found using eq: (6).
In view of the dependence of on the initial
temperature we may define it as under.
The temperature coefficient of resistance at a given
temperature is defined as the change in resistance per
ohm original resistance per degree centigrade change
in temperature from the given temperature.

Resistance Temperature
Coefficient of a Composite Material

Consider two conductors having resistance R1

and R2 have temperature coefficient of resistance
equal to 1 and 2 at a particular temperature
t1C.
If we prepare a composite conductor by

connecting these two conductors in series as

shown in fig., then the resistance of composite
conductor will be (R1 + R2).
The temperature coefficient of resistance of the
composite conductor will be different from 1 and

Continued..
Let us derive the relation between 1,2 and at t1C.
Let the temperature be raised to t2 so that their resistance,
changes from R1, R2, to R1 and R2 respectively.
Now,
R1= R1 [1+ 1 (t2 t1)]----------------------------------(1)
R2= R2 [1+ 2 (t2 t1)]----------------------------------(2)
The net resistance of the composite conductor at t 1C is given by
R = R1 + R2
Due to change in temperature from t 1C to t2C
R = R1 + R2 ---------------------------------------(3)
As is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the composite
conductor at t1C.
From this, the value of R can be given by,
R= R [1+ (t2 t1)]-------------------------------(4)

Continued..
Substitute equation (1) to equation (3) in equation (4),
R1+ R2 = R[1+(t2-t1)]
R1 [1+ 1(t2-t1)]+R2[1+ 2(t2-t1)] = R[1+(t2-t1)]
R1 + R1 1(t2-t1)+R2+ R2 2(t2-t1)=R+R (t2-t1)
R1 + R2+(R1 1+R2 2)(t2-t1)= R+R (t2-t1)
but R=R1+R2
R +(R1 1+R2 2)(t2-t1)= R+R (t2-t1)
(R1 1+R2 2)(t2-t1)= R (t2-t1)
(R1 1+R2 2)=R
(R1 1+R2 2)= (R1+R2)

R11 R2 2
(5)
R1 R2

Continued..

This is the required expression for the temperature

coefficient of resistance of the composite conductor at
a particular temperature.
R R

1 1

R1 R2

R1 R2 R11 R2 2
R1 ( 1 ) R2 ( 2 )
R1 2

(6)
R2 1
Equation (6) is the modified expression.

Effect of Temperature on
Resistivity
Not only resistance but also
specific resistance or resistivity of
metallic
conductors
also
increases with increases with
increase in temperature and viceversa.
It has been seen that specific
resistance or resistivity of a
conductor is the resistance of
a unit length of conductor of
unit cross section.
Thus specific resistance is the
resistance of the conductor of
specific dimension. Hence the
change
in
temperature
effects the resistivity of a
material in the same way as it
effects the resistance.

Continued..
Over a significant range of
temperatures the resistivities of
temperatures the resistivities of
metals vary linearly.
It may be noted that the variation
of resistivity both at very high
and at very low temperatures
may be nonlinear.
Fig.
shows
the
variation
of
resistivities with temperature for
some metals.
Let, for any metallic conductor,
t1 = resistivity at t1C
t2 = resistivity at t2C
m= slope of linear part of the
curve

Continued..
Let for any metallic
conductor,

t 2 t1
(1)
t 2 t1
t 2 t1 m(t 2 t1 )
m
t 2 t1[1
(t 2 t1 )] (2)
t1
m

The ratio
called the
t1
temperature coefficient of
resistivity at temperature
t1C.

It may be defined
as
t1
numerically equal to the
fractional change in
perC change in the
temperature from t1C. It
is almost equalm to the

temperature t1coefficient
t1
of resistance t1.
t 2 t1[1 t1 (t 2 t1 )] (3)
Hence putting
,
t 0 [1 0t ] (4)
we get,

Resistances in Series

Continued..
When resistors are connected end to end; so that from
one path for the flow of current, then resistors are said
to be connected in series and such circuits are known
as series circuits.
R1 ,R2, R3 = Resistances connected in series.
V1, V2, V3 = Voltage drop across the resistances R1
,R2, R3
respectively.
I =Current is flowing through the R1 ,R2, R3 through the
close circuit.
Voltage drop across resistor R1,V1 = IR1
Voltage drop across resistor R2,V2 = IR2
Voltage drop across resistor R3,V3 = IR3

Continued.....
But V=(voltage across R1)+(voltage across R2)+(voltage
across R3)

= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

=I(R1+R2+R3)

V/I= R1+R2+R3
According to ohms law, the ratio of (V/I) gives the total
resistances of the whole circuits, say R. This is called equivalent
resistance of three resistances.
R= R1+R2+R3
Thus, when a number of resistances are connected in series,
equivalent resistance is given by the arithmatic sum of their
individual resistances.
i.e. R = R1+R2+.....+Rn
Thus, the value of equivalent resistance(R) will always be
larger than the largest.

Characteristics of Series
Circuit
The current flowing in all parts of the circuits is same.
Voltage drop across individual resistor is directly
proportional to its resistance value, the current being
the same in each resistor.
Voltage drops are additive.
Resistances are additive.
Power is additive.
Applied voltage is equal to the sum of the different
voltage drops.

Disadvantages and Application of

Series Circuit
Disadvantages of series circuit:
If the circuit is break at any point, no current will flow and
the entire circuit becomes useless.
Since electrical devices have different current ratings, they
cannot be connected in series for efficient operation.

Practical Application:
Connecting a regulator with the fan.
Connecting a lamp of low voltage used for decorative
purpose operating on main supply.
Current controlling devices are used in series with the
controlled equipment.
Fuses are used in series with the equipment they protected.
A thermostat switch is in series with the heating element in
electric Iron.

Resistances in Parallel

Continued..
When the no of resistances are connected in such a way that
one end of each of them is joined to a common point(A) and
the other ends being joined to another common point(B), as
shown in fig, then the resistors are said to be connected in
parallel circuits.
In these circuits, current is divided into as many paths as the
number of resistances.
Let,
R1 ,R2, R3= Resistances connected in parallel.
I1, I2, I3 = Current flowing through resistances R 1 ,R2, R3
respectively.

V = Potential Difference across each resistor is same and

equal to the potential difference applied to the parallel circuit.

Continued..

According to ohms law,

Current through resistance R1,I1 = V/R1 ----------------------------------(1)
Current through resistance R2,I2 = V/R2 ----------------------------------(2)
Current through resistance R3,I3 = V/R3 ----------------------------------(3)
Since I = I1+I2+I3
= (V/R1)+(V/R2)+(V/R3)
= V[(1/R1)+(1/R2)+(1/R3)]
(I/V)
= [(1/R1)+(1/R2)+(1/R3)]
But V/I = R
Thus, (1/R) = [(1/R1)+(1/R2)+(1/R3)]----------------------------------- --(4)
Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the
reciprocal of the equivalent(total) resistance is given by the
arithmetic sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.

Continued..
In general, if n resistors of resistances R1, R2, R3,..,Rn are
connected in parallel, then equivalent resistance R of the
circuit is given by the expression.
(1/R)=(1/R1)+(1/R2)+.
+(1/Rn)--------------------------------------(4)
When only two resistances are connected in parallel then,
(1/R)=(1/R1)+(1/R2)=[(R1+ R2)/R1R2]
Thus, R = [R1R2/(R1+ R2)] =
[Product/Sum]------------------------------(5)
Equation (5) is called the product over sum equation for
determining the total resistance of two resistors connected
in parallel.

Characteristics of
Parallel Circuit
Same potential difference acts across all elements of
the circuit.
All elements have their individual current depending
upon the value of the resistance of element.
Branch currents are additive.
Powers are additive.
Conductance are additive.
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of the
individual resistors.

Advantages of Parallel Circuit

Advantages:
The electrical appliances rated for same voltage
but different powers can be connected in parallel
without affecting the performance of each other.
If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it
will have no effect on the other branch circuits.
Due to above advantages, all electrical appliances
are connected in parallel. We can switch on or off
any light or appliances without affecting other
lights or appliances.

Comparison of Parallel & Series

Resistance

Delta-Star Transformation

Continued..
In solving networks consisting of a large number of
branches by application of Kirchhoffs laws or other
methods, sometimes, great difficulty is experienced due to
large number of simultaneous equations that have to be
solved. In such cases, such complicated networks can be
simplified by successively replacing delta meshes by
equivalent star and vice-versa.
Such transformation leads to the simplification of the
networks. By such transformation, new elements are
created which can sometimes be combined with elements
in the rest of the network.
If, therefore delta connected resistances are part of a
network, it is possible to substitute them by the star
connected resistances and vice versa.

Continued..

R12, R23 and R31 = connected in between the terminals 1,2

and 3.
With these resistances can be replaced by three resistances
R1, R2 and R3 connected in star(Y) as shown in fig.
These two arrangements will be electrically equivalent if the
resistance as measured between any pair of terminals is the
same in both the arrangements.
[R12]Y = [R12]---------------------------------(1)

Continued..
Between terminals 1 and
2, there are two parallel
paths; one having a
resistance of R12 and the
other
having
a
resistance of (R23+R31).

Resistances between
R12 (1R23and
R312,
)
terminals
[ R12 ]

R12 ( R23 R31 )

(2)

Consider
[ R12 ]Y R1 R2 star
(3)
connection:

[ R12 ]Y [ R12 ]
R1 R2

R12 ( R23 R31 )

( 4)
R12 ( R23 R31 )

For
networks
to be
Similarlly
,
equivalent
of each
R23 ( R31 R12 )
R2 R3
(5)
other,
R23 ( R31 R12 )

R31 ( R12 R23 )

R3 R1
( 6)
R31 ( R12 R23 )

Continued..
From Equation (1),
(2) and (3) can be
used to find out R1,
R2 and R3 in terms
of R12, R23 and R31.
Addition of these
equations and
division of the
R12 Rby
R31 R12
23 R2
23 R31gives,
R1 Rresult

(7 )
2
3
R12 R23 R31

Eq(7) Eq(5)
R12 R31
R1
(a )
R12 R23 R31
R2

R23 R12
(b)
R12 R23 R31

R3

R31 R23
(c )
R12 R23 R31

Eq (a) to Eq(c) are the

formulas for converting
from a delta connection to
a star connection i.e.
delta-star
transformation.

Continued..
It is better to learn the
transforms by configuration
rather than by equations.
For this purpose, the deltaconnected network and star
connected
network
are
superimposed as in fig.
It is seen that the resistance
of any branch of the
equivalent star connection is
obtained by multiplying the
adjacent delta resistances
divided by the sum of three
Pr oduction _ of _ adjacent _ resis tan ces
delta
resistances.
R
Y

Sum _ of _ resis tan ces

Star-Delta
Transformation
In the previous analysis, the values of resistances in
delta network are assumed to be known and the
values of resistances in the equivalent star network
are calculated.
Similarly, knowing the values of resistances in star(Y)
network, the values of resistances in delta network
can be calculated as follows:

Continued..
The transformation can
be easily obtained using
the
equation
given
below: R12 R31
R1

R12 R23 R31

(a)

R2

R23 R12
(b)
R12 R23 R31

R3

R31 R23
(c )
R12 R23 R31

Multiplying the
2
R
R31 R23
12
equations(a)
and
(b),(b)
R1 R2
( R12 R23 R31 ) 2
and (c),(c) and
(a)
2
R2 R3

R23 R12 R31

( R12 R23 R31 ) 2

2
R31
R12 R23
R3 R1
( R12 R23 R31 ) 2

Continued..
Now adding these equation together, we get,
R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1

2
2
R122 R23 R31 R23
R31 R12 R31
R12 R13

( R12 R23 R31 ) 2

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1

R12 R23 R31 ( R12 R23 R31 )

( R12 R23 R31 ) 2

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1

R12 R23 R31

( d )
( R12 R23 R31 )

Now, division of equation(d) by equation(c) gives

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
R12
R3

R12

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
RR
R1 R2 1 2 (e)
R3
R3

Continued..
Similarly division of equation (d) by equation (e)

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
R23
R1

R23

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
RR
R2 R3 2 3 ( f )
R1
R1

Similarly division of equation (d) by equation (f)

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
R31
R2

R31

R1 R2 R2 R3 R3 R1
RR
R3 R1 3 1 ( g )
R2
R2

Continued..
Equation (e), (f) and (g) are
expression for converting
from a star connection to a
delta connection. These
results
also
possess
symmetry.
It
is
seen
that
the
resistance of any branch of
equivalent delta is equal to
the sum of the products of
the star resistances taken
two at a time divided by the
opposite star resistance i.e.
R

Sum _ of _ Pr oducs _ of _ Y resis tan ces _ taken _ two _ at _ a _ time

Opposite _ Y resis tan ce

Kirchhoffs Laws
The entire electric circuit theory is based on these two
laws formulated by German scientist Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff (1824-1887).
These laws form the basis of all the network analysis
and are applicable to any network whether the
elements of the network are linear, nonlinear, time
varying or time invariant.
The equations necessary to describe a network can be
written with the help of these laws and the v-I
relations of circuit elements.

Kirchhoffs First Law(Kirchhoffs

Current Law-KCL)
It is also known as Kirchhoffs Current
Law(KCL). This law is a
conservation of charge.
It states that the algebraic sum
of all currents terminating at a
point(or a junction)
is zero at
I 0
any instant of time.
Mathematically,
Where, n=the number of branch
meeting at
the point.
n

n 1

Explanation of KCL
Sign Convention:
If the current leaving the
node=Positive=+I4 = +I3
If the current entering the
node=Negative=-I1 = -I2
The current meet at
junction O is shown in fig.
According to KCL
n4
n =4
I Where
0

n 1

-I1 -I2 +I3 +I4 = 0

I3 +I4 = I1+I2
Sum of Incoming currents
= Sum of outgoing currents

Kirchhoffs Voltage
Law(KVL)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law is also known as KVL or
Kirchhoffs Mesh Law.
It states that At any instant of time , the algebraic
sum of all branch voltages around any closed loop(or
path) of a electric network is zero.
In other words the sum of e.m.f.s around a closed
loop equals the algebraic sum of ohmic or IR drops
around the loop.
This law can be mathematically stated as,
n

V
j 1

Where Vj = the voltage in the jth element of a closed

loop having n branches (or Elements).

Kirchhoffs Voltage
Law(KVL)
V1 = I1R1 = IR1
V2 = I2R2 = IR2
V3 = I3R3 = IR3
V4 = I4R4 = IR4
+E2 V1 +E1 V2 V3
V4 = 0

Electrostatic Field
Elements of Electrical
Engineering

Introduction
The branch of engineering or science which deals with the
static charges is called electrostatics.
The study of electric charge at rest is called electrostatics. It
is also known as Static electricity.
When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, the free electrons
from glass move to the silk. So glass rod attains positive
charge and silk cloth becomes negative charge of equal
magnitude since glass rod and silk cloth both are insulators,
they retain these charge.
These charge is known as static charges and the process
comes under the general heading of electrostatics.
Although current electricity is invariably employed in almost
all the day to day applications, yet the importance of static
electricity cannot be ignored.

Electric Charge
According to modern theory, every atoms contains
equal number of protons charged with positive
electricity and electrons charged with negative
electricity. Hence, it is electrically neutral.
But it is always possible to change the number of
electrons in the body by adopting different methods.
Then, such a body with unequal number of electrons
and protons is said to be electrically charged.
A body contains more than its normal number of
electrons is said to be negatively charged.
On the other hand, a body that contains less than its
normal number of electrons is said to be positively
charged.

Coulombs Law
Charles Coulomb performed a number of experiments
to see the effects of small charges placed near each
other. From his experimental observations, he derived
some conclusions and summed them up in to two laws
known as Coulombs laws known as coulombs
laws of electrostatics.
First Law:
This law relates the nature of force acting on the
charged bodies when placed near each other.
It may be stated as:
Like charges repel each other where as
unlike charges attract each other.

Continued..
Second Law:
This law gives the magnitude of the force
exerted between two bodies when placed
near to each other.
It may be stated as under:
The force exerted between two point
charges:
1. Is directly proportional to the product of their
strengths.
2. Is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them
3. Depends upon the nature of the medium in
which charges are placed.

Continued..
Mathematically,
F

Q1Q2
Q1Q2
_
or
_
F

K
d2
d2

Where, F = force between the charges (Newton)

Q1, Q2 = Strength of point charges in coulomb
d = distance between the charges in meter
K cons tan t

1
4 0 r d 2

0 absolute _ permitivity _ of _ vacuum 8.854 10 12 F / m

r relative _ permittivity _ of _ the _ medium
Q1Q2
F
N
4 0 r d 2
QQ
F 9 109 1 22 In _ any _ medium
rd
QQ
F 9 109 1 2 2 In _ air _ medium
d

Absolute and Relative

Permittivity
If an insulating material is placed between the two
parallel conducting plates and charge is placed on the
plate, electric field is produced in the medium between
the plates. The intensity of field so produced depends
on the dielectric material placed between the plates.
The ability of dielectric material to permit the electric
field to be passed through it is called the permittivity.
It is denoted by .
This is called absolute permittivity.
Vacuum and air are also dielectric materials and they
too have permittivity. It is denoted by 0 and its value is
8.854 x 10-12 F/m.

Continued..
When permittivity of air or vacuum is taken as
reference and the permittivity of other dielectric
material is compared with it, we get the relative
permittivity of other dielectric material is compared
with it, we get the relative permittivity of that
material. It is denoted by r.